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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12088 ***
+
+                         COMPOSITION-RHETORIC
+
+                                 BY
+
+                          STRATTON D. BROOKS
+               _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._
+
+                                AND
+
+                           MARIETTA HUBBARD
+      _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO
+                         AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+                                1905
+                         STRATTON D. BROOKS.
+
+                  Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                            Brooks's Rhet.
+                              W.P. 10
+
+
+                        To MARCIA STUART BROOKS
+                   Whose teaching first demonstrated
+                   to the authors that composition
+                   could become a delight and pleasure,
+                   this book is dedicated......
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor
+to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to
+enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly,
+whatever he may find within him worthy of expression.
+
+Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the
+book:--
+
+First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition
+of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of
+the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the
+pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of
+much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for
+the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to
+correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process;
+and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition
+teaching.
+
+Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the
+needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of
+discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such
+a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need
+to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in
+each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book,
+therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration,
+exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete
+treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the
+material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil.
+
+Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under
+favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and
+emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most
+important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write
+something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The
+authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high
+school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It
+is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every
+theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the
+criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary,
+pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well;
+and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed
+toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal
+embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him
+of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching
+of composition.
+
+The plan of the book is as follows:--
+
+1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration,
+exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that
+inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent
+repetition of an act.
+
+2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and
+the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false
+standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it
+appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of
+details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces
+hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that
+inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other
+things, it is better to do but one thing at a time.
+
+3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed
+to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended
+to provide for frequent drills in oral composition.
+
+4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of
+composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater
+length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as
+a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to
+make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more
+important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a
+coherent and unified whole.
+
+5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil
+some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known
+to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that
+the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in
+its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If
+the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little
+advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique,
+or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and
+distribute his commas.
+
+6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I,
+but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is
+adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By
+means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of
+the topics they are studying.
+
+7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in
+rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because
+comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the
+increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school
+to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can
+be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school
+course.
+
+8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to
+furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the
+pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a
+principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into
+practice.
+
+Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon
+the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and
+suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book.
+
+The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to
+Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois;
+Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English,
+Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High
+School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E.
+Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School.
+
+The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier,
+Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and
+by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of
+their works.
+
+Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century
+Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for
+permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the
+publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's,
+Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to
+Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and
+Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin
+H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I
+
+1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience
+
+II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination
+
+III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language
+
+IV. The Purpose of Expression
+
+V. The Whole Composition
+
+VI. Letter Writing
+
+VII. Poetry
+
+
+PART II
+
+VIII. Description
+
+IX. Narration
+
+X. Exposition
+
+XI. Argument
+
+Appendix
+
+I. Elements of Form
+
+II. Review of Grammar
+
+III. Figures of Speech
+
+IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence
+
+V. List of Synonyms
+
+VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage
+
+Index
+
+
+
+PART 1
+
+
+1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE
+
++1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot
+write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk
+about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know
+little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as
+subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that
+there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are
+those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we
+tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise
+interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of
+ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of
+ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure
+to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this
+book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with
+pleasure_.
+
+
++2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them.
+There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from
+experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and
+we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by
+conversation or by reading.
+
+Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and
+do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the
+greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in
+this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression
+of ideas gained through experience.
+
+We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We
+may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or
+to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes
+pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to
+do with the expression of ideas of this kind.
+
+We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through
+conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of
+value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is
+treated in the third chapter.
+
+
++3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people
+sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say."
+Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience.
+Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell
+about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your
+friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of
+school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience
+furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and
+this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_.
+The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your
+own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and
+seldom worth doing.
+
+Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own,
+but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and
+what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that
+they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself.
+
+Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not
+presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes
+the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best
+set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the
+things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best
+apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are
+best known to you.
+
+Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and
+definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar
+language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than
+does either imagination or reading.
+
+
++4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends
+upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you
+mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say
+may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your
+hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must
+first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express
+it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You
+will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether
+you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not
+so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the
+meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask
+yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said
+what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the
+listener?"
+
+
++Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_--
+
+1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your
+parents or friends? Tell the class about it.
+
+2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class
+may know exactly what you did.
+
+3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two
+or three months. Tell the class about one of them.
+
+4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you
+told the event exactly as it occurred?
+
+
++5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an
+interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain
+this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you
+have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning
+of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different.
+Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its
+purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we
+mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take
+care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest.
+
+
++6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such
+a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are
+related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an
+important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to
+render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually
+desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and
+_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by
+telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question,
+_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I
+were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and
+who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were
+in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are
+to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the
+trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks"
+could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the
+story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ
+from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went
+to visit a friend in New York."
+
+It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the
+introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story
+telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken
+from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the
+preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story
+may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In
+relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it
+may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or
+'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time
+is not definitely stated.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Notice what elements are included in each of the following
+introductions:--
+
+1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly
+three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two
+tried on some persons accused of witchcraft.
+
+2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered
+from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command.
+
+3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted
+civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open
+boat.
+
+4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the
+small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad
+shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever
+with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his
+head.
+
+5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about
+a musket shot from the fort.
+
+6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer
+sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a
+grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a
+brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at
+its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit.
+
+7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from
+Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the
+country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a
+mild discussion of the American universities.
+
+8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge.
+
+"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah;
+you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all
+didn't find no birds."
+
+The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two
+companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against
+the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was
+tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular.
+
+9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;
+   I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three;
+   "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew,
+   "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through.
+   Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest,
+   And into the midnight we galloped abreast.
+--Browning.
+
+
++Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which
+you were personally concerned._
+
+The following may suggest a subject:--
+   1. How I made friends with the squirrels.
+   2. A trick of a tame crow.
+   3. Why I missed the train.
+   4. How a horse was rescued.
+   5. Lost and found.
+   6. My visit to a menagerie.
+
+(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you
+know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that
+your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there.
+Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in
+understanding the events which follow.)
+
+
++7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned
+with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace
+occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more
+important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be
+readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events.
+The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is
+reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a
+story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the
+point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the
+beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag.
+
+At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest?
+
+
+During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was
+alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were
+away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old
+ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of
+injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed,
+for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such
+detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we
+felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or
+rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements.
+
+One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious.
+Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men
+crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the
+fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief
+glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over
+his shoulder, while the other carried a saber.
+
+"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers
+in the orchard."
+
+Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the
+orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they
+were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and
+sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine
+which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns.
+
+Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it
+was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on
+stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house.
+We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and
+the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what
+seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house.
+
+Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and
+look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the
+corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men
+were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson.
+They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window,
+the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped
+to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday."
+
+Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber,
+while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket.
+
+
+What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story
+to begin it as follows?
+
+
+"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa
+Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and
+the other a pitchfork."
+
+
+Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the
+beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the
+house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story?
+Is it necessary to add anything to the story?
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its
+climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which
+suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when
+you come to it?
+
+
+1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a
+great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They
+kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a
+pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after
+the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted
+nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down
+the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed
+with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature
+had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that
+was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely
+turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the
+other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and
+another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by
+a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and
+some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were
+not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of
+serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded
+the camp?
+
+Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what
+to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept
+out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead
+them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the
+level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly.
+
+He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval
+bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at
+the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As
+far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A
+strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out
+what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded.
+
+He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep;
+and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure
+they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke
+and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures
+round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by
+hundreds into the water.
+
+The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at
+a glance.
+
+"Turtles," he said.
+
+"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?"
+
+"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great
+hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand."
+
+--Captain Mayne Reid.
+
+Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the
+beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place
+of turtles?
+
+
+2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn
+Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man
+who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the
+important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield,
+the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St.
+Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never
+asked to see his pass.
+
+"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of
+my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my
+train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find
+this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for
+Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from
+the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass
+reminded me that I did not have it.
+
+"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on
+my mere representation that I had a pass.
+
+"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on
+company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in
+time. You must take me."
+
+"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and
+could not afford to make any mistakes.
+
+"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office;
+but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I
+settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an
+all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting.
+Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to
+the conductor.
+
+"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness.
+
+"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent
+yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one
+dollar and twelve cents."
+
+"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a
+palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my
+pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my
+fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that
+made his eyes stick out.
+
+"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't
+raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you
+were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule."
+
+"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years,
+that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way."
+
++Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued
+throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice
+each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and
+relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting
+of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish
+opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal
+incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:--
+
+  1. A day with my cousin.
+  2. Caught in the act.
+  3. A joke on me.
+  4. My peculiar mistake.
+  5. My experience on a farm.
+  6. My experience in a strange Sunday school.
+  7. What I saw when I was coming to school.
+
+(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What
+must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the
+point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the
+point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too
+long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?)
+
++8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or
+short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate
+by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will
+be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential
+characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily
+directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in
+this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for
+yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what
+is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to
+make such decisions.
+
+To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or
+suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you
+are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you.
+
+
++Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used
+for an oral composition._
+
+(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read
+smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that
+the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say?
+Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?)
+
+
++9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of
+interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after
+the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point
+marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring
+the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest
+itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a
+forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil
+War related on page 18.
+
+
++Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. A school picnic.
+  2. A race.
+  3. The largest fire I have seen.
+  4. A skating accident.
+  5. A queer mistake.
+  6. An experience with a tramp.
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the
+introduction; the point; the conclusion.)
+
+
++10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences
+arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what
+we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to
+telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was
+done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs
+during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our
+description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so
+that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly,
+methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless,
+haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very
+different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the
+differences are.
+
+
++Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._
+
+    Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work.
+  2. How my neighbor mows his lawn.
+  3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down.
+  4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other
+     animal.
+  5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did.
+
+
+(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable
+words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need
+to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?)
+
+
++11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling
+events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to
+include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some
+interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear
+everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a
+statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket,
+but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain
+interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is
+desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and
+that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point,
+are better omitted.
+
+
++Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the
+following subjects, or one suggested by them:_--
+
+  1. My first hunt.
+  2. Why I was tardy.
+  3. My first fishing trip.
+  4. My narrow escape.
+  5. A runaway.
+  6. What I did last Saturday.
+
+(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said
+what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the
+introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.)
+
+
++12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in
+establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about
+only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they
+actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who
+were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first
+what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear
+to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they
+really happened at the same time.
+
+In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the
+relation in time that the different events bear to one another.
+
+
+At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great
+commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be
+described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small
+as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into
+the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the
+time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water.
+By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger
+than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the
+mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and
+two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by
+the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing
+towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy
+were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the
+first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_
+desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders.
+_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it
+seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he
+would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from
+the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with
+powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and
+lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived.
+
+Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_,
+etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under
+discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a
+direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without
+their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time
+relations.
+
+
++Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named
+under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you
+have not already used._
+
+(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of
+the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is
+concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the
+transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader?
+Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What
+other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+  1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas.
+
+  2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language.
+
+  3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for
+       composition purposes because--
+       _a._ They are interesting.
+       _b._ They are your own.
+       _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite.
+       _d._ They offer free choice of language.
+
+  4. The two essentials of expression are--
+       _a._ To say what you mean.
+       _b._ To say it clearly.
+  5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest.
+       Therefore,--
+       _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why.
+       _b._ Every story worth telling has a point.
+       _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the
+       development
+       of the point.
+       _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly
+       after the point is told.
+
+  6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or
+       more events occur at the same time.
+
+  7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of
+       correction.
+
+
+
+II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION
+
+
++13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and
+spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new
+combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to
+distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred
+from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of
+writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an
+imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been
+carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an
+excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that
+imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The
+production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has
+occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater
+part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of
+the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative
+character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes
+and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and
+effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences.
+
+
++14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas
+furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished
+by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails.
+Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the
+time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression
+upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in
+the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas
+as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along.
+This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater
+freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are
+less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more
+difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold
+the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached.
+
+
++15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is
+equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which
+imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as
+you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not
+determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events
+are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without
+limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and
+probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater
+interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story
+which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy
+tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real
+world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should
+tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An
+imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and
+say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more
+satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something
+manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing
+is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life,
+and states his imaginary events so that they seem real.
+
+
++Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You
+need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should
+be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._
+
+  1. A trip in a sailboat.
+  2. The travels of a penny.
+  3. How I was lost.
+  4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt.
+  5. The mouse's account of the same hunt.
+  6. My experience with a burglar.
+  7. The burglar's story.
+
+
++16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other
+desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as
+"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally
+clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem
+harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and
+smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in
+suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious
+effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy
+sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may
+remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality
+which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the
+eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme
+aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will
+assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to
+eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations.
+
+
++17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme
+none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same
+thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains
+interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the
+continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and
+equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times.
+
+Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is
+better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the
+thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next.
+High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is
+sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_
+needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show
+that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A
+professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by
+underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that
+he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words
+used too frequently, and often incorrectly.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it
+with one of your own themes.
+
+
+I was  witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went
+out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large
+ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long,
+and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they
+never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips
+incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were
+covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a
+_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against
+the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these
+Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground
+was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black.
+
+It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I
+ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged
+in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human
+soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau.
+
+
+2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently,
+underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it
+in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so
+as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions
+give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your
+composition.
+
+
+Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. The trout's revenge.
+  2. A sparrow's mistake.
+  3. A fortunate shot.
+  4. The freshman and the professor.
+  5. What the bookcase thought about it.
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary
+_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the
+euphony by a different choice of words?)
+
+
+18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length
+of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some
+pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:--
+
+
+Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one
+of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The
+child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare.
+
+
+A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is
+tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent.
+Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not
+satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come
+to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might
+be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their
+habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he
+finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts
+and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce
+sentences of different length and different structure, because they more
+clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in
+accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this,
+we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony.
+
+In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken
+not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too
+many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the
+meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be
+introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the
+meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to
+separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones
+into those of greater length.
+
+Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several
+ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the
+meaning obscure:--
+
+
+Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three
+days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the
+South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark
+and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where
+the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went,
+squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding
+through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground
+hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and
+brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in
+wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows.
+
+
++Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. School in the year 2000.
+  2. The lost door key.
+  3. Our big bonfire.
+  4. Kidnapped.
+  5. A bear hunt.
+  6. A mistake in the telegram.
+  7. How Fido rescued his master.
+
+
+(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into
+longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you
+omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can
+you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the
+subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in
+your story seem probable?)
+
+
++19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section
+that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as
+long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion,
+are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with
+good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences
+are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may
+be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by
+the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness
+on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either
+because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a
+familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words
+grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of
+words and their faulty combination into sentences.
+
+You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely
+to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written
+work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language.
+Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use
+will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find
+that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take
+their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may
+not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where
+such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find
+that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by
+giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of
+_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_.
+
+In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short
+sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would
+seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is
+put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying
+the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely
+relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several
+printed reports of conversation.
+
+
++20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to
+tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by
+experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to
+arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances
+that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not
+begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you
+write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by
+the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In
+the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the
+picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be
+accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it.
+
+
++Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in
+the picture on page 38._
+
+(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change
+the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of
+variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each
+time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to
+its chief point?)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
++21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a
+word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired.
+The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes.
+As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase.
+We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and
+we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there
+is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to
+express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary.
+
+It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our
+writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We
+know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use
+them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which
+we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear
+in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do
+not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words
+from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word,
+it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear
+in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word
+to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use
+it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious
+effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable.
+
+A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to
+_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is
+restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always
+_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can
+only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he
+has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English.
+Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between
+ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words
+is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out
+these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be
+gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction
+in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each
+other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix.
+
+
++22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper
+meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited
+to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school
+age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use
+by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be
+suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help
+you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent.
+
+The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the
+wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable
+adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence;
+a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a
+lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in
+story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs.
+
+What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following
+selection, taken from an old school reader?
+
+
+_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been
+running so violently?
+
+_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting
+myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he
+came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from
+him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the
+geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very
+loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their
+gallant chief.
+
+_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the
+gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the
+appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember
+Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came
+they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much
+intelligence as any of the feathered tribe.
+
+_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that
+term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice
+of so degrading an epithet.
+
+
++23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with
+relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We
+may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible.
+There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from
+the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such
+tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is
+shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older.
+
+By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to
+give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a
+story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader
+for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if
+the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under
+similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where
+the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because
+the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales
+neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability.
+
+
++Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below.
+Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._
+
+  1. A week in Mars.
+  2. Exploring the lake bottom.
+  3. The cat's defense of her kittens.
+     (_a_) As told by the cat.
+     (_b_) As told by the dog.
+  4. How the fox fooled the hound.
+  5. Diary of a donkey.
+  6. A biography of Jack Frost.
+
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to
+be assigned by the teacher.)
+
+
++24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you
+can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase
+your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you
+will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your
+own. To do this, four things must be attended to:--
+
+1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until
+its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the
+mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will
+study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by
+mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you
+can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of
+the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering
+of the words peculiar to that subject.
+
+2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its
+pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it,
+and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture.
+
+3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition
+as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions
+glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is
+necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with
+the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea
+clearly from others closely related to it.
+
+4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come
+into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important
+that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you
+_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_
+soon and often.
+
+
++Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following
+subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._
+
+  1. The good fairy.
+  2. Mary's luck.
+  3. The man in the moon.
+  4. The golden apple.
+  5. A wonderful fountain pen.
+  6. The goobergoo and the kantan.
+
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to
+be assigned by the teacher.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences
+    is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of
+    literature.
+
+2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for
+    composition purposes, because--
+    _a._ They are your own.
+    _b._ They offer free choice of language.
+   They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because--
+    _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency.
+    _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording.
+    _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of
+         statement that will keep the interest of the reader.
+
+3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who
+    most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so
+    that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing.
+
+4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition.
+
+5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by--
+    _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases.
+    _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways.
+    _c._ Using sentences of different lengths.
+
+6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences.
+
+7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions.
+
+8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ.
+    Each should be increased. With each new word
+    attention should be given to--
+    _a._ Spelling.
+    _b._ Pronunciation.
+    _c._ Meaning.
+    _d._ Use.
+
+
+
+III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE
+
+
++25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have
+been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which
+we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and
+imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view.
+Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a
+medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer
+must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part
+of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and
+these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is
+absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will
+be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language.
+
+
++26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form
+a clear mental image of each scene:--
+
+
+At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable
+woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant
+soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long
+generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green
+moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle
+dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian
+chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of
+hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had
+hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over
+a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred
+cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to
+lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group
+of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids;
+deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the
+fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals
+beneath a canopy of forest boughs.
+
+
+Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same
+time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The
+formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent
+effort to create them.
+
+Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness,
+innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set
+forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the
+dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the
+ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of
+the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of
+dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently
+accompanied by pictures.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of
+the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise
+from those that do not.
+
+
+1.  Before these fields were shorn and tilled,
+      Full to the brim our rivers flowed;
+    The melody of waters filled
+      The fresh and boundless wood;
+    And torrents dashed, and rivulets played,
+      And fountains spouted in the shade.
+
+--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_.
+
+
+2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and
+at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward
+felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the
+delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate
+examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the
+black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest
+yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the
+shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like
+a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island.
+
+--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_.
+
+
+3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to
+the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through
+the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof
+and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The
+vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the
+neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with
+wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks
+and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for
+a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms
+abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration
+which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret
+gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
+4.  Under a spreading chestnut tree
+      The village smithy stands;
+    The smith, a mighty man is he,
+      With large and sinewy hands;
+    And the muscles of his brawny arms
+      Are strong as iron bands.
+
+--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_.
+
+
+5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary,
+    Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore--
+    While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
+    As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door;
+    "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door--
+       Only this, and nothing more."
+
+--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_.
+
+
+6.  Where with black cliffs the torrents toil,
+    He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil,
+    Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes
+    Beheld the River Demon rise;
+    The mountain mist took form and limb
+    Of noontide hag or goblin grim.
+
+--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_.
+
+
+7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of
+the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with
+thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch
+fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of
+breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons
+down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout
+keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and
+assist him with his load.
+
+--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_.
+
+
++27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their
+purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image
+correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an
+unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image
+represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image
+presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich;
+she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the
+meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not
+be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress
+may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or
+indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is
+blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word
+_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not
+called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or
+substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore
+either incomplete or inaccurate.
+
+An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth,
+and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always
+possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more
+or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often
+in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind
+and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare
+image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure
+or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more
+strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness
+in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well
+for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact
+expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises
+from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the
+formation of incomplete and inaccurate images.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings
+you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not
+attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct
+image.
+
+
+1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of
+whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks.
+
+2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an
+attractive object.
+
+3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to
+face with a familiar figure.
+
+4.  Somewhat back from the village street
+    Stands the old-fashioned country seat.
+    Across its antique portico
+    Tall poplar trees their shadows throw,
+    And from its station in the hall
+    An ancient timepiece says to all:
+      "Forever--never!
+       Never--forever!"
+
+--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_.
+
+5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels
+from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture
+was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building.
+
+6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which
+escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had
+reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the
+western water bastion of the fort.
+
+7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochère_, on the extreme
+edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it.
+She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again.
+
+8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a
+valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on
+the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices.
+
+9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from
+afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an
+alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae
+in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it
+springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a
+heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment.
+
+
+_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete
+images in every case?
+
+
+_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete.
+Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to
+form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not
+clear, but only those that assist in forming images.
+
+
++Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or
+place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates
+complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_--
+
+  1. A party dress I should like.
+  2. My room.
+  3. A cozy glen.
+  4. In the apple orchard.
+  5. Going to the fire.
+  6. The hand-organ man.
+  7. A hornets' nest.
+  8. The last inning.
+  9. An exciting race.
+
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the
+_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear
+your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when
+writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you
+rewrite them so as to give variety?)
+
+
++28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident
+which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of
+their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a
+vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each
+scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more
+difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language
+is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through
+experience.
+
+When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our
+memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image,
+and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The
+author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words
+and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy
+work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we
+may be able to find.
+
+Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is
+necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer
+presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of
+a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image
+memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained
+pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I
+ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task
+will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has.
+In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves
+described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these
+images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With
+him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and
+reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly
+in mind. Try this in your own lessons.
+
+If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story
+that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of
+the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making
+the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be
+concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and
+not with the language that first caused them to appear.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you
+have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will
+cause the class to form clear mental images.
+
+2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the
+Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_.
+
+3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what
+happened.
+
+4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine.
+Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers
+will form like images.
+
+
++Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._
+
+(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of
+their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least
+importance.)
+
+
++29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call
+up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct
+mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar.
+Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand
+correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a
+comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it
+is like.
+
+If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would
+give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike
+animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as
+well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper
+image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled
+to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal.
+
+If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes
+figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes
+and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make
+language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of
+expression.
+
+We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like
+another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is
+directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by
+_like, as_, etc.
+
+
+    He fought like a lion.
+    The river wound like a serpent around the mountains.
+
+
+If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality,
+their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a
+statement that one is the other.
+
+
+    "He was a lion in the fight."
+    "The river wound its serpent course."
+
+
+Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals
+are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called
+personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based
+upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher.
+
+
+    This music crept by me upon the waters.
+
+    Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to
+      season.
+    Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say,
+    That time comes stealing on by night and day?
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
++30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile,
+metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the
+others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some
+suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners.
+
+1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly
+everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare
+English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the
+essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your
+expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add
+to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature
+are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the
+beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative
+purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose
+writing will show how rarely they are used.
+
+2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are
+appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject
+and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in
+his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them.
+
+3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative,
+depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things
+compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to
+one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if
+neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers.
+
+4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but
+hackneyed figures are worse than none.
+
+5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short
+ones, should be avoided.
+
+6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be
+carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results
+which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of
+beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors
+in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical.
+The following will serve to illustrate:--
+
+
+1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance
+and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope.
+
+2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his
+country and a surveyor of ability.
+
+3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all
+on board.
+
+4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship
+"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a
+cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every
+city, town, and village in the United States.
+
+5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden
+footprints of an unseen hand.
+
+6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or
+climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire
+into its shell.
+
+7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Are the images which you form made more vivid by
+the use of the figures in the following selections?
+
+1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds.
+
+2. And when its force expended,
+   The harmless storm was ended;
+   And as the sunrise splendid
+      Came blushing o'er the sea--
+
+3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear,
+   Heels over head, to his proper sphere--
+   Heels over head and head over heels,--
+   Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,--
+   So fell Darius.
+
+--J.T. Trowbridge.
+
+4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social
+life, somebody is always at the drowning point.
+
+--Hawthorne.
+
+5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with
+her at last.
+
+--Hawthorne.
+
+6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled
+up.
+
+--George Eliot.
+
+7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow
+limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his
+hair, and barking out a question now and then.
+
+8. A sky above,
+   Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move.
+
+--Lowell.
+
+9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is
+attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who
+prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under
+its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to
+exterminate it after a defeat.
+
+--Macaulay.
+
+10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our
+time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of
+every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the
+English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest
+declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field
+of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery.
+
+--Macaulay.
+
+11.                     And close behind her stood
+    Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men,
+    Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain,
+    And labor. Each was like a Druid rock,
+    Or like a spire of land that stands apart
+    Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind
+    On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as
+ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use
+hold to their moorings forever.
+
+--Mill.
+
+
++Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one
+of the following subjects:_--
+
+  1. A modern fable.
+  2. The willow whistle.
+  3. How I baked a cake.
+  4. The delayed picnic.
+  5. The missing slipper.
+  6. A misdirected letter.
+  7. A ride on a raft.
+  8. The rescue of Ezekiel.
+  9. A railway experience.
+ 10. A soldier's soldier.
+
+(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form?
+Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.)
+Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance
+with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it
+placed so as to give the correct meaning?)
+
+
++31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The
+emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is
+all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language
+we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is
+concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our
+understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the
+meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word
+groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the
+relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these
+will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to
+consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs.
+
+
++32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must
+understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups
+(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and
+expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any
+conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex,
+the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know
+what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which
+is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case
+our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations
+between words and word groups. We may understand them without any
+knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a
+knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated
+in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here.
+
+
++33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the
+introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images.
+When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar
+way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words
+used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will
+fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the
+peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think
+precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings
+of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas
+than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get
+confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine
+exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language
+expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element
+of success in life.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that
+we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following
+sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence?
+Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning
+clear.
+
+1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political
+speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of
+the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms.
+
+2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to
+prevent mistakes.
+
+3. The aërial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem
+structure.
+
+4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean
+temperature over the region embraced in the map.
+
+5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles
+of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to
+the membrane closing the oval window.
+
+6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open
+order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian
+phalanx.
+
+7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of
+carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day
+that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should
+be done daily, whether assigned or not.
+
+
+34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader
+should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a
+paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words
+employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be
+understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a
+particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is
+doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood.
+When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question,
+Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar?
+
++Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using
+words that you think will be understood by your readers:_--
+
+  1. How we breathe.
+  2. How to make a kite.
+  3. The causes of the seasons.
+  4. Why wood floats on water.
+  5. The use of baking powder.
+  6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra.
+
+(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader
+will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice
+the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?)
+
+
++35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but
+little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys
+his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the
+exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are
+thus of double importance (Section 21).
+
+Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises
+from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes
+one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and
+expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent
+with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These
+usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings
+of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences.
+
+In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many
+sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the
+dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter
+on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the
+text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After
+you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class
+that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will
+consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly
+used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to
+illustrate such reports:--
+
+1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or
+deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the
+result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as
+advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of
+these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his
+partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice
+that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take
+_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to
+accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to
+settle the case out of court by paying a large sum."
+
+2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by
+considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_,
+to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from
+secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but
+both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The
+latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited
+newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired
+yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used,
+it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may
+transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed
+channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a
+gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become
+known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know
+of them though few can tell just how the information was spread.
+_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge.
+
+
++Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following
+groups of words:_--
+
+  1. Allude, mention.
+  2. Beside, besides.
+  3. Character, reputation.
+  4. Degrade, demean, debase.
+  5. Last, latest, preceding.
+  6. Couple, pair.
+  7. Balance, rest, remainder.
+
+(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can
+you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do
+the illustrative reports above?)
+
+NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are
+given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and
+at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found
+profitable.
+
+
++36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of
+several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any
+particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding.
+In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must
+understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others.
+Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them."
+Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the
+first.
+
+In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others.
+Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the
+sentences are considered in their relations to each other.
+
+
+Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the
+world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the
+projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand
+shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other
+great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing
+else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great
+occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear
+the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody
+spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin,
+so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes.
+
+
+Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was
+much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing.
+So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He
+was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old
+building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There
+was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make
+it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as
+his workshop.
+
+
+In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence
+takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal
+pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or
+place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the
+other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation
+in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some
+preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer,
+the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and
+the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to
+cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning
+clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules.
+Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those
+mentioned above are used.
+
+
++Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. The last quarter.
+  2. An excursion with the physical geography class.
+  3. What I saw while riding to town.
+  4. The broken bicycle.
+  5. An hour in the study hall.
+  6. Seen from my study window.
+
+(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are
+the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid
+ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If
+imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?)
+
+
++37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is
+not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context,
+just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or
+follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made
+clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail
+in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more
+important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are
+assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be
+memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of
+importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor
+details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations
+that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the
+lesson.
+
+In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what
+they are, but not what is said about them.
+
+
+In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased
+by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and
+flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams
+and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a
+system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would
+be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of
+his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where
+he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that
+in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square
+miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation.
+Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as
+productive as that of the Nile.
+
+Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually
+furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded
+highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than
+overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and
+cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage
+or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions
+which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found
+along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream
+valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the
+windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses
+through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some
+stream on the other side.
+
+Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery.
+Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without
+water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the
+brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation
+which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land
+into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream
+valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as
+well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny
+meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado
+canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
+In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to
+some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the
+same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences
+related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+
+
+
++38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page
+67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is
+about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or
+sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur
+in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and
+concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive
+summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement.
+
+In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select
+or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our
+own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may
+easily grasp the topic statement of each.
+
+When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a
+sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is
+usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or
+more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the
+paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly
+different form.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not
+expressed, make one.
+
+
+1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is
+trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His
+imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then
+trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them.
+The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and
+sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the
+exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power.
+She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children
+freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers.
+
+--Bradley
+
+
+2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It
+is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though
+there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as
+habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some
+of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores
+of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts,
+punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And
+so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they
+were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at
+table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the
+other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they
+brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their
+minds, a part of their life, like their religion.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This
+fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be
+accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes
+to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never
+exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and
+processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost
+care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1
+lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a
+grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is
+very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of
+a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to
+estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement
+may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer
+than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use
+of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly
+with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one
+millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this
+approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is
+not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more
+than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can
+be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet;
+but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not
+being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected.
+Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833
+miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles.
+
+--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of
+society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found
+in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and
+the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance
+have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of
+the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as
+well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the
+various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and
+provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great
+human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were
+for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now
+from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna.
+
+--Macaulay: _History of England_.
+
+
+5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He
+was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the
+shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid
+all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the
+company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington,
+the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the
+kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New
+England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the
+bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or   of the
+waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's
+voice to his home by the summer sea.
+
+--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_.
+
+
+6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime.
+There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by
+one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and
+the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass
+into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when
+winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land
+snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun
+hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the
+stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in
+the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the
+horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under
+the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the
+frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells.
+
+--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_.
+
+7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a
+symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a
+catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort
+of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of
+living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these
+fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how
+they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they
+cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take
+pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless
+Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is
+no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not
+generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are
+not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not
+require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to
+drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait
+an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes
+open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no
+one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and
+yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good
+eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to
+school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they
+have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the
+time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not
+too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life
+of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless
+attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to
+rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched,
+he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have
+stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is
+empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable
+eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life.
+
+--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a
+topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this
+topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic,
+or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close
+connection in thought?
+
+
++Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over
+private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it
+into a short paragraph._
+
+(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of
+your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in
+each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider
+the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to
+your paragraphs?)
+
+
++39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to
+reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability
+to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is
+evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of
+each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different
+subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one
+subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have
+in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:--
+
+
+General subject: The uses of rivers.
+  First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by
+    irrigation.
+  Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and
+    commerce.
+  Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery.
+
+
+While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper
+understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand
+thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The
+idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations
+to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you
+understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them.
+This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving
+thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It
+is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic
+statement.
+
+Read the following paragraph:--
+
+
+The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period
+of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds,
+and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil
+thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a
+rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest
+population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood
+plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a
+distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless
+desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the
+highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which
+overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one
+of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense
+population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris
+and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in
+ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older
+than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang
+in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the
+most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely
+productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
+Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are
+productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the
+rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations.
+
+In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind
+an outline about as follows:--
+
+Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world.
+
+1. Reasons.
+2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands.
+             (_b_) Nile.
+             (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates.
+             (_d_) Ganges.
+             (_e_) Hoang.
+             (_f_) Mississippi.
+
+In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in
+the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic
+statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or
+more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could
+furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about
+bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that
+could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile
+might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the
+recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not
+materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to
+remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power.
+
+It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written
+outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of
+dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an
+analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to
+remember the language of the writer.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of
+the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you
+furnish different illustrations?
+
+
+Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography,
+and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of
+western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist,
+western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler
+altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that
+the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the
+leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across
+central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic
+winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the
+mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and
+northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's
+temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As
+North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds,
+they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed
+Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous
+in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many
+nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps
+between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India.
+Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give,
+and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few
+peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state.
+Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water,
+which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting
+slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial
+rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of
+water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is
+employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A
+large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water
+power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with
+water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore
+the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest
+sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for
+agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the débris of the rocks washed
+into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus
+the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the
+soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry.
+The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large
+revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty
+million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many
+thousands of persons.
+
+--Adams: _Commercial Geography_.
+
+
+
+OUTLINE (to be completed)
+
+Mountain ranges have great influence upon--
+  I. Climate.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+ II. Political geography.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+III. Commerce.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+
+
+_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:--
+
+
+1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the
+law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body,
+brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords,
+excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines
+and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that
+they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were
+permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The
+third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could
+not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms
+excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and
+stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn
+blowers.
+
+--Gilman: _Story of Rome_.
+
+
+_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the
+paragraphs.
+
+
++Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the
+teacher._
+
+(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of
+what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea.
+Use different illustrations if you can.)
+
+NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable.
+
+
++40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the
+importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly
+depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The
+writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of
+sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that
+very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some
+central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our
+sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs
+that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make
+clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other
+and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any
+subject.
+
+
++41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be
+determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require
+several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single
+illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations
+may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make
+his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader
+will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words
+will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea,
+each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate
+paragraph.
+
+
++42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a
+paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a
+paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph.
+Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the
+reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about
+to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently.
+There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed
+conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the
+indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon
+clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing?
+
+Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet
+lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupés
+in frantic search for his own.
+
+"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a
+snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into
+the dark coupé, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions,
+turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat.
+
+There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her
+nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff
+against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her
+knees.
+
+Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car
+tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled
+in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows.
+
+Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery
+panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting
+vision.
+
+Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box,
+struck a light, and groaned as he read the time.
+
+At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then,
+as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt
+upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay.
+
+He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and
+hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the
+face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on.
+
+"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?"
+
+The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful
+mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--"
+
+
+
++Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_--
+
+  1. A personal incident.
+  2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses.
+  3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just
+     preceding.
+
+(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important
+enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one
+paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written,
+consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of
+them too short or too long?)
+
+
++43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in
+which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it
+contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually
+one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our
+thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both
+to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our
+own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence
+we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development.
+
+
++44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general
+statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once
+of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular
+occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido,
+knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some
+of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific
+instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we
+use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of
+our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific
+instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is
+a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and
+the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such
+illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to
+explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will
+use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose.
+
+In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and
+repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last
+part by means of several specific instances:--
+
+
+Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does
+not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is
+that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we
+must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a
+high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation
+will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good
+working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his
+business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the
+way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so
+doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great.
+At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his
+train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty
+people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine
+would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied
+a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a
+number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron
+vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on
+shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on
+a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer
+in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by
+hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders.
+The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half
+a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the
+gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the
+explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that
+type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that
+this instance is not an exception to the rule.
+
+--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish
+specific instances, in the following paragraphs?
+
+My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down
+from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy,
+middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and
+evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady,
+afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the
+safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for
+the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy.
+Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us,
+produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust
+Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new
+idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a
+printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of
+which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made
+to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his
+approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island,
+observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to
+widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next
+appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the
+sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power
+here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble
+stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of
+sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton
+dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He
+advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first
+wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed
+in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point
+of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither,
+till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down--
+down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock.
+
+--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_.
+
+
+No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no
+strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over
+till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me
+with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a
+man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?"
+
+"A what?" I asked.
+
+"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not
+offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of
+that name."
+
+With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and
+Newfoundland?"
+
+"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both
+these places."
+
+"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained.
+
+But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued:
+
+"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a
+milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?"
+
+At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded
+the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands
+together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?"
+
+"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained.
+
+"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who
+plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?"
+
+It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered
+thus for explanation.
+
+--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by
+giving specific instances.
+
+
++Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one
+of the following topic statements:_--
+
+
+1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one
+does not mind his business.
+
+2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer.
+
+3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at
+fault.
+
+4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks.
+
+5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much
+intelligence.
+
+6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty.
+
+7. Our school clock must see many interesting things.
+
+8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones.
+
+9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous.
+
+10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of
+people.
+
+11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting.
+
+(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic
+statement? Have you said what you intended to say?
+Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used
+_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?).
+
+
++45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a
+desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by
+giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once
+arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed
+my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These
+details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our
+interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our
+understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the
+details:--
+
+
+1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season
+of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was
+wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The
+tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether
+they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick
+stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like
+that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo.
+The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth
+was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away;
+and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher
+than my head.
+
+--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_.
+
+
+2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the
+estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet
+her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread
+and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt
+cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant.
+Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the
+Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and
+necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a
+magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked
+cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of
+forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian
+feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in
+turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who
+stood to receive them.
+
+--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_
+("Atlantic Monthly ").
+
+
++Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the
+following topic statements:_--
+
+
+1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer
+vacation.
+
+2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one
+who is not used to the language of the woods.
+
+3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's
+house.
+
+4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways.
+
+5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good
+judgment.
+
+6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city.
+
+7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow.
+
+8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type.
+
+9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance.
+
+10. A freshman's trials are numerous.
+
+
+(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and
+rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the
+order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?)
+
+
++46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow
+each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once
+think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in
+establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the
+details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of
+showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in
+Section 11.
+
+If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into
+paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The
+time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the
+paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow
+the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do
+not have topic sentences.
+
+In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time
+relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole
+selection:--
+
+
+He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the
+trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces
+off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a
+loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps
+until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door.
+
+There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which
+stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came
+trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking
+a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted
+across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid
+colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but
+she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so
+sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself.
+
+I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing
+the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had
+not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously
+about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the
+road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur,
+for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and
+leaning a little forward, we dashed after them.
+
+For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right;
+after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my
+mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing
+at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up
+the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To
+the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up
+the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another
+bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the
+flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground
+upon her at all.
+
+An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped
+and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord
+Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She
+has turned off there."
+
+I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven
+ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a
+scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with
+ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a
+headlong gallop.
+
+We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the
+green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long
+brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back,
+as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that
+strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the
+ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance
+that we might overtake her.
+
+While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but
+now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground
+in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we
+gained on them every moment.
+
+About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the
+earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this
+would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled
+among the rough clods, and fell.
+
+--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_.
+
+
++Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by
+means of the time relations._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. An adventure on horseback.
+  2. A trip with the engineer.
+  3. A day on the river.
+  4. Fido's mishaps.
+  5. An inquisitive crow.
+  6. The unfortunate letter carrier.
+  7. Teaching a calf to drink.
+  8. The story of a silver dollar.
+  9. A narrow escape.
+  10.An afternoon at the circus.
+  11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the
+     picture on page 90.
+
+
+(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences
+treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your
+story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.)
+
+
++47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of
+presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details
+themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct
+general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details
+clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two
+and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will
+depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye
+passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling
+the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining
+one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and
+states the details in his description in the order in which we would
+naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he
+most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the
+general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the
+description proceeds.
+
+
+The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong,
+tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant
+exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form,
+having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained
+a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was
+covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French
+call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar.
+His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was
+calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers.
+High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt
+almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and
+might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of
+passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead,
+the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache
+quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest
+might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in
+every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and
+seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping
+it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep
+scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a
+sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on
+the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight
+and partial degree distorted.
+
+The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in
+shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed
+that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the
+right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a
+peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather
+inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves
+and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to
+the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less
+obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his
+mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the
+knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel,
+ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the
+ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the
+rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged
+dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person.
+
+He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the
+road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully
+accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head,
+having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle
+hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other
+the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed
+sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his
+master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole,
+or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon
+his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at
+the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It
+was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being
+seen.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
+Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing
+to another, placing together in the description those which occur together
+in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing
+to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be
+called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first
+sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his
+forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description
+covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it
+those things which are associated in space.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the
+following details should be included in each paragraph?
+
+(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general
+appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_)
+coat, (_k_) nose.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the
+outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups.
+
+
+_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline
+and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their
+position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them?
+
+
+1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others.
+There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and
+the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps
+and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet
+feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had
+once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and
+vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a
+picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot
+where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all
+that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery,
+deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August
+sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A
+half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water
+long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they
+lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below
+the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting
+at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as
+if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow
+from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a
+pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it
+wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the
+eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were
+abrupt.
+
+--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday,
+Page & Co.)
+
+
+2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract
+observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely
+fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity
+which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat
+enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give
+expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt,
+to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt
+brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in
+numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature.
+These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length,
+intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden
+chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung
+around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her
+dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung
+a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves,
+which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was
+crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk,
+interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could
+be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after
+the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
++Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference
+to their association in space._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. Ichabod Crane.
+  2. Rip Van Winkle.
+  3. The man who lives near us.
+  4. A minister I met yesterday.
+  5. Our family doctor.
+  6. The gymnasium.
+  7. A fire engine.
+  8. The old church.
+  9. The shoe factory.
+  10. Some character in the book you are reading.
+
+
+(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the
+details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space
+order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form
+the mental image you wish him to form?)
+
+
++48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison,
+whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of
+objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained
+by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing
+with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to
+it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we
+at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A
+writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired
+comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand
+the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are
+unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other.
+
+In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they
+are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes
+differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may
+be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a
+paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following
+paragraphs:--
+
+
+1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the
+highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the
+height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty.
+Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than
+Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two
+falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong,
+though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the
+force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap.
+
+2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely.
+They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive
+accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's
+central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which
+tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh,
+grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the
+cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over
+the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reëchoes through the narrow
+canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of
+discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of
+London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less
+jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the
+wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be
+soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first
+disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._
+
+3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is
+active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the
+discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention;
+his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just,
+wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for
+battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet
+ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things,
+their claims, and their places.
+
+--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.
+
+
++Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._
+
+
+Suggested topics:--
+
+  1. The school, a beehive.
+  2. The body, a steam engine.
+  3. Two generals about whom you have read.
+  4. Girls, boys.
+  5. Two of your studies.
+  6. Graded school work, high school work.
+  7. Animal life, plant life.
+  8. Two of your classmates.
+
+
+(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the
+other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the
+reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not
+really needed.)
+
+
++49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied
+with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have
+produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another
+has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the
+question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is
+stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic
+statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its
+causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the
+effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its
+causes.
+
+The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is
+discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:--
+
+
+The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There
+is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause,
+or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in
+nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change
+to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long
+train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor
+of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen
+everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function
+of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena,
+and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and
+dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become
+wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when
+reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of
+causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and
+clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds
+interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study.
+
+--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the
+use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly,
+consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._
+
+_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following
+paragraphs?
+
+
+1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its
+temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at
+great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it
+can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and,
+being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the
+atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated
+springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the
+water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills;
+sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the
+water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves
+them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating
+on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted
+with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly
+evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath
+leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the
+roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until
+these meet and form one continuous column of stone.
+
+--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_.
+
+
+2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects
+the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed
+and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes
+paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker.
+Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent
+weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is
+impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell
+which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the
+comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and
+bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil
+effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent
+physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of
+forty.
+
+--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_.
+
+
+3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For
+example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with
+foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in
+morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also
+devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a
+part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to
+the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in
+things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done
+that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic
+Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more
+into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the
+Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men
+of his day.
+
+--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_.
+
+
++Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into
+paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_--
+
+1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would
+not last long.
+
+2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads.
+
+3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this
+country than in Europe.
+
+4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization.
+
+5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature.
+
+6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate.
+
+7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation.
+
+8. There are many swift rivers in New England.
+
+9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers.
+
+
+(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects
+which you have stated really follow the given causes?)
+
+
++50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different
+form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This
+is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons.
+In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts
+to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar
+way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of
+the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more
+than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making
+this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is
+excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault.
+
+Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to
+explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing
+is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to
+the original idea.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following
+paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:--
+
+
+1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people.
+No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the
+habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a
+change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it
+is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no
+changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man
+likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else.
+I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that
+liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the
+law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because
+he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and
+there is no protest in his soul against the doing.
+
+--Frederick William Robertson.
+
+
+3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived
+from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own
+acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild
+beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or
+in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could
+walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the
+soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if
+it had been shouted in their ears.
+
+--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_.
+
+
+4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed
+to the public service corporation, exist to render public services.
+Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing
+should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for
+the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and
+transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the
+streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation.
+To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal
+revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their
+public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not
+gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public
+service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its
+employment.
+
+--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_
+("Atlantic Monthly").
+
+
++Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a
+paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_--
+
+1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured.
+
+2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day.
+
+3. The government is always in need of honest men.
+
+4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life.
+
+5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage.
+
+6. Haste is waste.
+
+7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health.
+
+
+(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer
+or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have
+you used?)
+
+
++51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have
+unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does
+not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken
+at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be
+difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In
+general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods
+is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is
+used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between
+them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main
+thought.
+
+The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect
+with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a
+combination of repetition with specific instances.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods,
+are used in the following selections?
+
+
+1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not
+mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his
+opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do
+and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not
+only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not
+only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are
+right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account.
+Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Dürer writes
+calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better
+done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two
+that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their
+fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious
+undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them,
+but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God
+made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man
+they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful.
+
+--Ruskin.
+
+
+2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its
+prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced
+among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and
+the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia
+Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown
+wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of
+quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly
+because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite
+sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different
+parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some
+extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish,
+those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica,
+which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown
+or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a
+Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a
+peculiarly deep and brilliant black.
+
+--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_.
+
+
+3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain
+sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold
+winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a
+third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its
+population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every
+style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this
+respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could
+devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets
+and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and
+schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all
+parts of the world.
+
+--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.
+
+
+4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of
+ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue
+of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes
+three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is
+everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note
+or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador,
+is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his
+seasickness when a new gull appears in sight.
+
+--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_.
+
+
++Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of
+methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto
+suggested that you have not already used._
+
+
+(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph
+possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?)
+
+
++52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may
+ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil
+to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in
+clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it,
+the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each
+paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has
+been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it
+has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the
+non-essential elements.
+
+A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able
+to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of
+them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by
+giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5)
+by repetition.
+
+Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and
+consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to
+others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or
+state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus
+become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were
+expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for
+composition purposes._
+
+
++53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have
+read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may
+make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in
+advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging
+the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we
+shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves,
+and enable us to present it more effectively to others.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's
+introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_--
+
+
+There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart
+from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and
+illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to
+make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor
+details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of
+his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many
+writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all
+great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet
+consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be
+simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving
+from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things
+one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen
+new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old
+ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion.
+Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved
+himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a
+single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist
+Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and
+celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the
+bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like
+the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with
+elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic
+power.
+
+This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name
+structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their
+very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many
+parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or
+friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together
+again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each
+essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And
+each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton:
+the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in
+the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic.
+And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways,
+but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an
+expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a
+topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences--
+often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the
+utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay.
+
+Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay
+becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or
+laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his
+argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was
+ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For
+example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every
+day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like
+Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long
+comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley,
+between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the
+fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of
+instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of
+Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the
+writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear
+contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that
+Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland
+cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had
+an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit
+their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo
+Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations.
+He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a
+very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four
+quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring
+the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind
+doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains,
+bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing.
+
+It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and
+clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People
+found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on,
+never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of
+every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental
+effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to
+support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the
+simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting
+for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to
+the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain
+had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the
+discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was
+surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if
+he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as
+a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose,
+trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the
+same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and
+contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged
+dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy
+of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms.
+Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall
+have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor;
+"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it
+the means of contenting both you and myself."
+
+
+_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let
+the class tell what method of development you have used.
+
+
+_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the
+methods of development.
+
+
++Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but
+developing each by a different method._
+
+Suggested topic statements:--
+
+1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money.
+
+2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now.
+
+3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years.
+
+4. There is a difference between law and justice.
+
+5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety.
+
+6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless
+activity.
+
+7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole
+nation.
+
+
+(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have
+you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though
+they begin with the same sentence?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through
+   which ideas are acquired.
+
+2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:--
+    _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming
+           incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section
+           33).
+    _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words,
+           phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32).
+
+3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes--
+    _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse
+           the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28).
+    _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we
+           can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or
+           state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them
+           or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52).
+         Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired
+           through language are undesirable for composition purposes.
+
+4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal
+   or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech.
+
+5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.)
+    _a._ A simile is a direct comparison.
+    _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison.
+    _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human
+           attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals.
+
+6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech.
+    _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them.
+    _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject.
+    _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader.
+    _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures.
+    _e._ Avoid long figures.
+    _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors.
+
+7. Choice of words.
+    _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader.
+    _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar
+           words.
+    _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17).
+
+8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the
+   use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences,
+   especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36).
+
+9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one
+   central idea.
+10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of
+    the contents of the paragraph.
+
+11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed--
+    _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44).
+    _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details
+           are told may be determined by--
+             (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46).
+             (2) Their position in space (Section 47).
+    _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48).
+    _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49).
+    _e._ By repetition (Section 50).
+    _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above.
+
+12. The topical recitation demands--
+    _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able
+          to make the topic statement.
+    _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the
+          remaining ideas in the paragraph.
+    _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the
+          paragraph has been developed.
+    _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of
+          his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.)
+
+
+
+IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION
+
+
++54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the
+purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of
+writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that
+we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness.
+Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it
+may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value
+of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that
+entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest
+and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these
+characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis
+shall be given.
+
+Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and
+argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It
+will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which
+the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms
+of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you
+persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and
+you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and
+effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have
+considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A
+more extended treatment is given in later chapters.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the
+following belong?
+
+
+1. A business letter.
+
+2. The story of a runaway.
+
+3. A description of a lake written by a geologist.
+
+4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it.
+
+5. A letter to a friend describing a trip.
+
+6. A text-book on algebra.
+
+7. An application for a position as stenographer.
+
+8. A recipe for making cake.
+
+9. How I made a cake.
+
+10. How to make a kite.
+
+11. A political speech.
+
+12. A debate.
+
+
+_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could
+the same object be described for the purpose of giving information?
+
+_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments?
+
++55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is
+communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone.
+It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If
+its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it
+must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us,
+because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because
+it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe
+in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we
+narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that
+which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth
+of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be
+useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer
+shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will
+receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or
+writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it
+penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say
+precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so
+shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a
+question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be
+forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of
+least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the
+differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust,
+without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make
+the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of
+apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George
+Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.]
+
+In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a
+writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be
+neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt
+what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will
+become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of
+paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of
+methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers.
+
+
++Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of
+paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the
+mind usually acts._
+
+(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development
+treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting
+the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been
+written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you
+improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?)
+
+
++56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for
+us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should
+choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The
+elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered
+later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the
+suitableness of a subject:--
+
+First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear
+to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and
+definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is
+one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any
+subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must
+not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we
+may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may
+discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may
+be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons
+or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even
+if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own
+experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by
+getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from
+reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to
+write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a
+subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we
+understand because we can remember the language in which they were
+expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write
+well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but
+little.
+
+Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult
+for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no
+special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real
+interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a
+manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more
+interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in
+that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts
+conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a
+subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our
+interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but
+the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested.
+This interest will lead him to a further search for information about
+Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes
+entertaining to others.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient
+knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you
+interested? Which would you need to "read up" about?
+
+1. Golf.
+2. Examinations.
+3. Warships.
+4. Wireless telegraphy.
+5. Radium.
+6. Tennis.
+7. Automobiles.
+8. Picnics.
+9. Printing.
+10. Bees.
+11. Birds.
+12. Pyrography.
+13. Photography.
+14. Beavers.
+15. Making calls.
+16. Stamp collecting.
+17. The manufacture of tacks.
+18. The manufacture of cotton.
+19. The smelting of zinc.
+20. The silver-plating process.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something.
+
+
+_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested.
+
+
+_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient
+knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph.
+
+
++Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the
+lists in the preceding exercise._
+
+(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your
+paragraphs unity of thought?)
+
+
++57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and
+possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it
+may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some
+knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on
+the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning
+this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing
+both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a
+failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third
+grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you
+know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real
+"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your
+readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital
+and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a
+subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers.
+
+
++58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest
+touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for
+anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a
+suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are
+everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we
+hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss
+for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show
+a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider
+the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's
+outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our
+thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may
+be used for written exercises_.
+
++59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are
+more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and
+abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by
+recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence
+of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins."
+The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general
+subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the
+second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might
+write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult
+to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a
+general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a
+specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really
+know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in
+it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows
+something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels
+expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative
+interest on his part.
+
+On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject
+than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject
+presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than
+aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer
+possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects
+successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite
+subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of
+Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean
+scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme.
+
+
++60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in
+order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of
+ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation
+of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more
+interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or
+on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the
+length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a
+subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a
+chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be
+quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it
+would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of
+Milk at Toledo."
+
+A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the
+writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn
+something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become
+interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most
+general ones shall come first:--
+
+  1. The intelligence of wild animals.
+    How a fox escaped from the hounds.
+    How animals escape destruction by their enemies.
+    Animals.
+
+  2. The benefits that arise from war.
+    The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius.
+    War.
+    The value of military strength to the Romans.
+
+  3. Pleasure.
+    A summer outing in the Adirondacks.
+    Value of vacations.
+    Catching bass.
+
+
+_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may
+be treated in a single paragraph:--
+
+1. Fishing.
+2. Engines.
+3. Literature.
+4. Heroes of fiction.
+5. Cooking.
+6. Houses.
+7. Games.
+8. Basketball.
+9. Cats.
+10. Canaries.
+11. Sympathy.
+12. Sailboats.
+13. Baseball.
+14. Rivers.
+15. Trees.
+
+
+C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which
+would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example--
+
+  General subject,--Education.
+  Specific subjects,--
+    1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.)
+    2. School taxes. (Farmers.)
+    3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.)
+
+In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects
+so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or
+more classes of persons:--
+
+       Subjects               Classes
+  1. Vacations.         1. Farmers.
+  2. Mathematics.       2. High School Pupils.
+  3. Picnics.           3. Ministers.
+  4. Civil service.     4. Merchants.
+  5. Elections.         5. Sailors.
+  6. Botany.            6. Girls.
+  7. Fish.              7. Boys.
+
+
++Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._
+
+(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development
+have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to
+your readers?)
+
+
++61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but
+not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of
+considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this
+brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and
+arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A
+peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly
+selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the
+title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect
+is unsatisfactory.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the
+following:--
+
+1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse."
+    Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient
+             time.
+
+2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance.
+    Subject: Description of a coaching parade.
+
+3. Title: A Brave Defense.
+    Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from
+             their nest.
+
+4. Title: The Banquet Book.
+    Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an
+             aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner
+             speech, and the occasional address.
+
+5. Title: Dragons of the Air.
+    Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles.
+
+6. Title: Rugs and Rags.
+    Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic
+             point of view.
+
+7. Title: Lives of the Hunted.
+    Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three
+             birds.
+
+8. Title: The Children of the Nations.
+    Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization.
+
+
+_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher.
+
+_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine
+article you have read this month.
+
+
++62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with
+reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his
+paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet
+he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language
+suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use
+is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with
+ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age
+and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best
+express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves.
+But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in
+life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our
+readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if
+necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to
+your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the
+following is intended?
+
+
+In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an
+error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both
+local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays.
+
+The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning
+Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the
+drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an
+easy out.
+
+Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme
+left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to
+catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to
+left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a
+screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored
+if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and
+Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns
+got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut
+back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the
+initial sack, but could not prevent the tally.
+
+--_Boston Herald._
+
+
+His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the
+boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his
+senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was
+Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things,
+athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of
+the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time
+had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track
+team.
+
+But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up
+to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and
+in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get
+his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although
+he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows
+always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and
+thoroughly exhausted.
+
+Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would
+have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his
+mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very
+proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y."
+
+So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition
+of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a
+distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men
+running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked
+upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the
+first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on
+just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games,
+and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place
+in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it
+faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when
+the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it
+soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard
+games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to
+Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed
+that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood
+a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards,
+along at a fast gait for the first mile.
+
+So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half
+mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast
+second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should
+go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the
+attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come
+up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to
+finish first.
+
+The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track
+heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were
+the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and
+consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it
+developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest
+grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual
+trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a
+really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the
+time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner
+should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way
+behind.
+
+At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders,
+during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the
+Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and,
+being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed
+uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not,
+and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates
+gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis,
+Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early,
+whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the
+third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three
+desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore,
+they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some
+fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man
+try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who
+was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter
+finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come
+up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to
+make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened
+out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let
+himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the
+last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had
+opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to
+expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned
+into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it
+was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and,
+moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the
+Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy
+pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the
+gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of
+Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He
+could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it
+was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the
+crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from
+home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to
+stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted
+the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last!
+
+--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook")
+
+
+In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made
+the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class
+composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report?
+
+In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know
+what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful
+presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to
+adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with
+the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first
+account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would
+need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration
+would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order
+to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that
+game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning
+of the terms we use.
+
+
++Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand
+the game about some contest which you have seen_.
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+1. A basket ball game.
+2. A football game.
+3. A tennis match.
+4. A baseball game.
+5. A croquet match.
+6. A golf tournament.
+7. A yacht race.
+8. A relay race.
+
+(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary
+explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is
+rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper
+time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without
+affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?)
+
+
++Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for
+Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._
+
+
+(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten
+the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.)
+
+
++63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers
+calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular
+object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any
+one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term.
+For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific
+term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme
+XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling
+about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement
+was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by
+"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would
+apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition
+called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is
+always concerned with that which is general, while description and
+narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake;
+but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to
+any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general
+terms is one form of exposition.
+
+
++64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a
+general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it
+is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question,
+What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is
+explanation.
+
+Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the
+smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For
+example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or
+vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however,
+seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by
+comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of
+meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing
+the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For
+example:--
+
+
+Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is
+found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in
+the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility,
+difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less
+strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One
+can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery,
+while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered.
+Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new
+inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to
+science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical
+resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our
+knowledge, and has often been made by accident.
+
+--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_.
+
+
+If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical
+definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter.
+
+
++Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following
+groups:_--
+
+
+1. Caustic, satirical, biting.
+2. Imply, signify, involve.
+3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike.
+4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge.
+5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate.
+6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty.
+7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete.
+8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament,
+9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry.
+
+
++65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must
+be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood
+by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in
+explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_,
+and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our
+explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all
+probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language
+have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of
+our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than
+our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar
+ones.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Give familiar equivalents for the following words:--
+
+
+1. emancipate.
+2. procure.
+3. opportunity.
+4. peruse.
+5. elapsed.
+6. approximately.
+7. abbreviate.
+8. constitute.
+9. simultaneous.
+10. familiar.
+11. deceased.
+12. oral.
+13. adhere.
+14. edifice.
+15. collide.
+16. suburban.
+17. repugnance.
+18. grotesque.
+19. equipage.
+20. exaggerate.
+21. ascend.
+22. financial.
+23. nocturnal.
+24. maternal.
+25. vision.
+26. affinity.
+27. cohere.
+28. athwart.
+29. clavicle.
+30. omnipotent.
+31. enumerate.
+32. eradicate.
+33. application.
+34. constitute.
+35. employer.
+36. rendezvous.
+37. obscure.
+38. indicate.
+39. prevaricate.
+
+
++66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is
+to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere
+statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often
+make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable
+comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we
+must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure
+that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate.
+
+
++Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as
+exact a definition as you can frame._
+
+1. A "fly" in baseball.
+2. A "foul" in basket ball.
+3. A "sneak."
+4. A hero.
+5. A "spitfire."
+6. A laborer.
+7. A capitalist.
+8. A coward.
+9. A freshman.
+10. A "header."
+
+
+(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its
+meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example?
+Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by
+arranging your material in a different order?)
+
+
++67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term
+by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate
+the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features.
+This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader
+picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader
+a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England
+villages, the paragraph would become a general description.
+
+Such a general description would include all the characteristics common
+to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit
+any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general
+description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If
+an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception
+of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the
+object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in
+effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description.
+It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly
+employed by writers of scientific books.
+
+Notice the following examples of general description:--
+
+
+1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and
+stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and
+variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of
+the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains
+with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly
+painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and
+surrounded with red and white railings and fences.
+
+The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different
+hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch.
+Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white
+as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon
+perforated like lace. The pointed façades are surmounted with a small
+weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers.
+Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last
+for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions,
+such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the
+houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his
+arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two
+persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely
+reach to the knees of a four-year-old child.
+
+
+2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three
+inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles
+running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar,
+pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk
+grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color,
+divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to
+each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower
+is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in
+most of the states in rich, shady soils.
+
+
+3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a
+benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the
+trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of
+the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her
+jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk
+and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in
+an American police court.
+
+Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that
+she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The
+bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap
+paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account
+finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory.
+Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be
+done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of
+the page and pay it.
+
+--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star").
+
+
++Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_--
+
+1. A bicycle.
+2. A country hay barn.
+3. A dog.
+4. A summer cottage.
+5. An Indian wigwam.
+6. A Dutch windmill.
+7. A muskrat's house.
+8. A robin's nest.
+9. A blacksmith's shop.
+10. A chipmunk.
+11. A threshing machine.
+12. A sewing circle.
+
+
+(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general
+notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that
+applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make
+your meaning clear?)
+
+
++Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a
+specific description of some particular object._
+
+
+(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you
+introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the
+general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper
+position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you
+mean him to have?)
+
+
++68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture,
+methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of
+generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod
+house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of
+events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some
+one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of
+the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general
+narration is really exposition.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing
+what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special
+occasion is introduced.
+
+
+She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up,
+running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something
+like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the
+mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile
+or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a
+little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her
+enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of
+her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way
+back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem,
+she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to
+perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track.
+
+--Richard Atton.
+
+
+_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects
+it differs from the preceding selection.
+
+Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day
+since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy
+pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I
+was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence
+of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought
+themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he
+passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind
+inquiry after their fathers and uncles.
+
+After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and
+the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I
+was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop
+out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the
+way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by
+extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none
+of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me
+if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called
+in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard
+one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder
+they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's
+crying, "Stole away."
+
+This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising
+ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without
+the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them
+above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of
+running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country,"
+as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a
+sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such
+manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first
+pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she
+had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same
+time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid
+to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among
+them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but
+once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or
+one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being
+taken notice of.
+
+The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up
+again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first
+started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly
+knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and
+servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty.
+One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase
+was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain
+behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a
+large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must
+confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything
+around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a
+double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the
+sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most
+lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was
+innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare,
+that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when
+the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They
+were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for
+almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a
+sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst
+not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode
+forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after
+delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept
+alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several
+of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable
+captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the
+good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a
+creature that had given him so much diversion.
+
+--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_.
+
+
++Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general
+narration:_--
+
+  1. Baking bread.
+  2. How paper is made.
+  3. How to play tennis (or some other game).
+  4. Catching trout.
+  5. Life at school.
+  6. How to pitch curves.
+
+
+(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order?
+Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity?
+Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.)
+
+
++69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language
+presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does
+not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one
+else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who
+wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The
+question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts
+shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince
+my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later
+chapter, but a few of them are given here.
+
+
++70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we
+must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to
+make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which
+he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to
+convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent
+to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different
+courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced
+as to which is best for you.
+
+If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would
+be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already
+understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only
+waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he
+already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your
+reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your
+school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not
+understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It
+is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make
+depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we
+explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the
+reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow.
+
+The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step
+in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must
+consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended.
+
+
++71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often
+concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or
+another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the
+advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of
+the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause.
+
+If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city
+officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In
+support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that
+would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of
+delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the
+greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons
+seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too
+much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages
+were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense.
+
+Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not
+discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of
+what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or
+disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the
+disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon
+to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the
+facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up
+our mind which side we favor.
+
+You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you
+believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should
+take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to
+be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind
+you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as
+advantages.
+
+Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School
+Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of
+the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:--
+
+
+The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their
+recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been
+sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages.
+There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses,
+shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between
+recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we
+have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the
+system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in
+gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides
+this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various
+classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not
+occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to
+these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a
+respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the
+mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in
+every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can
+often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides
+that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave
+work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some
+other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and
+we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or
+less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they
+cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing
+space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous
+application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance
+the disadvantages.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the
+following propositions? State them orally.
+
+
+1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground.
+
+2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles
+   per hour.
+
+3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular
+   school days.
+
+4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on
+   Fridays and Saturdays.
+
+5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday.
+
+6. The school session should be lengthened.
+
+
++Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages
+and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any
+one of the following:_
+
+1. This school should have a longer recess.
+
+2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess.
+
+3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock.
+
+4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room.
+
+5. The public library should be in the high school building.
+
+6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice.
+
+7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments.
+
+
++72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make
+the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances.
+If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the
+paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the
+reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true,
+we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific
+instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following
+paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the
+proposition:--
+
+
+Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct
+acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice
+plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by
+intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct,
+but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act
+of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit
+and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind
+of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is
+prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set
+up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show
+intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its
+enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk
+does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of
+intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string
+stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how
+shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a
+gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to
+profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal
+were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in
+intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of
+the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an
+afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go
+upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct
+which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience
+with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A
+pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly
+grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous
+calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath
+them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed;
+the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is
+intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence;
+it is untaught.
+
+John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either
+the following propositions or their opposites?
+
+1. Dogs are intelligent.
+
+2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination.
+
+3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination.
+
+4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples.
+
+5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer.
+
+6. A college education pays.
+
+7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores.
+
+8. Advertising pays.
+
+
++Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of
+the propositions in the preceding exercise:_
+
+
+(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they
+show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true
+for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the
+proposition?)
+
+
++73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes
+excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side
+of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and
+from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to
+the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in
+favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so
+sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability
+to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively,
+and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are
+true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an
+accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from
+practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of
+arguments.
+
+
++74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in
+the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as,
+"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be
+lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the
+affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the
+negative why it should not be lengthened.
+
+In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be
+definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that
+no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real
+arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is
+possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue
+fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with
+the meanings of terms.
+
+
++75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a
+purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which
+we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the
+desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance
+with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question,
+having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the
+selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition
+in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he
+did not really believe.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the
+affirmative or the negative?
+
+1. This city needs a new high school building.
+
+2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic
+   association.
+
+3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field.
+
+4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half
+   fare.
+
+5. There should be a lunch room in this school.
+
+6. Fairy stories should not be told to children.
+
+
++Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the
+propositions in the preceding exercise:_
+
+(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?)
+
+
++76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the
+propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind
+both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in
+which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the
+circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that
+is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to
+you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will
+occupy the central portion of your theme.
+
+
++77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages,
+examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of
+the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which
+you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is
+called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is
+made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the
+debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve
+to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to
+present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is
+composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:--
+
+Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics.
+
+                          _Affirmative_
+
+1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the
+    developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for--
+       _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do
+              and how to do it.
+       _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind.
+
+2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for--
+       _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided.
+       _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided.
+
+3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for--
+       _a._ The objects made are valuable.
+       _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value
+              in after life.
+
+4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for--
+       _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual
+              training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation
+              of something useful or beautiful.
+       _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in
+              workmanship cannot be concealed.
+       _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while
+              manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful.
+
+5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the
+    school; for--
+       _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the
+              maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual
+              training.
+
+
++78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not
+only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by
+our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is
+called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents
+is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to
+show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an
+exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the
+argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged.
+Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the
+argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken
+possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is
+of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related
+points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the
+refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by
+rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise
+of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen
+boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week
+as a debating club.
+
+
++Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the
+propositions in Section 75._
+
+
+(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they
+have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on
+the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the
+strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side,
+either omit them or make their discussion very brief.)
+
+
++79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument
+we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a
+few cautions will be helpful.
+
+1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as
+interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you
+to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the
+statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or
+not at all.
+
+2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be
+false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This
+does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition
+unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be
+real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that
+there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that
+seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth
+and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of
+the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition.
+
+3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth.
+Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in
+season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will
+Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time
+in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others.
+They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to
+doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything.
+
+4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe
+a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement
+must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes.
+
+5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to
+action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear,
+accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical
+arguments, is the first essential.
+
+
++Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the
+   high school.
+
+2. Novel reading is a waste of time.
+
+3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick.
+
+4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States.
+
+5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity.
+
+6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited.
+
+
+(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section
+79.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain.
+
+2. The forms of discourse are--
+      _a._ Description.
+      _b._ Narration.
+      _c._ Exposition.
+      _d._ Argument (Persuasion).
+
+3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use
+    language adapted to that audience.
+
+4. The suitableness of a subject is determined--
+      _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject.
+              (1) This may be based on experience, or
+              (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and
+                     reading.
+      _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject.
+              (1) This may exist from the first, or
+              (2) It may be aroused by our search for information.
+      _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of
+             present, vital interest to him.
+
+5. Subjects.
+      _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited.
+      _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in
+            order to be made definite.
+      _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse
+            a desire to hear the theme.
+
+6. Exposition is explanation.
+
+7. We may make clear the meaning of a term--
+      _a._ By using synonyms.
+      _b._ By using simpler words.
+      _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons.
+
+8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members
+     of a class of objects.
+
+9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that
+     characterize a process or action whenever it occurs.
+
+10. Argument.
+    _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument.
+    _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to
+           determine which side of a question we believe.
+    _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or
+           argument.
+
+11. Debate.
+    _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a
+           resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question.
+    _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last
+           positions.
+    _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most
+           effective order.
+    _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed
+           just before our own last and strongest argument.
+    _e._ Cautions in debating.
+            (1) Be fair.
+            (2) Be honest with yourself.
+            (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your
+                 desire for truth.
+            (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument.
+            (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
+
+
++80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important
+principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and
+emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and
+used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of
+securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is
+the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially
+as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III,
+for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the
+same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs.
+
+
++81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears
+directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme
+determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that
+is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a
+theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a
+theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a
+broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the
+selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61);
+the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other
+material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen
+title.
+
+
++82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in
+such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the
+last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph
+than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence.
+Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward
+in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one.
+
+In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke
+his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have
+a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though
+each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks
+coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what
+happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of
+the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story
+clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of
+vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story.
+Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that
+will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they
+are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection
+of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place
+gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my
+story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the
+selection on page 106.
+
+
++83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic
+than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In
+debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments.
+In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed
+by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains
+in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones
+of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an
+otherwise good story.
+
+Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and
+space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any
+division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the
+total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote
+two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life
+would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount
+of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be
+taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its
+importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is
+of greatest worth.
+
+Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph.
+This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too
+short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about
+the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to
+make its meaning clear.
+
+Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance
+than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first
+three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient
+measure.
+
+
++84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity,
+coherence, and emphasis.
+
+1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity
+requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject.
+There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can
+be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will
+suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list
+all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less
+important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we
+have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme.
+
+Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the
+complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything
+be added?
+
+
+_My First Partridge_
+
+
+Where I lived ten years ago.
+Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels.
+Partridge drumming.
+My father went hunting often.
+How he was injured.
+Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities.
+Loading the gun.
+Going to the woods.
+Why partridge live near birch brush.
+Fall season.
+Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December.
+Tramping through the woods.
+Something moving.
+Creeping up.
+How I felt; excited; hand shook.
+Partridge on log.
+Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly.
+The shot; the recoil.
+The flurry of the bird.
+How partridges fly.
+How they taste when cooked.
+Getting the bird.
+Going home.
+Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields.
+What my sister said.
+My brother's interest.
+My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot.
+What mother did.
+
+
+2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we
+have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the
+unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent
+order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple
+narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our
+memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a
+series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These
+groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their
+actual time-order gives coherence to the composition.
+
+After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange
+the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make
+and what would you include in each?
+
+3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some
+outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first,
+in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a
+natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by
+the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give
+unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and
+the conclusion are short.
+
+
++Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in
+length._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. How I was saved from drowning.
+    2. The largest string of fish I ever caught.
+    3. An incident of the skating season.
+    4. What I did on Christmas day.
+    5. A Saturday with my grandmother.
+    6. To the city and back.
+
+
+(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and
+emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to
+unity, coherence, and emphasis.)
+
+
++85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+--
+Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first
+that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a
+composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each
+paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes
+steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is
+so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the
+paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order
+is usually indicated.
+
+Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is
+shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from
+a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:--
+
+
+1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a
+      summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down...
+
+2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting
+      nervous...
+
+3. The dusk deepens...
+
+4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low,
+      and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home...
+
+5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when
+      the first of the fleet heaves in sight...
+
+6. After that they arrive rapidly...
+
+7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_...
+
+8. Through the entire night they keep coming...
+
+9. Next morning...
+
+
++Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length,
+showing the time-order._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. The race up the river.
+    2. The life of some well-known man.
+    3. The cake that fell.
+    4. Retell some incident that you have recently read.
+    5. Relate some personal experience.
+    6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160.
+
+
+(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each
+paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of
+the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate
+the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?)
+
+
++86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+--
+A second method of development is to relate details with reference to
+their position in space.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by
+following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme
+coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position
+in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the
+whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph
+(Section 47).
+
+In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should
+contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The
+paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and
+coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass
+most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the
+images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may
+supplement time-order in giving coherence.
+
+If the most attractive features of an art room are its
+wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may
+be as follows:--
+
+    1. Point of view: general impression.
+    2. The north wall: general impression; details.
+    3. The east wall: general impression; details.
+    4. The south wall: general impression; details.
+    5. The west wall: general impression; details.
+
+
+It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following
+paragraphs would be appropriate:--
+
+        1. Point of view.
+        2. The fireplace.
+        3. The easy-chair.
+        4. The table.
+        5. The bookcase.
+        6. The cozy nook.
+
+
+Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be
+secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it.
+
+There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position
+of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of
+development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the
+location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details
+should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would
+serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions
+of the objects described.
+
+The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_
+rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched
+away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into
+foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle,
+lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San
+Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_
+the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown,
+_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple
+veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the
+foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado.
+
+--Stoddard: _California_.
+
+
++Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Some well-known building (exterior).
+    2. A prominent person.
+    3. An attractive room.
+    4. The interior of a church.
+
+(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion
+of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and
+emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.)
+
+
++87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time
+and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such
+expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at
+all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought
+between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the
+selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding
+paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by
+the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the
+transition from one paragraph to the next.
+
+_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object
+of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had
+consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months
+since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was
+worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made
+to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for
+while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really
+meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in
+the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought
+town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette,
+who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp
+dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were
+intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from
+the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at
+Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he
+would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display
+military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular
+intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he
+marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania
+militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did
+not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city,
+and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he
+could easily strike if any move was made by the British army.
+
+--Henry Cabot Lodge.
+
+
++88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to
+denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole
+paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs
+to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one
+general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other
+general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different
+point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of
+the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it
+may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general
+terms.
+
+
++89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our
+thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme.
+Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our
+paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in
+order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a
+similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence
+which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the
+paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57.
+
+
++90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third
+method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea
+which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it.
+We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are
+few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our
+comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs,
+and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method.
+
+In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual
+occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in
+outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to
+arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and
+emphasis.
+
+
++Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by
+comparison._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive,
+        defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.).
+    2. Show that the body resembles a machine.
+    3. In what way is the school like a factory?
+    4. How do two books that you have read differ?
+    5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different?
+    6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree?
+    7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other.
+    8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools
+        with those of private academies.
+
+
++91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+--
+Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition
+to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the
+demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this
+purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the
+proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each
+important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while
+several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same
+paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more
+important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions.
+
+Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the
+truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated
+in the last sentence.
+
+
+DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE
+
+
+While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet
+it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason
+animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would
+degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a
+quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism.
+
+The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through
+degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from
+the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The
+young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike
+creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the
+simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as
+a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a
+notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a
+backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal
+cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type.
+But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a
+little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or
+wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life
+fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it
+loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses
+its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with
+a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal.
+
+A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The
+barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps.
+The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming
+nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next
+larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two
+antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life.
+When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself
+to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound
+eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of
+locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it
+loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class.
+
+Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the
+family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration
+that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red
+orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other
+fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge,
+but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other
+organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin,
+circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the
+insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak,
+which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the
+"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap,
+which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under
+the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little
+larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from
+under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they
+settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast
+their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers.
+Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and
+laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no
+longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of
+eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt
+again and secrete the thin wax scale over them.
+
+Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by
+the loss of the power to move and of all structures related
+to it.
+
+--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_.
+
+
+Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is,
+of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a
+scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate
+degeneration through quiescence?
+
+Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to
+each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate
+generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these
+subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph
+which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other
+method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization
+followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be
+taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most
+closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by
+giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish.
+
+
++Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or
+proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Young persons should not drink coffee.
+    2. Reasons for the curfew bell.
+    3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways.
+    4. There are several kinds of boys in this school.
+    5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation
+        increase.
+    6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country.
+    7. Presence of mind often averts danger.
+
+
++92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The
+statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth
+method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that
+applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect
+(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be
+given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one
+paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or
+statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order
+is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that
+which traces events backward from effects to causes.
+
+
++Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and
+effects._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Why hospitals are necessary.
+    2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous.
+    3. Why girls should take music lessons.
+    4. The effect of climate upon health.
+    5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a
+        country.
+    6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and
+        travel.
+    7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the
+        sea level, and why?
+    8. Why our city is located where it is.
+    9. Why I came late to school.
+
+
++93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation
+of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the
+methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often
+interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements
+need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all
+in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for
+cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which
+would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space.
+In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first
+_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do
+that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of
+the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and
+emphasis.
+
+
++Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of
+development or any combination of methods._
+
+(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all
+the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with
+reference to each point in your list of questions.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. General principles of composition.
+    _a._ Unity.
+    _b._ Coherence.
+    _c._ Emphasis.
+        (1) By position.
+        (2) By proportion of parts.
+
+2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed--
+    _a._ With reference to time-order.
+    _b._ With reference to position in space.
+    _c._ By use of comparison and contrast.
+    _d._ By stating generalization and facts.
+    _e._ By stating cause and effect.
+    _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods.
+
+4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions.
+
+
+
+VI. LETTER WRITING
+
+
++94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of
+written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form.
+The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business,
+personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We
+are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered
+businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be
+able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as
+regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means
+of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful
+friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in
+our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study.
+
+The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence
+to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing.
+Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of
+attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of
+the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often
+anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected
+either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or
+because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are
+the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and
+carefulness concerning them.
+
+
++95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our
+choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper,
+about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes
+of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately
+tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of
+highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure
+to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is
+customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for
+other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is
+preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used
+may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the
+reader.
+
+Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible.
+Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact,
+all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are
+added several others.
+
++96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the
+beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these
+forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter
+usually includes the heading, the address of the person or
+persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation.
+
+Notice the following examples:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              171 Miles Ave.,         |
+ |                                  Cleveland, Ohio.    |
+ |                                      Oct. 21, 1905.  |
+ |  Marshall Field & Co.,                               |
+ |      State St., Chicago, Ill.                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Gentlemen:                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    Ottawa, Ill.      |
+ |                                        Nov. 9, 1905. |
+ |   Dear Harold,                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                       1028 Jackson Boulevard,        |
+ |                                   Chicago Ill.       |
+ |                                       Nov. 10, 1905. |
+ |  Messrs. Johnson & Foote,                            |
+ |    120 Main St.,                                     |
+ |      Pittsfield, Mass.                               |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Sirs,                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                           120 P Street,              |
+ |                                 Lincoln, Neb.        |
+ |                                     Oct. 17, 1905.   |
+ |  My dear Mrs. Scott,                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                      Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Dear Mother,                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(6)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              33 Front St.,           |
+ |                                   Adrian, Mich.      |
+ |                                       Nov. 30, 1905. |
+ |  Miss Gertrude Brown,                                |
+ |    228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill.                    |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Dear Madam:                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(7)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                               New Hartford, Conn.    |
+ |                                   Nov. 3, 1905.      |
+ |  My dear Henry,                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of
+the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the
+street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example
+(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother
+frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and
+number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to
+whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the
+letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number
+will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to
+make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the
+heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two
+lines is preferable.
+
+Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the
+right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in
+business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter,
+but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning.
+The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the
+page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first
+line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line.
+Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line.
+
+In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of
+the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it
+will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble
+both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not
+allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great
+importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop,
+we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great
+importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is
+better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05.
+
+In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or
+persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines
+may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than
+the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the
+address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below
+it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a
+little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the
+salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as
+in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7).
+
+The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing
+between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My
+dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters.
+The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My
+dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are
+acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of
+friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with
+each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary,
+Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_.
+
+There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The
+comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in
+connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of
+all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently
+in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business
+letters.
+
+
++97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part;
+in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It
+will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in
+order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a
+rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and
+either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not
+improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same
+line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the
+variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter.
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             1694 Cedar Ave.,         |
+ |                                  Cleveland, Ohio.    |
+ |                                      June 23, 1905.  |
+ | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co.,                          |
+ |   Aurora, Ill.                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00,      |
+ | etc.                                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Everett, Washington.     |
+ |                                     Oct. 20, 1905.   |
+ |   My dear Robert,                                    |
+ |      We are very glad that you have decided to make  |
+ | us a visit, etc.                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Greenwich, N.Y.          |
+ |                                    Sept. 19, 1905.   |
+ |  My dear Miss Russ,                                  |
+ |      Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                           2 University Ave.,         |
+ |                                Nashville, Tenn.      |
+ |                                    April 19, 1905.   |
+ |  The American Book Company,                          |
+ |    300 Pike St.,                                     |
+ |      Cinncinnati, O.                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies  |
+ |  of Halleck's English Literature, etc.               |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
++98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is
+termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been
+agreed upon, which should be closely followed.
+
+Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends
+upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing.
+Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your
+affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist
+between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so
+intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours,
+Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in
+business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms
+_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only
+when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person
+of high rank or position.
+
+The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of
+the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page.
+Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be
+placed at its close.
+
+The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the
+complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name
+should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of
+unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore
+important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made
+plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in
+their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as
+_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or
+_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address
+below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid
+confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials.
+
+Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                            Appleton, Wisconsin.      |
+ |                                     Sept. 3, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  My dear Cousin,                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              Yours with love,        |
+ |                                   Gertrude Edmonds.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                            192 Lincoln Ave.,         |
+ |                                Worcester, Mass.      |
+ |                                     Nov. 25, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   L.B. Bliss & Co.,                                  |
+ |        109 Summer St.,                               |
+ |             Boston, Mass.                            |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs;                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                   (Body of letter.)                  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Very truly yours,        |
+ |                                 Walter A. Cutler.    |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                               Paxton, Ill.           |
+ |                                   July 3, 1905.      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   American Typewriter Co.,                           |
+ |       263 Broadway, New York.                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |     Gentlemen:                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                   (Body of letter.)                  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                          Very truly yours,           |
+ |                         (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    May 5, 1905.      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Daniel Low & Co.,                                   |
+ |      232 Essex St., Salem, Mass.                     |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs;                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    Mary E. Ball      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mrs. George W. Ball,                              |
+ |             415 Fourth St.,                          |
+ |                     La Salle, Ill.                   |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Marshalltown, Iowa.      |
+ |                                     Oct. 3, 1905.    |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   My dear Miss Meyer,                                |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              Sincerely yours,        |
+ |                                  Dorothy Doddridge.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and
+signatures for the following letters:--
+
+1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules
+    for basket ball.
+
+2. To your older brother.
+
+3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium.
+
+4. To some business house, making application for a position.
+
+5. To the governor of your state.
+
+6. From one stranger to another.
+
+7. From an older brother to his little sister.
+
+8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate
+    friend.
+
+
++99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the
+superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons
+to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful
+and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure
+the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination.
+
+The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line
+beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be
+written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope,
+and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If
+there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at
+the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the
+city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly
+written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any
+special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the
+letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown."
+
+Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is
+married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used,
+unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men
+should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as
+_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc.,
+in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be
+entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as
+_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._
+
+The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that
+these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other
+similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West
+Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the
+other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation
+besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma
+after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either
+form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be
+employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be
+used in one line and omitted in another.
+
+Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:--
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Mr. Milo R. Maltbie
+ |                   85 West 118th St.
+ |                             New York.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Mr. John D. Clark
+ |                          New York
+ |                             N.Y.
+ |
+ |  Teachers College
+ |    Columbia University.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Mrs. Edgar N. Foster
+ |                      South Haven
+ |                              Mich.
+ |
+ | Avery Beach Hotel.
+ | ______________________________________________________
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Miss Louise M. Baker
+ |                        Nottingham
+ |                                Ohio.
+ |
+ |   Box 129.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Dr. James M. Postle
+ |                           De Kalb
+ |                                 Ill.
+ |
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(6)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Miss Ida Morrison
+ |                          Chicago
+ |                                Ill.
+ |
+ |
+ | 1048 Warren Ave.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:--
+
+1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska.
+
+2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance.
+
+3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
+    Michigan.
+
+4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend.
+
+5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill.
+
+6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York.
+
+7. To a friend at a seaside resort.
+
+8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California.
+
+
++100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing
+is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print
+over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous
+and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which
+you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years.
+Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a
+use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter,
+"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter
+yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask
+yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me
+credit if it should be published?"
+
+
++101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to
+inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In
+asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that
+there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the
+information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to
+state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake.
+
+Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men
+are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish
+to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the
+desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only
+pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but
+nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we
+should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to
+appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit
+important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations.
+
+We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer,
+besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the
+letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any.
+All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be
+arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it
+is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but
+in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and
+concisely if we follow some other order.
+
+What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing
+might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics
+concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already
+suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write
+only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be
+businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters.
+
+A few examples are here given for your notice:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Ypsilanti, Mich.         |
+ |                                     April 4, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Mr. William Wylie,                                  |
+ |     807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill.                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Mr. Wylie;                                    |
+ |    Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers   |
+ |  of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of        |
+ |  mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so     |
+ |  much as you now receive, but in many respects the   |
+ |  position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply  |
+ |  for it.                                             |
+ |                          Sincerely yours,            |
+ |                                Charles M. Gates.     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                      586 State St.,                  |
+ |                               Chicago, Ill.          |
+ |                                      July 20,1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Mrs. Charles H. McNett,                             |
+ |         2345 Franklin St.,                           |
+ |               Denver, Colorado.                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We  |
+ |  beg to say that we sent you the books by express,   |
+ |  prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached   |
+ |  you by this time. If you have not received them,    |
+ |  please notify us, and we will send a tracer after   |
+ |  them.                                               |
+ |                          Very truly yours,           |
+ |                                 Brown and Sherman.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                         Elgin High School,           |
+ |                               Elgin, Ill.            |
+ |                                      Sept. 4, 1905.  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ | Miss Ella B. Walker,                                 |
+ |       Herkimer, New York.                            |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   My dear Miss Walker:                               |
+ |           I am very sorry to have to trouble you,    |
+ | but I am desirous of obtaining some information      |
+ | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly  |
+ | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up   |
+ | to date prior to your departure and also whether the |
+ | accession book was in use up to that time?           |
+ |   I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will     |
+ | give me this information.                            |
+ |                          Very sincerely yours,       |
+ |                                   Edward J. Taylor.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention
+to the rules for writing business letters:--
+
+1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their
+    catalogues.
+
+2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours,
+    proposing a game.
+
+3. Write the reply.
+
+4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of
+    clerk or bookkeeper.
+
+5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your
+    address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue,
+    Beatrice, Nebraska.
+
+6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to
+    the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit.
+
+
++102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be
+obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters
+is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice
+that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that
+found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives
+pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but
+visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as
+enjoyable as possible.
+
+So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of
+letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite
+statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they
+should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should
+be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a
+requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining
+letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and
+lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your
+letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and
+explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who
+read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling
+    him of the school of which he was once a member.
+
+2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St.
+    Louis.
+
+3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother
+    or sister at home.
+
+4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of
+    interest that you have visited.
+
+5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping
+    experience.
+
+6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the
+    home life.
+
+7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended.
+
+8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare
+    the two towns.
+
+
++103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is,
+Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of
+yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most
+interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity
+of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement
+of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends
+we must include many very minor things, because we know that our
+correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed
+jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What
+we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the
+successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have
+mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that
+sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we
+were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt
+and sincere.
+
+In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good
+friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was
+misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that
+which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the
+smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid
+all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or
+fault-finding to the most sensitive.
+
+
++104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes,
+formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies,
+requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations
+and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on
+almost every possible subject.
+
+
++105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third
+person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged
+that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a
+somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary
+close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be
+written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left,
+and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it
+directly below or a little to the right.
+
+Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third
+person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date
+and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this
+reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation.
+
+A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both
+invitations and replies:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |       Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson        |
+ |        request the pleasure of your company          |
+ |        on Monday evening, December thirtieth,        |
+ |             at half-past eight o'clock.              |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |      Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and      |
+ |    Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening,    |
+ |    December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock.   |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement     |
+ |   prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's     |
+ |   kind invitation for Monday evening, December       |
+ |   the thirtieth.                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the        |
+ |    pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner   |
+ |    on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    1068 Euclid Ave.                                  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept        |
+ |    Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to    |
+ |    dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December      |
+ |    sixth.                                            |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding.
+
+2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week
+    Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation.
+
+3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation.
+
+4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation.
+
+5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your
+    guest, Miss Grace Mason.
+
+
++106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the
+same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference
+is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in
+form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading
+is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is
+omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the
+date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the
+signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal,
+but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal
+invitations.
+
+A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are
+constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the
+purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write
+congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to
+another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of
+advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They
+should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject.
+
+Notice the following examples of informal notes:--
+
+
+(1)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ | My dear Mrs. Lathrop,                                           |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |             Will you not give us the pleasure of your company   |
+ | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd   |
+ | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet |
+ | her.                                                            |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                       Very sincerely yours,                     |
+ |                                     Ethel M. Trainor.           |
+ | 840 Forest Avenue,                                              |
+ | Dec. 5, 1905.                                                   |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(2)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                                          Dec. 6, 1905.          |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |   My dear Mrs. Trainor,                                         |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |       I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation   |
+ |   to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous     |
+ |   engagement which it will be impossible for me to break.       |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                   Yours most sincerely,                         |
+ |                              Emma Lathrop.                      |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(3)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ |   My dear Blanche,                                              |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |          Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party      |
+ | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other         |
+ | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have     |
+ | you with us.                                                    |
+ |                      Very cordially yours,                      |
+ |                                 Margaret Gilmore.               |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________________
+ |                                                              |
+ | My dear Margaret,                                            |
+ |                                                              |
+ |             Fortunately I have no other engagement for this  |
+ | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an  |
+ | evening with you and your friends.                           |
+ |                                                              |
+ |                      Very sincerely yours,                   |
+ |                                   Blanche A. Church.         |
+ |                                                              |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write the following informal notes:--
+
+1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book.
+
+2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party.
+
+3. Write the reply.
+
+4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you.
+
+5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you
+    left at home this morning.
+
+6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write
+    out the invitation.
+
+7. Write the acceptance.
+
+
+
+
+VII.  POETRY
+
+[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical
+form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it
+has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter.
+The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to
+which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation
+of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils
+attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or
+more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example,
+one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar
+ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.]
+
++107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to
+furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform
+and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the
+other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set
+forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In
+poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always
+aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real
+poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense;
+that is, to our love of the beautiful.
+
+In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both
+upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it
+may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective
+arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain
+devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may
+occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of
+poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere
+nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not
+the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The
+merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but
+there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us
+because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of
+the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable
+from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase
+into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless
+and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a
+work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic
+sense.
+
++108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the
+use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm
+is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its
+widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses,
+sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry
+consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular
+succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of
+a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular
+recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which
+appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of
+poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:--
+
+
+1.
+
+We were crowded in the cabin;
+  Not a soul would dare to speak;
+It was midnight on the waters
+  And a storm was on the deep.
+
+--James T. Fields.
+
+
+2.
+
+Break, break, break,
+  At the foot of thy crags, O sea!
+But the tender grace of a day that is dead
+  Will never come back to me.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+3.
+
+Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December,
+  And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor
+
+--Poe.
+
+
+4.
+
+Sweet and low, sweet and low,
+  Wind of the western sea,
+Low, low, breathe and blow,
+  Wind of the western sea!
+
+Over the rolling waters go,
+  Come from the dying moon and blow,
+Blow him again to me;
+  While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+5.
+
+Stone walls do not a prison make,
+  Nor iron bars a cage;
+Minds innocent and quiet take
+  That for a hermitage.
+
+--Lovelace.
+
+
+6.
+
+Merrily swinging on brier and weed,
+  Near to the nest of his little dame,
+Over the mountain side or mead,
+  Robert of Lincoln is telling his name:
+Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link,
+  Spink, spank, spink,
+Snug and safe is this nest of ours,
+  Hidden among the summer flowers.
+                  Chee, chee, chee.
+
+--Bryant.
+
+
+7.
+
+Grow old along with me!
+  The best is yet to be,
+The last of life, for which the first was made:
+  Our times are in His hand
+Who saith, "A whole I planned,
+  Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!"
+
+--Browning.
+
+
++109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced
+by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of
+accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular
+feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the
+dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach,
+are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often
+considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of
+convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the
+unaccented syllables thus: U.
+
+_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the
+last.
+
+
+ U   _| U  _| U    _|   U     _| U   _|
+Let not ambition mock their useful toil.
+
+--Gray.
+
+
+U     _|U     _| U     _|U    _|
+He prayeth best who loveth best
+
+   U       _| U       _| U      _|
+  All things both great and small;
+
+ _   U | U     _| U    _|U   _|
+For the dear God who loveth us,
+
+   U    _| U     _|U   _|
+  He made and loveth all.
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on
+the last.
+
+
+U  U  _| U    U   _|U  U   _|
+I am monarch of all I survey.
+U   U    _  | U    U    _   | U  U    _  |
+I would hide with the beasts of the chase.
+
+
+_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the
+first.
+
+
+ _  U  | _  U  | _    U | _    U|
+Double, double, toil and trouble.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+ _  U | _   U |_  U  |_  U |
+Let us then be up and doing,
+ _   U| _    U | _U | _  |
+With a heart for any fate,
+ _    U |_  U  | _     U|_   U |
+Still achieving, still pursuing,
+ _    U | _ U |_   U | _  |
+Learn to labor and to wait.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the
+first.
+
+
+_   U  U | _    U   U  |
+Cannon to right of them,
+_   U  U | _   U   U  |
+Cannon to left of them,
+_   U  U | _    U   U  |
+Cannon in front of them,
+_   U    U  |_    U   |
+Volleyed and thundered.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the
+anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee
+and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable.
+
+
+_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are
+accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry.
+
+
+  U   _  | _    _   |  U    _|  U  _  |
+Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er.
+
+
+_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are
+unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line.
+
+
+             U  _ | U  _  | U  _|U U
+           Life is so full of misery.
+
+
+_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with
+the accent on the second.
+
+
+           U _  U    U  _   U|  U  _  U| U    _  |
+           Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend.
+
+
++110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A
+stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot,
+it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a
+trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of
+six feet, a hexameter.
+
+               _  U
+Monometer.   Slowly.
+
+
+          _   U   U| _  U  U |
+Dimeter.  Emblem of happiness.
+
+
+            _   U| _U| _   U |
+Trimeter.  Like a poet hidden.
+
+
+              _    U| _   U|  _  U  | _  U  |
+Tetrameter.  Tell me not in mournful numbers.
+
+
+             U   _  |U  _ |U   _| U    _ | U     _  |
+Pentameter.  O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath.
+
+
+             _    U  U | _ U   U | _ U    U | _  U  U | _    U
+Hexameter.  This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and
+                U |  _  U  |
+               the hemlocks.
+
+
+When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that
+every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by
+stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number
+of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic
+tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic
+trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following
+selections, and name the kind of verse:--
+
+1.
+
+Build me straight, O worthy Master!
+  Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel
+That shall laugh at all disaster
+  And with wave and whirlwind wrestle.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+2.
+
+I know not where His islands lift
+  Their fronded palms in air,
+I only know I cannot drift
+  Beyond His love and care.
+
+--Whittier.
+
+
+3.
+
+For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place
+  The flood may bear me far,
+I hope to see my Pilot face to face
+  When I have crossed the bar.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+4.
+
+Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the
+  garner;
+Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the
+  foremost,
+Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father
+  bequeathed him,
+Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for
+  mortals.
+
+--Kingsley.
+
+
+5.
+
+Have you read in the Talmud of old,
+In the Legends the Rabbins have told,
+  Of the limitless realms of the air,
+Have you read it,--the marvelous story
+Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory,
+  Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer?
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in
+trochaic verse.
+
+2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse.
+
+3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find
+in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade."
+
+4. Write two anapestic lines.
+
+
++111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by
+the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the
+same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth
+notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is
+given the same amount of time.
+
+Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular,
+although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line
+for a two-syllable iambus:--
+
+
+ U _  |   U   _  | U _  |   U    _ |  U     _   |
+Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade,
+  U    _   |  U   _  | U _| U U _ |  U    _  |
+Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap,
+ _   U | U   _ | U  _  | U  _ |U  _ |
+Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
+ U  _  |  U   _ | U  _ | U  _  | U  _ |
+The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.
+
+
+The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees
+for dactyls:--
+
+
+ _     U    U  |  _  U  |  _     U   U | _  U   U | _ U U | _ U |
+Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed.
+
+ _   U     U  | _    U |   _     U    U | _  U | _     U  U|_  U
+Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October
+
+ _     U    U | _     U   U |_    U |   _  U   U  | _  U     U |_  U |
+Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean.
+
+ _      U   U | _ U   U | _  U   U | _   U U | _  U   U |  _   U
+Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre.
+
+
+It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent
+is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the
+last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are
+both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged.
+
+There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one
+foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of
+the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a
+trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an
+accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+
+_ U | U   _  | U  _  |U  _ |
+Over the rail my hand I trail.
+
+_  U  | U   _ |   U   _    | U   _ |
+Silent the crumbling bridge we cross!
+
+
+But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the
+substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place,
+interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring
+effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the
+verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis
+thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in
+the rhythm produced by the change of accent.
+
+Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or
+too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line,
+but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted
+skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken.
+
+When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse
+is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a
+line.
+
+
+U  _   |U   U    _   |U   _ | U
+I stood on the bridge at midnight,
+
+   U  U    _   |  U    _  |U   U   _  |
+  As the clocks were striking the hour;
+
+ U   U    _ |  U   _  | U   _|U
+And the Moon rose o'er the city,
+
+  U   _ | U   _  |  U      _  |
+  Behind the dark church tower.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+ U     _  | U    _ |U   _ |          U   _ |  U    _  | U    _  |
+Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies,
+
+ U  _ |  U    _  | U  _  |      U    _  | U   _  |U   _  |
+In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies;
+
+ U    _ | U   _  |  U    _  |       U     _ |U _ | U   _  |
+And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow,
+
+ U    _ | U  _  | U   _ |       U   _| U    _  | U  _|
+You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below.
+
+--Adelaide A. Procter.
+
+
+In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative
+position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be
+in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the
+rhythm unbroken.
+
+When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or
+dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the
+second and fourth below.
+
+
+_   U   U |  _   U  U |  _     U    U| _   U |
+Up with the lark in the first flush of morning,
+
+   _   U    U  | _    U   U |  _   U  U |  _ |
+  Ere the world wakes to its work or its play;
+
+ _   U  U|  _   U  U | _     U   U    | _  U |
+Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country,
+
+   _   U    U |  _      U  U  | _ U U|_ |
+  Far from the close, stifling city away.
+
+
+Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the
+rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by
+suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with
+a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed
+elision, and the latter, slurring.
+
+
+ U     _ | U    _ |U  _   | U     _  | U   _ |
+Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form
+          U                   U
+
+ _   U |U    _| U  _ |  U
+Glasses itself in tempests.
+
+--Byron.
+
+
+An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs
+most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the
+beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or
+rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken.
+
+
+u  _ | u  _ | u _  |
+ Break, break, break,
+
+  U  U   _  | U    _    | U  _ |
+ On thy cold gray stones, O sea!
+
+  U  U   _  | U    U   _   | U    _|U
+ And I would that my tongue could utter
+
+  U     _    | U   U _  |U   _|
+ The thoughts that arise in me.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of
+the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added.
+Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said
+to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of
+syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable,
+it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the
+required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by
+comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are
+enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius
+Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect
+the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines.
+
+
+ U   _|  U   _ | U   _|  U  _| U _ |
+You all did see that on the Lupercal
+
+U   _   | U  _|  U  _ |U  _| U   _|
+I thrice presented him a kingly crown
+
+ U     _| U    _   |U  _  |  U   _  | U  _| U
+Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?
+
+ U   _| U   _ |  U  _ | U _ | U
+Yet Brutus says he was ambitious.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
++112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is
+the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura
+is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the
+sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely
+lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In
+the following selection it is marked thus: ||.
+
+
+ U   _ |  U   _ |   U _| U   _  |
+The sun came up || upon the left,
+
+   _   U| U   _  |    U  _ |
+  Out of the sea || came he;
+
+ U   _|   U    _     |   U  _|  U   _|
+And he shone bright, || and on the right
+
+    U   _   |   U_ | U   _ |
+  Went down || into the sea
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+Lives of great men || all remind us
+  We can make our lives || sublime,
+And, departing, || leave behind us,
+  Footprints || on the sands of time.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the
+cesural pauses.
+
+
++113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which
+compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic
+movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables.
+Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually
+the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and
+elusions.
+
+
+1.
+
+The night has a thousand eyes,
+  And the day but one;
+Yet the light of the bright world dies
+  With the dying sun.
+The mind has a thousand eyes,
+  And the heart but one;
+Yet the light of a whole life dies
+  When love is gone.
+
+--Francis W. Bourdillon.
+
+
+2.
+
+Laugh, and the world laughs with you,
+Weep, and you weep alone;
+For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth,
+But has trouble enough of its own.
+
+--Ella Wheeler Wilcox.
+
+
+3.
+
+Hear the robin in the rain,
+Not a note does he complain.
+But he fills the storm refrain
+With music of his own.
+
+--Charles Coke Woode.
+
+
+4.
+
+The mistletoe hung in the castle hall,
+The holly branch shone on the old back wall
+And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay,
+And keeping their Christmas holiday.
+
+--Thomas Haynes Bagley.
+
+
++114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad
+sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it
+refers to terminal sounds.
+
+Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a
+recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The
+interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different
+poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed
+throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic
+perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the
+rhythm of the verse.
+
+Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be
+the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word
+which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a
+rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The
+rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on
+sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the
+final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be
+different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young;
+debating, relating_.
+
+Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:--
+
+
+1.
+
+My soul to-day is far away,
+Sailing the Vesuvian Bay;
+My winged boat, a bird afloat,
+Swims round the purple peaks remote.
+
+--T. Buchanan Read.
+
+
+2.
+
+I come from haunts of coot and hern,
+  I make a sudden sally,
+And sparkle out among the fern,
+  To bicker down the valley.
+
+By thirty hills I hurry down,
+  Or slip between the ridges,
+By twenty thorps, a little town,
+  And half a hundred bridges.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+3.
+
+I know it is a sin
+For me to sit and grin
+  At him here;
+But the old three-cornered hat
+And the breeches, and all that,
+  Are so queer!
+
+--Holmes.
+
+
+4.
+
+  The splendor falls on castle walls
+    And snowy summits old in story;
+  The long light shakes across the lakes
+    And the wild cataract leaps in glory.
+Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying;
+Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+5.
+
+Breathes there a man with soul so dead
+Who never to himself hath said,
+  This is my own, my native land!
+Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned
+As home his footsteps he hath turned
+  From wandering in a foreign strand!
+If such there be, go mark him well:
+For him no minstrel raptures swell;
+High though his titles, proud his name,
+Boundless his wealth as wish can claim:
+Despite those titles, power, and pelf,
+The wretch concentered all in self,
+Living, shall forfeit fair renown
+And, doubly dying, shall go down
+To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
+Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
++115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is
+the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate
+for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse
+makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions.
+Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:--
+
+
+1.
+
+  So live, that when thy summons comes to join
+The innumerable caravan that moves
+To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take
+His chamber in the silent halls of death,
+Thou go not like the quarry slave at night
+Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed
+By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave
+Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch
+About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.
+
+--Bryant.
+
+
+2.
+
+           I stood upon the steps--
+The last who left the door--and there I found
+The lady and her friend. The elder turned
+And with a cordial greeting took my hand,
+And rallied me on my forgetfulness.
+Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice.
+Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke
+Her name. She was my mother's early friend
+Whose face I had not seen in all the years
+That had flown over us, since, from her door,
+I chased her lamb to where I found--myself.
+
+--Holland.
+
+
++116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into
+groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound
+together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of
+the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show
+a variety of structure.
+
+Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often
+form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in
+divided poems.
+
+
+1.
+
+The western waves of ebbing day
+Roll'd o'er the glen their level way.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
+2.
+
+A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid;
+Her satin snood, her silken plaid,
+Her golden brooch such birth betray'd.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
+A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a
+variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme
+with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may
+rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the
+example on page 208, and also the following:--
+
+
+1.
+
+I ask not wealth, but power to take
+  And use the things I have aright.
+Not years, but wisdom that shall make
+  My life a profit and delight.
+
+--Phoebe Cary.
+
+
+2.
+
+I count this thing to be grandly true:
+  That a noble deed is a step toward God,--
+  Lifting the soul from the common sod
+To a purer air and a broader view.
+
+--Holland.
+
+
+A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is
+called an elegiac stanza.
+
+
+Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
+  And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
+Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
+  And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.
+
+--Gray.
+
+
+The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which
+the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third.
+
+
+Let knowledge grow from more to more,
+  But more of reverence in us dwell;
+  That mind and soul, according well,
+May make one music as before.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are
+examples:--
+
+
+1.
+
+We look before and after,
+  And pine for what is not;
+Our sincerest laughter
+  With some pain is fraught;
+Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
+
+--Shelley.
+
+
+2.
+
+And if I should live to be
+The last leaf upon the tree
+  In the spring.
+Let them smile as I do now,
+At the old forsaken bough
+  Where I cling.
+
+--Holmes.
+
+
+3.
+
+The upper air burst into life;
+And a hundred fire flags sheen,
+To and fro they were hurried about;
+And to and fro, and in and out,
+The wan stars danced between.
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic
+pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine.
+Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The
+following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:--
+
+
+O Scotia! my dear, my native soil!
+  For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent!
+Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil
+  Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content!
+  And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent
+From luxury's contagion, weak and vile!
+  Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent,
+A virtuous populace may rise the while,
+And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+_A._ Scan the following:--
+
+
+Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting:
+The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
+  Hath had elsewhere its setting,
+    And cometh from afar:
+  Not in entire forgetfulness,
+  And not in utter nakedness,
+But trailing clouds of glory do we come
+    From God, who is our home.
+
+--Wordsworth.
+
+
+Into the sunshine,
+  Full of light,
+Leaping and flashing
+  From morn to night!
+
+--Lowell.
+
+
+_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:--
+
+
+  Hear the sledges with the bells--
+          Silver bells!
+What a world of merriment their melody foretells!
+  How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
+  In the icy air of night!
+While the stars that oversprinkle
+  All the heavens seem to twinkle
+    With a crystalline delight--
+  Keeping time, time, time,
+  In a sort of Runic rhyme
+To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
+  From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
+    Bells, bells, bells--
+From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.
+
+--Poe.
+
+
++117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry:
+narrative, lyric, and dramatic.
+
+_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events
+which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic,
+the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad.
+
+_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that
+deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural
+control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by
+the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects,
+by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is
+considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so
+difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than
+one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German
+_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures.
+
+A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less
+dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_
+and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry.
+
+_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than
+the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's
+_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision
+of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale.
+
+_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It
+relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this
+kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any
+beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well
+known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the
+Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here
+that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two
+different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a
+difference of opinion as regards the classification.
+
+_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be
+sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied
+to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals
+primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief,
+hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its
+chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet.
+
+A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into
+sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are
+examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or
+sentimental.
+
+An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than
+the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St.
+Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode
+on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's
+_Commemoration Ode_.
+
+An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy.
+Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a
+Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies.
+
+A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single
+idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete
+poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the
+emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its
+climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through
+the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment
+expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable
+for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice
+the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet
+will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:--
+
+
+When I consider how my light is spent
+Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
+And that one talent, which is death to hide,
+Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
+To serve therewith my Maker, and present
+My true account, lest he, returning, chide;
+Doth God exact day labor, light denied?
+I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent
+That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need,
+Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best
+Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
+Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed,
+And post o'er land and ocean without rest;
+They also serve who only stand and wait.
+
+
+There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its
+arrangement from the Italian sonnet.
+
+_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is
+designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it
+is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified
+and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama
+has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker,
+the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and
+amusing.
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+
+Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an
+elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in
+Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things
+which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms
+of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the
+index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be
+found.
+
+
+[Illustration: See page 224, _C._]
+
+
+
+VIII. DESCRIPTION
+
+
++118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of
+the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired
+are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking
+would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that
+we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such
+writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as
+that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an
+image.
+
+As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the
+senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is
+formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this
+kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently
+concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and
+seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this
+chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using
+language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen.
+
+
++119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage
+to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way
+as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary
+and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that
+same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need
+in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of
+observation is.
+
+Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of
+size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you
+add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further
+observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window
+panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us
+that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will
+show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or
+the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we
+become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see
+the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the
+details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see
+the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we
+add detail after detail.
+
+Following this natural order of observation a description should begin
+with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the
+whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading
+the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you
+to form.
+
+
+The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment
+with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all
+beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were
+all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox,
+and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer
+and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which
+Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a
+huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and
+grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room,
+smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur.
+
+--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.
+
+
+_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning,
+brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown
+hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set
+close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting
+cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn
+visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old
+muzzle-loading shotgun.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
++120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a
+whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description
+should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will
+include the main characteristics of the object described. While the
+fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such
+that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should
+begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large
+two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would
+form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the
+house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the
+porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture
+until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would
+be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the
+description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its
+neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but
+was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he
+had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the
+word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care
+must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in
+the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are
+describing.
+
+Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:--
+
+
+Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty
+wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various
+points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The
+street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm
+tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every
+town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits
+to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for
+the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the
+great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice.
+
+
+Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its
+completion as follows:--
+
+
+Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it,
+was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to
+church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice,
+which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind.
+There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in
+pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint
+figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or
+stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of
+glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side
+the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect
+of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one
+great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes,
+admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the
+second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath
+the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms.
+Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little
+spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular
+portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up
+that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of
+the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so
+bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken
+halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which
+the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of
+strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make
+among men's daily interests.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental
+image in each of the following selections:--
+
+1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies,
+frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and
+staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two
+cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on
+opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other,
+their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that
+they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm
+dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also
+were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the
+deer by coats of black paint and shellac.
+
+--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an
+old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or
+almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his
+forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the
+room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive
+that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly,
+and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor,
+had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his
+physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait.
+It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his
+countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it--
+seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to
+recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among
+half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a
+positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain
+impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory
+splendor, or be at once extinguished.
+
+--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.
+
+
+3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the
+kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black,
+with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look
+very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers
+of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the
+books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by
+the dark feathers.
+
+--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.
+(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.)
+
+
+Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image
+in example 3.
+
+_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are
+familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image.
+Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building
+each is written.
+
+_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each,
+giving the fundamental image.
+
+
++Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are
+familiar._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. The county court house.
+    2. The new church.
+    3. My neighbor's house.
+    4. Where we go fishing.
+    5. A neighboring lake.
+    6. A cozy nook.
+
+
+(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the
+reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to
+be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your
+description proceeds?)
+
+
++121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of
+view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a
+different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from
+another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that
+would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene
+described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include
+details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that
+they exist.
+
+Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen
+from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:--
+
+
+_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and
+irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked
+together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread
+below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of
+drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of
+flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the
+voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell
+him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the
+open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it,
+while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them;
+and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over
+the devoted places.
+
+Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.
+(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.)
+
+
+The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing
+four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of
+steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a
+child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their
+compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers;
+farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of
+the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest.
+
+--Cable: _Old Creole Days_.
+
+
++122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer
+will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the
+leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer
+effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen
+point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection
+below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen
+at a distance of six miles.
+
+
+So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or
+southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately
+overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of
+some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and
+irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of
+these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a
+procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention.
+
+"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a
+little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops
+of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is
+Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living."
+
+--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.
+(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so
+small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given,
+when we are asked to observe things far away.
+
+
+Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end
+of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._
+They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber
+cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and
+luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds,
+pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the
+scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at
+hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement,
+the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the
+scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees.
+Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little
+glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course
+the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing.
+
+--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town
+of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green,
+and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A
+closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be
+squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in
+the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with
+mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel
+in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs
+will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in
+the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village
+glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes.
+
+--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_
+("Harper's").
+
+
+  Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful
+And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low!
+The crows and choughs that wing the midway air
+Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down
+Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade!
+Methinks he seems no bigger than his head.
+The fishermen that walk upon the beach
+Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark
+Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy
+Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge
+That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes,
+Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more,
+Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight
+Topple down headlong.
+
+--Shakespear: _King Lear_
+
+
++123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically
+stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is
+located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a
+description that could not be obtained by direct statements.
+
+In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied?
+
+
+1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill
+with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river
+flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the
+trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so
+bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the
+sight, for it reminded him of his own country.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little
+rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken
+down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished
+making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one
+end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand
+beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the
+rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a
+castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top
+of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks
+themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great,
+smooth diamonds. This is Light Island.
+
+--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.
+
+
++124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house
+from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each
+side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is
+immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely
+implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one
+to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from
+that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to
+think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would
+be defective.
+
+Notice the changing point of view in the following:--
+
+
+At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
+in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull,
+snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your
+boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze,
+you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few
+bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming
+speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the
+coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you
+floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate
+hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain
+isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of
+wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two
+miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on
+the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a
+sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a
+solitary lighthouse.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_.
+(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
++125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be
+expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader
+must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners
+will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired
+images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it
+must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned
+that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image.
+For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes
+both the point of view and the fundamental image.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to--
+    (_a_) The point of view.
+    (_b_) The fundamental image.
+    (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see
+            Sections 26, 27).
+
+
+1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line
+almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated
+in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the
+country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a
+shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our
+eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow.
+Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain;
+an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than
+color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the
+pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep
+in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of
+man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on
+the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of
+fancy could almost hear it buzzing.
+
+--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.
+(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed
+him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by
+the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of
+Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus
+once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space
+that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now
+than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being
+forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated
+them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps
+of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in
+time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain,
+effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing
+inequalities of nature.
+
+--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_.
+
+
+_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether
+each has a point of view expressed or implied:--
+
+  Cooper: Last of the Mohicans.
+  Scott: Ivanhoe.
+  Scott: Lady of the Lake.
+  Irving: Sketch Book.
+  Burroughs: Wake Robin.
+  Van Dyke: The Blue Flower.
+  Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham.
+  Muir: Our National Parks.
+  Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm.
+
+
++Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of
+view and a fundamental image._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The crossroads inn.
+  2. A historical building.
+  3. The shoe factory.
+  4. The gristmill.
+  5. The largest store in town.
+  6. The union station.
+
+
+(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can
+you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the
+reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description
+enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?)
+
+
++126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only
+must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to
+reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description
+while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do
+the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly
+always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe
+we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is
+evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must
+stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our
+description accurate.
+
+The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our
+ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the
+province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall
+strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies,
+particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing
+powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been
+suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort
+in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down
+as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and
+determine what you have left out.
+
+2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of
+the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important
+ones you have omitted.
+
+3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay
+this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene
+as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your
+picture?
+
+4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with
+which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first
+opportunity notice how accurate your list is.
+
+5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the
+wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see
+at first? What colors?
+
+6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you
+go home notice what you have omitted.
+
+7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more
+persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the
+window contains. Compare lists with one another.
+
+
++Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._
+
+(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view
+and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to
+write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the
+sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will
+enable the reader to form an accurate image.)
+
+
++127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of
+view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a
+correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our
+attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been
+properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each
+succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness
+of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but
+the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental
+picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in
+photography.
+
+If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form,
+they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or
+distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be
+introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the
+post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can
+form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which
+give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been
+mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some
+following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more
+imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one
+side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two
+stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing
+the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time
+emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its
+characteristic feature?
+
+2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice
+most vividly?
+
+3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the
+other church buildings?
+
+4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance?
+In actions?
+
+
++Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. A mountain view.
+  2. An omnibus.
+  3. A fort.
+  4. A lighthouse.
+  5. A Dutch windmill.
+  6. A bend in the river.
+  7. A peculiar structure.
+  8. The picture on this page.
+
+(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the
+description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
++128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions
+the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that
+might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such
+details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to
+render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented,
+minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but
+if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and
+confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must
+be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the
+greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly
+subordinated.
+
+Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the
+sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of
+the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly
+evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick
+house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the
+general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by
+describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds
+some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a
+whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and
+_unkempt_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way
+in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by
+re-arranging them?
+
+
+1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of
+that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and
+walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is
+the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of
+wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the
+hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the
+horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the
+lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the
+cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different
+every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they
+huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief,
+and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass
+of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky
+with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of
+rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill.
+The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a
+little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship
+and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed
+to crawl like flies on a lighted pane.
+
+--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk.
+He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a
+drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore
+a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat,
+too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls
+of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired
+neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the
+more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with
+little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface;
+umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of
+trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the
+horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered
+along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of
+the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and
+laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber
+picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty
+rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over
+his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to
+have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the
+kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails;
+a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an
+editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few
+visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office,
+looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and
+fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a
+treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the
+secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them!
+
+--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.
+
+
++Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. A steamboat.
+  2. An orchard.
+  3. A colonial mansion.
+  4. A wharf.
+  5. A stone quarry.
+  6. A shop.
+
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view,
+fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged
+to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been
+introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective
+or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which
+your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme
+with reference to unity. Section 81.)
+
+
++129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as
+much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under
+paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the
+details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47
+and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be
+departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be
+made, as shown in the following selection:--
+
+
+A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly
+possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry
+morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the
+crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if
+you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the
+curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing--
+cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to
+throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long
+have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a
+weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which
+was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his
+forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly
+curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm
+sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown;
+his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the
+color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent,
+frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad,
+as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was
+far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt,
+clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom.
+Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed
+and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches,
+held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons.
+
+--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_.
+(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.)
+
+
+The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in
+space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were
+to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would
+lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer
+skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the
+face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is
+closely followed.
+
+
++Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. The bayou.
+  2. Looking down the mountain.
+  3. Looking up the mountain.
+  4. The floorwalker.
+  5. An old-fashioned rig.
+  6. A house said to be haunted.
+  7. The deacon.
+
+(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in
+space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis.
+Sections 82 and 83.)
+
+
++130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should
+aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much
+the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those
+which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less
+definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which
+cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon
+the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description.
+But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to
+description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection
+of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to
+their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet
+fail to be satisfactory as a description.
+
+For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves
+to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure
+and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word
+here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of
+suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to
+these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that
+we wish now to turn our attention.
+
+
++131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend
+largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is
+limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly
+limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope
+to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of
+the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and
+then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical
+process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the
+word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our
+vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace;
+but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have
+at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives
+individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs,
+and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a
+reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or
+_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and
+how much the description is enhanced by their careful use.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words
+which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:--
+
+1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling,
+violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world.
+
+2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands
+lay north and east and south.
+
+3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland
+and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and
+full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a
+red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye.
+
+Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate
+gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the
+surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of
+our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull
+of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and
+then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden
+jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge
+steaming with mist.
+
+We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that
+separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and
+driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the
+northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could
+be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white
+spot, the Sligachan Hotel.
+
+I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a
+futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The
+Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood,
+and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot
+population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors.
+The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain.
+
+Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's").
+
+
++132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech
+not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add
+a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the
+effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following
+descriptions:--
+
+
+He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but
+quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of
+his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased,
+with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his
+tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled
+through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk.
+
+--Kipling: _Jungle Book_.
+
+
+Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short
+stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle;
+his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip
+perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on,
+the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A
+small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of
+forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out
+almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his
+steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was
+altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad
+daylight.
+
+--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.
+
+
++Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. My cat.
+  2. The pony at the farm.
+  3. The glen.
+  4. The prairie.
+  5. The milldam.
+  6. The motorman.
+  7. The picture on this page.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your
+choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they
+improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony.
+Section 16.)
+
+
++133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the
+things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes
+of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater
+occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or
+trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary
+applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects
+of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account
+of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe
+objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately
+the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such
+objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort
+should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to
+each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the
+number of such words with which we are unfamiliar.
+
+
+1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._
+
+
+In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding
+story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making
+it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open
+colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing
+to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base,
+but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the
+palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it
+was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles
+rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by
+sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned
+figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono
+furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath
+my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace
+joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not
+generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be
+decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle,"
+and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and
+represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment
+angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon."
+
+--Hare: _Venice_.
+
+
++Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._
+
+
++Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._
+
+
++Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as
+an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._
+
+(Consider each description with reference to--
+  _a._ Point of view.
+  _b._ Fundamental image.
+  _c._ Selection of essential details.
+  _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details.
+  _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in
+          space.
+  _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.)
+
+
+2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._
+
+
+Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie
+the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves
+out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly
+rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and
+there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great
+bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the
+prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend
+for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the
+great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features
+of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain
+scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into
+the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie.
+Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they
+narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their
+blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white
+peaks far away.
+
+--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.
+
+
+Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm;
+And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands;
+Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf
+In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher
+A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill;
+And high in heaven behind it a gray down
+With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood,
+By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes
+Green in a cuplike hollow of the down.
+
+--Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_.
+
+
++Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field,
+woods, or prairie._
+
+
++Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or
+waterfall._
+
+(Consider especially your choice of words.)
+
+
+3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._
+
+
+And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but
+they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as
+Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not
+drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it
+is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf--
+steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet
+mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the
+rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It
+is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook--
+much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have
+known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor
+of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an
+exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made
+audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the
+American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid
+motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many
+nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence.
+
+--Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century").
+
+
+Yell'd on the view the opening pack;
+Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back;
+To many a mingled sound at once
+The awaken'd mountain gave response.
+A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong,
+Clatter'd a hundred steeds along,
+Their peal the merry horns rung out,
+A hundred voices join'd the shout;
+With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo,
+No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew.
+Far from the tumult fled the roe,
+Close in her covert cower'd the doe;
+The falcon, from her cairn on high,
+Cast on the rout a wondering eye,
+Till far beyond her piercing ken
+The hurricane had swept the glen.
+Faint, and more faint, its failing din
+Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn,
+And silence settled, wide and still,
+On the lone wood and mighty hill.
+
+--SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_.
+
+
++Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a
+description introducing sounds._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Alone in the house.
+  2. In the woods at night.
+  3. Beside the brook.
+  4. In the factory.
+  5. A day at the beach.
+  6. Before the Fourth.
+  7. On the seashore.
+
+
+(Notice especially the words that indicate sound.)
+
+
+4. _Color or the use of color._
+
+
+A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with
+gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the
+mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower
+gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a
+somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had
+gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their
+nakedness.
+
+--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.
+
+
+The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which
+we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing
+in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the
+plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau
+and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the
+hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble
+glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun
+went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing
+purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep
+violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a
+dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened
+as twilight came on.
+
+--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.
+
+
++Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters
+largely._
+
+5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._
+
+
+The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and
+huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and
+terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression
+incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh,
+dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a
+knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his
+reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a
+challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults.
+
+--Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_.
+(Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.)
+
+
+Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page
+242).
+
+
++Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._
+
+(What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?)
+
+6. _Trees and plants._
+
+
+How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander
+it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and
+decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped
+and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead
+of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes.
+White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it,
+no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy,
+indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at
+Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on
+bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing
+wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock
+or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to
+make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should
+hold so precious, indoors and out.
+
+--Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_.
+
+
+A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak,
+and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a
+short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick,
+tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A
+tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes.
+
+--Marian M. George.
+
+
++Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._
+
+(Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of
+composition treated in Chapter V.)
+
+
++134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles
+of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should
+be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our
+interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is
+concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become
+character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen
+gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing
+character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole
+purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are
+introduced which accomplish this purpose.
+
+In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character
+sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character
+indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions
+and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no
+descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to
+fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive
+elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are
+distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements
+and emphasizes the character shown by the actions.
+
+Notice the following examples:--
+
+
+The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene,
+perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of
+early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was
+quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without
+a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and
+fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders,
+although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were
+thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his
+expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect;
+so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly
+and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are
+apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with
+oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch
+a minister, but he was every nerve a man.
+
+--Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the
+period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her
+complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly
+parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth,
+tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by
+drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden
+hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her
+back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy
+softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an
+effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were
+added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can
+impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things
+impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven,
+itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast,
+as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening
+eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph
+turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as
+with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on.
+
+--Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.
+(Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.)
+
+
+When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years
+of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy
+and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending
+dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been
+tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of
+occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled
+him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid,
+his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils
+seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark
+blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an
+earnestness that was almost sad.
+
+--Bancroft.
+
+
+There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was
+the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very
+striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of
+romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long
+hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect
+originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as
+if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the
+common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting
+him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be
+a literary king.
+
+--Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young
+man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely
+cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired
+and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl;
+soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker;
+the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb.
+
+--Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture
+anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each
+helps you in this?
+
+
++Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._
+
+(Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching
+so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.)
+
+
+[Illustrations]
+
+
++135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a
+description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our
+feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the
+following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how
+the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of
+forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots,
+hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the
+shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression.
+Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by
+its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn
+appearance of the Battery.
+
+
+All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy;
+but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there
+some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade
+upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am
+certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the
+paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a
+stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At
+that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of
+strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade,
+a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this
+weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in
+the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore,
+with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some
+happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the
+sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the
+night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother,
+that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so
+much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the
+green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside
+their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at
+the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world
+seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had
+brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the
+women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and
+which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side
+were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which
+were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various
+unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the
+water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now
+the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these
+lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue
+water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
+The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but
+they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a
+single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single
+impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by
+the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same
+time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in
+the following:--
+
+
+It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most
+impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it
+is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose
+which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that
+gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the
+track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap
+under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its
+fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path,
+you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt
+your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any
+circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility,
+almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car
+and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost
+thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that
+you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts
+for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses
+you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird
+character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather
+points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train
+stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a
+doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing
+beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers
+getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking
+the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane
+satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of
+the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the
+sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a
+blank slumber.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
++136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it
+gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in
+Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of
+an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in
+mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a
+clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have
+chosen different details and would have presented them in different
+language.
+
+The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two
+different observers because each may discover a different set of
+likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential
+characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some
+one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the
+effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will
+in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select
+details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the
+picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and
+essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is
+to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet,
+the elements that are important for the producing of the desired
+impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture.
+
+When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to
+present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others
+to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene
+affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we
+felt.
+
+
++137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a
+description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must
+know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary
+for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our
+impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what
+our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene
+that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall
+affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these
+elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes
+necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of
+those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause
+us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this
+impression to our reader, our description must include the details that
+give that impression of untidiness to us.
+
+Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made
+stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may
+supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet
+they add much to the impression which we get.
+
+
+Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there
+were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes
+of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_,
+a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable
+book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which
+prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly
+against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a
+comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and
+security to our travelers.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
++138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a
+description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression
+that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara
+has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard
+to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a
+situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of
+grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No
+two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our
+temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences
+affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we
+get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely
+upon the definite perception of our feelings.
+
+
++139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected
+by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced
+by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer
+at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous;
+to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood,
+but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to
+arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer,
+which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and
+shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer
+takes advantage of these emotional tendencies.
+
+
+Not far we fared--
+The river left behind--when, looking back,
+I saw the mountain in the searching light
+Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride
+In my adventure, I can ne'er forget
+The disappointment and chagrin which fell
+Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep
+Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun,
+Had left the scene; and in its place I saw
+A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed,
+Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod.
+Its grand impossibilities and all
+Its store of marvels and of mysteries
+Were flown away, and would not be recalled.
+
+--Holland: _Katrina_.
+
+
++140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image
+making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they
+necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image,
+however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description,
+however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is
+rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for
+their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little
+moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images
+are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the
+images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This
+subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent
+and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality
+few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that
+the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture
+exactly what was seen:--
+
+
+The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best
+cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The
+celebrated _Lacrymæ Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally
+devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to
+perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples,
+and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn
+with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by
+degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your
+approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their
+large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer
+seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no
+nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and
+the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet.
+
+--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by
+each:--
+
+
+The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor
+fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the
+other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a
+little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might
+mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning
+have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you
+taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the
+forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a
+fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance
+you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what
+you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart
+and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never
+get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the
+laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams.
+On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering
+leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At
+tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt,
+and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the
+sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long,
+arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded
+streets you will hone after the friendly forest.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_.
+(Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly
+converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the
+sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river
+valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the
+hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great
+majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and
+fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are
+acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all
+this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know--
+the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown
+thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate
+land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or
+neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned
+homes of disheartened and defeated men.
+
+Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society
+grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro,
+avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of
+some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the
+woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among
+the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they
+are never seen again.
+
+In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come;
+the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle
+down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is
+covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but
+useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie
+jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent
+cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It
+seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the
+making of the earth.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone,
+I saw below me, like a jeweled cup,
+The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip--
+The serrate green against the serrate blue--
+Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant
+With a divine elixir--lucent floods
+Poured from the golden chalice of the sun,
+At which my spirit drank with conscious growth,
+And drank again with still expanding scope
+Of comprehension and of faculty.
+
+I felt the bud of being in me burst
+With full, unfolding petals to a rose,
+And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene.
+By sudden insight of myself I knew
+That I was greater than the scene,--that deep
+Within my nature was a wondrous world,
+Broader than that I gazed on, and informed
+With a diviner beauty,--that the things
+I saw were but the types of those I held,
+And that above them both, High Priest and King,
+I stood supreme, to choose and to combine,
+And build from that within me and without
+New forms of life, with meaning of my own,
+And then alone upon the mountain top,
+Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head
+Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul
+Baptized and set apart for poetry.
+
+--Holland: _Katrina_.
+
+
++Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an
+impression that you have experienced._
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its
+     purpose the creation of an image.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of a description are:--
+       _a._ A point of view,
+            (1) It may be fixed or changing.
+            (2) It may be expressed or implied.
+            (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen
+                 from the point of view chosen.
+       _b._ A correct fundamental image.
+       _c._ A few characteristic and essential details
+            (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary
+                 in order to select the essential details.
+       _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details.
+       _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their
+              natural position in space.
+       _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from
+            (1) Proper choice of words.
+            (2) Suitable comparisons and figures.
+            (3) Variety of sentence structures.
+
+3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many
+     classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some
+     indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character
+     sketch.
+
+4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an
+     impression.
+       _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying
+              the impression he desires his readers to receive.
+       _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately,
+              because he cannot convey to others that which he has not
+              himself experienced.
+       _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person.
+       _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated.
+
+
+
+IX. NARRATION
+
+
++141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of
+happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most
+interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be
+interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking
+about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in
+narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes
+the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and
+magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn
+from our libraries.
+
+Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must
+include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas,
+histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also
+includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of
+accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently
+the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be
+found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your
+school in which you think your classmates are interested.
+
+2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of
+interest to members of your school.
+
+3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city
+during the last two or three years.
+
+4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you.
+
+5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your
+classmates.
+
+6. Name three national events of recent occurrence.
+
+7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have
+heard.
+
+8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see
+how it turned out.
+
+9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be
+interesting? If not, why not?
+
+
++Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school,
+telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_.
+
+(Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.)
+
+
++142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few
+words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in
+which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The
+principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of
+Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:--
+
+
+A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of
+the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair.
+When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back
+the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this
+word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek
+the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has
+established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters
+authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where
+they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as
+students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the
+first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who
+recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by
+a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept
+them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa,
+a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady
+Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the
+alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On
+the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril
+sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of
+ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine
+reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight
+falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and
+Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before
+the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her
+father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with
+soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince,
+after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes
+with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three
+brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to
+decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with
+fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on
+the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are
+vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded.
+
+But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown
+more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has
+said of Lady Psyche's little child:--
+
+
+"I took it for an hour in mine own bed
+This morning: there the tender orphan hands
+Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence
+The wrath I nursed against the world."
+
+
+When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she
+kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the
+wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's
+blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart,
+
+
+Her iron will was broken in her mind,
+Her noble heart was broken in her breast.
+
+
+From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a
+natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him
+into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she
+comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all."
+
+--Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_.
+
+
++Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:--
+
+  1. _Lochinvar_, Scott.
+  2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving.
+  3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens.
+  4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot.
+  5. The last magazine story you have read.
+  6. Some story assigned by the teacher.
+
+
++Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one
+that will make the most interesting story._
+
+
++Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in
+the preceding theme._
+
+(Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?)
+
+
++143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear
+understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often
+be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place,
+characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the
+introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall
+contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a
+well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the
+first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to
+the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun
+with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see
+that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to
+enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest
+will begin to lag.
+
+
++Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The Christmas surprise.
+  2. How the mortgage was paid.
+  3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine.
+  4. The new girl in the boarding school.
+  5. The Boss, and how he won his title.
+
+(Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is
+understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what
+you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?)
+
+
++144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to
+arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the
+better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his
+story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement
+designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which
+interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following
+selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where.
+(Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the
+time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the
+adventure ended.
+
+
+On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in
+the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty
+of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy,
+heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some
+heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared
+very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion.
+The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now
+lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed
+manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind
+of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same
+time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front.
+He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood
+smelled so oily.
+
+I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and
+single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled,
+although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to
+place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his
+annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire.
+
+The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he
+decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he
+jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant
+headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast.
+The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of
+mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into
+halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch
+of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very
+hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his
+miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new
+strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his
+way back to civilization.
+
+--P.L. Wessels.
+
+
++Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog.
+  2. An unpleasant experience.
+  3. A story told by the school clock.
+  4. Disturbing a hornet's nest.
+  5. The fate of an Easter bonnet.
+  6. Chased by a wolf.
+
+(Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?)
+
+
++145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually
+somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That
+turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is
+greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the
+story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually
+increase from the incentive moment to the climax.
+
+In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot,
+several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to
+each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up
+to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to
+the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of
+Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and
+Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the
+minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one.
+
+In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There
+should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and
+especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close,
+and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been
+reached.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read.
+
+_B._ Where is the climax in the following selection?
+
+
+We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts,
+And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed
+Together, as two eagles on one prey
+Come rushing down together from the clouds,
+One from the east, one from the west; their shields
+Dashed with a clang together, and a din
+Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters
+Make often in the forest's heart at morn,
+Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows
+Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed.
+And you would say that sun and stars took part
+In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud
+Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun
+Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose
+Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain,
+And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair.
+In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone;
+For both the onlooking hosts on either hand
+Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure,
+And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream.
+But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes
+And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield
+Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear
+Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin,
+And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan.
+Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm,
+Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest
+He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume,
+Never till now denied, sank to the dust;
+And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom
+Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air,
+And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse,
+Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;--
+No horse's cry was that, most like the roar
+Of some pained desert lion, who all day
+Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side,
+And comes at night to die upon the sand.
+The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear,
+And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream.
+But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on,
+And struck again; and again Rustum bowed
+His head; but this time all the blade, like glass,
+Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm,
+And in the hand the hilt remained alone.
+Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes
+Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear,
+And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout,
+And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step,
+And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form;
+And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped
+His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side.
+He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground,
+And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell,
+And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all
+The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair--
+Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet,
+And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand.
+
+--Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_.
+
+
++Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The immigrant's error.
+  2. A critical moment.
+  3. An intelligent dog.
+  4. The lost key.
+  5. Catching a burglar.
+  6. A hard test.
+  7. Won by the last hit.
+  8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen.
+
+
+(Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense
+until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?)
+
+
++146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a
+conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have
+the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we
+listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes
+from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to
+order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as
+possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How
+many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation
+orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own
+speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following
+selection:--
+
+
+Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him.
+
+"It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance
+in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand
+to drop limply.
+
+"Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded.
+
+"Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came.
+
+"What business have you got with me?"
+
+"Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to
+do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for
+your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called
+to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night."
+
+"You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore.
+"My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants
+anything let her come here."
+
+Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock."
+
+--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+_B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the
+incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements.
+
+
+When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as
+mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door.
+
+"William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've
+worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest."
+
+"Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was
+born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old
+Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice
+as mad as before.
+
+"Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a
+chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day,"
+he added cheerfully.
+
+The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still
+colder day for him before he struck the weather again.
+
+"Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively.
+
+"Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing
+board and slamming it down on the table.
+
+"An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him
+just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough
+for all next winter and spring."
+
+"Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly
+wrecked the table.
+
+"An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you
+see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower
+lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and
+hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board.
+
+"No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle,
+an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the
+creases out of the tablecloth.
+
+"But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was
+jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to
+build a new--"
+
+By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she
+wouldn't.
+
+"Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull
+Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles
+around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last
+one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one
+more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say
+that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped
+fire all at once.
+
+The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had
+struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or
+present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his
+hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a
+confidential undertone:--
+
+"Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o'
+you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one
+o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward
+the ironing board.
+
+"Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of
+countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what
+then?"
+
+"They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look
+sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter
+tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?"
+
+"I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly.
+
+"Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me
+right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o'
+them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all
+along, d'ye see, widdy?"
+
+And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because
+she thought she saw.
+
+
++Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80,
+or one of the following:_--
+
+
+THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER
+
+Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to
+interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the
+zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been
+announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway
+System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some
+newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor
+had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him;
+second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour
+and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him,
+while Dayton would make an honest effort.
+
+Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and
+cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview
+one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man
+peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss
+with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to
+the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the
+attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled
+tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat
+Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was
+printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters.
+
+"Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst.
+
+Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before
+him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white
+eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled.
+
+"My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a
+gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?"
+
+It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow
+in return. Dayton's manner was compelling.
+
+"And what the dev--what can I do for you?"
+
+"I'm a reporter from the ----"
+
+"What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined
+fury....
+
+--David Graham Philips ("McClure's").
+
+
+CAUGHT MASQUERADING
+
+
+When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the
+Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They
+celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way.
+
+Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things
+quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I
+was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of
+bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My
+valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I
+suppose, no one answered it.
+
+What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on
+me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking
+me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank
+goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it.
+
+"Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race;
+we'll have to go without her."
+
+"They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows."
+
+"Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole.
+
+"Not a thing, dear."
+
+"Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise
+was dreadful!"
+
+"Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me
+something to put on. I want to see the race."
+
+"I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's."
+
+"Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather
+than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now."
+
+
+(Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section
+146.)
+
+
++147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the
+choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and
+by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an
+accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise
+statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made
+interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite
+fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country
+or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for
+those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest
+them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we
+find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person
+will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our
+narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case
+we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work
+you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly.
+
+To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all
+that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said.
+The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is
+addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts
+are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section
+81.)
+
+
++148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of
+our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each
+sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has
+been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by
+relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series
+of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such
+details as are not essential to the unity of the story.
+
+If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow
+the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one
+must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be
+carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time,
+meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events
+belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time,
+usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together
+so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the
+understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the
+changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one
+or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following
+chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the
+introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's
+_The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of
+events is to be related.
+
+It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as
+indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our
+narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be
+related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally.
+
+2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order.
+Relate one of them orally.
+
+3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the
+first person; in the third person.
+
+4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if
+you were writing a short account for a newspaper?
+
+5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was
+acquainted with the persons in the accident?
+
+6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine
+story that you read.
+
+
++Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can
+be carefully followed._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. The irate conductor.
+  2. A personal adventure with a window.
+  3. An interrupted nap.
+  4. Lost in the woods.
+  5. In a runaway.
+  6. An amusing adventure.
+  7. A day at grandfather's.
+
+(Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.)
+
+
++Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which
+different events are going on at the same time._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A skating accident.
+  2. The hunters hunted.
+  3. Capsized on the river.
+  4. How he won the race.
+  5. An experience with a balky horse.
+  6. The search for a lost child.
+  7. How they missed each other.
+  8. A strange adventure.
+  9. A tip over in a bobsleigh.
+
+
+(How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well
+connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the
+different events?)
+
+
++149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the
+interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of
+narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in
+plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its
+development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one
+another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union
+in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of
+the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our
+interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere
+story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little
+permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of
+character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives
+of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but
+a deeper study of the play sets forth and reënforces the character of
+Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of
+literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot,
+and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by
+means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human
+life and human character.
+
+On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that
+indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In
+order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons
+concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not
+only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done,
+we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in
+our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by
+the use of description. (See Section 134.)
+
+Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the
+character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were
+to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of
+Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this
+sketch.
+
+
+It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard
+my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he
+was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor
+aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary,
+that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend
+Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his
+heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the
+wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle
+in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted
+the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the
+desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen
+Pitkin mad.
+
+Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was
+so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his
+books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to
+tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with
+fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away
+to hide themselves under the desk.
+
+I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat
+and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the
+stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they
+melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar
+and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and
+if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again
+in fifteen minutes.
+
+"What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow
+not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes
+he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in
+general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and
+his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the
+room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be
+heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a
+mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was
+impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on
+the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description
+of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a
+hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our
+university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this
+point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and
+that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently
+insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply
+quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won."
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will
+show how Dickens portrays character by use of action.
+
+2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do?
+
+3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their
+character.
+
+4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine
+stories.
+
+5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you
+form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the
+descriptive matter help you determine his character?
+
+
++Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character
+by means of action._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The girl from Texas.
+  2. The Chinese cook.
+  3. Taking care of the baby.
+  4. Nathan's temptation.
+  5. The small boy's triumph.
+  6. A village character.
+  7. The meanest man I ever knew.
+
+
+(Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown
+character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by
+adding some description?)
+
+
++150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may
+be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable
+information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration.
+A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories
+contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently,
+too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied
+argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of
+a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and
+explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about
+whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and
+descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent
+that the story ceases to be interesting.
+
+The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make
+our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time,
+his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third.
+Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are
+neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be
+determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a
+short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If
+a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be
+read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with
+good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing
+upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds
+of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that
+they help us better to understand the real character of the man.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look
+up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite
+the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide
+beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See
+Sections 39, 52, 53.)
+
+
++Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned
+by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:--
+
+  1. Pontiac's conspiracy.
+  2. The battle of Marathon.
+  3. The Boston tea party.
+  4. The battle of Bannockburn.
+  5. Sherman's march to the sea.
+  6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon.
+
+(Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to
+the clear understanding of it omitted?)
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer
+about each of whom an interesting biography might be written.
+
+2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American
+writers, and two American statesmen.
+
+
++Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person.
+Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name.
+Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it
+is._
+
+
++151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration
+should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating
+of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to
+bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it.
+If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur,
+it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the
+narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the
+actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how
+or why they occur.
+
+Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the
+two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy
+Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that
+follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a
+marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with
+grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a
+dreadful spot after dark. The fact that André was captured here adds to
+the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and
+had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been
+disappointed.
+
+
+About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and
+ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's
+swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this
+stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a
+group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a
+cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It
+was at this identical spot that the unfortunate André was captured, and
+under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised
+him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are
+the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark.
+
+As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up,
+however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the
+ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of
+starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran
+broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the
+delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the
+contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it
+was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of
+brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and
+heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward,
+snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a
+suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at
+this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive
+ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the
+brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It
+stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic
+monster ready to spring upon the traveler.
+
+--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.
+
+
+The most important use of description in connection with narration is that
+of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character
+of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do
+much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section
+134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature.
+Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals
+as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII.
+Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and
+give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must
+be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not
+their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the
+desired impressions.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some
+description which explains how or why events occur._
+
+(Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the
+narration?)
+
+
++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in
+giving an impression of character._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Holding the fort.
+  2. A steamer trip.
+  3. How I played truant.
+  4. Kidnapped.
+  5. The misfortunes of our circus.
+  6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen.
+
+
+(Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to
+form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive
+moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories,
+    letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the
+    relation of events.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,--
+    _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place,
+          and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the
+          point of the narrative.
+    _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment.
+    _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of
+          the reader.
+    _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance
+          with the principle of unity.
+    _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order.
+    _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in
+          the appreciation of the point.
+    _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation.
+    _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from
+            (1) Proper choice of words.
+            (2) Suitable comparisons and figures.
+            (3) Variety of sentence structure.
+    _i._ A brief conclusion.
+
+
+
+X.  EXPOSITION
+
+
++152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make
+clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is
+to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the
+two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to
+study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please,
+while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions
+as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers
+attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge.
+
+In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to
+burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:--
+
+
+1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing
+iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same
+heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the
+polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot
+enough the prints should be rubbed with a glacé polish, which is sold for
+this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints
+should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher
+being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the
+degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure
+being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being
+polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the
+prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above.
+
+--_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_.
+
+
+2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the
+sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for
+instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on
+both sides of the paper.
+
+Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the
+paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be
+split by the top surface being removed.
+
+The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to
+each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without
+hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will
+be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste
+in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+A. Explain orally any two of the following:--
+    1. How to fly a kite.
+    2. How a robin builds her nest.
+    3. How oats are harvested.
+    4. How tacks are made.
+    5. How to make a popgun.
+    6. How fishes breathe.
+    7. How to swim.
+    8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief.
+    9. How to play golf.
+   10. How salt is obtained.
+
+
+B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar.
+
+
++Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do.
+Write a theme on the subject chosen._
+
+(Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See
+Sections 67 and 68.)
+
+Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are
+combined, as in the following:--
+
+
+In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do
+not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and
+lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water,
+if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This
+treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of
+sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body
+has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If
+respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial
+respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept
+quiet in bed for some time.
+
+--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_.
+
+
+Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_?
+nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:--
+
+
+JOURNALISM
+
+What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a
+trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes
+from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages,
+and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day.
+Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals
+were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the
+pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or
+statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a
+circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the
+public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a
+specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often
+enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically
+and distributed to subscribers.
+
+A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than
+one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person
+who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work
+on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This
+use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to
+persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper
+men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or
+contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its
+comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of
+producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of
+professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and
+detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and
+conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which
+is ideally perfect in every department.
+
+Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money
+making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the
+thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial
+comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation
+to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten
+the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with
+unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with
+intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching
+courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the
+dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of
+thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces
+that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth.
+
+This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the
+editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression
+in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim.
+This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as
+more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in
+completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of
+its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in
+the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the
+type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong
+encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation.
+
+--_The Boston Herald._
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following
+questions:--
+
+1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one?
+
+2. Why should we study history?
+
+3. Why does a baseball curve?
+
+4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England?
+
+5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers?
+
+6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn?
+
+7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China?
+
+8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends
+of the rails?
+
+
++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a
+subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as
+possible._
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the
+questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain?
+
+
++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the
+above list._
+
+(Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness,
+unity, and coherence.)
+
+
++153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important
+because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions
+of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education,
+and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter
+what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of
+discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted
+with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not
+be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the
+sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced
+if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture.
+In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the
+relative merits of his goods to his customers.
+
+Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature.
+The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not
+sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary
+to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in
+clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the
+other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in
+explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in
+our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to
+explain during the last week or two.
+
+2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned
+through explanation.
+
+3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for
+explanation.
+
+4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the
+explanation clear.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three
+of the preceding exercise._
+
+(Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation
+clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?)
+
+
++154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation
+is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the
+explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject
+ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in
+our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally
+confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to
+explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a
+canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the
+process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how
+it is done.
+
+The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations
+is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly
+acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the
+lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas.
+Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an
+additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure.
+Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking
+for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are
+given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be
+useless to attempt an explanation.
+
+2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear
+explanations of them.
+
+3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you
+feel sure that you can obtain information.
+
+4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of
+them.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in
+number four of the preceding exercise._
+
+(Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the
+themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness.
+Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.)
+
+
++155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for
+explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning
+the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is
+rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the
+person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to
+that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that
+selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the
+audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation
+will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing
+a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not
+understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence.
+
+Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people
+do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it?
+
+
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as
+vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may
+comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince,
+gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and
+noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own
+district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the
+vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to
+come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was
+engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court
+when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his
+master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they
+were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates,
+which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to
+follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held
+courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the
+knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles,
+distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of
+whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and
+peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like
+brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored.
+
+Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he
+summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men
+corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had
+been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey
+the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates,
+to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in
+their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the
+peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one
+array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for
+fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal
+system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages.
+
+--Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_.
+
+
++Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_--
+
+1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle.
+
+2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age.
+
+3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of
+the school board of an adjoining city.
+
+4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made.
+
+5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured.
+
+6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile.
+
+
+(Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.)
+
+
++156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that
+there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the
+topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the
+natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of
+general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the
+circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to
+follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body.
+In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the
+material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture
+in order through its successive stages.
+
+In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult.
+We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding
+of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the
+proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some
+length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong
+together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately.
+If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be
+united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the
+transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will
+cause no confusion.
+
+In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group
+of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole
+idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea,
+but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain
+facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation
+clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the
+understanding of others shall come first.
+
+Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and
+the arrangement of those groups:--
+
+
+Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good
+health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be
+mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas
+which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if
+inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or
+stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and
+poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again,
+will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the
+removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its
+place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings,
+and its importance cannot be overestimated.
+
+In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort,
+ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus
+allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy
+and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be
+supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good
+ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air
+is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters
+through the cracks of the doors and windows.
+
+Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation
+may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings
+should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which
+the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a
+shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room
+from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according
+to the size of the room.
+
+--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_.
+
+
+THE QUEEN BEE
+
+It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the
+entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one
+mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a
+royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up
+the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage,
+and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the
+patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much
+larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain
+contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal
+cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by
+taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it,
+till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in
+the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her
+cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but
+guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder
+every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the
+other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine,
+trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not
+being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or
+two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her
+successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in
+favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms
+can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her
+unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the
+same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who
+formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the
+victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we
+are indebted to the blind Huber.
+
+It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always
+vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty
+stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret.
+
+The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees
+is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects.
+Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial
+mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the
+Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to
+the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute
+democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The
+power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers.
+They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer
+its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They
+regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the
+hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the
+queen to it.
+
+The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that
+she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a
+mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and
+the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their
+queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart
+and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey.
+
+The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to
+be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting
+nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen.
+
+--John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Duties of the sheriff.
+  2. How a motor works.
+  3. How wheat is harvested.
+  4. Why the tide exists.
+  5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated.
+  6. What is meant by the theory of evolution.
+  7. The manufacture of ----.
+  8. How to make a ----.
+
+
+(Consider the arrangement of your statements.)
+
+
++157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we
+need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is;
+we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our
+readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best
+show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage,
+especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of
+an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well
+chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or
+not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid
+clearness by giving unity and coherence.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you
+know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in
+making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts,
+arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the
+explanation clear to your classmates.
+
+  1. The value of a school library.
+  2. Sponges.
+  3. The manufacture of clocks.
+  4. Drawing.
+  5. Athletics in the high school.
+  6. Examinations.
+  7. Debating societies.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of
+the subjects chosen._
+
+
+(Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.)
+
+
++158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of
+general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in
+the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be
+accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term
+intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is
+familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea
+of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose.
+If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical
+definition.
+
+
++159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits
+to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members
+of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything
+that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of
+two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined
+belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term
+from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_,
+and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the
+class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into
+genus and differentia.
+
+
+  TERM TO BE      |       CLASS          |    DISTINGUISHING
+   DEFINED        |     _(Genus)_        |    CHARACTERISTIC
+                  |                      |    _(Differentia)_
+                  |                      |
+A parallelogram   |  is a quadrilateral  |  whose opposite sides
+                  |                      |  are parallel
+                  |                      |
+Exposition        |  is that form of     |  which seeks to explain
+                  |  discourse           |  the meaning of a term.
+                  |                      |
+
+
+Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the
+genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the
+order named.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the
+differentia) in each of the following:--
+
+1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle.
+
+2. A square is an equilateral rectangle.
+
+3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square.
+
+4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture.
+
+5. The characters composing written words are called letters.
+
+6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves.
+
+7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the
+speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of.
+
+8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other
+insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the
+hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called
+balancers or halters.
+
+
++160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a
+logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the
+thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame
+a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting
+the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term
+to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a
+metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the
+definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term
+beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for
+the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the
+definition is to make the meaning clear to him.
+
+The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the
+selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what
+characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members
+of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would
+find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which
+distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical
+instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty
+lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Select proper differentia for the following:--
+
+                   |
+TERM TO BE DEFINED |     CLASS (Genus)         |   DISTINGUISHING
+                   |                           |   CHARACTERISTIC
+                   |                           |  _(Differentia)_
+                   |                           |
+1. Narration       | is that form of discourse |         ?
+                   |                           |
+2. A circle        | is a portion of a plane   |         ?
+                   |                           |
+3. A dog           | is an animal              |         ?
+                   |                           |
+4. A hawk          | is a bird                 |         ?
+                   |                           |
+5. Physiography    | is the science            |         ?
+                   |                           |
+6. A sneak         | is a person               |         ?
+                   |                           |
+7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure         |         ?
+                   |                           |
+8. A barn          | is a building             |         ?
+                   |                           |
+9. A bicycle       | is a machine              |         ?
+                   |                           |
+10. A lady         | is a woman                |         ?
+
+
+_B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below.
+
+1. Telephone.
+
+2. Square.
+
+3. Hammer.
+
+4. Novel
+
+5. Curiosity.
+
+6. Door.
+
+7. Camera.
+
+8. Brick.
+
+9. Microscope.
+
+
++161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not
+properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact,
+because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If
+we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information,"
+the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that
+give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care
+should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Which of the following are exact?
+
+1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool.
+
+2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs.
+
+3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun.
+
+4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper
+side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the
+side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in
+front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae.
+
+5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers.
+
+6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof
+of the truth or falsity of a proposition.
+
+7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no
+other.
+
+8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves.
+
+9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers
+the whole leaf.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the
+following:_--
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Household science and arts.
+  2. Architecture.
+  3. Aesthetics.
+  4. Poetry.
+  5. Fiction.
+  6. Half tones.
+  7. Steam fitting.
+  8. Swimming.
+
+
+(Consider the definitions you have used.)
+
+
++162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division.
+Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its
+parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish
+triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we
+may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we
+divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique
+triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By
+completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is
+included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions
+equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has
+been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included
+in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are
+neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle
+can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete
+and exact division is called _classification_.
+
+Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We
+may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and
+secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division
+we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss
+_sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different
+from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their
+uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential
+that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an
+overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division.
+Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into
+cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the
+principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort
+them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle
+is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight
+goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor
+exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while
+other pieces might properly be placed in all three.
+
+In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification
+is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better
+accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might
+consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and
+omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did
+not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we
+wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would
+be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
+and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few
+special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes.
+An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and
+unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is
+called _partition_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are
+partitions? Which are defective?
+
+
+1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and
+negroes.
+
+2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked.
+
+3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction.
+
+4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and
+Democrat.
+
+5. The United States Government has control of states and territories
+
+6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering
+plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants.
+
+7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot
+consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional
+plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few.
+
+8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order,
+making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools,
+providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail,
+managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes.
+
+
+_B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made.
+
+
++1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We
+shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions.
+
+What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with
+regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that
+government in the United States is not very different from government in
+the other civilized countries of the world.
+
+Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United
+States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This
+part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local
+self-government, and will show that our system differs from European
+systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local
+self-government.
+
+Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and
+duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of
+the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of
+the federal government.
+
+Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such
+as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an
+outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of
+business and property.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+2. +Zoölogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog,
+however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be
+classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog
+does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about
+its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the
+kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer
+world and its special fitness for life.
+
+All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog
+constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by
+scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the
+500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of
+animals and is the science _zoölogy_. Names have been given to these
+different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily
+make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zoölogy called
+animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do,
+or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about
+the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of
+animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and
+their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zoölogy or animal
+_classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to
+their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and
+other animals, is called animal _ecology_.
+
+Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zoölogy, may include all
+or any of these parts of zoölogy.
+
+--Kellogg: _Elementary Zoölogy_.
+
+
+3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future
+rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:--
+
+First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in
+the modern world.
+
+Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American
+character, which are:--
+
+  (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise.
+  (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail,
+        of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand.
+  (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness
+        our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward
+        the world.
+  (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the
+        Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in
+        His hands.
+  (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to
+        organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the
+        movement in American life toward the simple and sincere.
+
+--Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_.
+
+
+ _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book
+and notice the main divisions.
+
+ _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division.
+
+ _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:--
+
+  1. The pupils in your school.
+  2. Your neighbors.
+  3. The books in the school library.
+  4. The buildings you see on the way to school.
+  5. The games you know how to play.
+  6. Dogs.
+  7. Results of competition.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions
+you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following
+topics:_--
+
+1. Mathematics.
+
+2. The school system of our city.
+
+3. The churches of our town.
+
+4. Methods of transportation.
+
+5. Our manufacturing interests.
+
+6. Games that girls like.
+
+7. The inhabitants of the United States.
+
+
+(Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you
+included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible
+principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best
+suited to your purpose?)
+
+
++163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so
+that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like
+terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a
+specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one.
+
+When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once
+be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in
+the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this
+case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation
+of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from
+Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by
+explaining its terms:--
+
+
+The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say
+that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of
+itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying
+that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the
+process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular
+adjustments, to the end, locomotion.
+
+
+It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a
+proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the
+proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary
+to make use of methods of exposition discussed later.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms
+likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood:
+
+1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion.
+
+2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications.
+
+3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature.
+
+4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults.
+
+5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw
+their own inferences.
+
+6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful
+antiseptic.
+
+7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal."
+
+8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression
+would be if the exponent were positive.
+
+
++Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_
+
+1. Birds of a feather flock together.
+
+2. Truths and roses have thorns about them.
+
+3. Where there's a will, there's a way.
+
+4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl.
+
+5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty.
+
+6.               All things that are,
+Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed.
+
+7. Be not simply good--be good for something.
+
+8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center,
+and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts
+Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon.
+
+
+(Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it
+means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you
+thoroughly understand its meaning.)
+
+
++164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development
+(Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may
+be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition
+may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself
+make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each
+repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or
+in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more
+definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take
+advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt
+to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over
+and over in his mind until it is understood.
+
+Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of
+repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement.
+
+
+How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in
+the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general
+problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of
+conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat
+the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our
+affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a
+citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which
+nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of
+ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great
+thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which
+education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function
+which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of
+any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such
+functions.
+
+--Herbert Spencer: _Education_.
+
+
+The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as
+though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and
+tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves
+abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually
+doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but
+swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked
+by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here
+one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of
+our eyes to follow.
+
+--F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_.
+
+
++Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below
+by means of repetition._
+
+1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school.
+
+2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so.
+
+3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated.
+
+4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands
+off territory in North and South America.
+
+5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties.
+
+6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take
+a man to distant countries.
+
+7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and
+useful career in the civil service of the United States.
+
+
+(Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph
+really explain the proposition?)
+
+
++165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general
+subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general
+statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the
+reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his
+paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no
+further explanation is necessary.
+
+The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:--
+
+
+The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are
+called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest
+example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the
+same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the
+sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is
+drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware
+River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned
+valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most
+famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the
+estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are
+drowned valleys.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
++Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an
+expository paragraph by use of examples:_--
+
+1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds.
+
+2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails.
+
+3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act.
+
+4. Men become criminals by a gradual process.
+
+5. Men's lives are affected by small things.
+
+6. Defeat often proves to be real success.
+
+
+(Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the
+topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?)
+
+
++166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our
+explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with
+something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall
+need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to
+or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though
+customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with
+some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is
+probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in
+the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the
+one with the other.
+
+
+Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with
+Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there
+should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is
+the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism
+affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools
+and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give
+to every man according to his need and require from every man according to
+his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some
+fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive
+system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the
+duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall
+produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the
+preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there
+are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken
+from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government;
+Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual
+absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will;
+Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the
+entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at
+every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the
+social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of
+the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is
+true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two
+antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly
+for industry, not at all for government. But how a coöperative industry
+can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels,
+no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even
+suggested.
+
+--Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_.
+
+
++Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_--
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A bad habit is a tyrant.
+  2. Typewritten letters.
+  3. The muskrat's house.
+  4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_.
+  5. Methods of reading.
+  6. All the world's a stage.
+  7. Compare life to a flower.
+
+(Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you
+been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?)
+
+
++167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is
+necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it
+may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the
+statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not
+anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really
+is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and
+by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind.
+
+
+The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace
+to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations;
+not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle,
+in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical
+determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy
+boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its
+natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the
+spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by
+removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former
+unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give
+permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by
+discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond
+of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government.
+
+
++168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most
+natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a
+general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to
+make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This
+method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations.
+
+Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:--
+
+
+Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must
+know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year
+when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by
+instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts
+the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a
+whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in
+mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded
+by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects
+his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a
+patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not
+attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he
+raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has
+fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he
+takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth.
+He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be
+sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick
+at an angle of about 45°, making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of
+this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation,
+for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is
+unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically.
+Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and
+is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short
+now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one
+who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished
+it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places
+the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and
+cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way
+through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the
+ground unheeded.
+
+When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a
+calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a
+short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through
+the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated
+silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished
+whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick
+between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle
+touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface
+has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the
+stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he
+holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back
+to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it
+again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we
+breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines
+and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the
+straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping
+up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of
+the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece.
+
+The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and
+know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically,
+for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into
+his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he
+lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place,
+fitting the parts nicely together.
+
+The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go?
+Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb?
+
+With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble
+instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes;
+while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is
+broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other
+sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit
+of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural
+song of earth.
+
+It goes!
+
+--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.
+(Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.)
+
+
++Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following
+subjects, making use of particulars or details:_--
+
+  1. How ice cream is made.
+  2. The cultivation of rice.
+  3. Greek architecture.
+  4. How paper is made.
+  5. A tornado.
+  6. Description of a steam engine.
+  7. The circulatory system of a frog.
+  8. A western ranch.
+  9. Street furniture.
+ 10. A street fair.
+
+(Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you
+used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics
+easy in this theme?)
+
+
++169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in
+the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind
+as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the
+general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the
+causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition
+we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes
+and effects. (See Section 49.)
+
+Notice the following example:--
+
+
+The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water
+in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the
+center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the
+sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the
+sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately
+greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the
+polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up
+around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar
+regions than above latitude 30°-40°, and the atmospheric pressure is
+correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the
+centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of
+the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure
+is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one
+side and the polar whirls on the other.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
++Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. The causes of the French Revolution.
+  2. How ravines are formed.
+  3. Irrigation.
+  4. Effects of smoking.
+  5. Lack of exercise.
+  6. Volcanic eruptions.
+
+
+(Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation?
+Did you make use of description in any place?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to
+    explain.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are--
+    _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts
+          essential to its purpose.
+    _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order.
+
+3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general
+    propositions.
+
+4. The steps in the exposition of a term are--
+    _a._ Definition. This may be--
+          (1) By synonym (inexact).
+          (2) By use of the logical definition (exact).
+    _b._ Division. This may be--
+          (1) Complete (classification).
+          (2) Incomplete (partition).
+         The same principle of division should be followed throughout.
+
+5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the
+following methods--
+    _a._ By repetition.
+    _b._ By giving examples.
+    _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts.
+    _d._ By making obverse statements.
+    _e._ By relating particulars or details.
+    _f._ By stating cause or effect.
+    _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods.
+
+
+
+XI. ARGUMENT
+
+
++170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from
+exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the
+meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a
+person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does
+understand, he does not believe, we argue.
+
+Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the
+reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view
+of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that
+is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that
+the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the
+meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish.
+This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the
+proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole.
+
+There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot
+argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what
+is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an
+argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to
+choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even
+with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to
+be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under
+discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory
+outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our
+government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of
+single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a
+proposition either expressed or implied.
+
+
++171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions
+state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore
+aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory.
+The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific
+proposition; for example:--
+
+
+  Nero was guilty of burning Rome.
+  Joan of Arc was burned at the stake.
+  Barbara Frietchie actually existed.
+  Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester.
+  Homer was born at Chios.
+
+
+The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory;
+for example:--
+
+
+  A college education is a profitable investment.
+  Light is caused by a wave motion of ether.
+
+
++172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may
+be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is,
+as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does
+not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly
+formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before
+trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes,
+and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will
+assist in making his own thought clear and definite.
+
+If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of
+all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then
+we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our
+proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought
+we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose
+their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as
+well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes
+in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this
+proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject?
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:--
+
+  1. Immigration.
+  2. Elevated railways.
+  3. American history.
+  4. Military training.
+  5. Single session.
+  6. Athletics.
+
+_B_. Explain the following propositions:--
+
+  1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy.
+  2. Is vivisection justifiable?
+  3. The author has greater influence than the orator.
+  4. The civil service system should be abolished.
+  5. The best is always cheapest.
+
+_C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that
+the meaning of each will be made more definite?
+
+1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be
+    abolished?)
+
+2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for
+    whom?)
+
+3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high
+    school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be
+    taught to _all_ high school pupils?)
+
+4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency.
+
+5. The commercial course is better than the classical course.
+
+6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits.
+
+
++Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as
+restated in Exercise C above._
+
+(Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the
+arrangement of your argument.)
+
+
++173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the
+proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in
+its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two
+sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must
+present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is
+true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell
+him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the
+statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical
+thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for
+our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions.
+
+
++174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to
+convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for
+believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and
+me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe
+them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a
+proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should
+present our material in order to cause others to believe the same
+proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as
+I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others.
+
+Are the following propositions true or false? Why do
+you believe or refuse to believe each?
+
+  1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter.
+  2. Dogs bark.
+  3. Kettles are made of iron.
+  4. Grasshoppers jump.
+  5. Giraffes have long necks.
+  6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime.
+  7. The sun will rise to-morrow.
+  8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge.
+  9. Honest people are respected.
+ 10. Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit.
+ 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do.
+
+
+It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of
+these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the
+propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not
+made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have
+seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater
+the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception,
+the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun
+to rise because it has never failed).
+
+The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth
+of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+.
+
+
++175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by
+showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable
+explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is
+true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual
+cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we
+assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is
+established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being
+made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found
+that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course,
+was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon
+further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids,
+scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue
+litmus red.
+
+In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward
+many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in
+pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to
+be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to
+and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been
+for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found
+unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been
+replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of
+astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory.
+
+Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as
+well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never
+told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on
+the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this
+as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the
+strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the
+absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion.
+
+The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large
+number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition,
+but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not
+all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun
+may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still
+it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the
+propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our
+inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will
+be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either
+directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument.
+
+We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from
+many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general
+proposition.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is
+shown by giving particular examples:--
+
+
+1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst
+points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves
+are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped
+hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody
+noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town
+spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand,
+whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as
+noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so
+clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so;
+that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more
+than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible
+thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to
+catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction
+of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is
+paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention
+is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would
+be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who
+stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent
+society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further
+evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater
+a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a
+correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each.
+
+--Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_.
+
+
+
+2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of
+English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of
+these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that
+the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20
+had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from
+the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had
+been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent
+(always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9
+per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the
+middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not
+determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_.
+
+--Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_.
+
+
+3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault
+of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of
+a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King
+Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his
+misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter
+would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had
+cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I
+need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor
+the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second
+woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against
+his error:--
+
+"Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool
+Do with so good a wife?"
+
+In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought
+to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The
+Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two
+princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death
+by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the
+queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the
+foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are
+opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In
+_Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved
+her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her
+prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the
+curse of living as the destroyer of his country.
+
+--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.
+
+
+4.
+
+  _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves;
+_The world is still deceived with ornament_.
+In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt
+But, being season'd with a gracious voice,
+Obscures the show of evil? In religion,
+What damned error, but some sober brow
+Will bless it and approve it with a text,
+Hiding the grossness with fair ornament?
+There is no vice so simple but assumes
+Some mark of virtue on his outward parts:
+How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false
+As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins
+The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars,
+Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk;
+And these assume but valor's excrement
+To render them redoubted! Look on beauty,
+And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight;
+Which therein works a miracle in nature,
+Making them lightest that wear most of it:
+So are those crisped snaky golden locks
+Which make such wanton gambols with the wind,
+Upon supposed fairness, often known
+To be the dowry of a second head,
+The skull that bred them in the sepulcher.
+Thus ornament is but the guiled shore
+To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf
+Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word,
+The seeming truth which cunning times put on
+To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold,
+Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee;
+Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge
+'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead,
+Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught,
+Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence;
+And here choose I: joy be the consequence!
+
+--Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_.
+
+
++Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following statements:_--
+
+1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the
+smaller towns by electric car lines.
+
+2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools.
+
+3. Examinations develop dishonesty.
+
+4. Novel reading is a waste of time.
+
+5. Tramps ought not to be fed.
+
+(Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section
+72.)
+
+
++176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty
+generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it
+happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A
+broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization
+will not hold.
+
+Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of
+their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others
+are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased
+at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There
+are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming
+that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of
+some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that
+particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may,
+upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance
+coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or
+outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be
+weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples.
+
+Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that
+all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a
+belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have
+learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens
+of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess
+one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes
+to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches
+us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to
+establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be
+selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common
+sense.
+
+
++177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been
+established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by
+showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and
+say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition,
+"All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process
+of reasoning would be--
+
+  _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable.
+  _B._ This ring is made of gold.
+  _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable.
+
+A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It
+consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion
+(_C_).
+
+Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as
+the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the
+same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific
+instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning.
+
+
++178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive
+reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning,
+for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form,
+the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it,
+however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these
+premises are general principles that have been themselves established by
+inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more
+_sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the
+proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in
+many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty.
+
+
++179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the
+syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass
+directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not
+succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply,
+"Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A
+knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A
+shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is
+called an enthymeme.
+
+Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in
+connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a
+moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some
+unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die
+sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If
+asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die
+sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the
+general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt.
+
+Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this
+case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by
+the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose
+that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be
+allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all
+the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The
+omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be
+established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out
+of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would
+admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if
+only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major
+premise and likewise the conclusion.
+
+It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we
+must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An
+argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the
+premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably
+follows.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:--
+
+   1. John will succeed because he has a college education.
+   2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money.
+   3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar.
+   4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy.
+   5. This dog must be angry because he is growling.
+   6. This fish can swim.
+   7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gärten_.
+   8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled.
+
+_B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the
+following:--
+
+   1. This book should not be read.
+   2. This hammer is useful.
+   3. That dog will bite.
+   4. This greyhound can run rapidly.
+   5. The leaves have fallen from the trees.
+   6. That boy ought to be punished.
+   7. It is too early to go nutting.
+   8. This boy should not study.
+   9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor.
+
+
++Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+
+1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind.
+
+2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York.
+
+3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose
+writing.
+
+4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed.
+
+5. Ireland should have Home Rule.
+
+6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote
+of the people.
+
+
+(Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.)
+
+
++180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if
+properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid
+false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the
+syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider
+briefly three chief errors.
+
+If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion
+is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be
+taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing
+the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught
+to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of
+the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not
+that used in the second.
+
+It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example,
+the syllogism,--
+
+
+All hawks eat flesh;
+This bird is a hawk;
+Therefore this bird eats flesh,--
+
+
+contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two
+appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is
+called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement
+about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion
+may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:--
+
+
+All hawks are birds;
+This chicken is a bird;
+Therefore this chicken is a hawk.
+
+
+In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks
+are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The
+conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy.
+
+The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In
+the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the
+suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are
+cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to
+test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by
+seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a
+fatal weakness in the thought.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Which of the following are incorrect?
+
+
+1. The government should pay for the education of its people;
+   Travel is a form of education;
+   Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the
+     people.
+
+2. All horses are useful;
+   This animal is useful;
+   Therefore this animal is a horse.
+
+3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject.
+
+4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with
+     the rights of others.
+
+5. All fish can swim;
+   Charles can swim;
+   Therefore Charles is a fish.
+
+6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie.
+
+7. All dogs bark;
+   This animal barks;
+   Therefore this animal is a dog.
+
+
++Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+1. The government should establish a parcels post.
+
+2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition.
+
+3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the
+public schools.
+
+4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the
+city.
+
+5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest
+President since Lincoln.
+
+(State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?)
+
+
++181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement
+by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an
+actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that
+show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the
+testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the
+subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of
+any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the
+fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term
+_evidence_.
+
+Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of
+apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If
+instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the
+evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you
+saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your
+testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence
+against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his
+lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you
+give will be direct.
+
+Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is
+nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the
+direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several
+persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even
+though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall
+give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and
+to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell
+the truth.
+
+Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and
+circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that
+they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition?
+
+
+Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr.
+Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part
+of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to
+pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they
+found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in
+retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of
+their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the
+column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion
+a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree,
+which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the
+bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this
+allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no
+permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The
+prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be
+distributed as food.
+
+--Robert Brown: _Science for All_.
+
+
++Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove
+one of the following propositions:_--
+
+Select some question of local interest as:--
+  1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin.
+  2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game.
+  3. Our heating system is inadequate.
+  4. It rained last night.
+
+If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:--
+  1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers.
+  2. The climate of our country is changing.
+  3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press.
+  4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites.
+  5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay.
+
+(Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts
+that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?)
+
+
++182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and
+pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several
+such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of
+automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its
+superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can
+give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to
+your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as
+a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think
+that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with
+your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them
+is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he
+may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra
+study.
+
+While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget
+that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing
+than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely
+stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important
+ones.
+
+
+                      EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each
+of the following:--
+
+1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the
+teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work.
+
+2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school
+ground is not large enough for practice.
+
+3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need
+physical training will neglect it.
+
+4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts
+from interest in studies.
+
+5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had
+experience.
+
+_B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following:
+
+1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an
+automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but
+one argument, but make it as strong as possible.
+
+2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd.
+
+3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate
+from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the
+high school? For your wishing to attend college?
+
+4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman
+suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage.
+
+_C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select
+the one that you consider the most important.
+
+1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of
+cigarette smoking.
+
+2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management
+of the faculty.
+
+3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils
+themselves.
+
+4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin.
+
+5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin.
+
+
++Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write
+out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._
+
+  (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is
+your argument deductive or inductive?)
+
+
++183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this?
+the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case
+under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or
+theory which applies to it.
+
+One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high
+schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to
+train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy
+will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of
+political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are
+not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the
+principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at
+that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is
+evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of
+political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion
+of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true.
+
+We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe
+that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he
+believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another
+principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would
+choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States
+should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories
+of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our
+beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general
+theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and
+especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we
+wish to convince.
+
+
++184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful
+argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that
+the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his
+church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members
+believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in
+addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an
+argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the
+validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a
+case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do
+believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general
+principles themselves.
+
+If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe
+competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must
+remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look
+upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers
+to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have
+confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may
+count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any
+one of importance or prominence.
+
+In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a
+proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim,
+"Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too.
+Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally
+believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation
+of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and
+causes him to believe our proposition.
+
+
++185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced
+into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the
+proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a
+general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious
+of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even
+more than the explicit statement of the general theory would.
+
+An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you
+shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be
+called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim,
+comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question
+in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an
+argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects
+your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection
+from Macaulay:--
+
+
+Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a
+self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are
+fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old
+story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim.
+If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery,
+they may indeed wait forever.
+
+--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+
+
++186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we
+quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because
+they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in
+argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may
+probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument
+in such a way as to appeal to those theories.
+
+
++Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_--
+
+1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an
+entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father.
+
+2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons.
+
+3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the
+college preparatory course instead of the commercial course.
+
+
+(Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you
+appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.)
+
+
++187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need
+to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and
+that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own
+beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material
+in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that
+no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general
+principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the
+following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective
+order of arrangement.
+
++188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in
+Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this
+probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common
+speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or
+event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one
+that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near
+to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our
+arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability,
+or actuality.
+
+If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both
+possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in
+the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not
+question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that
+it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is
+extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual
+occurrence.
+
+A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could
+not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or
+stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This
+possibility, reënforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by
+the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would
+lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually
+responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be
+discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the
+servants.
+
+Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so
+gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is
+impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another
+probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do
+all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both
+possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to
+demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to
+show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed
+and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable
+witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the
+evidence pointing to probable guilt may be.
+
+
++189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the
+relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We
+accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate
+has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our
+belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause.
+
+Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to
+the belief that the other is also true:--
+
+_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college
+entrance examinations.
+
+_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to
+death before the physician arrives.
+
+_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen.
+
+_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact.
+But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or
+probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our
+arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_.
+
+
++190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that
+when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we
+direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with
+its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a
+cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning
+from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south
+indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby
+has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict
+the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has
+been there.
+
+If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the
+argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has
+frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a
+lowering of the temperature.
+
+If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive
+only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not
+produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one
+of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did
+it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death,
+the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did
+not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of
+elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that
+your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many
+possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the
+attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to
+assume that it was the one.
+
+Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we
+pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause;
+as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or,
+"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a
+good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not
+mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another.
+
+As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from
+attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened
+near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the
+other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that
+in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such
+a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process.
+The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times
+that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys
+frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable
+presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of
+some one who kindled it.
+
+In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the
+relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do
+not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as
+a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds
+something to the probability.
+
+
++191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of
+inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to
+establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the
+physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are
+considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the
+class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the
+class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective
+in proving the certainty of a proposition.
+
+In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom
+proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under
+given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments
+by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish
+not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This
+persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the
+argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition
+should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a
+friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we
+may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined.
+
+
++192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in
+practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of
+similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that
+the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that
+the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the
+earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited.
+
+An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in
+argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily
+observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a
+proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the
+strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the
+differences existing between the two propositions considered. False
+analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and
+especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when
+the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve
+to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument.
+
+
+It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure
+than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's)
+picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us,
+though his analogies are more apt to be false than true....
+
+The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to
+convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home
+and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old
+and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason.
+Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says
+that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and
+bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity....
+
+The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great
+stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types
+everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one
+thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with
+a thing is often merely fanciful....
+
+I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of
+the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer,
+"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports
+the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A
+tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that
+these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and
+experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not
+supported by the analogy.
+
+John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_.
+
+
+Notice the use of analogy in the argument below.
+
+
+There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom
+produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell
+he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or
+recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon,
+but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty
+may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the
+house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to
+bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of
+opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered
+elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a
+system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos.
+
+--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+
+
++193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because
+some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his
+mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing
+way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then
+the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can.
+We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments
+from sign, and arguments from example in the order named.
+
+Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually
+precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish
+general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience
+already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted.
+
+Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with
+reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more
+than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it
+convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him
+the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of
+several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the
+hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last.
+
+In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One
+proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally
+suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order
+must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by
+following the order which gives the greatest coherence.
+
+
++Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_
+
+1. The Presidential term should be extended.
+
+2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school
+study.
+
+3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in
+height.
+
+4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable.
+
+5. No pupil should carry more than four studies.
+
+6. This school should have a debating society.
+
+
+(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used
+arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your
+arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten
+your theme without weakening it?)
+
+
++194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In
+fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be
+given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more
+definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In
+description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the
+impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In
+exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but
+in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly
+arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to
+convince.
+
+The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact,
+but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation
+may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements,
+but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A
+single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind
+prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to
+convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show
+that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once
+endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill,
+but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the
+governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and
+that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt
+upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole
+argument, and the governor signed the bill.
+
+The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of
+complete sentences rather than of topics.
+
+Notice the following example.
+
+
++Term examinations should be abolished.+
+
+
+AFFIRMATIVE
+
+
+I. There is no necessity for such examinations.
+
+1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations.
+
+2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable.
+
+II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages
+that may be derived from them.
+
+1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their
+strength.
+
+2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject.
+
+3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them.
+
+III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability.
+
+1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer
+one or two of the questions given him.
+
+2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an
+examination and pass very creditably.
+
+3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are
+not able to do themselves justice.
+
+
+
+NEGATIVE
+
+
+If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above
+proposition, the brief might be as follows:--
+
+I. Examinations are indispensable to school work.
+
+1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know
+about their subjects, especially in large classes.
+
+2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let
+their work lag.
+
+II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability.
+
+1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a
+good examination.
+
+2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination.
+
+3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term
+examination.
+
+III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations.
+  (1) For college entrance examinations.
+  (2) For examinations at college.
+  (3) For civil service examinations.
+  (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions.
+Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so.
+
+1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school.
+  (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils.
+  (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at
+        home.
+  (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation.
+
+2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the
+  street (county or state) fair.
+  (1) They will all go at least one day.
+  (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go
+        the same day.
+
+3. Women should be allowed to vote.
+  (1) They are now taxed without representation.
+  (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the
+        government, it has been an advantage to that government.
+  (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote.
+
+_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or
+negative):--
+
+1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of
+the course.
+
+2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country.
+
+3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed.
+
+4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study.
+
+5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable.
+
+6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods.
+
+7. We are all selfish.
+
+8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school.
+
+
++Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the
+preceding propositions._
+
+(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write.
+Can you improve it? )
+
+
++Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_--
+
+1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States.
+
+2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of
+the Seven Gables_.
+
+3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition.
+
+4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered.
+
+5. The standing army of the United States should be increased.
+
+6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the
+city.
+
+(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged
+with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider
+each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.)
+
+
++Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._
+
+(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read
+Section 79.)
+
+
++195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we
+have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth
+of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most
+frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than
+merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause
+him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something.
+Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and
+is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In
+argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince;
+in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to
+action.
+
+
++196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical
+affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large
+and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are
+included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly
+related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of
+conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite
+as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness
+depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success
+in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in
+accordance with our desires.
+
+
++197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince
+our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a
+proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added
+to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in
+accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion.
+Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite,
+or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience
+to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if
+we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he
+will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself
+diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he
+neglects to act and failure is the result.
+
+
++198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the
+nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish,
+or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others
+to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge
+them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We
+may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty.
+When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure
+in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their
+interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in
+politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general.
+
+
++199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and
+may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose.
+We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences
+there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We
+may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a
+capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument
+demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New
+Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used,
+description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion;
+but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental
+belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration
+would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and
+who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not
+interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our
+argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice
+against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In
+each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire
+of the person whom we seek to persuade.
+
+
++200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce
+action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not
+affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may
+need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may
+be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an
+appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of
+these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his
+love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to
+be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may
+be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced
+if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are
+persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own
+efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious
+prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what
+particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case?
+
+1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college.
+
+2. Urge a friend to give up card playing.
+
+3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons.
+
+4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community.
+
+5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium.
+
+6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life.
+
+7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle.
+
+8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people.
+
+9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park.
+
+
++Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.)
+
+
++201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our
+hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there
+is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently
+both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few
+exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely
+distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both
+forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in
+Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and
+persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove
+that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for
+his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their
+curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the
+various appeals?
+
+In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that
+persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings
+are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches.
+
+
+They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an
+adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or
+the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British
+guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by
+irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual
+resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive
+phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir,
+we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of
+nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the
+holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are
+invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir,
+we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides
+over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our
+battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the
+vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we
+were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the
+contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains
+are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war
+is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is
+vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but
+there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps
+from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our
+brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so
+dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and
+slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take;
+but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death.
+
+--Patrick Henry.
+
+
+The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are
+true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw,
+and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the
+reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying
+day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their
+little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went
+among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with
+hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one
+looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls.
+
+The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one
+dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and
+administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the
+spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their
+sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who
+still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I
+say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food....
+
+The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist
+to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter
+to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the
+United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World,
+the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and
+responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western
+Hemisphere.
+
+Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that
+is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot
+intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means
+war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached
+the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not
+peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will
+toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their
+fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine
+of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come
+abiding peace.
+
+Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be
+God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won
+except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has
+ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of
+unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into
+the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation
+Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the
+Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime;
+force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows
+of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at
+Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the
+clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode
+with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at
+Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made
+"niggers" men.
+
+Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for
+further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready
+to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my
+country, and my God.
+
+--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an
+evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to
+his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's
+objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings?
+
+2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the
+question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their
+reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made
+more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general
+appeals.
+
+3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for
+president. What qualifications should a good class president have?
+
+
++Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have
+written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix
+them._
+
+(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the
+introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?)
+
+
++Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you
+have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and
+intellect._
+
+(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.)
+
+
++Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of
+entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._
+
+(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?)
+
+
++Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive
+theme:_--
+
+1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day.
+
+2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay.
+
+3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf.
+
+4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats.
+
+5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be
+cruel to the lower animals.
+
+
++202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim
+to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home
+life and in our social and religious life these questions are always
+arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the
+question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it
+expedient?
+
+The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us
+to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to
+what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is
+right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or
+in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question
+honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to
+ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is
+it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be
+clear.
+
+An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient?
+presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is
+right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater
+advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration
+we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of
+any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or
+to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never
+be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own
+course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow,
+we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that
+either course is right.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called
+upon to decide.
+
+2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's
+experience.
+
+3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often
+differ.
+
+4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another?
+
+
++Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the
+following:_--
+
+1. Should two pupils ever study together?
+
+2. Is a lie ever justifiable?
+
+3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe?
+
+4. Woman's suffrage should be established.
+
+5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Give reasons for or against the following:--
+
+1. We should abolish class-day exercises.
+
+2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language.
+
+3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States.
+
+4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed.
+
+5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school.
+
+6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries.
+
+7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools.
+
+8. High school secret societies should not be allowed.
+
+
++Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using
+one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._
+
+(What advantages have you made most prominent?
+To what feelings have you appealed?)
+
+
++Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to
+decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_.
+
+(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of
+Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the
+arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero
+decided rightly?)
+
++203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two
+sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the
+hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such
+a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often
+find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the
+expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing
+proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This
+tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive
+argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing
+down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own.
+
+Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given
+time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which
+are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful
+teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the
+pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater
+consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his
+argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing
+objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that
+they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw"
+for the purpose of knocking him down.
+
+Notice the refutation in the following argument:--
+
+
+In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so
+pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing
+"up" and "down" stream.
+
+"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie
+with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or
+the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and
+fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the
+increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above
+the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than
+those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a
+muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and
+unnatural.
+
+On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to
+the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his
+limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in
+each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or
+more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the
+ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs,
+under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches
+every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water,
+and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry
+trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown
+against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader
+drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked
+and bedraggled, following slowly behind.
+
+By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting
+the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the
+banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from
+the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish
+to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock.
+They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a
+few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to
+proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the
+bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or
+eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the
+banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in
+ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising
+and feeding.
+
+Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a
+hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well
+hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when
+rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader.
+Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep
+the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising
+trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the
+gritty impact of the steel.
+
+In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the
+surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch,
+has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies
+that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly
+up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind
+them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small
+stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a
+trout's make-up.
+
+--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_.
+
+
++Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the
+following pairs:_--
+
+  1. Canoeing or sailing.
+  2. Bicycling or automobiling.
+  3. Golf or polo.
+  4. Basket ball or tennis.
+  5. Football or baseball.
+
+
++Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points
+on the other side and write out a refutation of them_.
+
+
++Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._
+
+
++Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and
+write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._
+
+
+(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the
+class.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of
+a proposition.
+
+2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases
+we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.
+
+3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires--
+  _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific
+        instances supporting it.
+  _b._ That these facts be true.
+  _c._ That they be pertinent.
+  _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary
+        proposition.
+
+4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth
+of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.
+
+5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive
+reasoning requires--
+  _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members
+        of a class.
+  _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration
+        belongs to the class named.
+  _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class
+        applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a
+        syllogism.
+
+6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.
+
+7. Errors of deduction arise--
+  _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.
+  _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member
+        of the class denoted by the middle term.
+  _c._ If either premise is false.
+
+8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise--
+  _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and
+        pertinent.
+  _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which
+        applies to it.
+
+In arguing therefore we--
+  _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or
+  _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,
+        allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call
+        up such theories.
+
+9. Classes of arguments:--
+  _a._ Arguments from cause.
+  _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances.
+  _c._ Arguments from example and analogy.
+
+10. Arrangement.
+  _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and
+        arguments from sign should precede arguments from example.
+  _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.
+  _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.
+  _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.
+
+11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be
+observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false
+may be excluded.
+
+12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course
+of action.
+
+13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.
+  _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,
+        commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,
+        or loss of self-esteem.
+  _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of
+        one's powers.
+  _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or
+        anticipated.
+
+14. Persuasion is concerned with--
+  _a._ Questions of right.
+  _b._ Questions of expediency.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+I. ELEMENTS OF FORM
+
++1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the
+correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the
+thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be
+given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our
+thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to
+succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great
+purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is
+aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
+
+Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and
+if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes
+directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential
+that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be
+correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to
+correct it.
+
+Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors
+rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an
+incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man
+may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to
+have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the
+error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is
+correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with
+reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for
+correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is
+merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next
+theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual
+mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a
+definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really
+accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In
+this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing
+but one thing at a time.
+
+Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of
+these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in
+class work.
+
+
+1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks.
+Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will
+often render copying unnecessary.
+
+2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship,
+and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly
+written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one
+that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so
+valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
+
+3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for
+composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page
+without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to
+write on only one side of the paper.
+
+4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet.
+Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the
+right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under
+each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the
+lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded
+into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next
+line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as
+steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided
+by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
+
+5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the
+center of the line above the composition, and should have all important
+words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as
+follows:--
+
+
+                          MY TRIP TO CHICAGO
+                             ON A BICYCLE
+
+
+With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same
+distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater
+than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
+
+6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink
+eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an
+incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be
+written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a
+caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
+
+7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to
+inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such
+as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page
+should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with
+neatness and precision.
+
+
++2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of
+using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name,
+such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we
+should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written
+by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are
+so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters
+would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that
+capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of
+deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I,
+the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage
+varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such
+expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of
+Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to
+write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they
+are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The
+general then spoke.
+
+
++3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry
+begin with capitals.
+
+2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of
+sentences, begins with a capital.
+
+3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with
+capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer
+capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic.
+
+4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with
+capitals.
+
+5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc.,
+begin with capitals.
+
+6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
+
+7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring
+thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
+
+8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in
+text-books indicating topics.
+
+
++4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the
+grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are
+reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this
+grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and
+inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses
+do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection
+and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are
+important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear.
+There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may
+all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only
+such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
+
+What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by
+custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with
+which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present
+tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear
+understanding of the sentence.
+
+There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be
+made so definite, and the application of them requires care and
+judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by
+practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating
+punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you,
+and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted
+afterward.
+
+
++5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate
+words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
+
+  Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
+
+  The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a
+    good place to live in at least part of the year.
+
+
+If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma
+may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
+
+
+  The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
+
+
+2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
+
+
+  The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of
+    wild life.
+
+
+3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of
+the sentence.
+
+
+  Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.
+  O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
+
+
+4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are
+set off by commas.
+
+
+  However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
+
+  This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or
+    playgrounds.
+
+
+If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to
+the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently
+used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
+
+
+5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound
+predicate.
+
+
+  Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man
+    who can wield an ax.
+
+
+6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or
+with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
+
+
+  One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with
+small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name
+as many species of birds as possible.
+
+
+7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their
+natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+
+
+  A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
+
+  To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
+
+
+8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they
+are set off by commas.
+
+
+  They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
+
+
+9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause
+from the rest of the sentence.
+
+
+  The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money
+    and spent it.
+
+  While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the
+    testing department.
+
+
+If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when
+the dependent clause comes last.
+
+
+  I will be there when the train arrives.
+
+
+10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be
+separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
+
+
+  Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just
+    returned to England.
+
+
+If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or
+limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
+
+
+  This is the best article that he ever wrote.
+
+
+
+11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when
+they are short or closely connected.
+
+
+  Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
+
+    Breathe it, exult in it,
+    All the day long,
+    Glide in it, leap in it,
+    Thrill it with song.
+
+
+12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
+a comma.
+
+
+  "There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
+
+
+13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by
+commas.
+
+
+  If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+
+
++6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a
+compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should
+be used to separate them.
+
+
+  Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a
+    college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate,
+    and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one
+    of these men could do more than this one thing.
+
+--Wendell Phillips.
+
+  We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be
+    obliged to soon.
+
+
+2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they
+should be separated from one another by semicolons.
+
+
+  As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at
+    it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew
+    him.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_.
+
+
+  Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
+
+
+4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on
+what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by
+semicolons.
+
+
+  When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more
+    heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous
+    exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting
+    kinds--woolens.
+
+
++7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used
+before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before
+the conclusion of a previous statement.
+
+
+  Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only
+    himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons
+    though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world
+    is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has
+    been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
+
+--George Dana Boardman.
+
+  Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and
+    definitive adjectives.
+
+  The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.
+    Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
+
+
+2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound
+sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
+
+
+  It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too
+    pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else
+    do it when the busy time is over.
+
+
++8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close
+of imperative and declarative sentences.
+
+2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+
+
++9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark
+should be used after all direct questions.
+
+
++10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and
+exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation
+mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole
+exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a
+comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
+
+
+See, how the lightning flashes!
+
+
++11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden
+changes in thought or breaks in speech.
+
+
+I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does.
+
+
+2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis
+to set off parenthetical expressions.
+
+
+In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce--
+abounds.
+
+
+3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to
+point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
+
+
+I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in
+the rain--all evidences of wasted time.
+
+
+4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations,
+before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced
+statement.
+
+
++12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used
+to inclose direct quotations.
+
+
+"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
+
+
+2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation
+marks.
+
+
+"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady
+of a clerk in Brooklyn.
+
+
+3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the
+different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
+
+
+"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
+
+4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks
+are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last
+one.
+
+
++13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to
+denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to
+form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
+
+
+In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which
+can't be distinguished from engravings.
+
+
+
+II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
+
+
+THE SENTENCE
+
+
++14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their
+relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a
+group of words that expresses a complete thought.
+
+
++15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the
+office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The
+_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_
+is that which asserts something about the subject.
+
+Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself
+to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been
+singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck
+_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute
+complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)].
+
+The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought
+(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group
+of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term,
+_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above
+given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement,
+objective complement).
+
+In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups
+of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more
+exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are
+used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_.
+
+[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears
+the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).]
+
+Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:
+
+[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover];
+one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].
+
+The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the
+_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_.
+
+The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is
+present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the
+_complete predicate_.
+
+Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple
+predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_.
+
+
++16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified
+according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_,
+and _imperative_ sentences.
+
+A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares
+something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].
+
+An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote
+_Mother Goose_?].
+
+An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
+["Fling away ambition"].
+
+Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the
+sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the
+children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?"
+(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!"
+(exclamatory imperative)].
+
+Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative
+forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.
+
+
+WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES
+
+
++17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are
+_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse,
+he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value,
+more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue,
+he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_
+and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation
+between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The
+word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would
+seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills
+the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following
+sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is
+evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in
+the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the
+second sentence by _is_.
+
+All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a
+connecting or relational office.
+
+
+PARTS OF SPEECH
+
+
++18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences
+we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words
+are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves
+as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of
+Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence
+shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of
+speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a
+_phrase_ or a _clause_.
+
+A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate,
+that is used as a single part of speech.
+
+A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate,
+that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it
+is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the
+word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only.
+
+
++19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as
+follows:--
+
+  I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
+ II. Assertives: verbs.
+III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
+ IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
+  V. Interjections.
+
+
++20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as
+follows:--
+
+(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name.
+
+(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person,
+place, or thing without naming it.
+
+(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive.
+
+(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being---
+concerning a substantive.
+
+(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another
+adverb.
+
+(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive
+that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.
+
+(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used
+in the same way.
+
+(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of
+the sentence.
+
+
+                              NOUNS
+
+
++21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes:
+_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl].
+
+Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns
+[army].
+
+Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction].
+
+
++22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in
+its meaning is termed _inflection_.
+
+
++23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows
+us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to
+denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but
+one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one
+object is _plural_ in number.
+
+The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to
+the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
+
+Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:--
+
+1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children].
+
+2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
+
+3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_
+[leaf, leaves].
+
+4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and
+add _es_ [enemy, enemies].
+
+5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You
+have used too many _i_'s].
+
+6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according
+to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
+
+7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
+  (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
+plural [sheep, deer].
+  (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
+  (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
+  (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
+news, politics].
+
+8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part
+of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the
+compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a
+plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of
+as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
+
+ 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are
+preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the
+title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters.
+The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs.
+Harrisons.]
+
+ 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth,
+cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+
+
++24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun
+bears to some other word in the sentence.
+
+Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting
+case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English
+language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but
+nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and
+objective cases have the same form.
+
++25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in
+the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by
+adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].
+
+In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the
+apostrophe [girls'].
+
+A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the
+'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].
+
+Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word.
+This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
+[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].
+
+Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second
+noun only: [My sister Martha's book].
+
+Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to
+denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness].
+
+
++26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex.
+Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those
+denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things
+without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender.
+
+
++27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show
+whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken
+of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to
+be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are
+not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them
+because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what
+persons they represent.
+
+
++28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions
+of nouns:--
+
+(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession.
+
+(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:--
+
+1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame]
+
+2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of
+the year].
+
+3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!].
+
+4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!].
+
+5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the
+sunshine].
+
+6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of
+Genoa, discovered America].
+
+(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:--
+
+ 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the
+object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils].
+
+ 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_].
+
+ 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring].
+
+ 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New
+England_].
+
+ 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go
+without delay].
+
+ 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I
+thought it to be _John_ (_him_)].
+
+ 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_].
+
+ 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone,
+the great _explorer_].
+
+
++29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
+
+1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas].
+
+2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great].
+
+3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the
+process].
+
+4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_].
+
+5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to
+act_].
+
+6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun
+clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and
+appositive.
+
+7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out].
+
+
+                             PRONOUNS
+
+
++30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun.
+The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the
+_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person,
+number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_.
+
+
++31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five
+classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2)
+relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns,
+(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).
+
+
++32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they
+show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the
+third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he,
+she_, and _it_.
+
+
++33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used
+in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the
+personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be
+understood.
+
+1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a
+sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is
+used _impersonally_.
+
+2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a
+sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb:
+[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called
+an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way.
+
+
++34. Cautions and Suggestions.+
+
+1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its,
+yours, ours_, and _theirs_.
+
+2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute
+complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_].
+
+3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of
+the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such
+sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk.
+Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us
+to make the possessive pronouns singular.
+
+_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is
+convenient not to use the expression _his or her_.
+
+4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case:
+[I asked _him_ to go].
+
+5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the
+verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective
+case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the
+subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was
+_he_].
+
+6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt
+in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.
+
+7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_:
+[_Those_ books are mine].
+
+
++35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our,
+your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and
+_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound
+personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:--
+
+1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the
+subject].
+
+2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_].
+
+
++36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which,
+what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than
+equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are
+often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent
+either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive
+pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate
+clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they
+modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_.
+
+
++37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and
+objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_
+and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things.
+
+When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular
+person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the
+clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently
+used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a
+_non-restrictive clause_.
+
+[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the
+omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in
+England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the
+clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.
+
+In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to
+separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys.
+Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so
+_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial
+boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is
+indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is
+put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.
+
+
++38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used
+as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and
+possessive modifier.
+
+The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its
+antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_,
+who _am_ your friend, will assist you].
+
+The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause
+in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for
+the position].
+
+
++39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are
+formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who,
+which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives,
+and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_
+wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see].
+
+
++40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are
+used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_
+pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to
+persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_
+and _what_ are uninflected.
+
+The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did
+you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the
+clause itself is called an _indirect question_.
+
+The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of
+substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_:
+["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book
+did you choose?].
+
+
++41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals
+_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they
+point out individual persons or things.
+
+
++42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any,
+many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be
+used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_
+and _other_, are inflected.
+
+
+                SINGULAR     PLURAL       SINGULAR     PLURAL
+
+NOM. AND OBJ.    one          ones         other       others
+
+POSS.            one's        ones'        other's     others'
+
+
++43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has
+been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the
+office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question
+is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the
+word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_.
+[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).]
+
+
+ADJECTIVES
+
+
++44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives:
+the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and
+the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so
+called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any
+adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is
+named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very
+large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_
+adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small
+part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook].
+
+
++45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives
+include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have
+been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_),
+and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_.
+
+
++46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_
+and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are
+inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a
+difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There
+are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and
+the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the
+syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and
+superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives
+of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before
+the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer,
+longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].
+
++47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared
+irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar
+with the correct forms.
+
+
+POSITIVE     COMPARATIVE     SUPERLATIVE
+
+bad  }
+evil }         worse           worst
+ill  }
+
+far            farther         farthest
+
+good }         better          best
+well }
+
+fore           former        { foremost
+                             { first
+
+late         { later         { latest
+             { latter        { last
+
+little         less            least
+
+many }         more            most
+much }
+
+near           nearer        { nearest
+                             { next
+
+old          { older         { oldest
+             { elder         { eldest
+
+
+The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive
+degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:--
+
+
+(forth)             further                 furthest
+
+(in)                inner                 { innermost
+                                          { inmost
+
+(out)              { outer                { outermost
+                   { utter                { utmost
+                                          { uttermost
+
+(up)                upper                 { upmost
+                                          { uppermost
+
+
++48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+
+
+1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is
+placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an
+industrious, faithful pupil].
+
+2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be
+repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].
+
+3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only
+before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker
+and real estate agent].
+
+4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun
+they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds].
+
+5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used:
+[This is the more complete of the two].
+
+6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should
+be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house
+better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any
+house].
+
+7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is
+he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class
+consisting of many kinds.
+
+
++49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or
+limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective
+limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is
+called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as
+attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute
+complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)].
+
+
++50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents
+for the typical adjective:--
+
+1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret
+Ogilvy_," is very beautiful].
+
+2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song].
+
+3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of
+kindness_ and _of love_].
+
+4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between
+the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called
+mercenaries].
+
+5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_].
+
+6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_
+is the one I want].
+
+
+
+                               VERBS
+
+
++51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an
+assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the
+whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_
+serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation.
+The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the
+_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate
+words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not
+always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must
+believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like
+the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_
+verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such
+as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They
+attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.
+
+
++52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are
+divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_.
+
+A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed
+or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product
+of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The
+transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here
+the object is implied.
+
+An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its
+meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an
+action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away.
+They were standing at the water's edge].
+
+A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are
+always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and
+_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them.
+The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning,
+while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may
+sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest].
+
+The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or
+intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.
+
+         [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive).
+          The fire _burned_ the building (transitive).
+          The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive).
+          The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).]
+
+Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died
+a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.
+
+
++53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a
+complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such
+verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts].
+
+All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words
+to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be
+incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is
+termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the
+_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_].
+Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an
+_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to
+the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the
+predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be
+either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is
+_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most
+conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.
+
+
++54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to
+express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the
+so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may,
+must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of
+these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.
+
+_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject.
+
+_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus
+the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"
+
+_Must_ indicates necessity.
+
+_Ought_ expresses obligation.
+
+_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in
+past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have
+done_ it].
+
+_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].
+
+_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours].
+Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of
+_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60.
+
+
++55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be
+called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them--
+are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the
+_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been].
+The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts.
+
+
++56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have
+certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or
+_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the
+case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs
+are _conjugated_.
+
+
++57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected
+language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person
+and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the
+third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in
+the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_].
+
+
++58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in
+person and number. The following suggestions concerning
+agreement may be helpful:--
+
+1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb:
+[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food].
+
+2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_,
+differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer
+of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame].
+
+3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by
+_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this
+book or that _is_ mine].
+
+4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc.,
+do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of
+the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my
+books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame].
+
+5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject,
+the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_
+number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of
+children _have_ been playing in the sand pile].
+
+6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is
+singular: [You _were_ here yesterday].
+
+7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the
+collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.
+
+
++59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called
+_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or
+condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses:
+_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses
+for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and
+_future perfect_.
+
+English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I
+love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary
+verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have,
+be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and
+participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb
+are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent
+division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later.
+
++60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_
+or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_.
+
+The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:--
+
+
+    SINGULAR                  PLURAL
+
+1. I shall fall          1. We shall fall
+2. Thou wilt fall        2. You will fall
+3. He will fall          3. They will fall
+
+
+_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but
+determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].
+
+_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of
+the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the
+determination of the speaker with reference to others.
+
+Notice:--
+
+1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun
+clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same
+auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used
+independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that
+her son _shall_ not be left alone].
+
+2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes
+simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination:
+[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there].
+
+3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second
+and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the
+answer.
+
+(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.)
+
+
++61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+
+
+1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past
+participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present
+perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_].
+
+2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle
+is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or
+_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_].
+
+3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall
+have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the
+_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_].
+
+
++62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a
+subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This
+is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he
+means well. I knew he meant well].
+
+The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not
+necessarily in the same tense.
+
+
+   [I think he _is_ there.         I thought he was there.
+    I think he _was_ there.        I thought he had been there.
+    I think he _will be_ there.    I thought he would be there.]
+
+
+In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the
+tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense
+requires.
+
+General truths and present facts should be expressed in the
+present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He
+believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president
+of your society?].
+
+The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at
+the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you].
+
++63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a
+doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how
+an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language
+there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of
+mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or
+attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb.
+
+The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact:
+[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?].
+
+The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of
+condition: [If she were here, I should be glad].
+
+The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here].
+
+
++64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from
+colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely.
+
+The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the
+present and preterite:--
+
+
+           IND.       SUBJ.                  IND.        SUBJ.
+        { I am        I be                { I was       I were
+        { Thou art    Thou be             { Thou wast   Thou were
+PRESENT { He is       He be    PRETERITE  { He was      He were
+        { We are      We be               { We were     We were
+        { You are     You be              { You were    You were
+        { They are    They be             { They were   They were
+
+
+In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except
+that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal
+endings.
+
+
+INDICATIVE               Thou learnest            He learns
+SUBJUNCTIVE              Thou learn               He learn
+
+
+The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing
+the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and
+_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am
+allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to),
+_should_ is indicative.
+
+The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:--
+
+1. A wish: [The Lord be with you].
+
+2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we
+think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go].
+When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb
+precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me].
+
+3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn].
+
+4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom].
+
+5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I
+shall pity him].
+
+6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late].
+
+The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional
+clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though
+the earth be removed, we shall not fear].
+
+The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case
+is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased].
+
+The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time:
+[If you had been here, this would not have happened].
+
+The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are
+sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall
+within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is
+only an incumbrance.
+
+
++65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and
+entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one
+tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is
+usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the
+imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my
+books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the
+verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative.
+
+
++66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they
+represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they
+represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their
+very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices,
+for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted
+upon.
+
+The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the
+passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the
+object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by
+my dog (passive)].
+
+Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
+referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct
+object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him
+_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when
+the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called
+_a coward_ by John].
+
+Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active:
+[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject
+in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_
+[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John].
+
+
++67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a
+verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the
+noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does
+not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers
+and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun.
+
+There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by
+_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or
+_infinitive in -ing_.
+
+1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice].
+
+2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences
+the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the
+sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object
+_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the
+adverb _rapidly_.
+
+Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its
+object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition.
+The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is
+used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be
+a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses.
+
+The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The
+_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the
+principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to
+write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference
+to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her].
+
+
++68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_
+the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun
+_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_.
+
+The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an
+ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is
+formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_.
+
+There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or
+infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the
+noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_
+the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_
+the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)].
+
+Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used
+for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for
+the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used
+in all the adjective constructions.
+
+One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction,
+or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been
+finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a
+clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the
+main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the
+substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging
+to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As
+the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_.
+
+
++69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various
+forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be
+found in any text-book on English grammar.
+
+The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive
+conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a
+_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some
+form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing].
+
+It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past
+participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the
+same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always
+shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as
+an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work
+(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)].
+
+
++70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as
+regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which
+form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the
+present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others
+_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the
+history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and
+those of the _strong_ conjugations.
+
+The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_,
+or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change
+of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_.
+
+All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are
+_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the
+past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is
+_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations.
+
+A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the
+most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of
+which mistakes occur.
+
+
+PRESENT              PRETERITE            PAST PARTICIPLE
+am                     was                     been
+arise                  rose                    arisen
+bear                   bore                    borne, born[1]
+begin                  began                   begun
+bid (command)          bade                    bidden
+bite                   bit                     bitten
+blow                   blew                    blown
+break                  broke                   broken
+bring                  brought                 brought
+burst                  burst                   burst
+catch                  caught                  caught
+choose                 chose                   chosen
+climb                  climbed                 climbed
+come                   came                    come
+do                     did                     done
+drink                  drank                   drunk[2]
+drive                  drove                   driven
+drown                  drowned                 drowned
+eat                    ate                     eaten
+fall                   fell                    fallen
+fly                    flew                    flown
+freeze                 froze                   frozen
+get                    got                     got
+give                   gave                    given
+go                     went                    gone
+grow                   grew                    grown
+have                   had                     had
+hide                   hid                     hidden
+hurt                   hurt                    hurt
+know                   knew                    known
+lay                    laid                    laid
+lie (recline)          lay                     lain
+lead                   led                     led
+read                   read                    read
+ride                   rode                    ridden
+ring                   rang                    rung
+run                    ran                     run
+see                    saw                     seen
+shake                  shook                   shaken
+show                   showed                  shown
+sing                   sang                    sung
+sink                   sank                    sunk
+sit                    sat                     sat
+slay                   slew                    slain
+speak                  spoke                   spoken
+spring                 sprang                  sprung
+steal                  stole                   stolen
+swell                  swell                 { swelled
+                                             { swollen
+swim                   swam                    swum
+take                   took                    taken
+tear                   tore                    torn
+throw                  threw                   thrown
+wear                   wore                    worn
+wish                   wished                  wished
+write                  wrote                   written
+
+[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."]
+[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.]
+
+
+CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always
+use the past participle form in the compound tenses.
+
+
+
+ADVERBS
+
+
++71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning.
+It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we
+may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and
+_conjunctive_ adverbs.
+
+_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_].
+
+_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come?
+He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)].
+
+_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_
+we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a
+modifier of _stayed_.
+
+Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:
+
+1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls].
+
+2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them].
+
+3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed].
+
+Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of
+_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a
+rigid one.
+
+Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in
+_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like
+meaning: [She sang very loud].
+
+Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When?
+
+Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with
+the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.
+
+_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs
+modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
+
+
++72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot
+easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_
+as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.
+
+
++73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the
+purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.
+
+The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the
+syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of
+adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_
+and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest;
+skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully,
+least carefully].
+
+Some adverbs are compared irregularly:--
+
+badly     }            worse                 worst
+ill (evil)}
+far   }              { farther             { farthest
+forth }              { further             { furthest
+late                   later               { latest
+                                           { last
+little                 less                  least
+much                   more                  most
+nigh                   nigher              { nigher
+                                           { next
+well                   better                best
+
+
++74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+
+
+1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same
+form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part
+of speech each is.
+
+(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).
+
+(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.
+
+2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which
+should not be confused.
+
+(Adjective) She is a good student.
+
+(Adverb) He works well.
+
+3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a
+copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad;
+not, I feel badly].
+
+4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to
+denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].
+
+
++75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+
+
+1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_].
+
+2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_].
+
+3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_].
+
+
+
+PREPOSITIONS
+
+
++76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after,
+against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through,
+till, to, under, up_, and _with_.
+
+Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath,
+across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_.
+
+
++77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are
+frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully
+discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition
+will be given.
+
+
+afraid _of_.
+agree _with_ a person.
+agree _to_ a proposal.
+bestow _upon_.
+compare _to_ (to show similarity).
+compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference).
+comply _with_.
+conform _to_.
+convenient _for_ or _to_.
+correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing).
+correspond _with_ (a person).
+dependent _on_.
+differ _from_ (a person or thing).
+differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion).
+different _from_.
+disappointed _in_.
+frightened _at_ or _by_.
+glad _of_.
+need _of_.
+profit _by_.
+scared _by_.
+taste _of_ (food).
+taste _for_ (art).
+thirst _for_ or _after_.
+
+
+_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses,
+called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be
+used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do].
+The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do].
+
+The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_
+denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_
+the garden].
+
+
++78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what
+is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when
+it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb,
+adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He
+sat _on the bench_ (adverb)].
+
+Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and
+_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes:
+[The ship lay to. A storm came on].
+
+
+
+CONJUNCTIONS
+
+
++79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to
+their use into two general classes: the _coördinate_ and the _subordinate_
+conjunctions.
+
+_Coördinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses
+of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.
+
+The principal coördinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_.
+_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what
+has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also,
+besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions,
+_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_
+because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coördinate
+conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has
+already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however,
+nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in
+its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.
+
+Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_.
+_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_
+conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and
+as are _coördinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following:
+[She has been running, for she is out of breath].
+
+Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those
+of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and
+result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a
+_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go].
+
+There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are
+called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so
+... as, if ... then, though ... yet_.
+
+
++80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review
+the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_.
+
+The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the
+coördinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The
+predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made
+merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded:
+[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay].
+
+In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject
+and one predicate, is said to be _simple_.
+
+When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject
+and predicate--are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is
+said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard
+preferred to play railroad].
+
+The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its
+omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play
+Indian; Richard preferred another game].
+
+
++81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_
+conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause,
+thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in
+order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any
+group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills
+the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In
+the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I
+knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main
+clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went."
+"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a
+_substantive_ relation to the verb.
+
+Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions
+(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a
+clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_.
+If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is
+_compound-complex_.
+
+The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.
+
+
+
+SENTENCE STRUCTURE
+
+
++82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.
+
+From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its
+introductory word or words, as:--
+
+1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_].
+
+2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_].
+
+3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_].
+
+Classified as to use, a phrase may be--
+
+1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_].
+
+2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_].
+
+3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_].
+
+
++83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either
+principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one
+that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the
+sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases,
+it does not hold in cases like the following:--
+
+1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.
+
+2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.
+
+The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in
+connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve
+the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal
+clauses.
+
+
++84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may
+be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses.
+
+_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:--
+
+1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment].
+
+2. Object: [I know _what you wish_].
+
+3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally
+believed].
+
+4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_].
+
+_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions.
+
+Thus:--
+
+1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine].
+
+2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible].
+
+_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the
+introductory word.
+
+(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who,
+which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound
+relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both
+relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is
+painted white. I know _whom you_ mean].
+
+(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The
+man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to
+take_].
+
+(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as
+_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where,
+whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie
+lives_].
+
+(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because,
+since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order
+that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_].
+
+_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of
+the thought expressed.
+
+(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a
+fine view].
+
+(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down].
+
+(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can].
+
+(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go].
+
+(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults].
+
+(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_].
+
+(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_].
+
+(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go].
+
+(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_].
+
+Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying
+clauses.
+
+(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"].
+
+(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_].
+
+(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was].
+
+Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive
+clauses.
+
+
++85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting
+of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some
+completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an
+_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both
+subject and predicate may have modifiers.
+
+The usual modifiers of the subject are:--
+
+1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken].
+
+2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful].
+
+3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful].
+
+4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost].
+
+5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will
+open the debate].
+
+6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend].
+
+7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing].
+
+8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way].
+
+The modifiers of the predicate are:--
+
+1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_].
+
+2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_].
+
+3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an
+important question].
+
+4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_].
+
+5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_].
+
+6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience
+dispersed].
+
+Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire
+thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_
+I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you].
+
+
+
+LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS
+
+
++86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which
+appear as various parts of speech:---
+
++a+      (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.
+
++about+  (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked
+             _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the
+             same way.
+
++above+  (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go
+             _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4)
+            Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has
+            the same uses.
+
++after+  (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He
+             came _after_ she went away.
+
++all+    (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I
+             gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue.
+             (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right.
+
++as+     (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive
+             adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other
+             grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot,
+             we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend.
+             (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well.
+
++before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive
+             Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never
+             been here _before_.
+
++both+   (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2)
+             Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_
+             good and beautiful.
+
++but+    (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition:
+             All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail.
+
++either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction:
+             _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun:
+             _Either_ is right.
+
++fast+   (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb:
+             The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker.
+
++for+    (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2)
+             Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her.
+             (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you.
+
++hard+   (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_.
+
++like+   (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This
+             process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father
+             pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me.
+             (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a
+             _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb:
+             You _like_ your work.
+
++little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_.
+             (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses.
+
++many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree.
+
++notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were
+              content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy,
+              _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid.
+
++only+   (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_
+             experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should
+             go, _only_ it is stormy.
+
++since+  (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2)
+             Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it.
+             (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive
+             Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have.
+
++still+  (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is
+             _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is
+             entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil
+             is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of
+             noonday the song of the locust was loud.
+
++than+   (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_
+             whom there is none wiser.
+
++that+   (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive
+             Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective:
+             _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you
+             may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction:
+             _That_ this is true is evident.
+
++the+    (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ...
+             _the_ merrier.
+
++then+   (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so
+             decide, _then_ we may go.
+
++there+  (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are
+             many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There!
+             there!_ it makes no difference!
+
++what+   (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said.
+             Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective:
+             _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I
+             know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this
+             and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6)
+             Interjection: _What! what!_
+
++while+  (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time.
+             (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows.
+
+
+
+III. FIGURES OF SPEECH
+
+
++87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual
+form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These
+changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or
+because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.
+
+While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression,
+we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural
+as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most
+learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This
+arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions.
+When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that
+the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of
+figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple
+expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our
+poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but
+it is in poetry that we find most of them.
+
+
++88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects
+belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all
+resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two
+beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a
+tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may
+form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same
+class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one
+strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.
+
+
+1. How far that little candle throws its beams!
+   So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared;
+   Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.
+
+--Matthew Arnold.
+
+
+3. In the primrose-tinted sky
+   The wan little moon
+   Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.
+
+--Francis C. Rankin.
+
+
++89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison
+is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as
+the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily
+changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_
+another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Select the metaphors in the following and change them to
+similes:--
+
+
+1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood,
+   A living wall, a human wood.
+
+--James Montgomery.
+
+
+2. The familiar lines
+   Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+3. Life is a leaf of paper white,
+   Whereon each one of us may write
+   His word or two, and then comes night.
+
+--Lowell.
+
+
++90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor
+in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of
+persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:--
+
+
+1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene
+   The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts
+   And puts them back into his golden quiver.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.
+
+--Charles Pierce Burton.
+
+
+3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest,
+   And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.
+
+--Wordsworth.
+
+
+4. See the mountains kiss high heaven,
+     And the waves clasp one another;
+   No sister flower would be forgiven
+     If it disdained its brother.
+
+--Shelley.
+
+
++91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an
+additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or
+the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus
+formed apostrophe.
+
+The following are examples of apostrophe:--
+
+
+1. Break, break, break,
+   At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight,
+   Make me a child again just for to-night!
+     Mother, come back from the echoless shore,
+     Take me again to your heart as of yore.
+
+--Elizabeth Akers Allen.
+
+
++92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another,
+the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the
+other.
+
+  1. The pupils are reading George Eliot.
+  2. Each hamlet heard the call.
+  3. Strike for your altars and your fires.
+  4. Gray hairs should be respected.
+
+
++93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything
+for the whole or a whole for the part.
+
+  1. A babe, two summers old.
+  2. Give us this day our daily bread.
+  3. Ring out the thousand years of woe,
+     Ring in the thousand years of peace.
+  4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.
+
+
++94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics,
+the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already
+given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two
+former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the
+last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or
+paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned
+elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be
+given here.
+
+1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning,
+but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.
+
+  What has the gray-haired prisoner done?
+  Has murder stained his hands with gore?
+  Not so; his crime is a fouler one--
+  God made the old man poor.
+
+--Whittier.
+
+
+2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase
+the effectiveness of a statement.
+
+
+He was a man of boundless knowledge.
+
+
+3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast
+may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire
+paragraph.
+
+
+  Look like the innocent flower,
+  But be the serpent under it.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.
+
+
+I came, I saw, I conquered.
+
+
+5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information
+but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of
+_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question
+affirms.
+
+  1. Am I my brother's keeper?
+  2. Am I not free?
+
+
+
+IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE
+
+
++95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we
+have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as
+applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles
+are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it
+contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas
+are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A
+sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is
+perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that
+deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of
+a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general
+terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by
+employing the devices of balance and contrast.
+
+We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition
+and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite
+likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or
+unity often results in a lack of emphasis.
+
+
++96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a
+general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very
+religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and
+in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical.
+The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or
+more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular
+relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture.
+We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus:
+(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very
+religious man.)
+
+2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled
+when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to
+seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously
+deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous
+dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should
+be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and
+words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his
+captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who
+had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)
+
+3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his
+shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The
+ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is
+little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the
+sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look
+strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous
+ideas.
+
+4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the
+men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers
+to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the
+thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the
+subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of
+impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they
+had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions,
+they began to think of catching the thief.)
+
+5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical
+unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant
+day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences,
+when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of
+the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas
+expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are
+gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I
+went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)
+
+
++97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was
+returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his
+staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred
+to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of
+phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many
+hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers,
+was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing
+the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the
+word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of
+these words.
+
+2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in
+that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to
+his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.)
+In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not
+clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the
+pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a
+very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is
+found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told
+this parent the night before in his room.)
+
+3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully
+preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a
+great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is
+manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had
+carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on
+Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)
+
+4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to
+school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he
+went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the
+coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical
+relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well
+as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it
+rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went
+to school).
+
+5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed
+courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.)
+Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure
+from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to
+confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The
+stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)
+
+
++98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event
+to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged
+his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are
+"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,--
+at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this
+order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In
+the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its
+modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the
+introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling
+enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be
+reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical.
+(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This
+sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended
+structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest
+as well as for securing emphasis.
+
+2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted,
+hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest
+idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry,
+dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)
+
+3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning
+house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed"
+and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and
+"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to
+express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we
+only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct
+sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then,
+we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity.
+(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)
+
+4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the
+brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A
+consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to
+the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a
+large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following
+sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to
+the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the
+stream.)
+
+5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the
+fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of
+past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of
+righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it,
+the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating
+what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form
+gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel
+parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed.
+This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however,
+will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded
+in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other
+is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Point out the specific faults and correct:--
+
+1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.
+
+2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the
+novel.
+
+3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other
+players for a time, he got up and left the room.
+
+4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could
+overcome.
+
+5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a
+bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.
+
+6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and
+courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.
+
+7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind
+heart.
+
+8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed
+them.
+
+9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous
+disorder.
+
+10. The boys were only injured a little.
+
+11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we
+are wise enough to discover it.
+
+12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope
+was hypocritical and spiteful.
+
+13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little
+to live for.
+
+14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most
+valorous knight.
+
+15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.
+
+16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and
+Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.
+
+17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at
+this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream
+issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.
+
+18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names
+for ourselves and to acquire property.
+
+19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist.
+
+20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man.
+
+21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until
+last year.
+
+22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect.
+
+
+
+V. LIST OF SYNONYMS
+
+
+Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from.
+
+Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate.
+
+Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe.
+
+Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual.
+
+Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power.
+
+Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out.
+
+Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame.
+
+Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied.
+
+Absolve, acquit, clear.
+
+Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance.
+
+Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical,
+preposterous, unreasonable, wild.
+
+Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful.
+
+Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner.
+
+Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple.
+
+Actual, authentic, genuine, real.
+
+Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact.
+
+Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful.
+
+Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring.
+
+Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate.
+
+Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate.
+
+Admixture, alloy.
+
+Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling.
+
+Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome.
+
+Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham.
+
+Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state.
+
+Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable.
+
+Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor.
+
+Akin, alike, identical.
+
+Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful.
+
+Allay, appease, calm, pacify.
+
+Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion.
+
+Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest.
+
+Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure.
+
+Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro.
+
+Amend, better, mend, reform, repair.
+
+Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen.
+
+Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime.
+
+Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment.
+
+Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism.
+
+Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort.
+
+Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent.
+
+Apiece, individually, severally, separately.
+
+Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable.
+
+Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand.
+
+Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon.
+
+Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency,
+superciliousness, vanity.
+
+Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman.
+
+Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated.
+
+Assent, agree, comply.
+
+Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility,
+insolence, officiousness, rudeness.
+
+Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit.
+
+Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless.
+
+Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught.
+
+Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure.
+
+Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake.
+
+Attitude, pose, position, posture.
+
+Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute.
+
+Axiom, truism.
+
+
+Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder,
+impede, retard, thwart.
+
+Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism.
+
+Beg, plead, press, urge.
+
+Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy.
+
+Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity.
+
+Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict.
+
+Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer,
+glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle.
+
+Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly.
+
+Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show.
+
+Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless,
+gallant, heroic, undismayed.
+
+Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism.
+
+Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse.
+
+Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over.
+
+
+Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap.
+
+Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased,
+unprejudiced, unreserved.
+
+Candor, frankness, truth, veracity.
+
+Caprice, humor, vagary, whim.
+
+Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty.
+
+Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure.
+
+Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason,
+purpose.
+
+Caution, discretion, prudence.
+
+Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach.
+
+Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament.
+
+Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait.
+
+Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative.
+
+Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification,
+happiness, jollity, satisfaction.
+
+Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly.
+
+Class, circle, clique, coterie.
+
+Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen.
+
+Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit.
+
+Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate.
+
+Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy.
+
+Compassionate, gracious, humane.
+
+Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect.
+
+Confirm, corroborate.
+
+Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated.
+
+Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various.
+
+Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise.
+
+Conscious, aware, certain.
+
+Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot.
+
+Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted.
+
+Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable.
+
+Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted.
+
+
+Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice.
+
+Dangerous, formidable, terrible.
+
+Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify.
+
+Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish.
+
+Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious,
+ruinous.
+
+Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender.
+
+Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying.
+
+Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying.
+
+Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander.
+
+Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract.
+
+Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir.
+
+
+Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary.
+
+Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly.
+
+Emergency, extremity, necessity.
+
+Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain,
+visionary.
+
+Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom.
+
+Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing.
+
+Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge.
+
+Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege.
+
+Explicit, express.
+
+
+Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid,
+listless, purposeless.
+
+Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty.
+
+Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary.
+
+Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt.
+
+Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack.
+
+Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver.
+
+Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity.
+
+
+Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow.
+
+
+Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous.
+
+
+Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught.
+
+Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing.
+
+Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable.
+
+Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying.
+
+Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful.
+
+Irritation, offense, pique, resentment.
+
+
+Probably, presumably.
+
+
+Reliable, trustworthy, trusty.
+
+Remnant, trace, token, vestige.
+
+Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy.
+
+
+VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE
+
+Ability, capacity.
+
+Accept, except.
+
+Acceptance, acceptation.
+
+Access, accession.
+
+Accredit, credit.
+
+Act, action.
+
+Admire, like.
+
+Admittance, admission.
+
+Advance, advancement, progress, progression.
+
+Affect, effect.
+
+After, afterward.
+
+Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating.
+
+Allege, maintain
+
+Allow, guess, think.
+
+Allusion, illusion, delusion.
+
+Almost, most, mostly.
+
+Alone, only.
+
+Alternate, choice.
+
+Among, between.
+
+Amount, number, quantity.
+
+Angry, mad.
+
+Apparently, evidently.
+
+Apt, likely, liable.
+
+Arise, rise.
+
+At, in.
+
+Avocation, vocation.
+
+Awfully, very.
+
+
+Balance, rest, remainder.
+
+Begin, commence.
+
+Beside, besides.
+
+Both, each, every.
+
+Bring, fetch.
+
+By, with.
+
+
+Calculate, intend.
+
+Carry, bring, fetch.
+
+Casuality, casualty.
+
+Character, reputation.
+
+Claim, assert.
+
+Clever, pleasant.
+
+College, university, school.
+
+Completeness, completion.
+
+Compliment, complement.
+
+Confess, admit.
+
+Construe, construct.
+
+Contemptible, contemptuous.
+
+Continual, continuous.
+
+Convince, convict.
+
+Council, counsel.
+
+Couple, pair.
+
+Credible, creditable, credulous.
+
+Custom, habit.
+
+
+Deadly, deathly.
+
+Decided, decisive.
+
+Decimate, destroy.
+
+Declare, assert.
+
+Degrade, demean.
+
+Depot, station, R.R.
+
+Discover, invent.
+
+Drive, ride.
+
+
+Each other, any other, one another.
+
+Emigration, immigration, migration.
+
+Enormity, enormousness.
+
+Estimate, esteem.
+
+Exceptional, exceptionable.
+
+Expect, suppose.
+
+
+Falseness, falsity.
+
+Fly, flee.
+
+Funny, odd.
+
+Grant, give.
+
+Habit, practice.
+
+Haply, happily.
+
+Healthy, healthful, wholesome.
+
+Human, humane.
+
+
+Lady, woman.
+
+Last, latest, preceding.
+
+Learn, teach.
+
+Lease, hire.
+
+Less, fewer.
+
+Lie, lay.
+
+Loan, lend.
+
+Love, like.
+
+
+Mad, angry.
+
+Majority, plurality.
+
+Manly, mannish.
+
+May, can.
+
+Mutual, common.
+
+
+Necessities, necessaries.
+
+Nice, pleasant, attractive.
+
+Noted, notorious.
+
+
+Observation, observance.
+
+Official, officious.
+
+Oral, verbal.
+
+
+Part, portion.
+
+Partly, partially.
+
+Persecute, prosecute.
+
+Person, party.
+
+Practicable, practical.
+
+Prescribe, proscribe.
+
+Prominent, predominant.
+
+Purpose, propose.
+
+
+Quite, very, rather.
+
+
+Relation, relative.
+
+Repair, mend.
+
+Requirement, requisite.
+
+Rise, raise.
+
+
+Scholar, pupil, student.
+
+Sensible of, sensitive to.
+
+Series, succession.
+
+Settle, locate.
+
+Sewage, sewerage.
+
+Shall, will.
+
+Should, would.
+
+Sit, set.
+
+Splendid, elegant.
+
+Statement, assertion.
+
+Statue, statute, stature.
+
+Stay, stop.
+
+
+Team, carriages.
+
+Transpire, happen.
+
+
+Verdict, testimony.
+
+Without, unless.
+
+Womanly, womanish.
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Abbott.
+Action: observation of.
+Actuality: in argument.
+Adams.
+Adjectives.
+Advantages:
+  of expressing ideas gained from experience;
+  of imaginative theme writing.
+Adverbs.
+Agreement.
+Allen, Elizabeth A.
+Allen, James Lane.
+Ambiguity.
+Analogy: argument from.
+Antithesis.
+Apostrophe:
+  rule for;
+  as figure of speech.
+Argument:
+  purpose of;
+  use of explanation in;
+  by stating advantages and disadvantages;
+  by use of specific instances;
+  refutation or indirect;
+  differs from exposition;
+  clear thinking essential;
+  by inference;
+  from cause;
+  from sign;
+  from example;
+  from analogy;
+  differs from persuasion;
+  with persuasion.
+Argumentative themes.
+Arnold.
+Arrangement:
+  _see_ coherence;
+  in argument;
+  summary of.
+Attendant circumstances: argument from.
+Authority: appeals to in argument.
+Auxiliary verbs.
+Ayton.
+
+
+Bagley.
+Baldwin.
+Ballad.
+Bancroft.
+Belief:
+  necessity in debate;
+  establishing a general theory;
+  basis of.
+Beveridge.
+Biography.
+Blank verse.
+Boardman.
+Bourdillon.
+Bowles.
+Bradley.
+Brief.
+Brown.
+Browning.
+Bryant.
+Budgell.
+Burke.
+Burns.
+Burroughs.
+Byron.
+
+
+Cable.
+Camp.
+Capitals.
+Cary.
+Case.
+Cause and effect:
+  development of paragraph by use of;
+  development of composition by use of;
+  use in exposition;
+  use in argument.
+Cautions and suggestions:
+  use of figures of speech;
+  in debating;
+  use of pronouns;
+  use of adjectives;
+  use of verbs;
+  use of adverbs;
+  prepositions.
+Character sketch.
+Choice of words:
+  adapted to reader;
+  as to meaning;
+  simple.
+Clark.
+Classification.
+Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive.
+Clearness.
+Climax:
+  in narration;
+  in argument;
+  as figure of speech.
+Coherence:
+  definition;
+  in outline;
+  in composition;
+  arrangement of details;
+  arrangement of facts in exposition;
+  aided by outline;
+  in argument;
+  in sentences.
+Coleridge.
+Colon: rules for.
+Colton.
+Comma: rules for.
+Comparison:
+  as an aid to formation of images;
+  development of a paragraph by;
+  definitions supplemented by;
+  as a method of developing a composition;
+  as an aid in establishing fundamental image;
+  as an aid to effectiveness in description;
+  use in exposition;
+  analogy;
+  of adjectives;
+  of adverbs.
+Complete and incomplete verbs.
+Composition:
+  kinds of;
+  general principles of.
+Conclusion.
+Conjugation.
+Conjunctions.
+Connolly.
+Connor.
+Constructions:
+  of nouns;
+  of personal pronouns;
+  of relative pronouns;
+  of adjectives.
+Contrast:
+  development of a paragraph by;
+  development of a composition by;
+  use in exposition.
+Conversation.
+Cooper.
+Copeland-Rideout.
+Correction of themes.
+
+
+Darwin.
+Dash: rules for.
+Debate:
+  value of;
+  statement of question;
+  necessity of belief;
+  order of presentation;
+  cautions.
+Deductive reasoning: errors of.
+Definition:
+  by synonym;
+  by use of simpler words;
+  definitions to be supplemented;
+  first step in exposition;
+  logical;
+  difficulty in framing;
+  inexact.
+Description:
+  Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes);
+  defined;
+  effectiveness in;
+  classes of objects frequently described:
+    buildings;
+    natural features;
+    sounds;
+    color;
+    animals;
+    plants;
+    persons;
+  impression of;
+  impression as purpose of;
+  in narration;
+  general description.
+Descriptive themes.
+Details:
+  selection of;
+  paragraph developed by;
+  related in time-order;
+  related with reference to position in space;
+  used in general description;
+  in general narration;
+  composition developed by giving details in time-order;
+  by giving details with reference to position in space;
+  selection of, affected by point of view;
+  selection of essential;
+  selection and subordination of minor;
+  arrangement of;
+  in narration;
+  arrangement;
+  selection of facts in exposition;
+  exposition by use of.
+Dewey.
+Diction.
+Discourse: forms of
+  presupposes an audience.
+Division.
+Dixey.
+Dramatic poetry.
+Dryer.
+Dunbar, Mary Louise.
+
+
+Ease.
+Effectiveness in description
+  comparison and figures of speech, as aids to.
+Elegance.
+Elegy.
+Eliot, George.
+Emphasis
+  in sentences.
+Enthymeme.
+Epic.
+Equivalents: for nouns
+  for adjectives.
+  for adverbs
+Essentials of expression.
+Euphony.
+Evidence.
+Examples: use in exposition
+  argument from _(see also_ specific instances).
+Exclamation mark: rule for.
+Expediency: questions of.
+Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination
+  impressions limited to.
+Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of
+  importance of
+  clear understanding necessary
+  of terms
+  of propositions
+  by repetition
+  by examples
+  by comparison and contrast
+  by obverse statements
+  by details
+  by cause and effect
+  by general description
+  by general narration
+  by use of specific instances.
+Expository themes.
+Expression: essentials of.
+
+
+Fallacy.
+Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion.
+Feet.
+Fields.
+Figures of speech
+  use of
+  as an aid to effectiveness in description.
+Ford.
+Form: importance of
+   directions as to.
+Forms of discourse.
+Fundamental image.
+
+
+Gender.
+General theory: how established,
+  basis of
+  appeals to.
+George, Marian M.
+Gilman.
+Grammar review.
+Gray.
+
+
+Hare.
+Harland.
+Harris.
+Hawthorne.
+Henry.
+Higginson and Channing.
+Hinman.
+History: writing of.
+Hoar.
+Holland.
+Holmes.
+Howells.
+Hyperbole.
+
+
+Ideas: from experience, Chapter I;
+from imagination, Chapter II; from
+language, Chapter III.
+  pleasure in expressing
+  sources of
+  advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience
+  from imagination
+  ideas from pictures
+  acquired through language.
+Images: making of
+  complete and incomplete
+  reproduction of
+  other requirements to determine meaning
+  fundamental
+  union with impression.
+Imagination, Chapter II.
+Impression:
+  of description,
+  as purpose of description,
+  necessity of observing impressions,
+  limited to experience,
+  affected by mood,
+  union with image.
+Improbability.
+Incentive moment.
+Indentation.
+Inductive reasoning:
+  errors of.
+Inference: use in argument.
+Infinitives.
+Interrogation.
+Interrogation mark: rule for.
+Introduction.
+Invitations.
+Irony.
+Irving.
+
+
+Jackson, Helen Hunt.
+Jordan and Kellogg.
+
+
+Kellogg.
+Kingsley.
+Kipling.
+
+
+Language:
+  as a medium through which ideas are acquired,
+  adapted to reader,
+Letter writing: Chapter VI;
+  importance of,
+  paper,
+  beginning,
+  body,
+  conclusion,
+  envelope,
+  rule of,
+  business letters,
+  letters of friendship,
+  adaptation to reader,
+  notes.
+Lodge.
+Longfellow.
+Lovelace.
+Lowell.
+Lyric poetry.
+
+
+Macaulay.
+Macy-Norris.
+Madame de Stael.
+Matthews.
+Maxims: appeals to in argument.
+McCarthy, Justin.
+Meaning of words.
+Memory.
+Metaphor:
+  mixed.
+Methods of developing a composition:
+  with reference to time-order,
+  with reference to position in space,
+  by use of comparison or contrast,
+  by use of generalization and facts,
+  by stating cause and effect,
+  by a combination of methods.
+Metonymy.
+Metrical romance.
+Metrical tale.
+Mill.
+Mill, J. S.
+Miller, Mary Rogers.
+Milton.
+Mode.
+Montgomery.
+Morris, Clara.
+Motive, in persuasion.
+
+
+Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below);
+  kinds of,
+  use of description in,
+  general narration,
+  narrative poetry.
+Narrative themes.
+Newcomer.
+Notes:
+  formal,
+  informal.
+Nouns.
+Number.
+
+
+Observation:
+  of actions,
+  order of,
+  accuracy in,
+  observation of impression.
+Obverse statements.
+Ode.
+Ollivaut.
+Oral compositions.
+Order of events.
+Outline:
+  of a paragraph.
+  the brief.
+  making of.
+  use of in exposition.
+
+
+Palmer.
+Paragraph:
+  defined,
+  topic statement,
+  importance of,
+  length,
+  indentation,
+  reasons for studying,
+  methods of development--
+    by specific instances,
+    by giving details,
+    in time-order,
+    as determined by position in space,
+    by comparison,
+    by cause and effect,
+    by repetition,
+    by a combination of methods.
+Paraphrasing.
+Participles.
+Partition.
+Parts of speech.
+Period: rules for.
+Person.
+Personification.
+Persuasion:
+  differs from argument,
+  importance and necessity of,
+  motive in,
+  material of,
+  appeal to feelings,
+  with argument.
+Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart.
+Philips, David Graham.
+Phillips, Wendell.
+Phrases.
+Plot:
+  interrelation with character.
+Poe.
+Poetry: Chapter VII;
+  aim of,
+  kinds of.
+Point: of a story,
+  _see also_ climax.
+Point of view:
+  selection of details effected by,
+  implied,
+  changing,
+  place in paragraph.
+Possibility: in argument.
+Post.
+Prepositions.
+Preston and Dodge.
+Principal parts of verbs.
+Probability:
+  in narration,
+  in argument.
+Procter, Adelaide.
+Pronouns.
+Pronunciation.
+Proportion of parts: for emphasis.
+Propositions:
+  specific,
+  general,
+  exposition of,
+  necessary to argument,
+  of fact and of theory,
+  statement of.
+Proverbs: use in argument.
+Punctuation.
+
+
+Quotation marks: rules for.
+
+
+Rankin.
+Read.
+Reasoning:
+  inductive,
+  errors of induction,
+  deductive,
+  relation between inductive and deductive,
+  errors of deduction.
+Reasons: number and value of.
+Recitations:
+  preparation for,
+  topical.
+Refutation.
+Reid, Captain Mayne.
+Repetition:
+  developing a paragraph by,
+  exposition by use of.
+Reproduction:
+  of a story,
+  of the thought of a paragraph.
+Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
+Rhyme.
+Rhythm: variation in.
+Richards, Laura E.
+Right: questions of.
+Robertson.
+Roosevelt.
+Ruskin.
+
+
+Scansion.
+Scott.
+Semicolon: rules for.
+Sentences:
+  length,
+  in conversation,
+  relations,
+  rhetorical features.
+Sewell, Anna.
+Shakespeare.
+Shelley.
+Sign: argument from.
+Simile.
+Slang.
+Smith.
+Song.
+Sonnet.
+Sources of ideas.
+Specific instances:
+  development of a paragraph by use of,
+  use in argument and exposition,
+  development of a composition by use of,
+  use in exposition.
+Spelling.
+Spencer.
+Stanza.
+Stevenson.
+Stoddard.
+Strong verbs.
+Subject:
+  selection of,
+  adapted to reader,
+  sources,
+  should be definite,
+  narrowing.
+Suggestions, _see_ cautions.
+Summaries, at the end of the chapters.
+Summarizing paragraph.
+Syllogism.
+Symons.
+Synecdoche.
+Synonyms.
+
+
+Tarkington.
+Taylor.
+Tennyson.
+Tense.
+Terms:
+  specific, general,
+  explanation of,
+  exposition of,
+  use in argument and exposition.
+Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and
+  reproduction themes.
+Thoreau.
+Thurston.
+Time-order.
+Title: selecting of.
+Topic statement.
+Transition from one paragraph to another.
+Transition paragraph.
+Trowbridge.
+Turner.
+
+
+Unity:
+  aided by time relations,
+  aided by position in space,
+  definition,
+  in life;
+  in outline,
+  in composition,
+  in sentences,
+  selection of details giving,
+  selection of facts in exposition,
+  aided by outline.
+
+
+Van Dyke.
+Van Rensselaer (Mrs.).
+Variety.
+Verbs.
+Verse: names of.
+Vocabulary:
+  how to increase,
+  words applicable to classes of objects.
+Voice.
+
+
+Wallace.
+Warner.
+Wessels.
+Whittier.
+Wilcox, Ella Wheeler.
+Woode.
+Words:
+  choice of,
+  spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use,
+  relations of,
+  adapted to reader,
+  selection,
+  use of simpler words,
+  selection,
+  applicable to classes of objects,
+  offices of,
+  special list of.
+Wordsworth.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12088 ***
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Composition-Rhetoric
+
+Author: Stratton D. Brooks
+
+Release Date: April 20, 2004 [EBook #12088]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPOSITION-RHETORIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Maddock, John R. Bilderback and PG
+Distributed Proofreaders
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+
+
+
+                         COMPOSITION-RHETORIC
+
+                                 BY
+
+                          STRATTON D. BROOKS
+               _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._
+
+                                AND
+
+                           MARIETTA HUBBARD
+      _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO
+                         AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+                                1905
+                         STRATTON D. BROOKS.
+
+                  Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                            Brooks's Rhet.
+                              W.P. 10
+
+
+                        To MARCIA STUART BROOKS
+                   Whose teaching first demonstrated
+                   to the authors that composition
+                   could become a delight and pleasure,
+                   this book is dedicated......
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor
+to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to
+enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly,
+whatever he may find within him worthy of expression.
+
+Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the
+book:--
+
+First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition
+of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of
+the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the
+pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of
+much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for
+the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to
+correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process;
+and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition
+teaching.
+
+Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the
+needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of
+discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such
+a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need
+to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in
+each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book,
+therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration,
+exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete
+treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the
+material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil.
+
+Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under
+favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and
+emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most
+important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write
+something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The
+authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high
+school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It
+is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every
+theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the
+criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary,
+pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well;
+and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed
+toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal
+embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him
+of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching
+of composition.
+
+The plan of the book is as follows:--
+
+1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration,
+exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that
+inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent
+repetition of an act.
+
+2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and
+the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false
+standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it
+appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of
+details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces
+hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that
+inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other
+things, it is better to do but one thing at a time.
+
+3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed
+to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended
+to provide for frequent drills in oral composition.
+
+4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of
+composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater
+length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as
+a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to
+make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more
+important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a
+coherent and unified whole.
+
+5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil
+some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known
+to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that
+the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in
+its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If
+the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little
+advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique,
+or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and
+distribute his commas.
+
+6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I,
+but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is
+adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By
+means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of
+the topics they are studying.
+
+7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in
+rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because
+comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the
+increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school
+to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can
+be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school
+course.
+
+8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to
+furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the
+pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a
+principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into
+practice.
+
+Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon
+the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and
+suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book.
+
+The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to
+Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois;
+Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English,
+Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High
+School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E.
+Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School.
+
+The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier,
+Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and
+by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of
+their works.
+
+Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century
+Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for
+permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the
+publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's,
+Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to
+Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and
+Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin
+H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I
+
+1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience
+
+II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination
+
+III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language
+
+IV. The Purpose of Expression
+
+V. The Whole Composition
+
+VI. Letter Writing
+
+VII. Poetry
+
+
+PART II
+
+VIII. Description
+
+IX. Narration
+
+X. Exposition
+
+XI. Argument
+
+Appendix
+
+I. Elements of Form
+
+II. Review of Grammar
+
+III. Figures of Speech
+
+IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence
+
+V. List of Synonyms
+
+VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage
+
+Index
+
+
+
+PART 1
+
+
+1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE
+
++1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot
+write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk
+about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know
+little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as
+subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that
+there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are
+those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we
+tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise
+interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of
+ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of
+ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure
+to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this
+book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with
+pleasure_.
+
+
++2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them.
+There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from
+experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and
+we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by
+conversation or by reading.
+
+Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and
+do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the
+greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in
+this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression
+of ideas gained through experience.
+
+We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We
+may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or
+to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes
+pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to
+do with the expression of ideas of this kind.
+
+We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through
+conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of
+value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is
+treated in the third chapter.
+
+
++3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people
+sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say."
+Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience.
+Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell
+about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your
+friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of
+school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience
+furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and
+this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_.
+The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your
+own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and
+seldom worth doing.
+
+Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own,
+but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and
+what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that
+they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself.
+
+Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not
+presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes
+the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best
+set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the
+things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best
+apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are
+best known to you.
+
+Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and
+definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar
+language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than
+does either imagination or reading.
+
+
++4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends
+upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you
+mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say
+may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your
+hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must
+first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express
+it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You
+will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether
+you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not
+so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the
+meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask
+yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said
+what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the
+listener?"
+
+
++Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_--
+
+1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your
+parents or friends? Tell the class about it.
+
+2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class
+may know exactly what you did.
+
+3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two
+or three months. Tell the class about one of them.
+
+4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you
+told the event exactly as it occurred?
+
+
++5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an
+interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain
+this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you
+have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning
+of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different.
+Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its
+purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we
+mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take
+care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest.
+
+
++6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such
+a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are
+related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an
+important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to
+render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually
+desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and
+_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by
+telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question,
+_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I
+were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and
+who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were
+in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are
+to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the
+trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks"
+could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the
+story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ
+from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went
+to visit a friend in New York."
+
+It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the
+introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story
+telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken
+from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the
+preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story
+may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In
+relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it
+may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or
+'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time
+is not definitely stated.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Notice what elements are included in each of the following
+introductions:--
+
+1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly
+three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two
+tried on some persons accused of witchcraft.
+
+2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered
+from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command.
+
+3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted
+civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open
+boat.
+
+4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the
+small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad
+shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever
+with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his
+head.
+
+5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about
+a musket shot from the fort.
+
+6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer
+sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a
+grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a
+brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at
+its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit.
+
+7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from
+Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the
+country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a
+mild discussion of the American universities.
+
+8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge.
+
+"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah;
+you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all
+didn't find no birds."
+
+The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two
+companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against
+the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was
+tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular.
+
+9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;
+   I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three;
+   "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew,
+   "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through.
+   Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest,
+   And into the midnight we galloped abreast.
+--Browning.
+
+
++Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which
+you were personally concerned._
+
+The following may suggest a subject:--
+   1. How I made friends with the squirrels.
+   2. A trick of a tame crow.
+   3. Why I missed the train.
+   4. How a horse was rescued.
+   5. Lost and found.
+   6. My visit to a menagerie.
+
+(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you
+know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that
+your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there.
+Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in
+understanding the events which follow.)
+
+
++7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned
+with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace
+occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more
+important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be
+readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events.
+The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is
+reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a
+story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the
+point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the
+beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag.
+
+At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest?
+
+
+During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was
+alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were
+away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old
+ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of
+injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed,
+for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such
+detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we
+felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or
+rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements.
+
+One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious.
+Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men
+crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the
+fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief
+glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over
+his shoulder, while the other carried a saber.
+
+"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers
+in the orchard."
+
+Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the
+orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they
+were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and
+sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine
+which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns.
+
+Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it
+was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on
+stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house.
+We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and
+the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what
+seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house.
+
+Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and
+look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the
+corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men
+were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson.
+They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window,
+the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped
+to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday."
+
+Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber,
+while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket.
+
+
+What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story
+to begin it as follows?
+
+
+"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa
+Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and
+the other a pitchfork."
+
+
+Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the
+beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the
+house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story?
+Is it necessary to add anything to the story?
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its
+climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which
+suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when
+you come to it?
+
+
+1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a
+great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They
+kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a
+pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after
+the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted
+nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down
+the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed
+with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature
+had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that
+was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely
+turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the
+other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and
+another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by
+a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and
+some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were
+not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of
+serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded
+the camp?
+
+Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what
+to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept
+out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead
+them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the
+level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly.
+
+He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval
+bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at
+the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As
+far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A
+strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out
+what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded.
+
+He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep;
+and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure
+they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke
+and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures
+round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by
+hundreds into the water.
+
+The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at
+a glance.
+
+"Turtles," he said.
+
+"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?"
+
+"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great
+hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand."
+
+--Captain Mayne Reid.
+
+Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the
+beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place
+of turtles?
+
+
+2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn
+Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man
+who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the
+important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield,
+the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St.
+Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never
+asked to see his pass.
+
+"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of
+my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my
+train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find
+this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for
+Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from
+the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass
+reminded me that I did not have it.
+
+"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on
+my mere representation that I had a pass.
+
+"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on
+company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in
+time. You must take me."
+
+"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and
+could not afford to make any mistakes.
+
+"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office;
+but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I
+settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an
+all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting.
+Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to
+the conductor.
+
+"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness.
+
+"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent
+yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one
+dollar and twelve cents."
+
+"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a
+palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my
+pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my
+fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that
+made his eyes stick out.
+
+"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't
+raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you
+were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule."
+
+"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years,
+that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way."
+
++Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued
+throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice
+each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and
+relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting
+of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish
+opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal
+incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:--
+
+  1. A day with my cousin.
+  2. Caught in the act.
+  3. A joke on me.
+  4. My peculiar mistake.
+  5. My experience on a farm.
+  6. My experience in a strange Sunday school.
+  7. What I saw when I was coming to school.
+
+(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What
+must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the
+point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the
+point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too
+long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?)
+
++8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or
+short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate
+by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will
+be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential
+characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily
+directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in
+this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for
+yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what
+is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to
+make such decisions.
+
+To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or
+suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you
+are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you.
+
+
++Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used
+for an oral composition._
+
+(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read
+smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that
+the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say?
+Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?)
+
+
++9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of
+interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after
+the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point
+marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring
+the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest
+itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a
+forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil
+War related on page 18.
+
+
++Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. A school picnic.
+  2. A race.
+  3. The largest fire I have seen.
+  4. A skating accident.
+  5. A queer mistake.
+  6. An experience with a tramp.
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the
+introduction; the point; the conclusion.)
+
+
++10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences
+arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what
+we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to
+telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was
+done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs
+during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our
+description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so
+that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly,
+methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless,
+haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very
+different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the
+differences are.
+
+
++Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._
+
+    Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work.
+  2. How my neighbor mows his lawn.
+  3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down.
+  4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other
+     animal.
+  5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did.
+
+
+(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable
+words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need
+to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?)
+
+
++11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling
+events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to
+include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some
+interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear
+everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a
+statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket,
+but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain
+interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is
+desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and
+that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point,
+are better omitted.
+
+
++Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the
+following subjects, or one suggested by them:_--
+
+  1. My first hunt.
+  2. Why I was tardy.
+  3. My first fishing trip.
+  4. My narrow escape.
+  5. A runaway.
+  6. What I did last Saturday.
+
+(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said
+what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the
+introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.)
+
+
++12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in
+establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about
+only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they
+actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who
+were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first
+what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear
+to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they
+really happened at the same time.
+
+In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the
+relation in time that the different events bear to one another.
+
+
+At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great
+commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be
+described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small
+as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into
+the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the
+time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water.
+By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger
+than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the
+mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and
+two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by
+the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing
+towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy
+were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the
+first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_
+desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders.
+_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it
+seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he
+would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from
+the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with
+powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and
+lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived.
+
+Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_,
+etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under
+discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a
+direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without
+their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time
+relations.
+
+
++Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named
+under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you
+have not already used._
+
+(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of
+the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is
+concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the
+transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader?
+Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What
+other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+  1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas.
+
+  2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language.
+
+  3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for
+       composition purposes because--
+       _a._ They are interesting.
+       _b._ They are your own.
+       _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite.
+       _d._ They offer free choice of language.
+
+  4. The two essentials of expression are--
+       _a._ To say what you mean.
+       _b._ To say it clearly.
+  5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest.
+       Therefore,--
+       _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why.
+       _b._ Every story worth telling has a point.
+       _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the
+       development
+       of the point.
+       _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly
+       after the point is told.
+
+  6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or
+       more events occur at the same time.
+
+  7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of
+       correction.
+
+
+
+II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION
+
+
++13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and
+spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new
+combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to
+distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred
+from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of
+writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an
+imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been
+carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an
+excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that
+imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The
+production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has
+occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater
+part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of
+the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative
+character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes
+and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and
+effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences.
+
+
++14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas
+furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished
+by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails.
+Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the
+time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression
+upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in
+the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas
+as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along.
+This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater
+freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are
+less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more
+difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold
+the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached.
+
+
++15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is
+equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which
+imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as
+you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not
+determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events
+are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without
+limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and
+probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater
+interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story
+which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy
+tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real
+world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should
+tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An
+imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and
+say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more
+satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something
+manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing
+is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life,
+and states his imaginary events so that they seem real.
+
+
++Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You
+need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should
+be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._
+
+  1. A trip in a sailboat.
+  2. The travels of a penny.
+  3. How I was lost.
+  4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt.
+  5. The mouse's account of the same hunt.
+  6. My experience with a burglar.
+  7. The burglar's story.
+
+
++16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other
+desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as
+"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally
+clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem
+harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and
+smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in
+suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious
+effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy
+sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may
+remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality
+which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the
+eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme
+aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will
+assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to
+eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations.
+
+
++17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme
+none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same
+thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains
+interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the
+continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and
+equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times.
+
+Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is
+better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the
+thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next.
+High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is
+sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_
+needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show
+that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A
+professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by
+underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that
+he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words
+used too frequently, and often incorrectly.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it
+with one of your own themes.
+
+
+I was  witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went
+out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large
+ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long,
+and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they
+never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips
+incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were
+covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a
+_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against
+the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these
+Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground
+was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black.
+
+It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I
+ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged
+in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human
+soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau.
+
+
+2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently,
+underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it
+in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so
+as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions
+give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your
+composition.
+
+
+Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. The trout's revenge.
+  2. A sparrow's mistake.
+  3. A fortunate shot.
+  4. The freshman and the professor.
+  5. What the bookcase thought about it.
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary
+_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the
+euphony by a different choice of words?)
+
+
+18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length
+of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some
+pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:--
+
+
+Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one
+of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The
+child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare.
+
+
+A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is
+tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent.
+Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not
+satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come
+to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might
+be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their
+habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he
+finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts
+and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce
+sentences of different length and different structure, because they more
+clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in
+accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this,
+we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony.
+
+In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken
+not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too
+many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the
+meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be
+introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the
+meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to
+separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones
+into those of greater length.
+
+Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several
+ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the
+meaning obscure:--
+
+
+Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three
+days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the
+South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark
+and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where
+the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went,
+squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding
+through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground
+hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and
+brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in
+wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows.
+
+
++Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. School in the year 2000.
+  2. The lost door key.
+  3. Our big bonfire.
+  4. Kidnapped.
+  5. A bear hunt.
+  6. A mistake in the telegram.
+  7. How Fido rescued his master.
+
+
+(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into
+longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you
+omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can
+you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the
+subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in
+your story seem probable?)
+
+
++19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section
+that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as
+long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion,
+are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with
+good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences
+are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may
+be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by
+the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness
+on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either
+because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a
+familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words
+grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of
+words and their faulty combination into sentences.
+
+You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely
+to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written
+work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language.
+Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use
+will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find
+that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take
+their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may
+not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where
+such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find
+that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by
+giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of
+_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_.
+
+In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short
+sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would
+seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is
+put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying
+the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely
+relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several
+printed reports of conversation.
+
+
++20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to
+tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by
+experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to
+arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances
+that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not
+begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you
+write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by
+the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In
+the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the
+picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be
+accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it.
+
+
++Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in
+the picture on page 38._
+
+(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change
+the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of
+variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each
+time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to
+its chief point?)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
++21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a
+word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired.
+The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes.
+As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase.
+We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and
+we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there
+is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to
+express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary.
+
+It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our
+writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We
+know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use
+them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which
+we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear
+in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do
+not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words
+from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word,
+it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear
+in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word
+to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use
+it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious
+effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable.
+
+A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to
+_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is
+restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always
+_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can
+only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he
+has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English.
+Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between
+ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words
+is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out
+these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be
+gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction
+in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each
+other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix.
+
+
++22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper
+meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited
+to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school
+age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use
+by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be
+suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help
+you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent.
+
+The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the
+wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable
+adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence;
+a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a
+lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in
+story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs.
+
+What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following
+selection, taken from an old school reader?
+
+
+_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been
+running so violently?
+
+_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting
+myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he
+came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from
+him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the
+geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very
+loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their
+gallant chief.
+
+_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the
+gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the
+appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember
+Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came
+they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much
+intelligence as any of the feathered tribe.
+
+_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that
+term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice
+of so degrading an epithet.
+
+
++23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with
+relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We
+may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible.
+There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from
+the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such
+tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is
+shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older.
+
+By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to
+give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a
+story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader
+for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if
+the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under
+similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where
+the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because
+the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales
+neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability.
+
+
++Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below.
+Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._
+
+  1. A week in Mars.
+  2. Exploring the lake bottom.
+  3. The cat's defense of her kittens.
+     (_a_) As told by the cat.
+     (_b_) As told by the dog.
+  4. How the fox fooled the hound.
+  5. Diary of a donkey.
+  6. A biography of Jack Frost.
+
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to
+be assigned by the teacher.)
+
+
++24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you
+can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase
+your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you
+will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your
+own. To do this, four things must be attended to:--
+
+1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until
+its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the
+mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will
+study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by
+mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you
+can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of
+the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering
+of the words peculiar to that subject.
+
+2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its
+pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it,
+and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture.
+
+3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition
+as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions
+glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is
+necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with
+the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea
+clearly from others closely related to it.
+
+4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come
+into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important
+that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you
+_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_
+soon and often.
+
+
++Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following
+subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._
+
+  1. The good fairy.
+  2. Mary's luck.
+  3. The man in the moon.
+  4. The golden apple.
+  5. A wonderful fountain pen.
+  6. The goobergoo and the kantan.
+
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to
+be assigned by the teacher.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences
+    is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of
+    literature.
+
+2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for
+    composition purposes, because--
+    _a._ They are your own.
+    _b._ They offer free choice of language.
+   They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because--
+    _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency.
+    _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording.
+    _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of
+         statement that will keep the interest of the reader.
+
+3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who
+    most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so
+    that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing.
+
+4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition.
+
+5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by--
+    _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases.
+    _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways.
+    _c._ Using sentences of different lengths.
+
+6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences.
+
+7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions.
+
+8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ.
+    Each should be increased. With each new word
+    attention should be given to--
+    _a._ Spelling.
+    _b._ Pronunciation.
+    _c._ Meaning.
+    _d._ Use.
+
+
+
+III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE
+
+
++25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have
+been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which
+we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and
+imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view.
+Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a
+medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer
+must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part
+of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and
+these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is
+absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will
+be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language.
+
+
++26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form
+a clear mental image of each scene:--
+
+
+At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable
+woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant
+soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long
+generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green
+moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle
+dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian
+chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of
+hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had
+hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over
+a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred
+cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to
+lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group
+of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids;
+deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the
+fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals
+beneath a canopy of forest boughs.
+
+
+Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same
+time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The
+formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent
+effort to create them.
+
+Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness,
+innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set
+forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the
+dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the
+ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of
+the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of
+dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently
+accompanied by pictures.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of
+the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise
+from those that do not.
+
+
+1.  Before these fields were shorn and tilled,
+      Full to the brim our rivers flowed;
+    The melody of waters filled
+      The fresh and boundless wood;
+    And torrents dashed, and rivulets played,
+      And fountains spouted in the shade.
+
+--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_.
+
+
+2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and
+at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward
+felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the
+delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate
+examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the
+black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest
+yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the
+shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like
+a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island.
+
+--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_.
+
+
+3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to
+the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through
+the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof
+and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The
+vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the
+neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with
+wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks
+and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for
+a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms
+abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration
+which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret
+gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
+4.  Under a spreading chestnut tree
+      The village smithy stands;
+    The smith, a mighty man is he,
+      With large and sinewy hands;
+    And the muscles of his brawny arms
+      Are strong as iron bands.
+
+--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_.
+
+
+5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary,
+    Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore--
+    While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
+    As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door;
+    "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door--
+       Only this, and nothing more."
+
+--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_.
+
+
+6.  Where with black cliffs the torrents toil,
+    He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil,
+    Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes
+    Beheld the River Demon rise;
+    The mountain mist took form and limb
+    Of noontide hag or goblin grim.
+
+--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_.
+
+
+7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of
+the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with
+thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch
+fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of
+breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons
+down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout
+keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and
+assist him with his load.
+
+--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_.
+
+
++27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their
+purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image
+correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an
+unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image
+represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image
+presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich;
+she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the
+meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not
+be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress
+may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or
+indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is
+blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word
+_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not
+called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or
+substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore
+either incomplete or inaccurate.
+
+An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth,
+and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always
+possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more
+or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often
+in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind
+and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare
+image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure
+or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more
+strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness
+in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well
+for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact
+expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises
+from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the
+formation of incomplete and inaccurate images.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings
+you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not
+attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct
+image.
+
+
+1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of
+whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks.
+
+2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an
+attractive object.
+
+3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to
+face with a familiar figure.
+
+4.  Somewhat back from the village street
+    Stands the old-fashioned country seat.
+    Across its antique portico
+    Tall poplar trees their shadows throw,
+    And from its station in the hall
+    An ancient timepiece says to all:
+      "Forever--never!
+       Never--forever!"
+
+--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_.
+
+5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels
+from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture
+was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building.
+
+6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which
+escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had
+reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the
+western water bastion of the fort.
+
+7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochère_, on the extreme
+edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it.
+She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again.
+
+8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a
+valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on
+the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices.
+
+9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from
+afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an
+alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae
+in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it
+springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a
+heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment.
+
+
+_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete
+images in every case?
+
+
+_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete.
+Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to
+form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not
+clear, but only those that assist in forming images.
+
+
++Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or
+place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates
+complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_--
+
+  1. A party dress I should like.
+  2. My room.
+  3. A cozy glen.
+  4. In the apple orchard.
+  5. Going to the fire.
+  6. The hand-organ man.
+  7. A hornets' nest.
+  8. The last inning.
+  9. An exciting race.
+
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the
+_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear
+your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when
+writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you
+rewrite them so as to give variety?)
+
+
++28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident
+which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of
+their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a
+vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each
+scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more
+difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language
+is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through
+experience.
+
+When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our
+memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image,
+and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The
+author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words
+and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy
+work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we
+may be able to find.
+
+Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is
+necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer
+presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of
+a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image
+memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained
+pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I
+ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task
+will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has.
+In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves
+described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these
+images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With
+him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and
+reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly
+in mind. Try this in your own lessons.
+
+If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story
+that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of
+the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making
+the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be
+concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and
+not with the language that first caused them to appear.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you
+have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will
+cause the class to form clear mental images.
+
+2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the
+Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_.
+
+3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what
+happened.
+
+4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine.
+Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers
+will form like images.
+
+
++Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._
+
+(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of
+their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least
+importance.)
+
+
++29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call
+up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct
+mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar.
+Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand
+correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a
+comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it
+is like.
+
+If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would
+give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike
+animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as
+well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper
+image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled
+to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal.
+
+If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes
+figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes
+and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make
+language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of
+expression.
+
+We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like
+another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is
+directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by
+_like, as_, etc.
+
+
+    He fought like a lion.
+    The river wound like a serpent around the mountains.
+
+
+If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality,
+their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a
+statement that one is the other.
+
+
+    "He was a lion in the fight."
+    "The river wound its serpent course."
+
+
+Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals
+are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called
+personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based
+upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher.
+
+
+    This music crept by me upon the waters.
+
+    Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to
+      season.
+    Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say,
+    That time comes stealing on by night and day?
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
++30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile,
+metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the
+others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some
+suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners.
+
+1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly
+everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare
+English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the
+essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your
+expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add
+to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature
+are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the
+beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative
+purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose
+writing will show how rarely they are used.
+
+2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are
+appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject
+and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in
+his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them.
+
+3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative,
+depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things
+compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to
+one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if
+neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers.
+
+4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but
+hackneyed figures are worse than none.
+
+5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short
+ones, should be avoided.
+
+6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be
+carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results
+which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of
+beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors
+in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical.
+The following will serve to illustrate:--
+
+
+1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance
+and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope.
+
+2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his
+country and a surveyor of ability.
+
+3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all
+on board.
+
+4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship
+"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a
+cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every
+city, town, and village in the United States.
+
+5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden
+footprints of an unseen hand.
+
+6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or
+climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire
+into its shell.
+
+7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Are the images which you form made more vivid by
+the use of the figures in the following selections?
+
+1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds.
+
+2. And when its force expended,
+   The harmless storm was ended;
+   And as the sunrise splendid
+      Came blushing o'er the sea--
+
+3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear,
+   Heels over head, to his proper sphere--
+   Heels over head and head over heels,--
+   Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,--
+   So fell Darius.
+
+--J.T. Trowbridge.
+
+4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social
+life, somebody is always at the drowning point.
+
+--Hawthorne.
+
+5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with
+her at last.
+
+--Hawthorne.
+
+6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled
+up.
+
+--George Eliot.
+
+7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow
+limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his
+hair, and barking out a question now and then.
+
+8. A sky above,
+   Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move.
+
+--Lowell.
+
+9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is
+attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who
+prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under
+its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to
+exterminate it after a defeat.
+
+--Macaulay.
+
+10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our
+time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of
+every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the
+English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest
+declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field
+of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery.
+
+--Macaulay.
+
+11.                     And close behind her stood
+    Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men,
+    Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain,
+    And labor. Each was like a Druid rock,
+    Or like a spire of land that stands apart
+    Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind
+    On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as
+ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use
+hold to their moorings forever.
+
+--Mill.
+
+
++Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one
+of the following subjects:_--
+
+  1. A modern fable.
+  2. The willow whistle.
+  3. How I baked a cake.
+  4. The delayed picnic.
+  5. The missing slipper.
+  6. A misdirected letter.
+  7. A ride on a raft.
+  8. The rescue of Ezekiel.
+  9. A railway experience.
+ 10. A soldier's soldier.
+
+(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form?
+Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.)
+Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance
+with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it
+placed so as to give the correct meaning?)
+
+
++31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The
+emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is
+all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language
+we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is
+concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our
+understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the
+meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word
+groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the
+relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these
+will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to
+consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs.
+
+
++32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must
+understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups
+(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and
+expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any
+conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex,
+the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know
+what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which
+is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case
+our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations
+between words and word groups. We may understand them without any
+knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a
+knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated
+in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here.
+
+
++33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the
+introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images.
+When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar
+way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words
+used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will
+fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the
+peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think
+precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings
+of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas
+than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get
+confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine
+exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language
+expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element
+of success in life.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that
+we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following
+sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence?
+Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning
+clear.
+
+1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political
+speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of
+the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms.
+
+2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to
+prevent mistakes.
+
+3. The aërial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem
+structure.
+
+4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean
+temperature over the region embraced in the map.
+
+5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles
+of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to
+the membrane closing the oval window.
+
+6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open
+order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian
+phalanx.
+
+7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of
+carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day
+that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should
+be done daily, whether assigned or not.
+
+
+34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader
+should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a
+paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words
+employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be
+understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a
+particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is
+doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood.
+When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question,
+Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar?
+
++Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using
+words that you think will be understood by your readers:_--
+
+  1. How we breathe.
+  2. How to make a kite.
+  3. The causes of the seasons.
+  4. Why wood floats on water.
+  5. The use of baking powder.
+  6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra.
+
+(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader
+will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice
+the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?)
+
+
++35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but
+little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys
+his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the
+exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are
+thus of double importance (Section 21).
+
+Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises
+from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes
+one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and
+expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent
+with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These
+usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings
+of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences.
+
+In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many
+sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the
+dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter
+on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the
+text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After
+you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class
+that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will
+consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly
+used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to
+illustrate such reports:--
+
+1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or
+deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the
+result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as
+advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of
+these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his
+partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice
+that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take
+_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to
+accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to
+settle the case out of court by paying a large sum."
+
+2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by
+considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_,
+to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from
+secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but
+both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The
+latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited
+newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired
+yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used,
+it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may
+transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed
+channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a
+gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become
+known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know
+of them though few can tell just how the information was spread.
+_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge.
+
+
++Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following
+groups of words:_--
+
+  1. Allude, mention.
+  2. Beside, besides.
+  3. Character, reputation.
+  4. Degrade, demean, debase.
+  5. Last, latest, preceding.
+  6. Couple, pair.
+  7. Balance, rest, remainder.
+
+(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can
+you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do
+the illustrative reports above?)
+
+NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are
+given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and
+at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found
+profitable.
+
+
++36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of
+several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any
+particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding.
+In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must
+understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others.
+Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them."
+Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the
+first.
+
+In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others.
+Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the
+sentences are considered in their relations to each other.
+
+
+Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the
+world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the
+projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand
+shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other
+great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing
+else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great
+occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear
+the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody
+spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin,
+so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes.
+
+
+Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was
+much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing.
+So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He
+was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old
+building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There
+was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make
+it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as
+his workshop.
+
+
+In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence
+takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal
+pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or
+place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the
+other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation
+in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some
+preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer,
+the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and
+the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to
+cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning
+clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules.
+Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those
+mentioned above are used.
+
+
++Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. The last quarter.
+  2. An excursion with the physical geography class.
+  3. What I saw while riding to town.
+  4. The broken bicycle.
+  5. An hour in the study hall.
+  6. Seen from my study window.
+
+(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are
+the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid
+ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If
+imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?)
+
+
++37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is
+not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context,
+just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or
+follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made
+clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail
+in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more
+important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are
+assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be
+memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of
+importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor
+details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations
+that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the
+lesson.
+
+In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what
+they are, but not what is said about them.
+
+
+In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased
+by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and
+flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams
+and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a
+system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would
+be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of
+his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where
+he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that
+in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square
+miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation.
+Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as
+productive as that of the Nile.
+
+Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually
+furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded
+highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than
+overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and
+cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage
+or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions
+which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found
+along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream
+valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the
+windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses
+through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some
+stream on the other side.
+
+Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery.
+Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without
+water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the
+brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation
+which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land
+into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream
+valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as
+well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny
+meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado
+canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
+In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to
+some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the
+same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences
+related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+
+
+
++38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page
+67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is
+about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or
+sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur
+in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and
+concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive
+summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement.
+
+In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select
+or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our
+own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may
+easily grasp the topic statement of each.
+
+When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a
+sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is
+usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or
+more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the
+paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly
+different form.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not
+expressed, make one.
+
+
+1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is
+trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His
+imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then
+trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them.
+The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and
+sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the
+exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power.
+She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children
+freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers.
+
+--Bradley
+
+
+2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It
+is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though
+there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as
+habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some
+of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores
+of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts,
+punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And
+so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they
+were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at
+table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the
+other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they
+brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their
+minds, a part of their life, like their religion.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This
+fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be
+accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes
+to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never
+exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and
+processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost
+care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1
+lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a
+grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is
+very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of
+a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to
+estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement
+may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer
+than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use
+of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly
+with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one
+millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this
+approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is
+not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more
+than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can
+be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet;
+but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not
+being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected.
+Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833
+miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles.
+
+--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of
+society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found
+in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and
+the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance
+have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of
+the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as
+well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the
+various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and
+provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great
+human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were
+for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now
+from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna.
+
+--Macaulay: _History of England_.
+
+
+5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He
+was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the
+shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid
+all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the
+company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington,
+the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the
+kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New
+England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the
+bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or   of the
+waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's
+voice to his home by the summer sea.
+
+--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_.
+
+
+6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime.
+There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by
+one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and
+the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass
+into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when
+winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land
+snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun
+hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the
+stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in
+the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the
+horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under
+the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the
+frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells.
+
+--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_.
+
+7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a
+symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a
+catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort
+of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of
+living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these
+fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how
+they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they
+cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take
+pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless
+Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is
+no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not
+generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are
+not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not
+require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to
+drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait
+an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes
+open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no
+one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and
+yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good
+eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to
+school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they
+have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the
+time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not
+too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life
+of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless
+attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to
+rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched,
+he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have
+stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is
+empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable
+eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life.
+
+--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a
+topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this
+topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic,
+or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close
+connection in thought?
+
+
++Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over
+private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it
+into a short paragraph._
+
+(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of
+your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in
+each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider
+the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to
+your paragraphs?)
+
+
++39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to
+reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability
+to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is
+evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of
+each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different
+subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one
+subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have
+in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:--
+
+
+General subject: The uses of rivers.
+  First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by
+    irrigation.
+  Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and
+    commerce.
+  Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery.
+
+
+While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper
+understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand
+thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The
+idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations
+to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you
+understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them.
+This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving
+thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It
+is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic
+statement.
+
+Read the following paragraph:--
+
+
+The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period
+of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds,
+and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil
+thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a
+rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest
+population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood
+plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a
+distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless
+desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the
+highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which
+overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one
+of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense
+population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris
+and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in
+ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older
+than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang
+in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the
+most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely
+productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
+Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are
+productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the
+rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations.
+
+In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind
+an outline about as follows:--
+
+Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world.
+
+1. Reasons.
+2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands.
+             (_b_) Nile.
+             (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates.
+             (_d_) Ganges.
+             (_e_) Hoang.
+             (_f_) Mississippi.
+
+In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in
+the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic
+statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or
+more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could
+furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about
+bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that
+could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile
+might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the
+recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not
+materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to
+remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power.
+
+It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written
+outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of
+dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an
+analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to
+remember the language of the writer.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of
+the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you
+furnish different illustrations?
+
+
+Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography,
+and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of
+western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist,
+western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler
+altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that
+the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the
+leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across
+central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic
+winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the
+mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and
+northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's
+temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As
+North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds,
+they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed
+Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous
+in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many
+nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps
+between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India.
+Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give,
+and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few
+peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state.
+Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water,
+which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting
+slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial
+rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of
+water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is
+employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A
+large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water
+power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with
+water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore
+the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest
+sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for
+agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the débris of the rocks washed
+into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus
+the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the
+soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry.
+The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large
+revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty
+million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many
+thousands of persons.
+
+--Adams: _Commercial Geography_.
+
+
+
+OUTLINE (to be completed)
+
+Mountain ranges have great influence upon--
+  I. Climate.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+ II. Political geography.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+III. Commerce.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+
+
+_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:--
+
+
+1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the
+law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body,
+brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords,
+excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines
+and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that
+they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were
+permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The
+third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could
+not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms
+excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and
+stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn
+blowers.
+
+--Gilman: _Story of Rome_.
+
+
+_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the
+paragraphs.
+
+
++Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the
+teacher._
+
+(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of
+what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea.
+Use different illustrations if you can.)
+
+NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable.
+
+
++40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the
+importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly
+depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The
+writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of
+sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that
+very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some
+central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our
+sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs
+that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make
+clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other
+and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any
+subject.
+
+
++41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be
+determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require
+several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single
+illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations
+may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make
+his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader
+will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words
+will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea,
+each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate
+paragraph.
+
+
++42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a
+paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a
+paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph.
+Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the
+reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about
+to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently.
+There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed
+conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the
+indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon
+clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing?
+
+Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet
+lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupés
+in frantic search for his own.
+
+"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a
+snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into
+the dark coupé, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions,
+turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat.
+
+There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her
+nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff
+against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her
+knees.
+
+Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car
+tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled
+in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows.
+
+Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery
+panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting
+vision.
+
+Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box,
+struck a light, and groaned as he read the time.
+
+At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then,
+as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt
+upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay.
+
+He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and
+hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the
+face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on.
+
+"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?"
+
+The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful
+mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--"
+
+
+
++Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_--
+
+  1. A personal incident.
+  2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses.
+  3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just
+     preceding.
+
+(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important
+enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one
+paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written,
+consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of
+them too short or too long?)
+
+
++43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in
+which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it
+contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually
+one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our
+thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both
+to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our
+own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence
+we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development.
+
+
++44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general
+statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once
+of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular
+occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido,
+knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some
+of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific
+instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we
+use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of
+our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific
+instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is
+a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and
+the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such
+illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to
+explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will
+use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose.
+
+In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and
+repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last
+part by means of several specific instances:--
+
+
+Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does
+not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is
+that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we
+must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a
+high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation
+will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good
+working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his
+business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the
+way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so
+doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great.
+At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his
+train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty
+people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine
+would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied
+a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a
+number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron
+vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on
+shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on
+a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer
+in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by
+hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders.
+The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half
+a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the
+gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the
+explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that
+type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that
+this instance is not an exception to the rule.
+
+--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish
+specific instances, in the following paragraphs?
+
+My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down
+from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy,
+middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and
+evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady,
+afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the
+safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for
+the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy.
+Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us,
+produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust
+Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new
+idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a
+printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of
+which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made
+to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his
+approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island,
+observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to
+widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next
+appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the
+sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power
+here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble
+stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of
+sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton
+dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He
+advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first
+wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed
+in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point
+of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither,
+till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down--
+down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock.
+
+--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_.
+
+
+No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no
+strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over
+till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me
+with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a
+man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?"
+
+"A what?" I asked.
+
+"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not
+offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of
+that name."
+
+With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and
+Newfoundland?"
+
+"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both
+these places."
+
+"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained.
+
+But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued:
+
+"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a
+milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?"
+
+At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded
+the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands
+together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?"
+
+"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained.
+
+"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who
+plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?"
+
+It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered
+thus for explanation.
+
+--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by
+giving specific instances.
+
+
++Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one
+of the following topic statements:_--
+
+
+1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one
+does not mind his business.
+
+2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer.
+
+3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at
+fault.
+
+4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks.
+
+5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much
+intelligence.
+
+6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty.
+
+7. Our school clock must see many interesting things.
+
+8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones.
+
+9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous.
+
+10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of
+people.
+
+11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting.
+
+(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic
+statement? Have you said what you intended to say?
+Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used
+_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?).
+
+
++45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a
+desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by
+giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once
+arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed
+my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These
+details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our
+interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our
+understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the
+details:--
+
+
+1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season
+of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was
+wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The
+tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether
+they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick
+stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like
+that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo.
+The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth
+was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away;
+and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher
+than my head.
+
+--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_.
+
+
+2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the
+estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet
+her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread
+and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt
+cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant.
+Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the
+Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and
+necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a
+magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked
+cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of
+forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian
+feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in
+turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who
+stood to receive them.
+
+--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_
+("Atlantic Monthly ").
+
+
++Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the
+following topic statements:_--
+
+
+1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer
+vacation.
+
+2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one
+who is not used to the language of the woods.
+
+3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's
+house.
+
+4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways.
+
+5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good
+judgment.
+
+6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city.
+
+7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow.
+
+8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type.
+
+9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance.
+
+10. A freshman's trials are numerous.
+
+
+(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and
+rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the
+order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?)
+
+
++46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow
+each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once
+think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in
+establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the
+details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of
+showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in
+Section 11.
+
+If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into
+paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The
+time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the
+paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow
+the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do
+not have topic sentences.
+
+In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time
+relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole
+selection:--
+
+
+He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the
+trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces
+off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a
+loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps
+until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door.
+
+There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which
+stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came
+trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking
+a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted
+across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid
+colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but
+she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so
+sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself.
+
+I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing
+the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had
+not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously
+about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the
+road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur,
+for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and
+leaning a little forward, we dashed after them.
+
+For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right;
+after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my
+mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing
+at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up
+the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To
+the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up
+the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another
+bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the
+flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground
+upon her at all.
+
+An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped
+and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord
+Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She
+has turned off there."
+
+I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven
+ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a
+scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with
+ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a
+headlong gallop.
+
+We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the
+green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long
+brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back,
+as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that
+strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the
+ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance
+that we might overtake her.
+
+While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but
+now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground
+in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we
+gained on them every moment.
+
+About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the
+earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this
+would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled
+among the rough clods, and fell.
+
+--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_.
+
+
++Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by
+means of the time relations._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. An adventure on horseback.
+  2. A trip with the engineer.
+  3. A day on the river.
+  4. Fido's mishaps.
+  5. An inquisitive crow.
+  6. The unfortunate letter carrier.
+  7. Teaching a calf to drink.
+  8. The story of a silver dollar.
+  9. A narrow escape.
+  10.An afternoon at the circus.
+  11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the
+     picture on page 90.
+
+
+(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences
+treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your
+story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.)
+
+
++47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of
+presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details
+themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct
+general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details
+clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two
+and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will
+depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye
+passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling
+the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining
+one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and
+states the details in his description in the order in which we would
+naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he
+most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the
+general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the
+description proceeds.
+
+
+The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong,
+tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant
+exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form,
+having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained
+a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was
+covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French
+call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar.
+His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was
+calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers.
+High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt
+almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and
+might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of
+passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead,
+the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache
+quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest
+might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in
+every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and
+seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping
+it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep
+scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a
+sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on
+the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight
+and partial degree distorted.
+
+The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in
+shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed
+that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the
+right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a
+peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather
+inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves
+and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to
+the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less
+obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his
+mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the
+knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel,
+ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the
+ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the
+rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged
+dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person.
+
+He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the
+road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully
+accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head,
+having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle
+hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other
+the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed
+sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his
+master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole,
+or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon
+his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at
+the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It
+was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being
+seen.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
+Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing
+to another, placing together in the description those which occur together
+in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing
+to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be
+called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first
+sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his
+forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description
+covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it
+those things which are associated in space.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the
+following details should be included in each paragraph?
+
+(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general
+appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_)
+coat, (_k_) nose.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the
+outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups.
+
+
+_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline
+and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their
+position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them?
+
+
+1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others.
+There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and
+the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps
+and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet
+feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had
+once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and
+vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a
+picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot
+where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all
+that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery,
+deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August
+sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A
+half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water
+long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they
+lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below
+the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting
+at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as
+if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow
+from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a
+pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it
+wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the
+eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were
+abrupt.
+
+--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday,
+Page & Co.)
+
+
+2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract
+observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely
+fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity
+which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat
+enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give
+expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt,
+to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt
+brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in
+numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature.
+These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length,
+intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden
+chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung
+around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her
+dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung
+a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves,
+which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was
+crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk,
+interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could
+be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after
+the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
++Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference
+to their association in space._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. Ichabod Crane.
+  2. Rip Van Winkle.
+  3. The man who lives near us.
+  4. A minister I met yesterday.
+  5. Our family doctor.
+  6. The gymnasium.
+  7. A fire engine.
+  8. The old church.
+  9. The shoe factory.
+  10. Some character in the book you are reading.
+
+
+(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the
+details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space
+order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form
+the mental image you wish him to form?)
+
+
++48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison,
+whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of
+objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained
+by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing
+with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to
+it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we
+at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A
+writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired
+comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand
+the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are
+unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other.
+
+In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they
+are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes
+differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may
+be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a
+paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following
+paragraphs:--
+
+
+1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the
+highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the
+height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty.
+Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than
+Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two
+falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong,
+though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the
+force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap.
+
+2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely.
+They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive
+accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's
+central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which
+tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh,
+grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the
+cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over
+the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reëchoes through the narrow
+canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of
+discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of
+London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less
+jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the
+wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be
+soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first
+disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._
+
+3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is
+active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the
+discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention;
+his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just,
+wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for
+battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet
+ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things,
+their claims, and their places.
+
+--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.
+
+
++Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._
+
+
+Suggested topics:--
+
+  1. The school, a beehive.
+  2. The body, a steam engine.
+  3. Two generals about whom you have read.
+  4. Girls, boys.
+  5. Two of your studies.
+  6. Graded school work, high school work.
+  7. Animal life, plant life.
+  8. Two of your classmates.
+
+
+(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the
+other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the
+reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not
+really needed.)
+
+
++49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied
+with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have
+produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another
+has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the
+question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is
+stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic
+statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its
+causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the
+effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its
+causes.
+
+The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is
+discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:--
+
+
+The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There
+is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause,
+or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in
+nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change
+to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long
+train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor
+of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen
+everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function
+of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena,
+and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and
+dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become
+wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when
+reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of
+causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and
+clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds
+interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study.
+
+--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the
+use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly,
+consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._
+
+_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following
+paragraphs?
+
+
+1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its
+temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at
+great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it
+can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and,
+being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the
+atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated
+springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the
+water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills;
+sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the
+water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves
+them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating
+on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted
+with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly
+evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath
+leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the
+roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until
+these meet and form one continuous column of stone.
+
+--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_.
+
+
+2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects
+the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed
+and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes
+paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker.
+Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent
+weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is
+impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell
+which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the
+comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and
+bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil
+effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent
+physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of
+forty.
+
+--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_.
+
+
+3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For
+example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with
+foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in
+morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also
+devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a
+part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to
+the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in
+things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done
+that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic
+Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more
+into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the
+Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men
+of his day.
+
+--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_.
+
+
++Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into
+paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_--
+
+1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would
+not last long.
+
+2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads.
+
+3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this
+country than in Europe.
+
+4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization.
+
+5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature.
+
+6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate.
+
+7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation.
+
+8. There are many swift rivers in New England.
+
+9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers.
+
+
+(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects
+which you have stated really follow the given causes?)
+
+
++50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different
+form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This
+is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons.
+In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts
+to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar
+way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of
+the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more
+than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making
+this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is
+excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault.
+
+Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to
+explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing
+is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to
+the original idea.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following
+paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:--
+
+
+1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people.
+No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the
+habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a
+change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it
+is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no
+changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man
+likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else.
+I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that
+liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the
+law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because
+he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and
+there is no protest in his soul against the doing.
+
+--Frederick William Robertson.
+
+
+3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived
+from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own
+acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild
+beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or
+in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could
+walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the
+soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if
+it had been shouted in their ears.
+
+--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_.
+
+
+4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed
+to the public service corporation, exist to render public services.
+Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing
+should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for
+the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and
+transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the
+streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation.
+To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal
+revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their
+public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not
+gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public
+service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its
+employment.
+
+--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_
+("Atlantic Monthly").
+
+
++Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a
+paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_--
+
+1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured.
+
+2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day.
+
+3. The government is always in need of honest men.
+
+4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life.
+
+5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage.
+
+6. Haste is waste.
+
+7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health.
+
+
+(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer
+or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have
+you used?)
+
+
++51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have
+unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does
+not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken
+at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be
+difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In
+general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods
+is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is
+used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between
+them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main
+thought.
+
+The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect
+with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a
+combination of repetition with specific instances.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods,
+are used in the following selections?
+
+
+1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not
+mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his
+opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do
+and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not
+only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not
+only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are
+right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account.
+Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Dürer writes
+calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better
+done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two
+that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their
+fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious
+undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them,
+but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God
+made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man
+they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful.
+
+--Ruskin.
+
+
+2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its
+prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced
+among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and
+the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia
+Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown
+wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of
+quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly
+because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite
+sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different
+parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some
+extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish,
+those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica,
+which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown
+or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a
+Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a
+peculiarly deep and brilliant black.
+
+--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_.
+
+
+3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain
+sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold
+winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a
+third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its
+population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every
+style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this
+respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could
+devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets
+and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and
+schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all
+parts of the world.
+
+--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.
+
+
+4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of
+ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue
+of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes
+three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is
+everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note
+or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador,
+is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his
+seasickness when a new gull appears in sight.
+
+--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_.
+
+
++Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of
+methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto
+suggested that you have not already used._
+
+
+(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph
+possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?)
+
+
++52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may
+ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil
+to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in
+clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it,
+the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each
+paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has
+been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it
+has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the
+non-essential elements.
+
+A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able
+to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of
+them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by
+giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5)
+by repetition.
+
+Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and
+consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to
+others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or
+state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus
+become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were
+expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for
+composition purposes._
+
+
++53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have
+read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may
+make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in
+advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging
+the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we
+shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves,
+and enable us to present it more effectively to others.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's
+introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_--
+
+
+There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart
+from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and
+illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to
+make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor
+details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of
+his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many
+writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all
+great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet
+consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be
+simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving
+from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things
+one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen
+new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old
+ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion.
+Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved
+himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a
+single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist
+Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and
+celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the
+bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like
+the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with
+elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic
+power.
+
+This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name
+structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their
+very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many
+parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or
+friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together
+again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each
+essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And
+each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton:
+the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in
+the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic.
+And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways,
+but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an
+expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a
+topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences--
+often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the
+utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay.
+
+Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay
+becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or
+laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his
+argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was
+ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For
+example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every
+day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like
+Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long
+comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley,
+between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the
+fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of
+instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of
+Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the
+writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear
+contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that
+Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland
+cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had
+an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit
+their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo
+Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations.
+He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a
+very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four
+quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring
+the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind
+doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains,
+bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing.
+
+It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and
+clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People
+found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on,
+never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of
+every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental
+effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to
+support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the
+simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting
+for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to
+the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain
+had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the
+discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was
+surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if
+he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as
+a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose,
+trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the
+same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and
+contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged
+dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy
+of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms.
+Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall
+have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor;
+"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it
+the means of contenting both you and myself."
+
+
+_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let
+the class tell what method of development you have used.
+
+
+_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the
+methods of development.
+
+
++Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but
+developing each by a different method._
+
+Suggested topic statements:--
+
+1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money.
+
+2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now.
+
+3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years.
+
+4. There is a difference between law and justice.
+
+5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety.
+
+6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless
+activity.
+
+7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole
+nation.
+
+
+(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have
+you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though
+they begin with the same sentence?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through
+   which ideas are acquired.
+
+2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:--
+    _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming
+           incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section
+           33).
+    _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words,
+           phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32).
+
+3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes--
+    _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse
+           the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28).
+    _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we
+           can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or
+           state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them
+           or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52).
+         Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired
+           through language are undesirable for composition purposes.
+
+4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal
+   or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech.
+
+5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.)
+    _a._ A simile is a direct comparison.
+    _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison.
+    _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human
+           attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals.
+
+6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech.
+    _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them.
+    _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject.
+    _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader.
+    _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures.
+    _e._ Avoid long figures.
+    _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors.
+
+7. Choice of words.
+    _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader.
+    _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar
+           words.
+    _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17).
+
+8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the
+   use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences,
+   especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36).
+
+9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one
+   central idea.
+10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of
+    the contents of the paragraph.
+
+11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed--
+    _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44).
+    _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details
+           are told may be determined by--
+             (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46).
+             (2) Their position in space (Section 47).
+    _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48).
+    _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49).
+    _e._ By repetition (Section 50).
+    _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above.
+
+12. The topical recitation demands--
+    _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able
+          to make the topic statement.
+    _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the
+          remaining ideas in the paragraph.
+    _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the
+          paragraph has been developed.
+    _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of
+          his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.)
+
+
+
+IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION
+
+
++54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the
+purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of
+writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that
+we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness.
+Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it
+may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value
+of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that
+entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest
+and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these
+characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis
+shall be given.
+
+Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and
+argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It
+will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which
+the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms
+of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you
+persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and
+you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and
+effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have
+considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A
+more extended treatment is given in later chapters.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the
+following belong?
+
+
+1. A business letter.
+
+2. The story of a runaway.
+
+3. A description of a lake written by a geologist.
+
+4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it.
+
+5. A letter to a friend describing a trip.
+
+6. A text-book on algebra.
+
+7. An application for a position as stenographer.
+
+8. A recipe for making cake.
+
+9. How I made a cake.
+
+10. How to make a kite.
+
+11. A political speech.
+
+12. A debate.
+
+
+_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could
+the same object be described for the purpose of giving information?
+
+_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments?
+
++55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is
+communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone.
+It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If
+its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it
+must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us,
+because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because
+it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe
+in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we
+narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that
+which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth
+of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be
+useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer
+shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will
+receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or
+writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it
+penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say
+precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so
+shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a
+question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be
+forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of
+least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the
+differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust,
+without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make
+the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of
+apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George
+Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.]
+
+In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a
+writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be
+neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt
+what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will
+become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of
+paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of
+methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers.
+
+
++Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of
+paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the
+mind usually acts._
+
+(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development
+treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting
+the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been
+written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you
+improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?)
+
+
++56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for
+us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should
+choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The
+elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered
+later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the
+suitableness of a subject:--
+
+First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear
+to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and
+definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is
+one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any
+subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must
+not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we
+may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may
+discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may
+be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons
+or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even
+if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own
+experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by
+getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from
+reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to
+write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a
+subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we
+understand because we can remember the language in which they were
+expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write
+well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but
+little.
+
+Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult
+for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no
+special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real
+interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a
+manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more
+interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in
+that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts
+conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a
+subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our
+interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but
+the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested.
+This interest will lead him to a further search for information about
+Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes
+entertaining to others.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient
+knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you
+interested? Which would you need to "read up" about?
+
+1. Golf.
+2. Examinations.
+3. Warships.
+4. Wireless telegraphy.
+5. Radium.
+6. Tennis.
+7. Automobiles.
+8. Picnics.
+9. Printing.
+10. Bees.
+11. Birds.
+12. Pyrography.
+13. Photography.
+14. Beavers.
+15. Making calls.
+16. Stamp collecting.
+17. The manufacture of tacks.
+18. The manufacture of cotton.
+19. The smelting of zinc.
+20. The silver-plating process.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something.
+
+
+_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested.
+
+
+_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient
+knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph.
+
+
++Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the
+lists in the preceding exercise._
+
+(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your
+paragraphs unity of thought?)
+
+
++57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and
+possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it
+may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some
+knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on
+the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning
+this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing
+both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a
+failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third
+grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you
+know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real
+"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your
+readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital
+and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a
+subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers.
+
+
++58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest
+touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for
+anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a
+suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are
+everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we
+hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss
+for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show
+a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider
+the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's
+outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our
+thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may
+be used for written exercises_.
+
++59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are
+more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and
+abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by
+recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence
+of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins."
+The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general
+subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the
+second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might
+write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult
+to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a
+general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a
+specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really
+know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in
+it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows
+something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels
+expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative
+interest on his part.
+
+On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject
+than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject
+presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than
+aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer
+possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects
+successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite
+subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of
+Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean
+scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme.
+
+
++60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in
+order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of
+ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation
+of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more
+interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or
+on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the
+length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a
+subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a
+chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be
+quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it
+would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of
+Milk at Toledo."
+
+A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the
+writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn
+something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become
+interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most
+general ones shall come first:--
+
+  1. The intelligence of wild animals.
+    How a fox escaped from the hounds.
+    How animals escape destruction by their enemies.
+    Animals.
+
+  2. The benefits that arise from war.
+    The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius.
+    War.
+    The value of military strength to the Romans.
+
+  3. Pleasure.
+    A summer outing in the Adirondacks.
+    Value of vacations.
+    Catching bass.
+
+
+_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may
+be treated in a single paragraph:--
+
+1. Fishing.
+2. Engines.
+3. Literature.
+4. Heroes of fiction.
+5. Cooking.
+6. Houses.
+7. Games.
+8. Basketball.
+9. Cats.
+10. Canaries.
+11. Sympathy.
+12. Sailboats.
+13. Baseball.
+14. Rivers.
+15. Trees.
+
+
+C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which
+would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example--
+
+  General subject,--Education.
+  Specific subjects,--
+    1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.)
+    2. School taxes. (Farmers.)
+    3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.)
+
+In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects
+so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or
+more classes of persons:--
+
+       Subjects               Classes
+  1. Vacations.         1. Farmers.
+  2. Mathematics.       2. High School Pupils.
+  3. Picnics.           3. Ministers.
+  4. Civil service.     4. Merchants.
+  5. Elections.         5. Sailors.
+  6. Botany.            6. Girls.
+  7. Fish.              7. Boys.
+
+
++Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._
+
+(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development
+have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to
+your readers?)
+
+
++61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but
+not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of
+considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this
+brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and
+arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A
+peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly
+selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the
+title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect
+is unsatisfactory.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the
+following:--
+
+1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse."
+    Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient
+             time.
+
+2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance.
+    Subject: Description of a coaching parade.
+
+3. Title: A Brave Defense.
+    Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from
+             their nest.
+
+4. Title: The Banquet Book.
+    Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an
+             aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner
+             speech, and the occasional address.
+
+5. Title: Dragons of the Air.
+    Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles.
+
+6. Title: Rugs and Rags.
+    Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic
+             point of view.
+
+7. Title: Lives of the Hunted.
+    Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three
+             birds.
+
+8. Title: The Children of the Nations.
+    Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization.
+
+
+_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher.
+
+_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine
+article you have read this month.
+
+
++62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with
+reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his
+paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet
+he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language
+suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use
+is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with
+ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age
+and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best
+express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves.
+But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in
+life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our
+readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if
+necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to
+your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the
+following is intended?
+
+
+In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an
+error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both
+local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays.
+
+The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning
+Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the
+drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an
+easy out.
+
+Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme
+left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to
+catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to
+left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a
+screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored
+if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and
+Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns
+got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut
+back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the
+initial sack, but could not prevent the tally.
+
+--_Boston Herald._
+
+
+His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the
+boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his
+senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was
+Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things,
+athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of
+the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time
+had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track
+team.
+
+But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up
+to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and
+in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get
+his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although
+he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows
+always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and
+thoroughly exhausted.
+
+Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would
+have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his
+mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very
+proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y."
+
+So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition
+of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a
+distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men
+running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked
+upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the
+first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on
+just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games,
+and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place
+in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it
+faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when
+the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it
+soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard
+games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to
+Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed
+that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood
+a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards,
+along at a fast gait for the first mile.
+
+So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half
+mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast
+second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should
+go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the
+attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come
+up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to
+finish first.
+
+The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track
+heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were
+the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and
+consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it
+developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest
+grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual
+trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a
+really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the
+time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner
+should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way
+behind.
+
+At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders,
+during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the
+Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and,
+being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed
+uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not,
+and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates
+gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis,
+Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early,
+whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the
+third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three
+desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore,
+they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some
+fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man
+try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who
+was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter
+finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come
+up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to
+make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened
+out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let
+himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the
+last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had
+opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to
+expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned
+into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it
+was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and,
+moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the
+Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy
+pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the
+gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of
+Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He
+could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it
+was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the
+crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from
+home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to
+stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted
+the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last!
+
+--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook")
+
+
+In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made
+the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class
+composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report?
+
+In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know
+what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful
+presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to
+adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with
+the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first
+account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would
+need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration
+would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order
+to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that
+game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning
+of the terms we use.
+
+
++Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand
+the game about some contest which you have seen_.
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+1. A basket ball game.
+2. A football game.
+3. A tennis match.
+4. A baseball game.
+5. A croquet match.
+6. A golf tournament.
+7. A yacht race.
+8. A relay race.
+
+(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary
+explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is
+rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper
+time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without
+affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?)
+
+
++Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for
+Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._
+
+
+(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten
+the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.)
+
+
++63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers
+calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular
+object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any
+one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term.
+For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific
+term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme
+XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling
+about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement
+was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by
+"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would
+apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition
+called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is
+always concerned with that which is general, while description and
+narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake;
+but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to
+any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general
+terms is one form of exposition.
+
+
++64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a
+general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it
+is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question,
+What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is
+explanation.
+
+Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the
+smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For
+example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or
+vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however,
+seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by
+comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of
+meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing
+the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For
+example:--
+
+
+Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is
+found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in
+the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility,
+difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less
+strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One
+can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery,
+while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered.
+Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new
+inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to
+science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical
+resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our
+knowledge, and has often been made by accident.
+
+--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_.
+
+
+If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical
+definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter.
+
+
++Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following
+groups:_--
+
+
+1. Caustic, satirical, biting.
+2. Imply, signify, involve.
+3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike.
+4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge.
+5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate.
+6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty.
+7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete.
+8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament,
+9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry.
+
+
++65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must
+be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood
+by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in
+explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_,
+and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our
+explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all
+probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language
+have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of
+our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than
+our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar
+ones.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Give familiar equivalents for the following words:--
+
+
+1. emancipate.
+2. procure.
+3. opportunity.
+4. peruse.
+5. elapsed.
+6. approximately.
+7. abbreviate.
+8. constitute.
+9. simultaneous.
+10. familiar.
+11. deceased.
+12. oral.
+13. adhere.
+14. edifice.
+15. collide.
+16. suburban.
+17. repugnance.
+18. grotesque.
+19. equipage.
+20. exaggerate.
+21. ascend.
+22. financial.
+23. nocturnal.
+24. maternal.
+25. vision.
+26. affinity.
+27. cohere.
+28. athwart.
+29. clavicle.
+30. omnipotent.
+31. enumerate.
+32. eradicate.
+33. application.
+34. constitute.
+35. employer.
+36. rendezvous.
+37. obscure.
+38. indicate.
+39. prevaricate.
+
+
++66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is
+to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere
+statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often
+make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable
+comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we
+must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure
+that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate.
+
+
++Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as
+exact a definition as you can frame._
+
+1. A "fly" in baseball.
+2. A "foul" in basket ball.
+3. A "sneak."
+4. A hero.
+5. A "spitfire."
+6. A laborer.
+7. A capitalist.
+8. A coward.
+9. A freshman.
+10. A "header."
+
+
+(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its
+meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example?
+Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by
+arranging your material in a different order?)
+
+
++67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term
+by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate
+the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features.
+This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader
+picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader
+a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England
+villages, the paragraph would become a general description.
+
+Such a general description would include all the characteristics common
+to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit
+any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general
+description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If
+an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception
+of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the
+object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in
+effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description.
+It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly
+employed by writers of scientific books.
+
+Notice the following examples of general description:--
+
+
+1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and
+stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and
+variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of
+the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains
+with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly
+painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and
+surrounded with red and white railings and fences.
+
+The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different
+hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch.
+Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white
+as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon
+perforated like lace. The pointed façades are surmounted with a small
+weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers.
+Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last
+for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions,
+such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the
+houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his
+arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two
+persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely
+reach to the knees of a four-year-old child.
+
+
+2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three
+inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles
+running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar,
+pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk
+grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color,
+divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to
+each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower
+is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in
+most of the states in rich, shady soils.
+
+
+3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a
+benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the
+trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of
+the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her
+jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk
+and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in
+an American police court.
+
+Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that
+she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The
+bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap
+paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account
+finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory.
+Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be
+done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of
+the page and pay it.
+
+--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star").
+
+
++Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_--
+
+1. A bicycle.
+2. A country hay barn.
+3. A dog.
+4. A summer cottage.
+5. An Indian wigwam.
+6. A Dutch windmill.
+7. A muskrat's house.
+8. A robin's nest.
+9. A blacksmith's shop.
+10. A chipmunk.
+11. A threshing machine.
+12. A sewing circle.
+
+
+(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general
+notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that
+applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make
+your meaning clear?)
+
+
++Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a
+specific description of some particular object._
+
+
+(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you
+introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the
+general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper
+position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you
+mean him to have?)
+
+
++68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture,
+methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of
+generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod
+house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of
+events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some
+one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of
+the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general
+narration is really exposition.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing
+what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special
+occasion is introduced.
+
+
+She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up,
+running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something
+like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the
+mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile
+or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a
+little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her
+enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of
+her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way
+back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem,
+she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to
+perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track.
+
+--Richard Atton.
+
+
+_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects
+it differs from the preceding selection.
+
+Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day
+since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy
+pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I
+was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence
+of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought
+themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he
+passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind
+inquiry after their fathers and uncles.
+
+After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and
+the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I
+was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop
+out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the
+way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by
+extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none
+of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me
+if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called
+in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard
+one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder
+they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's
+crying, "Stole away."
+
+This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising
+ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without
+the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them
+above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of
+running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country,"
+as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a
+sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such
+manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first
+pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she
+had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same
+time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid
+to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among
+them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but
+once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or
+one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being
+taken notice of.
+
+The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up
+again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first
+started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly
+knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and
+servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty.
+One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase
+was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain
+behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a
+large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must
+confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything
+around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a
+double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the
+sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most
+lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was
+innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare,
+that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when
+the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They
+were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for
+almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a
+sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst
+not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode
+forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after
+delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept
+alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several
+of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable
+captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the
+good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a
+creature that had given him so much diversion.
+
+--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_.
+
+
++Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general
+narration:_--
+
+  1. Baking bread.
+  2. How paper is made.
+  3. How to play tennis (or some other game).
+  4. Catching trout.
+  5. Life at school.
+  6. How to pitch curves.
+
+
+(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order?
+Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity?
+Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.)
+
+
++69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language
+presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does
+not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one
+else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who
+wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The
+question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts
+shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince
+my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later
+chapter, but a few of them are given here.
+
+
++70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we
+must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to
+make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which
+he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to
+convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent
+to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different
+courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced
+as to which is best for you.
+
+If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would
+be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already
+understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only
+waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he
+already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your
+reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your
+school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not
+understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It
+is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make
+depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we
+explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the
+reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow.
+
+The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step
+in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must
+consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended.
+
+
++71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often
+concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or
+another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the
+advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of
+the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause.
+
+If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city
+officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In
+support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that
+would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of
+delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the
+greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons
+seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too
+much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages
+were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense.
+
+Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not
+discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of
+what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or
+disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the
+disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon
+to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the
+facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up
+our mind which side we favor.
+
+You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you
+believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should
+take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to
+be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind
+you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as
+advantages.
+
+Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School
+Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of
+the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:--
+
+
+The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their
+recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been
+sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages.
+There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses,
+shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between
+recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we
+have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the
+system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in
+gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides
+this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various
+classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not
+occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to
+these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a
+respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the
+mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in
+every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can
+often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides
+that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave
+work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some
+other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and
+we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or
+less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they
+cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing
+space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous
+application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance
+the disadvantages.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the
+following propositions? State them orally.
+
+
+1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground.
+
+2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles
+   per hour.
+
+3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular
+   school days.
+
+4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on
+   Fridays and Saturdays.
+
+5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday.
+
+6. The school session should be lengthened.
+
+
++Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages
+and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any
+one of the following:_
+
+1. This school should have a longer recess.
+
+2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess.
+
+3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock.
+
+4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room.
+
+5. The public library should be in the high school building.
+
+6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice.
+
+7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments.
+
+
++72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make
+the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances.
+If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the
+paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the
+reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true,
+we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific
+instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following
+paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the
+proposition:--
+
+
+Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct
+acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice
+plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by
+intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct,
+but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act
+of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit
+and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind
+of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is
+prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set
+up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show
+intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its
+enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk
+does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of
+intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string
+stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how
+shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a
+gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to
+profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal
+were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in
+intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of
+the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an
+afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go
+upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct
+which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience
+with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A
+pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly
+grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous
+calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath
+them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed;
+the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is
+intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence;
+it is untaught.
+
+John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either
+the following propositions or their opposites?
+
+1. Dogs are intelligent.
+
+2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination.
+
+3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination.
+
+4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples.
+
+5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer.
+
+6. A college education pays.
+
+7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores.
+
+8. Advertising pays.
+
+
++Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of
+the propositions in the preceding exercise:_
+
+
+(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they
+show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true
+for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the
+proposition?)
+
+
++73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes
+excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side
+of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and
+from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to
+the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in
+favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so
+sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability
+to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively,
+and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are
+true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an
+accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from
+practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of
+arguments.
+
+
++74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in
+the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as,
+"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be
+lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the
+affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the
+negative why it should not be lengthened.
+
+In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be
+definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that
+no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real
+arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is
+possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue
+fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with
+the meanings of terms.
+
+
++75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a
+purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which
+we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the
+desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance
+with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question,
+having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the
+selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition
+in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he
+did not really believe.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the
+affirmative or the negative?
+
+1. This city needs a new high school building.
+
+2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic
+   association.
+
+3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field.
+
+4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half
+   fare.
+
+5. There should be a lunch room in this school.
+
+6. Fairy stories should not be told to children.
+
+
++Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the
+propositions in the preceding exercise:_
+
+(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?)
+
+
++76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the
+propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind
+both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in
+which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the
+circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that
+is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to
+you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will
+occupy the central portion of your theme.
+
+
++77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages,
+examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of
+the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which
+you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is
+called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is
+made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the
+debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve
+to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to
+present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is
+composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:--
+
+Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics.
+
+                          _Affirmative_
+
+1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the
+    developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for--
+       _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do
+              and how to do it.
+       _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind.
+
+2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for--
+       _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided.
+       _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided.
+
+3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for--
+       _a._ The objects made are valuable.
+       _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value
+              in after life.
+
+4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for--
+       _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual
+              training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation
+              of something useful or beautiful.
+       _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in
+              workmanship cannot be concealed.
+       _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while
+              manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful.
+
+5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the
+    school; for--
+       _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the
+              maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual
+              training.
+
+
++78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not
+only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by
+our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is
+called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents
+is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to
+show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an
+exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the
+argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged.
+Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the
+argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken
+possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is
+of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related
+points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the
+refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by
+rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise
+of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen
+boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week
+as a debating club.
+
+
++Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the
+propositions in Section 75._
+
+
+(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they
+have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on
+the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the
+strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side,
+either omit them or make their discussion very brief.)
+
+
++79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument
+we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a
+few cautions will be helpful.
+
+1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as
+interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you
+to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the
+statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or
+not at all.
+
+2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be
+false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This
+does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition
+unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be
+real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that
+there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that
+seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth
+and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of
+the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition.
+
+3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth.
+Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in
+season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will
+Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time
+in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others.
+They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to
+doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything.
+
+4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe
+a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement
+must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes.
+
+5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to
+action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear,
+accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical
+arguments, is the first essential.
+
+
++Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the
+   high school.
+
+2. Novel reading is a waste of time.
+
+3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick.
+
+4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States.
+
+5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity.
+
+6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited.
+
+
+(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section
+79.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain.
+
+2. The forms of discourse are--
+      _a._ Description.
+      _b._ Narration.
+      _c._ Exposition.
+      _d._ Argument (Persuasion).
+
+3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use
+    language adapted to that audience.
+
+4. The suitableness of a subject is determined--
+      _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject.
+              (1) This may be based on experience, or
+              (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and
+                     reading.
+      _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject.
+              (1) This may exist from the first, or
+              (2) It may be aroused by our search for information.
+      _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of
+             present, vital interest to him.
+
+5. Subjects.
+      _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited.
+      _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in
+            order to be made definite.
+      _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse
+            a desire to hear the theme.
+
+6. Exposition is explanation.
+
+7. We may make clear the meaning of a term--
+      _a._ By using synonyms.
+      _b._ By using simpler words.
+      _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons.
+
+8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members
+     of a class of objects.
+
+9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that
+     characterize a process or action whenever it occurs.
+
+10. Argument.
+    _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument.
+    _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to
+           determine which side of a question we believe.
+    _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or
+           argument.
+
+11. Debate.
+    _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a
+           resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question.
+    _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last
+           positions.
+    _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most
+           effective order.
+    _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed
+           just before our own last and strongest argument.
+    _e._ Cautions in debating.
+            (1) Be fair.
+            (2) Be honest with yourself.
+            (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your
+                 desire for truth.
+            (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument.
+            (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
+
+
++80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important
+principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and
+emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and
+used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of
+securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is
+the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially
+as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III,
+for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the
+same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs.
+
+
++81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears
+directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme
+determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that
+is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a
+theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a
+theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a
+broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the
+selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61);
+the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other
+material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen
+title.
+
+
++82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in
+such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the
+last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph
+than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence.
+Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward
+in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one.
+
+In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke
+his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have
+a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though
+each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks
+coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what
+happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of
+the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story
+clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of
+vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story.
+Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that
+will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they
+are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection
+of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place
+gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my
+story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the
+selection on page 106.
+
+
++83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic
+than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In
+debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments.
+In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed
+by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains
+in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones
+of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an
+otherwise good story.
+
+Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and
+space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any
+division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the
+total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote
+two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life
+would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount
+of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be
+taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its
+importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is
+of greatest worth.
+
+Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph.
+This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too
+short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about
+the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to
+make its meaning clear.
+
+Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance
+than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first
+three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient
+measure.
+
+
++84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity,
+coherence, and emphasis.
+
+1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity
+requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject.
+There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can
+be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will
+suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list
+all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less
+important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we
+have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme.
+
+Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the
+complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything
+be added?
+
+
+_My First Partridge_
+
+
+Where I lived ten years ago.
+Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels.
+Partridge drumming.
+My father went hunting often.
+How he was injured.
+Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities.
+Loading the gun.
+Going to the woods.
+Why partridge live near birch brush.
+Fall season.
+Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December.
+Tramping through the woods.
+Something moving.
+Creeping up.
+How I felt; excited; hand shook.
+Partridge on log.
+Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly.
+The shot; the recoil.
+The flurry of the bird.
+How partridges fly.
+How they taste when cooked.
+Getting the bird.
+Going home.
+Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields.
+What my sister said.
+My brother's interest.
+My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot.
+What mother did.
+
+
+2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we
+have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the
+unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent
+order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple
+narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our
+memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a
+series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These
+groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their
+actual time-order gives coherence to the composition.
+
+After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange
+the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make
+and what would you include in each?
+
+3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some
+outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first,
+in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a
+natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by
+the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give
+unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and
+the conclusion are short.
+
+
++Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in
+length._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. How I was saved from drowning.
+    2. The largest string of fish I ever caught.
+    3. An incident of the skating season.
+    4. What I did on Christmas day.
+    5. A Saturday with my grandmother.
+    6. To the city and back.
+
+
+(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and
+emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to
+unity, coherence, and emphasis.)
+
+
++85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+--
+Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first
+that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a
+composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each
+paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes
+steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is
+so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the
+paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order
+is usually indicated.
+
+Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is
+shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from
+a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:--
+
+
+1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a
+      summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down...
+
+2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting
+      nervous...
+
+3. The dusk deepens...
+
+4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low,
+      and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home...
+
+5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when
+      the first of the fleet heaves in sight...
+
+6. After that they arrive rapidly...
+
+7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_...
+
+8. Through the entire night they keep coming...
+
+9. Next morning...
+
+
++Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length,
+showing the time-order._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. The race up the river.
+    2. The life of some well-known man.
+    3. The cake that fell.
+    4. Retell some incident that you have recently read.
+    5. Relate some personal experience.
+    6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160.
+
+
+(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each
+paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of
+the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate
+the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?)
+
+
++86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+--
+A second method of development is to relate details with reference to
+their position in space.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by
+following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme
+coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position
+in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the
+whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph
+(Section 47).
+
+In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should
+contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The
+paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and
+coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass
+most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the
+images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may
+supplement time-order in giving coherence.
+
+If the most attractive features of an art room are its
+wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may
+be as follows:--
+
+    1. Point of view: general impression.
+    2. The north wall: general impression; details.
+    3. The east wall: general impression; details.
+    4. The south wall: general impression; details.
+    5. The west wall: general impression; details.
+
+
+It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following
+paragraphs would be appropriate:--
+
+        1. Point of view.
+        2. The fireplace.
+        3. The easy-chair.
+        4. The table.
+        5. The bookcase.
+        6. The cozy nook.
+
+
+Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be
+secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it.
+
+There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position
+of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of
+development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the
+location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details
+should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would
+serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions
+of the objects described.
+
+The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_
+rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched
+away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into
+foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle,
+lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San
+Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_
+the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown,
+_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple
+veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the
+foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado.
+
+--Stoddard: _California_.
+
+
++Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Some well-known building (exterior).
+    2. A prominent person.
+    3. An attractive room.
+    4. The interior of a church.
+
+(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion
+of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and
+emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.)
+
+
++87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time
+and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such
+expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at
+all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought
+between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the
+selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding
+paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by
+the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the
+transition from one paragraph to the next.
+
+_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object
+of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had
+consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months
+since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was
+worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made
+to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for
+while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really
+meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in
+the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought
+town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette,
+who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp
+dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were
+intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from
+the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at
+Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he
+would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display
+military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular
+intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he
+marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania
+militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did
+not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city,
+and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he
+could easily strike if any move was made by the British army.
+
+--Henry Cabot Lodge.
+
+
++88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to
+denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole
+paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs
+to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one
+general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other
+general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different
+point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of
+the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it
+may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general
+terms.
+
+
++89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our
+thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme.
+Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our
+paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in
+order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a
+similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence
+which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the
+paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57.
+
+
++90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third
+method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea
+which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it.
+We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are
+few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our
+comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs,
+and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method.
+
+In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual
+occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in
+outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to
+arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and
+emphasis.
+
+
++Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by
+comparison._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive,
+        defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.).
+    2. Show that the body resembles a machine.
+    3. In what way is the school like a factory?
+    4. How do two books that you have read differ?
+    5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different?
+    6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree?
+    7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other.
+    8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools
+        with those of private academies.
+
+
++91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+--
+Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition
+to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the
+demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this
+purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the
+proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each
+important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while
+several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same
+paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more
+important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions.
+
+Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the
+truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated
+in the last sentence.
+
+
+DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE
+
+
+While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet
+it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason
+animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would
+degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a
+quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism.
+
+The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through
+degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from
+the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The
+young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike
+creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the
+simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as
+a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a
+notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a
+backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal
+cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type.
+But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a
+little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or
+wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life
+fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it
+loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses
+its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with
+a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal.
+
+A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The
+barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps.
+The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming
+nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next
+larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two
+antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life.
+When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself
+to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound
+eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of
+locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it
+loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class.
+
+Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the
+family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration
+that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red
+orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other
+fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge,
+but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other
+organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin,
+circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the
+insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak,
+which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the
+"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap,
+which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under
+the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little
+larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from
+under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they
+settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast
+their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers.
+Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and
+laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no
+longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of
+eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt
+again and secrete the thin wax scale over them.
+
+Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by
+the loss of the power to move and of all structures related
+to it.
+
+--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_.
+
+
+Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is,
+of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a
+scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate
+degeneration through quiescence?
+
+Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to
+each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate
+generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these
+subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph
+which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other
+method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization
+followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be
+taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most
+closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by
+giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish.
+
+
++Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or
+proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Young persons should not drink coffee.
+    2. Reasons for the curfew bell.
+    3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways.
+    4. There are several kinds of boys in this school.
+    5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation
+        increase.
+    6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country.
+    7. Presence of mind often averts danger.
+
+
++92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The
+statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth
+method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that
+applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect
+(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be
+given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one
+paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or
+statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order
+is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that
+which traces events backward from effects to causes.
+
+
++Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and
+effects._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Why hospitals are necessary.
+    2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous.
+    3. Why girls should take music lessons.
+    4. The effect of climate upon health.
+    5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a
+        country.
+    6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and
+        travel.
+    7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the
+        sea level, and why?
+    8. Why our city is located where it is.
+    9. Why I came late to school.
+
+
++93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation
+of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the
+methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often
+interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements
+need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all
+in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for
+cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which
+would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space.
+In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first
+_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do
+that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of
+the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and
+emphasis.
+
+
++Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of
+development or any combination of methods._
+
+(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all
+the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with
+reference to each point in your list of questions.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. General principles of composition.
+    _a._ Unity.
+    _b._ Coherence.
+    _c._ Emphasis.
+        (1) By position.
+        (2) By proportion of parts.
+
+2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed--
+    _a._ With reference to time-order.
+    _b._ With reference to position in space.
+    _c._ By use of comparison and contrast.
+    _d._ By stating generalization and facts.
+    _e._ By stating cause and effect.
+    _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods.
+
+4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions.
+
+
+
+VI. LETTER WRITING
+
+
++94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of
+written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form.
+The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business,
+personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We
+are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered
+businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be
+able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as
+regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means
+of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful
+friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in
+our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study.
+
+The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence
+to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing.
+Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of
+attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of
+the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often
+anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected
+either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or
+because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are
+the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and
+carefulness concerning them.
+
+
++95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our
+choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper,
+about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes
+of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately
+tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of
+highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure
+to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is
+customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for
+other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is
+preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used
+may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the
+reader.
+
+Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible.
+Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact,
+all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are
+added several others.
+
++96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the
+beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these
+forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter
+usually includes the heading, the address of the person or
+persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation.
+
+Notice the following examples:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              171 Miles Ave.,         |
+ |                                  Cleveland, Ohio.    |
+ |                                      Oct. 21, 1905.  |
+ |  Marshall Field & Co.,                               |
+ |      State St., Chicago, Ill.                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Gentlemen:                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    Ottawa, Ill.      |
+ |                                        Nov. 9, 1905. |
+ |   Dear Harold,                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                       1028 Jackson Boulevard,        |
+ |                                   Chicago Ill.       |
+ |                                       Nov. 10, 1905. |
+ |  Messrs. Johnson & Foote,                            |
+ |    120 Main St.,                                     |
+ |      Pittsfield, Mass.                               |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Sirs,                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                           120 P Street,              |
+ |                                 Lincoln, Neb.        |
+ |                                     Oct. 17, 1905.   |
+ |  My dear Mrs. Scott,                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                      Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Dear Mother,                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(6)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              33 Front St.,           |
+ |                                   Adrian, Mich.      |
+ |                                       Nov. 30, 1905. |
+ |  Miss Gertrude Brown,                                |
+ |    228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill.                    |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Dear Madam:                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(7)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                               New Hartford, Conn.    |
+ |                                   Nov. 3, 1905.      |
+ |  My dear Henry,                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of
+the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the
+street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example
+(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother
+frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and
+number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to
+whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the
+letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number
+will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to
+make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the
+heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two
+lines is preferable.
+
+Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the
+right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in
+business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter,
+but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning.
+The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the
+page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first
+line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line.
+Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line.
+
+In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of
+the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it
+will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble
+both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not
+allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great
+importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop,
+we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great
+importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is
+better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05.
+
+In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or
+persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines
+may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than
+the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the
+address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below
+it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a
+little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the
+salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as
+in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7).
+
+The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing
+between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My
+dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters.
+The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My
+dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are
+acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of
+friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with
+each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary,
+Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_.
+
+There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The
+comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in
+connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of
+all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently
+in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business
+letters.
+
+
++97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part;
+in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It
+will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in
+order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a
+rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and
+either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not
+improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same
+line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the
+variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter.
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             1694 Cedar Ave.,         |
+ |                                  Cleveland, Ohio.    |
+ |                                      June 23, 1905.  |
+ | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co.,                          |
+ |   Aurora, Ill.                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00,      |
+ | etc.                                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Everett, Washington.     |
+ |                                     Oct. 20, 1905.   |
+ |   My dear Robert,                                    |
+ |      We are very glad that you have decided to make  |
+ | us a visit, etc.                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Greenwich, N.Y.          |
+ |                                    Sept. 19, 1905.   |
+ |  My dear Miss Russ,                                  |
+ |      Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                           2 University Ave.,         |
+ |                                Nashville, Tenn.      |
+ |                                    April 19, 1905.   |
+ |  The American Book Company,                          |
+ |    300 Pike St.,                                     |
+ |      Cinncinnati, O.                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies  |
+ |  of Halleck's English Literature, etc.               |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
++98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is
+termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been
+agreed upon, which should be closely followed.
+
+Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends
+upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing.
+Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your
+affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist
+between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so
+intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours,
+Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in
+business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms
+_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only
+when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person
+of high rank or position.
+
+The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of
+the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page.
+Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be
+placed at its close.
+
+The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the
+complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name
+should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of
+unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore
+important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made
+plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in
+their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as
+_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or
+_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address
+below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid
+confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials.
+
+Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                            Appleton, Wisconsin.      |
+ |                                     Sept. 3, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  My dear Cousin,                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              Yours with love,        |
+ |                                   Gertrude Edmonds.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                            192 Lincoln Ave.,         |
+ |                                Worcester, Mass.      |
+ |                                     Nov. 25, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   L.B. Bliss & Co.,                                  |
+ |        109 Summer St.,                               |
+ |             Boston, Mass.                            |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs;                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                   (Body of letter.)                  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Very truly yours,        |
+ |                                 Walter A. Cutler.    |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                               Paxton, Ill.           |
+ |                                   July 3, 1905.      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   American Typewriter Co.,                           |
+ |       263 Broadway, New York.                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |     Gentlemen:                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                   (Body of letter.)                  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                          Very truly yours,           |
+ |                         (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    May 5, 1905.      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Daniel Low & Co.,                                   |
+ |      232 Essex St., Salem, Mass.                     |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs;                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    Mary E. Ball      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mrs. George W. Ball,                              |
+ |             415 Fourth St.,                          |
+ |                     La Salle, Ill.                   |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Marshalltown, Iowa.      |
+ |                                     Oct. 3, 1905.    |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   My dear Miss Meyer,                                |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              Sincerely yours,        |
+ |                                  Dorothy Doddridge.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and
+signatures for the following letters:--
+
+1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules
+    for basket ball.
+
+2. To your older brother.
+
+3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium.
+
+4. To some business house, making application for a position.
+
+5. To the governor of your state.
+
+6. From one stranger to another.
+
+7. From an older brother to his little sister.
+
+8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate
+    friend.
+
+
++99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the
+superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons
+to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful
+and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure
+the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination.
+
+The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line
+beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be
+written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope,
+and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If
+there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at
+the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the
+city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly
+written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any
+special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the
+letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown."
+
+Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is
+married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used,
+unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men
+should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as
+_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc.,
+in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be
+entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as
+_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._
+
+The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that
+these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other
+similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West
+Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the
+other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation
+besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma
+after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either
+form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be
+employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be
+used in one line and omitted in another.
+
+Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:--
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Mr. Milo R. Maltbie
+ |                   85 West 118th St.
+ |                             New York.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Mr. John D. Clark
+ |                          New York
+ |                             N.Y.
+ |
+ |  Teachers College
+ |    Columbia University.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Mrs. Edgar N. Foster
+ |                      South Haven
+ |                              Mich.
+ |
+ | Avery Beach Hotel.
+ | ______________________________________________________
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Miss Louise M. Baker
+ |                        Nottingham
+ |                                Ohio.
+ |
+ |   Box 129.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Dr. James M. Postle
+ |                           De Kalb
+ |                                 Ill.
+ |
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(6)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Miss Ida Morrison
+ |                          Chicago
+ |                                Ill.
+ |
+ |
+ | 1048 Warren Ave.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:--
+
+1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska.
+
+2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance.
+
+3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
+    Michigan.
+
+4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend.
+
+5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill.
+
+6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York.
+
+7. To a friend at a seaside resort.
+
+8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California.
+
+
++100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing
+is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print
+over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous
+and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which
+you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years.
+Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a
+use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter,
+"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter
+yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask
+yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me
+credit if it should be published?"
+
+
++101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to
+inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In
+asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that
+there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the
+information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to
+state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake.
+
+Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men
+are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish
+to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the
+desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only
+pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but
+nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we
+should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to
+appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit
+important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations.
+
+We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer,
+besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the
+letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any.
+All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be
+arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it
+is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but
+in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and
+concisely if we follow some other order.
+
+What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing
+might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics
+concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already
+suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write
+only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be
+businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters.
+
+A few examples are here given for your notice:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Ypsilanti, Mich.         |
+ |                                     April 4, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Mr. William Wylie,                                  |
+ |     807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill.                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Mr. Wylie;                                    |
+ |    Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers   |
+ |  of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of        |
+ |  mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so     |
+ |  much as you now receive, but in many respects the   |
+ |  position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply  |
+ |  for it.                                             |
+ |                          Sincerely yours,            |
+ |                                Charles M. Gates.     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                      586 State St.,                  |
+ |                               Chicago, Ill.          |
+ |                                      July 20,1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Mrs. Charles H. McNett,                             |
+ |         2345 Franklin St.,                           |
+ |               Denver, Colorado.                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We  |
+ |  beg to say that we sent you the books by express,   |
+ |  prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached   |
+ |  you by this time. If you have not received them,    |
+ |  please notify us, and we will send a tracer after   |
+ |  them.                                               |
+ |                          Very truly yours,           |
+ |                                 Brown and Sherman.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                         Elgin High School,           |
+ |                               Elgin, Ill.            |
+ |                                      Sept. 4, 1905.  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ | Miss Ella B. Walker,                                 |
+ |       Herkimer, New York.                            |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   My dear Miss Walker:                               |
+ |           I am very sorry to have to trouble you,    |
+ | but I am desirous of obtaining some information      |
+ | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly  |
+ | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up   |
+ | to date prior to your departure and also whether the |
+ | accession book was in use up to that time?           |
+ |   I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will     |
+ | give me this information.                            |
+ |                          Very sincerely yours,       |
+ |                                   Edward J. Taylor.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention
+to the rules for writing business letters:--
+
+1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their
+    catalogues.
+
+2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours,
+    proposing a game.
+
+3. Write the reply.
+
+4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of
+    clerk or bookkeeper.
+
+5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your
+    address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue,
+    Beatrice, Nebraska.
+
+6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to
+    the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit.
+
+
++102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be
+obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters
+is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice
+that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that
+found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives
+pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but
+visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as
+enjoyable as possible.
+
+So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of
+letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite
+statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they
+should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should
+be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a
+requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining
+letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and
+lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your
+letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and
+explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who
+read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling
+    him of the school of which he was once a member.
+
+2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St.
+    Louis.
+
+3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother
+    or sister at home.
+
+4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of
+    interest that you have visited.
+
+5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping
+    experience.
+
+6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the
+    home life.
+
+7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended.
+
+8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare
+    the two towns.
+
+
++103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is,
+Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of
+yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most
+interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity
+of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement
+of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends
+we must include many very minor things, because we know that our
+correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed
+jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What
+we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the
+successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have
+mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that
+sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we
+were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt
+and sincere.
+
+In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good
+friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was
+misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that
+which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the
+smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid
+all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or
+fault-finding to the most sensitive.
+
+
++104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes,
+formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies,
+requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations
+and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on
+almost every possible subject.
+
+
++105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third
+person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged
+that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a
+somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary
+close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be
+written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left,
+and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it
+directly below or a little to the right.
+
+Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third
+person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date
+and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this
+reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation.
+
+A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both
+invitations and replies:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |       Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson        |
+ |        request the pleasure of your company          |
+ |        on Monday evening, December thirtieth,        |
+ |             at half-past eight o'clock.              |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |      Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and      |
+ |    Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening,    |
+ |    December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock.   |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement     |
+ |   prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's     |
+ |   kind invitation for Monday evening, December       |
+ |   the thirtieth.                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the        |
+ |    pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner   |
+ |    on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    1068 Euclid Ave.                                  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept        |
+ |    Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to    |
+ |    dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December      |
+ |    sixth.                                            |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding.
+
+2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week
+    Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation.
+
+3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation.
+
+4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation.
+
+5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your
+    guest, Miss Grace Mason.
+
+
++106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the
+same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference
+is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in
+form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading
+is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is
+omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the
+date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the
+signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal,
+but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal
+invitations.
+
+A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are
+constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the
+purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write
+congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to
+another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of
+advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They
+should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject.
+
+Notice the following examples of informal notes:--
+
+
+(1)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ | My dear Mrs. Lathrop,                                           |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |             Will you not give us the pleasure of your company   |
+ | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd   |
+ | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet |
+ | her.                                                            |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                       Very sincerely yours,                     |
+ |                                     Ethel M. Trainor.           |
+ | 840 Forest Avenue,                                              |
+ | Dec. 5, 1905.                                                   |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(2)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                                          Dec. 6, 1905.          |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |   My dear Mrs. Trainor,                                         |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |       I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation   |
+ |   to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous     |
+ |   engagement which it will be impossible for me to break.       |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                   Yours most sincerely,                         |
+ |                              Emma Lathrop.                      |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(3)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ |   My dear Blanche,                                              |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |          Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party      |
+ | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other         |
+ | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have     |
+ | you with us.                                                    |
+ |                      Very cordially yours,                      |
+ |                                 Margaret Gilmore.               |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________________
+ |                                                              |
+ | My dear Margaret,                                            |
+ |                                                              |
+ |             Fortunately I have no other engagement for this  |
+ | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an  |
+ | evening with you and your friends.                           |
+ |                                                              |
+ |                      Very sincerely yours,                   |
+ |                                   Blanche A. Church.         |
+ |                                                              |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write the following informal notes:--
+
+1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book.
+
+2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party.
+
+3. Write the reply.
+
+4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you.
+
+5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you
+    left at home this morning.
+
+6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write
+    out the invitation.
+
+7. Write the acceptance.
+
+
+
+
+VII.  POETRY
+
+[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical
+form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it
+has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter.
+The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to
+which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation
+of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils
+attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or
+more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example,
+one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar
+ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.]
+
++107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to
+furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform
+and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the
+other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set
+forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In
+poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always
+aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real
+poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense;
+that is, to our love of the beautiful.
+
+In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both
+upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it
+may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective
+arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain
+devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may
+occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of
+poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere
+nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not
+the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The
+merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but
+there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us
+because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of
+the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable
+from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase
+into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless
+and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a
+work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic
+sense.
+
++108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the
+use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm
+is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its
+widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses,
+sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry
+consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular
+succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of
+a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular
+recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which
+appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of
+poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:--
+
+
+1.
+
+We were crowded in the cabin;
+  Not a soul would dare to speak;
+It was midnight on the waters
+  And a storm was on the deep.
+
+--James T. Fields.
+
+
+2.
+
+Break, break, break,
+  At the foot of thy crags, O sea!
+But the tender grace of a day that is dead
+  Will never come back to me.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+3.
+
+Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December,
+  And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor
+
+--Poe.
+
+
+4.
+
+Sweet and low, sweet and low,
+  Wind of the western sea,
+Low, low, breathe and blow,
+  Wind of the western sea!
+
+Over the rolling waters go,
+  Come from the dying moon and blow,
+Blow him again to me;
+  While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+5.
+
+Stone walls do not a prison make,
+  Nor iron bars a cage;
+Minds innocent and quiet take
+  That for a hermitage.
+
+--Lovelace.
+
+
+6.
+
+Merrily swinging on brier and weed,
+  Near to the nest of his little dame,
+Over the mountain side or mead,
+  Robert of Lincoln is telling his name:
+Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link,
+  Spink, spank, spink,
+Snug and safe is this nest of ours,
+  Hidden among the summer flowers.
+                  Chee, chee, chee.
+
+--Bryant.
+
+
+7.
+
+Grow old along with me!
+  The best is yet to be,
+The last of life, for which the first was made:
+  Our times are in His hand
+Who saith, "A whole I planned,
+  Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!"
+
+--Browning.
+
+
++109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced
+by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of
+accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular
+feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the
+dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach,
+are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often
+considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of
+convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the
+unaccented syllables thus: U.
+
+_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the
+last.
+
+
+ U   _| U  _| U    _|   U     _| U   _|
+Let not ambition mock their useful toil.
+
+--Gray.
+
+
+U     _|U     _| U     _|U    _|
+He prayeth best who loveth best
+
+   U       _| U       _| U      _|
+  All things both great and small;
+
+ _   U | U     _| U    _|U   _|
+For the dear God who loveth us,
+
+   U    _| U     _|U   _|
+  He made and loveth all.
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on
+the last.
+
+
+U  U  _| U    U   _|U  U   _|
+I am monarch of all I survey.
+U   U    _  | U    U    _   | U  U    _  |
+I would hide with the beasts of the chase.
+
+
+_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the
+first.
+
+
+ _  U  | _  U  | _    U | _    U|
+Double, double, toil and trouble.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+ _  U | _   U |_  U  |_  U |
+Let us then be up and doing,
+ _   U| _    U | _U | _  |
+With a heart for any fate,
+ _    U |_  U  | _     U|_   U |
+Still achieving, still pursuing,
+ _    U | _ U |_   U | _  |
+Learn to labor and to wait.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the
+first.
+
+
+_   U  U | _    U   U  |
+Cannon to right of them,
+_   U  U | _   U   U  |
+Cannon to left of them,
+_   U  U | _    U   U  |
+Cannon in front of them,
+_   U    U  |_    U   |
+Volleyed and thundered.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the
+anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee
+and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable.
+
+
+_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are
+accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry.
+
+
+  U   _  | _    _   |  U    _|  U  _  |
+Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er.
+
+
+_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are
+unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line.
+
+
+             U  _ | U  _  | U  _|U U
+           Life is so full of misery.
+
+
+_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with
+the accent on the second.
+
+
+           U _  U    U  _   U|  U  _  U| U    _  |
+           Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend.
+
+
++110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A
+stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot,
+it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a
+trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of
+six feet, a hexameter.
+
+               _  U
+Monometer.   Slowly.
+
+
+          _   U   U| _  U  U |
+Dimeter.  Emblem of happiness.
+
+
+            _   U| _U| _   U |
+Trimeter.  Like a poet hidden.
+
+
+              _    U| _   U|  _  U  | _  U  |
+Tetrameter.  Tell me not in mournful numbers.
+
+
+             U   _  |U  _ |U   _| U    _ | U     _  |
+Pentameter.  O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath.
+
+
+             _    U  U | _ U   U | _ U    U | _  U  U | _    U
+Hexameter.  This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and
+                U |  _  U  |
+               the hemlocks.
+
+
+When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that
+every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by
+stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number
+of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic
+tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic
+trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following
+selections, and name the kind of verse:--
+
+1.
+
+Build me straight, O worthy Master!
+  Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel
+That shall laugh at all disaster
+  And with wave and whirlwind wrestle.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+2.
+
+I know not where His islands lift
+  Their fronded palms in air,
+I only know I cannot drift
+  Beyond His love and care.
+
+--Whittier.
+
+
+3.
+
+For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place
+  The flood may bear me far,
+I hope to see my Pilot face to face
+  When I have crossed the bar.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+4.
+
+Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the
+  garner;
+Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the
+  foremost,
+Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father
+  bequeathed him,
+Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for
+  mortals.
+
+--Kingsley.
+
+
+5.
+
+Have you read in the Talmud of old,
+In the Legends the Rabbins have told,
+  Of the limitless realms of the air,
+Have you read it,--the marvelous story
+Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory,
+  Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer?
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in
+trochaic verse.
+
+2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse.
+
+3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find
+in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade."
+
+4. Write two anapestic lines.
+
+
++111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by
+the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the
+same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth
+notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is
+given the same amount of time.
+
+Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular,
+although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line
+for a two-syllable iambus:--
+
+
+ U _  |   U   _  | U _  |   U    _ |  U     _   |
+Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade,
+  U    _   |  U   _  | U _| U U _ |  U    _  |
+Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap,
+ _   U | U   _ | U  _  | U  _ |U  _ |
+Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
+ U  _  |  U   _ | U  _ | U  _  | U  _ |
+The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.
+
+
+The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees
+for dactyls:--
+
+
+ _     U    U  |  _  U  |  _     U   U | _  U   U | _ U U | _ U |
+Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed.
+
+ _   U     U  | _    U |   _     U    U | _  U | _     U  U|_  U
+Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October
+
+ _     U    U | _     U   U |_    U |   _  U   U  | _  U     U |_  U |
+Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean.
+
+ _      U   U | _ U   U | _  U   U | _   U U | _  U   U |  _   U
+Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre.
+
+
+It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent
+is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the
+last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are
+both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged.
+
+There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one
+foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of
+the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a
+trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an
+accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+
+_ U | U   _  | U  _  |U  _ |
+Over the rail my hand I trail.
+
+_  U  | U   _ |   U   _    | U   _ |
+Silent the crumbling bridge we cross!
+
+
+But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the
+substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place,
+interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring
+effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the
+verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis
+thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in
+the rhythm produced by the change of accent.
+
+Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or
+too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line,
+but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted
+skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken.
+
+When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse
+is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a
+line.
+
+
+U  _   |U   U    _   |U   _ | U
+I stood on the bridge at midnight,
+
+   U  U    _   |  U    _  |U   U   _  |
+  As the clocks were striking the hour;
+
+ U   U    _ |  U   _  | U   _|U
+And the Moon rose o'er the city,
+
+  U   _ | U   _  |  U      _  |
+  Behind the dark church tower.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+ U     _  | U    _ |U   _ |          U   _ |  U    _  | U    _  |
+Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies,
+
+ U  _ |  U    _  | U  _  |      U    _  | U   _  |U   _  |
+In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies;
+
+ U    _ | U   _  |  U    _  |       U     _ |U _ | U   _  |
+And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow,
+
+ U    _ | U  _  | U   _ |       U   _| U    _  | U  _|
+You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below.
+
+--Adelaide A. Procter.
+
+
+In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative
+position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be
+in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the
+rhythm unbroken.
+
+When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or
+dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the
+second and fourth below.
+
+
+_   U   U |  _   U  U |  _     U    U| _   U |
+Up with the lark in the first flush of morning,
+
+   _   U    U  | _    U   U |  _   U  U |  _ |
+  Ere the world wakes to its work or its play;
+
+ _   U  U|  _   U  U | _     U   U    | _  U |
+Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country,
+
+   _   U    U |  _      U  U  | _ U U|_ |
+  Far from the close, stifling city away.
+
+
+Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the
+rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by
+suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with
+a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed
+elision, and the latter, slurring.
+
+
+ U     _ | U    _ |U  _   | U     _  | U   _ |
+Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form
+          U                   U
+
+ _   U |U    _| U  _ |  U
+Glasses itself in tempests.
+
+--Byron.
+
+
+An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs
+most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the
+beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or
+rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken.
+
+
+u  _ | u  _ | u _  |
+ Break, break, break,
+
+  U  U   _  | U    _    | U  _ |
+ On thy cold gray stones, O sea!
+
+  U  U   _  | U    U   _   | U    _|U
+ And I would that my tongue could utter
+
+  U     _    | U   U _  |U   _|
+ The thoughts that arise in me.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of
+the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added.
+Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said
+to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of
+syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable,
+it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the
+required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by
+comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are
+enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius
+Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect
+the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines.
+
+
+ U   _|  U   _ | U   _|  U  _| U _ |
+You all did see that on the Lupercal
+
+U   _   | U  _|  U  _ |U  _| U   _|
+I thrice presented him a kingly crown
+
+ U     _| U    _   |U  _  |  U   _  | U  _| U
+Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?
+
+ U   _| U   _ |  U  _ | U _ | U
+Yet Brutus says he was ambitious.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
++112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is
+the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura
+is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the
+sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely
+lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In
+the following selection it is marked thus: ||.
+
+
+ U   _ |  U   _ |   U _| U   _  |
+The sun came up || upon the left,
+
+   _   U| U   _  |    U  _ |
+  Out of the sea || came he;
+
+ U   _|   U    _     |   U  _|  U   _|
+And he shone bright, || and on the right
+
+    U   _   |   U_ | U   _ |
+  Went down || into the sea
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+Lives of great men || all remind us
+  We can make our lives || sublime,
+And, departing, || leave behind us,
+  Footprints || on the sands of time.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the
+cesural pauses.
+
+
++113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which
+compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic
+movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables.
+Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually
+the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and
+elusions.
+
+
+1.
+
+The night has a thousand eyes,
+  And the day but one;
+Yet the light of the bright world dies
+  With the dying sun.
+The mind has a thousand eyes,
+  And the heart but one;
+Yet the light of a whole life dies
+  When love is gone.
+
+--Francis W. Bourdillon.
+
+
+2.
+
+Laugh, and the world laughs with you,
+Weep, and you weep alone;
+For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth,
+But has trouble enough of its own.
+
+--Ella Wheeler Wilcox.
+
+
+3.
+
+Hear the robin in the rain,
+Not a note does he complain.
+But he fills the storm refrain
+With music of his own.
+
+--Charles Coke Woode.
+
+
+4.
+
+The mistletoe hung in the castle hall,
+The holly branch shone on the old back wall
+And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay,
+And keeping their Christmas holiday.
+
+--Thomas Haynes Bagley.
+
+
++114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad
+sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it
+refers to terminal sounds.
+
+Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a
+recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The
+interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different
+poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed
+throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic
+perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the
+rhythm of the verse.
+
+Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be
+the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word
+which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a
+rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The
+rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on
+sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the
+final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be
+different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young;
+debating, relating_.
+
+Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:--
+
+
+1.
+
+My soul to-day is far away,
+Sailing the Vesuvian Bay;
+My winged boat, a bird afloat,
+Swims round the purple peaks remote.
+
+--T. Buchanan Read.
+
+
+2.
+
+I come from haunts of coot and hern,
+  I make a sudden sally,
+And sparkle out among the fern,
+  To bicker down the valley.
+
+By thirty hills I hurry down,
+  Or slip between the ridges,
+By twenty thorps, a little town,
+  And half a hundred bridges.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+3.
+
+I know it is a sin
+For me to sit and grin
+  At him here;
+But the old three-cornered hat
+And the breeches, and all that,
+  Are so queer!
+
+--Holmes.
+
+
+4.
+
+  The splendor falls on castle walls
+    And snowy summits old in story;
+  The long light shakes across the lakes
+    And the wild cataract leaps in glory.
+Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying;
+Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+5.
+
+Breathes there a man with soul so dead
+Who never to himself hath said,
+  This is my own, my native land!
+Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned
+As home his footsteps he hath turned
+  From wandering in a foreign strand!
+If such there be, go mark him well:
+For him no minstrel raptures swell;
+High though his titles, proud his name,
+Boundless his wealth as wish can claim:
+Despite those titles, power, and pelf,
+The wretch concentered all in self,
+Living, shall forfeit fair renown
+And, doubly dying, shall go down
+To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
+Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
++115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is
+the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate
+for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse
+makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions.
+Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:--
+
+
+1.
+
+  So live, that when thy summons comes to join
+The innumerable caravan that moves
+To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take
+His chamber in the silent halls of death,
+Thou go not like the quarry slave at night
+Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed
+By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave
+Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch
+About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.
+
+--Bryant.
+
+
+2.
+
+           I stood upon the steps--
+The last who left the door--and there I found
+The lady and her friend. The elder turned
+And with a cordial greeting took my hand,
+And rallied me on my forgetfulness.
+Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice.
+Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke
+Her name. She was my mother's early friend
+Whose face I had not seen in all the years
+That had flown over us, since, from her door,
+I chased her lamb to where I found--myself.
+
+--Holland.
+
+
++116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into
+groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound
+together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of
+the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show
+a variety of structure.
+
+Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often
+form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in
+divided poems.
+
+
+1.
+
+The western waves of ebbing day
+Roll'd o'er the glen their level way.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
+2.
+
+A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid;
+Her satin snood, her silken plaid,
+Her golden brooch such birth betray'd.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
+A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a
+variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme
+with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may
+rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the
+example on page 208, and also the following:--
+
+
+1.
+
+I ask not wealth, but power to take
+  And use the things I have aright.
+Not years, but wisdom that shall make
+  My life a profit and delight.
+
+--Phoebe Cary.
+
+
+2.
+
+I count this thing to be grandly true:
+  That a noble deed is a step toward God,--
+  Lifting the soul from the common sod
+To a purer air and a broader view.
+
+--Holland.
+
+
+A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is
+called an elegiac stanza.
+
+
+Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
+  And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
+Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
+  And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.
+
+--Gray.
+
+
+The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which
+the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third.
+
+
+Let knowledge grow from more to more,
+  But more of reverence in us dwell;
+  That mind and soul, according well,
+May make one music as before.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are
+examples:--
+
+
+1.
+
+We look before and after,
+  And pine for what is not;
+Our sincerest laughter
+  With some pain is fraught;
+Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
+
+--Shelley.
+
+
+2.
+
+And if I should live to be
+The last leaf upon the tree
+  In the spring.
+Let them smile as I do now,
+At the old forsaken bough
+  Where I cling.
+
+--Holmes.
+
+
+3.
+
+The upper air burst into life;
+And a hundred fire flags sheen,
+To and fro they were hurried about;
+And to and fro, and in and out,
+The wan stars danced between.
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic
+pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine.
+Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The
+following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:--
+
+
+O Scotia! my dear, my native soil!
+  For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent!
+Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil
+  Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content!
+  And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent
+From luxury's contagion, weak and vile!
+  Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent,
+A virtuous populace may rise the while,
+And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+_A._ Scan the following:--
+
+
+Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting:
+The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
+  Hath had elsewhere its setting,
+    And cometh from afar:
+  Not in entire forgetfulness,
+  And not in utter nakedness,
+But trailing clouds of glory do we come
+    From God, who is our home.
+
+--Wordsworth.
+
+
+Into the sunshine,
+  Full of light,
+Leaping and flashing
+  From morn to night!
+
+--Lowell.
+
+
+_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:--
+
+
+  Hear the sledges with the bells--
+          Silver bells!
+What a world of merriment their melody foretells!
+  How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
+  In the icy air of night!
+While the stars that oversprinkle
+  All the heavens seem to twinkle
+    With a crystalline delight--
+  Keeping time, time, time,
+  In a sort of Runic rhyme
+To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
+  From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
+    Bells, bells, bells--
+From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.
+
+--Poe.
+
+
++117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry:
+narrative, lyric, and dramatic.
+
+_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events
+which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic,
+the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad.
+
+_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that
+deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural
+control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by
+the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects,
+by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is
+considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so
+difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than
+one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German
+_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures.
+
+A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less
+dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_
+and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry.
+
+_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than
+the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's
+_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision
+of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale.
+
+_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It
+relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this
+kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any
+beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well
+known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the
+Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here
+that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two
+different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a
+difference of opinion as regards the classification.
+
+_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be
+sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied
+to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals
+primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief,
+hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its
+chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet.
+
+A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into
+sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are
+examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or
+sentimental.
+
+An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than
+the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St.
+Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode
+on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's
+_Commemoration Ode_.
+
+An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy.
+Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a
+Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies.
+
+A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single
+idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete
+poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the
+emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its
+climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through
+the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment
+expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable
+for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice
+the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet
+will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:--
+
+
+When I consider how my light is spent
+Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
+And that one talent, which is death to hide,
+Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
+To serve therewith my Maker, and present
+My true account, lest he, returning, chide;
+Doth God exact day labor, light denied?
+I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent
+That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need,
+Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best
+Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
+Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed,
+And post o'er land and ocean without rest;
+They also serve who only stand and wait.
+
+
+There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its
+arrangement from the Italian sonnet.
+
+_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is
+designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it
+is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified
+and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama
+has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker,
+the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and
+amusing.
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+
+Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an
+elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in
+Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things
+which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms
+of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the
+index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be
+found.
+
+
+[Illustration: See page 224, _C._]
+
+
+
+VIII. DESCRIPTION
+
+
++118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of
+the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired
+are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking
+would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that
+we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such
+writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as
+that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an
+image.
+
+As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the
+senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is
+formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this
+kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently
+concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and
+seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this
+chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using
+language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen.
+
+
++119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage
+to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way
+as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary
+and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that
+same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need
+in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of
+observation is.
+
+Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of
+size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you
+add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further
+observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window
+panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us
+that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will
+show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or
+the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we
+become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see
+the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the
+details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see
+the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we
+add detail after detail.
+
+Following this natural order of observation a description should begin
+with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the
+whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading
+the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you
+to form.
+
+
+The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment
+with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all
+beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were
+all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox,
+and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer
+and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which
+Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a
+huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and
+grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room,
+smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur.
+
+--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.
+
+
+_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning,
+brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown
+hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set
+close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting
+cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn
+visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old
+muzzle-loading shotgun.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
++120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a
+whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description
+should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will
+include the main characteristics of the object described. While the
+fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such
+that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should
+begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large
+two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would
+form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the
+house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the
+porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture
+until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would
+be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the
+description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its
+neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but
+was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he
+had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the
+word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care
+must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in
+the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are
+describing.
+
+Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:--
+
+
+Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty
+wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various
+points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The
+street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm
+tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every
+town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits
+to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for
+the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the
+great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice.
+
+
+Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its
+completion as follows:--
+
+
+Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it,
+was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to
+church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice,
+which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind.
+There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in
+pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint
+figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or
+stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of
+glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side
+the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect
+of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one
+great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes,
+admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the
+second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath
+the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms.
+Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little
+spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular
+portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up
+that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of
+the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so
+bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken
+halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which
+the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of
+strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make
+among men's daily interests.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental
+image in each of the following selections:--
+
+1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies,
+frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and
+staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two
+cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on
+opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other,
+their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that
+they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm
+dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also
+were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the
+deer by coats of black paint and shellac.
+
+--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an
+old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or
+almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his
+forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the
+room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive
+that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly,
+and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor,
+had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his
+physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait.
+It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his
+countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it--
+seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to
+recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among
+half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a
+positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain
+impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory
+splendor, or be at once extinguished.
+
+--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.
+
+
+3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the
+kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black,
+with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look
+very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers
+of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the
+books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by
+the dark feathers.
+
+--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.
+(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.)
+
+
+Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image
+in example 3.
+
+_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are
+familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image.
+Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building
+each is written.
+
+_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each,
+giving the fundamental image.
+
+
++Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are
+familiar._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. The county court house.
+    2. The new church.
+    3. My neighbor's house.
+    4. Where we go fishing.
+    5. A neighboring lake.
+    6. A cozy nook.
+
+
+(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the
+reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to
+be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your
+description proceeds?)
+
+
++121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of
+view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a
+different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from
+another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that
+would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene
+described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include
+details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that
+they exist.
+
+Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen
+from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:--
+
+
+_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and
+irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked
+together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread
+below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of
+drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of
+flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the
+voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell
+him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the
+open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it,
+while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them;
+and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over
+the devoted places.
+
+Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.
+(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.)
+
+
+The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing
+four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of
+steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a
+child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their
+compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers;
+farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of
+the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest.
+
+--Cable: _Old Creole Days_.
+
+
++122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer
+will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the
+leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer
+effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen
+point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection
+below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen
+at a distance of six miles.
+
+
+So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or
+southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately
+overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of
+some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and
+irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of
+these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a
+procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention.
+
+"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a
+little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops
+of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is
+Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living."
+
+--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.
+(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so
+small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given,
+when we are asked to observe things far away.
+
+
+Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end
+of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._
+They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber
+cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and
+luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds,
+pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the
+scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at
+hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement,
+the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the
+scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees.
+Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little
+glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course
+the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing.
+
+--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town
+of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green,
+and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A
+closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be
+squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in
+the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with
+mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel
+in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs
+will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in
+the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village
+glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes.
+
+--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_
+("Harper's").
+
+
+  Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful
+And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low!
+The crows and choughs that wing the midway air
+Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down
+Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade!
+Methinks he seems no bigger than his head.
+The fishermen that walk upon the beach
+Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark
+Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy
+Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge
+That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes,
+Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more,
+Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight
+Topple down headlong.
+
+--Shakespear: _King Lear_
+
+
++123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically
+stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is
+located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a
+description that could not be obtained by direct statements.
+
+In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied?
+
+
+1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill
+with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river
+flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the
+trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so
+bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the
+sight, for it reminded him of his own country.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little
+rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken
+down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished
+making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one
+end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand
+beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the
+rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a
+castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top
+of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks
+themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great,
+smooth diamonds. This is Light Island.
+
+--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.
+
+
++124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house
+from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each
+side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is
+immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely
+implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one
+to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from
+that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to
+think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would
+be defective.
+
+Notice the changing point of view in the following:--
+
+
+At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
+in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull,
+snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your
+boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze,
+you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few
+bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming
+speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the
+coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you
+floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate
+hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain
+isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of
+wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two
+miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on
+the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a
+sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a
+solitary lighthouse.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_.
+(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
++125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be
+expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader
+must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners
+will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired
+images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it
+must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned
+that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image.
+For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes
+both the point of view and the fundamental image.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to--
+    (_a_) The point of view.
+    (_b_) The fundamental image.
+    (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see
+            Sections 26, 27).
+
+
+1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line
+almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated
+in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the
+country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a
+shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our
+eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow.
+Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain;
+an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than
+color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the
+pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep
+in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of
+man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on
+the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of
+fancy could almost hear it buzzing.
+
+--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.
+(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed
+him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by
+the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of
+Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus
+once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space
+that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now
+than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being
+forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated
+them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps
+of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in
+time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain,
+effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing
+inequalities of nature.
+
+--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_.
+
+
+_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether
+each has a point of view expressed or implied:--
+
+  Cooper: Last of the Mohicans.
+  Scott: Ivanhoe.
+  Scott: Lady of the Lake.
+  Irving: Sketch Book.
+  Burroughs: Wake Robin.
+  Van Dyke: The Blue Flower.
+  Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham.
+  Muir: Our National Parks.
+  Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm.
+
+
++Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of
+view and a fundamental image._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The crossroads inn.
+  2. A historical building.
+  3. The shoe factory.
+  4. The gristmill.
+  5. The largest store in town.
+  6. The union station.
+
+
+(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can
+you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the
+reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description
+enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?)
+
+
++126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only
+must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to
+reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description
+while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do
+the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly
+always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe
+we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is
+evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must
+stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our
+description accurate.
+
+The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our
+ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the
+province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall
+strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies,
+particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing
+powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been
+suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort
+in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down
+as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and
+determine what you have left out.
+
+2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of
+the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important
+ones you have omitted.
+
+3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay
+this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene
+as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your
+picture?
+
+4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with
+which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first
+opportunity notice how accurate your list is.
+
+5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the
+wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see
+at first? What colors?
+
+6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you
+go home notice what you have omitted.
+
+7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more
+persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the
+window contains. Compare lists with one another.
+
+
++Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._
+
+(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view
+and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to
+write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the
+sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will
+enable the reader to form an accurate image.)
+
+
++127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of
+view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a
+correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our
+attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been
+properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each
+succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness
+of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but
+the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental
+picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in
+photography.
+
+If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form,
+they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or
+distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be
+introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the
+post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can
+form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which
+give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been
+mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some
+following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more
+imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one
+side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two
+stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing
+the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time
+emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its
+characteristic feature?
+
+2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice
+most vividly?
+
+3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the
+other church buildings?
+
+4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance?
+In actions?
+
+
++Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. A mountain view.
+  2. An omnibus.
+  3. A fort.
+  4. A lighthouse.
+  5. A Dutch windmill.
+  6. A bend in the river.
+  7. A peculiar structure.
+  8. The picture on this page.
+
+(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the
+description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
++128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions
+the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that
+might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such
+details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to
+render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented,
+minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but
+if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and
+confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must
+be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the
+greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly
+subordinated.
+
+Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the
+sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of
+the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly
+evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick
+house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the
+general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by
+describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds
+some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a
+whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and
+_unkempt_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way
+in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by
+re-arranging them?
+
+
+1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of
+that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and
+walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is
+the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of
+wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the
+hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the
+horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the
+lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the
+cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different
+every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they
+huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief,
+and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass
+of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky
+with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of
+rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill.
+The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a
+little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship
+and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed
+to crawl like flies on a lighted pane.
+
+--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk.
+He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a
+drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore
+a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat,
+too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls
+of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired
+neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the
+more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with
+little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface;
+umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of
+trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the
+horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered
+along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of
+the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and
+laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber
+picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty
+rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over
+his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to
+have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the
+kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails;
+a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an
+editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few
+visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office,
+looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and
+fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a
+treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the
+secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them!
+
+--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.
+
+
++Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. A steamboat.
+  2. An orchard.
+  3. A colonial mansion.
+  4. A wharf.
+  5. A stone quarry.
+  6. A shop.
+
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view,
+fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged
+to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been
+introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective
+or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which
+your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme
+with reference to unity. Section 81.)
+
+
++129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as
+much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under
+paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the
+details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47
+and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be
+departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be
+made, as shown in the following selection:--
+
+
+A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly
+possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry
+morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the
+crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if
+you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the
+curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing--
+cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to
+throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long
+have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a
+weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which
+was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his
+forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly
+curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm
+sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown;
+his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the
+color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent,
+frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad,
+as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was
+far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt,
+clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom.
+Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed
+and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches,
+held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons.
+
+--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_.
+(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.)
+
+
+The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in
+space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were
+to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would
+lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer
+skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the
+face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is
+closely followed.
+
+
++Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. The bayou.
+  2. Looking down the mountain.
+  3. Looking up the mountain.
+  4. The floorwalker.
+  5. An old-fashioned rig.
+  6. A house said to be haunted.
+  7. The deacon.
+
+(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in
+space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis.
+Sections 82 and 83.)
+
+
++130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should
+aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much
+the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those
+which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less
+definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which
+cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon
+the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description.
+But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to
+description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection
+of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to
+their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet
+fail to be satisfactory as a description.
+
+For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves
+to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure
+and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word
+here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of
+suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to
+these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that
+we wish now to turn our attention.
+
+
++131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend
+largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is
+limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly
+limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope
+to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of
+the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and
+then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical
+process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the
+word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our
+vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace;
+but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have
+at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives
+individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs,
+and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a
+reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or
+_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and
+how much the description is enhanced by their careful use.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words
+which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:--
+
+1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling,
+violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world.
+
+2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands
+lay north and east and south.
+
+3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland
+and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and
+full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a
+red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye.
+
+Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate
+gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the
+surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of
+our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull
+of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and
+then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden
+jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge
+steaming with mist.
+
+We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that
+separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and
+driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the
+northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could
+be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white
+spot, the Sligachan Hotel.
+
+I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a
+futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The
+Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood,
+and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot
+population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors.
+The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain.
+
+Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's").
+
+
++132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech
+not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add
+a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the
+effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following
+descriptions:--
+
+
+He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but
+quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of
+his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased,
+with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his
+tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled
+through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk.
+
+--Kipling: _Jungle Book_.
+
+
+Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short
+stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle;
+his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip
+perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on,
+the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A
+small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of
+forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out
+almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his
+steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was
+altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad
+daylight.
+
+--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.
+
+
++Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. My cat.
+  2. The pony at the farm.
+  3. The glen.
+  4. The prairie.
+  5. The milldam.
+  6. The motorman.
+  7. The picture on this page.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your
+choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they
+improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony.
+Section 16.)
+
+
++133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the
+things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes
+of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater
+occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or
+trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary
+applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects
+of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account
+of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe
+objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately
+the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such
+objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort
+should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to
+each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the
+number of such words with which we are unfamiliar.
+
+
+1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._
+
+
+In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding
+story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making
+it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open
+colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing
+to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base,
+but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the
+palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it
+was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles
+rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by
+sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned
+figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono
+furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath
+my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace
+joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not
+generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be
+decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle,"
+and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and
+represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment
+angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon."
+
+--Hare: _Venice_.
+
+
++Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._
+
+
++Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._
+
+
++Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as
+an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._
+
+(Consider each description with reference to--
+  _a._ Point of view.
+  _b._ Fundamental image.
+  _c._ Selection of essential details.
+  _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details.
+  _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in
+          space.
+  _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.)
+
+
+2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._
+
+
+Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie
+the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves
+out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly
+rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and
+there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great
+bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the
+prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend
+for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the
+great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features
+of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain
+scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into
+the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie.
+Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they
+narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their
+blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white
+peaks far away.
+
+--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.
+
+
+Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm;
+And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands;
+Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf
+In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher
+A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill;
+And high in heaven behind it a gray down
+With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood,
+By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes
+Green in a cuplike hollow of the down.
+
+--Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_.
+
+
++Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field,
+woods, or prairie._
+
+
++Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or
+waterfall._
+
+(Consider especially your choice of words.)
+
+
+3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._
+
+
+And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but
+they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as
+Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not
+drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it
+is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf--
+steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet
+mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the
+rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It
+is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook--
+much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have
+known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor
+of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an
+exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made
+audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the
+American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid
+motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many
+nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence.
+
+--Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century").
+
+
+Yell'd on the view the opening pack;
+Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back;
+To many a mingled sound at once
+The awaken'd mountain gave response.
+A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong,
+Clatter'd a hundred steeds along,
+Their peal the merry horns rung out,
+A hundred voices join'd the shout;
+With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo,
+No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew.
+Far from the tumult fled the roe,
+Close in her covert cower'd the doe;
+The falcon, from her cairn on high,
+Cast on the rout a wondering eye,
+Till far beyond her piercing ken
+The hurricane had swept the glen.
+Faint, and more faint, its failing din
+Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn,
+And silence settled, wide and still,
+On the lone wood and mighty hill.
+
+--SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_.
+
+
++Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a
+description introducing sounds._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Alone in the house.
+  2. In the woods at night.
+  3. Beside the brook.
+  4. In the factory.
+  5. A day at the beach.
+  6. Before the Fourth.
+  7. On the seashore.
+
+
+(Notice especially the words that indicate sound.)
+
+
+4. _Color or the use of color._
+
+
+A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with
+gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the
+mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower
+gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a
+somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had
+gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their
+nakedness.
+
+--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.
+
+
+The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which
+we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing
+in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the
+plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau
+and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the
+hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble
+glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun
+went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing
+purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep
+violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a
+dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened
+as twilight came on.
+
+--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.
+
+
++Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters
+largely._
+
+5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._
+
+
+The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and
+huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and
+terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression
+incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh,
+dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a
+knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his
+reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a
+challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults.
+
+--Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_.
+(Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.)
+
+
+Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page
+242).
+
+
++Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._
+
+(What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?)
+
+6. _Trees and plants._
+
+
+How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander
+it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and
+decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped
+and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead
+of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes.
+White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it,
+no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy,
+indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at
+Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on
+bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing
+wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock
+or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to
+make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should
+hold so precious, indoors and out.
+
+--Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_.
+
+
+A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak,
+and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a
+short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick,
+tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A
+tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes.
+
+--Marian M. George.
+
+
++Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._
+
+(Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of
+composition treated in Chapter V.)
+
+
++134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles
+of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should
+be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our
+interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is
+concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become
+character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen
+gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing
+character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole
+purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are
+introduced which accomplish this purpose.
+
+In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character
+sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character
+indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions
+and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no
+descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to
+fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive
+elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are
+distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements
+and emphasizes the character shown by the actions.
+
+Notice the following examples:--
+
+
+The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene,
+perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of
+early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was
+quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without
+a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and
+fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders,
+although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were
+thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his
+expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect;
+so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly
+and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are
+apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with
+oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch
+a minister, but he was every nerve a man.
+
+--Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the
+period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her
+complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly
+parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth,
+tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by
+drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden
+hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her
+back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy
+softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an
+effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were
+added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can
+impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things
+impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven,
+itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast,
+as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening
+eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph
+turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as
+with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on.
+
+--Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.
+(Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.)
+
+
+When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years
+of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy
+and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending
+dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been
+tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of
+occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled
+him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid,
+his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils
+seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark
+blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an
+earnestness that was almost sad.
+
+--Bancroft.
+
+
+There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was
+the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very
+striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of
+romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long
+hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect
+originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as
+if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the
+common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting
+him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be
+a literary king.
+
+--Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young
+man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely
+cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired
+and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl;
+soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker;
+the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb.
+
+--Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture
+anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each
+helps you in this?
+
+
++Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._
+
+(Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching
+so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.)
+
+
+[Illustrations]
+
+
++135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a
+description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our
+feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the
+following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how
+the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of
+forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots,
+hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the
+shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression.
+Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by
+its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn
+appearance of the Battery.
+
+
+All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy;
+but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there
+some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade
+upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am
+certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the
+paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a
+stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At
+that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of
+strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade,
+a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this
+weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in
+the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore,
+with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some
+happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the
+sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the
+night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother,
+that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so
+much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the
+green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside
+their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at
+the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world
+seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had
+brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the
+women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and
+which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side
+were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which
+were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various
+unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the
+water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now
+the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these
+lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue
+water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
+The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but
+they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a
+single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single
+impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by
+the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same
+time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in
+the following:--
+
+
+It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most
+impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it
+is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose
+which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that
+gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the
+track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap
+under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its
+fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path,
+you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt
+your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any
+circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility,
+almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car
+and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost
+thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that
+you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts
+for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses
+you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird
+character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather
+points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train
+stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a
+doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing
+beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers
+getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking
+the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane
+satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of
+the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the
+sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a
+blank slumber.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
++136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it
+gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in
+Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of
+an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in
+mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a
+clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have
+chosen different details and would have presented them in different
+language.
+
+The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two
+different observers because each may discover a different set of
+likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential
+characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some
+one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the
+effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will
+in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select
+details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the
+picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and
+essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is
+to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet,
+the elements that are important for the producing of the desired
+impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture.
+
+When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to
+present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others
+to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene
+affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we
+felt.
+
+
++137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a
+description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must
+know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary
+for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our
+impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what
+our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene
+that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall
+affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these
+elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes
+necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of
+those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause
+us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this
+impression to our reader, our description must include the details that
+give that impression of untidiness to us.
+
+Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made
+stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may
+supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet
+they add much to the impression which we get.
+
+
+Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there
+were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes
+of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_,
+a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable
+book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which
+prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly
+against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a
+comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and
+security to our travelers.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
++138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a
+description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression
+that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara
+has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard
+to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a
+situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of
+grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No
+two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our
+temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences
+affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we
+get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely
+upon the definite perception of our feelings.
+
+
++139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected
+by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced
+by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer
+at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous;
+to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood,
+but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to
+arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer,
+which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and
+shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer
+takes advantage of these emotional tendencies.
+
+
+Not far we fared--
+The river left behind--when, looking back,
+I saw the mountain in the searching light
+Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride
+In my adventure, I can ne'er forget
+The disappointment and chagrin which fell
+Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep
+Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun,
+Had left the scene; and in its place I saw
+A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed,
+Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod.
+Its grand impossibilities and all
+Its store of marvels and of mysteries
+Were flown away, and would not be recalled.
+
+--Holland: _Katrina_.
+
+
++140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image
+making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they
+necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image,
+however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description,
+however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is
+rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for
+their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little
+moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images
+are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the
+images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This
+subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent
+and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality
+few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that
+the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture
+exactly what was seen:--
+
+
+The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best
+cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The
+celebrated _Lacrymæ Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally
+devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to
+perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples,
+and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn
+with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by
+degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your
+approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their
+large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer
+seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no
+nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and
+the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet.
+
+--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by
+each:--
+
+
+The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor
+fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the
+other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a
+little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might
+mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning
+have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you
+taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the
+forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a
+fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance
+you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what
+you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart
+and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never
+get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the
+laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams.
+On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering
+leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At
+tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt,
+and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the
+sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long,
+arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded
+streets you will hone after the friendly forest.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_.
+(Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly
+converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the
+sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river
+valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the
+hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great
+majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and
+fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are
+acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all
+this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know--
+the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown
+thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate
+land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or
+neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned
+homes of disheartened and defeated men.
+
+Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society
+grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro,
+avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of
+some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the
+woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among
+the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they
+are never seen again.
+
+In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come;
+the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle
+down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is
+covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but
+useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie
+jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent
+cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It
+seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the
+making of the earth.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone,
+I saw below me, like a jeweled cup,
+The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip--
+The serrate green against the serrate blue--
+Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant
+With a divine elixir--lucent floods
+Poured from the golden chalice of the sun,
+At which my spirit drank with conscious growth,
+And drank again with still expanding scope
+Of comprehension and of faculty.
+
+I felt the bud of being in me burst
+With full, unfolding petals to a rose,
+And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene.
+By sudden insight of myself I knew
+That I was greater than the scene,--that deep
+Within my nature was a wondrous world,
+Broader than that I gazed on, and informed
+With a diviner beauty,--that the things
+I saw were but the types of those I held,
+And that above them both, High Priest and King,
+I stood supreme, to choose and to combine,
+And build from that within me and without
+New forms of life, with meaning of my own,
+And then alone upon the mountain top,
+Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head
+Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul
+Baptized and set apart for poetry.
+
+--Holland: _Katrina_.
+
+
++Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an
+impression that you have experienced._
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its
+     purpose the creation of an image.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of a description are:--
+       _a._ A point of view,
+            (1) It may be fixed or changing.
+            (2) It may be expressed or implied.
+            (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen
+                 from the point of view chosen.
+       _b._ A correct fundamental image.
+       _c._ A few characteristic and essential details
+            (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary
+                 in order to select the essential details.
+       _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details.
+       _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their
+              natural position in space.
+       _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from
+            (1) Proper choice of words.
+            (2) Suitable comparisons and figures.
+            (3) Variety of sentence structures.
+
+3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many
+     classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some
+     indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character
+     sketch.
+
+4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an
+     impression.
+       _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying
+              the impression he desires his readers to receive.
+       _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately,
+              because he cannot convey to others that which he has not
+              himself experienced.
+       _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person.
+       _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated.
+
+
+
+IX. NARRATION
+
+
++141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of
+happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most
+interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be
+interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking
+about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in
+narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes
+the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and
+magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn
+from our libraries.
+
+Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must
+include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas,
+histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also
+includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of
+accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently
+the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be
+found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your
+school in which you think your classmates are interested.
+
+2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of
+interest to members of your school.
+
+3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city
+during the last two or three years.
+
+4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you.
+
+5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your
+classmates.
+
+6. Name three national events of recent occurrence.
+
+7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have
+heard.
+
+8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see
+how it turned out.
+
+9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be
+interesting? If not, why not?
+
+
++Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school,
+telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_.
+
+(Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.)
+
+
++142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few
+words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in
+which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The
+principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of
+Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:--
+
+
+A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of
+the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair.
+When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back
+the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this
+word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek
+the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has
+established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters
+authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where
+they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as
+students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the
+first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who
+recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by
+a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept
+them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa,
+a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady
+Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the
+alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On
+the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril
+sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of
+ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine
+reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight
+falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and
+Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before
+the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her
+father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with
+soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince,
+after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes
+with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three
+brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to
+decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with
+fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on
+the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are
+vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded.
+
+But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown
+more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has
+said of Lady Psyche's little child:--
+
+
+"I took it for an hour in mine own bed
+This morning: there the tender orphan hands
+Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence
+The wrath I nursed against the world."
+
+
+When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she
+kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the
+wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's
+blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart,
+
+
+Her iron will was broken in her mind,
+Her noble heart was broken in her breast.
+
+
+From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a
+natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him
+into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she
+comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all."
+
+--Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_.
+
+
++Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:--
+
+  1. _Lochinvar_, Scott.
+  2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving.
+  3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens.
+  4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot.
+  5. The last magazine story you have read.
+  6. Some story assigned by the teacher.
+
+
++Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one
+that will make the most interesting story._
+
+
++Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in
+the preceding theme._
+
+(Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?)
+
+
++143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear
+understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often
+be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place,
+characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the
+introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall
+contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a
+well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the
+first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to
+the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun
+with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see
+that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to
+enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest
+will begin to lag.
+
+
++Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The Christmas surprise.
+  2. How the mortgage was paid.
+  3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine.
+  4. The new girl in the boarding school.
+  5. The Boss, and how he won his title.
+
+(Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is
+understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what
+you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?)
+
+
++144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to
+arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the
+better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his
+story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement
+designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which
+interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following
+selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where.
+(Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the
+time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the
+adventure ended.
+
+
+On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in
+the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty
+of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy,
+heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some
+heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared
+very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion.
+The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now
+lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed
+manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind
+of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same
+time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front.
+He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood
+smelled so oily.
+
+I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and
+single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled,
+although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to
+place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his
+annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire.
+
+The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he
+decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he
+jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant
+headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast.
+The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of
+mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into
+halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch
+of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very
+hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his
+miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new
+strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his
+way back to civilization.
+
+--P.L. Wessels.
+
+
++Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog.
+  2. An unpleasant experience.
+  3. A story told by the school clock.
+  4. Disturbing a hornet's nest.
+  5. The fate of an Easter bonnet.
+  6. Chased by a wolf.
+
+(Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?)
+
+
++145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually
+somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That
+turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is
+greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the
+story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually
+increase from the incentive moment to the climax.
+
+In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot,
+several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to
+each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up
+to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to
+the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of
+Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and
+Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the
+minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one.
+
+In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There
+should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and
+especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close,
+and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been
+reached.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read.
+
+_B._ Where is the climax in the following selection?
+
+
+We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts,
+And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed
+Together, as two eagles on one prey
+Come rushing down together from the clouds,
+One from the east, one from the west; their shields
+Dashed with a clang together, and a din
+Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters
+Make often in the forest's heart at morn,
+Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows
+Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed.
+And you would say that sun and stars took part
+In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud
+Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun
+Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose
+Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain,
+And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair.
+In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone;
+For both the onlooking hosts on either hand
+Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure,
+And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream.
+But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes
+And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield
+Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear
+Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin,
+And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan.
+Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm,
+Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest
+He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume,
+Never till now denied, sank to the dust;
+And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom
+Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air,
+And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse,
+Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;--
+No horse's cry was that, most like the roar
+Of some pained desert lion, who all day
+Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side,
+And comes at night to die upon the sand.
+The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear,
+And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream.
+But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on,
+And struck again; and again Rustum bowed
+His head; but this time all the blade, like glass,
+Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm,
+And in the hand the hilt remained alone.
+Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes
+Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear,
+And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout,
+And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step,
+And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form;
+And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped
+His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side.
+He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground,
+And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell,
+And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all
+The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair--
+Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet,
+And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand.
+
+--Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_.
+
+
++Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The immigrant's error.
+  2. A critical moment.
+  3. An intelligent dog.
+  4. The lost key.
+  5. Catching a burglar.
+  6. A hard test.
+  7. Won by the last hit.
+  8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen.
+
+
+(Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense
+until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?)
+
+
++146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a
+conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have
+the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we
+listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes
+from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to
+order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as
+possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How
+many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation
+orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own
+speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following
+selection:--
+
+
+Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him.
+
+"It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance
+in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand
+to drop limply.
+
+"Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded.
+
+"Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came.
+
+"What business have you got with me?"
+
+"Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to
+do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for
+your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called
+to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night."
+
+"You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore.
+"My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants
+anything let her come here."
+
+Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock."
+
+--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+_B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the
+incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements.
+
+
+When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as
+mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door.
+
+"William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've
+worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest."
+
+"Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was
+born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old
+Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice
+as mad as before.
+
+"Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a
+chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day,"
+he added cheerfully.
+
+The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still
+colder day for him before he struck the weather again.
+
+"Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively.
+
+"Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing
+board and slamming it down on the table.
+
+"An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him
+just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough
+for all next winter and spring."
+
+"Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly
+wrecked the table.
+
+"An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you
+see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower
+lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and
+hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board.
+
+"No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle,
+an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the
+creases out of the tablecloth.
+
+"But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was
+jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to
+build a new--"
+
+By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she
+wouldn't.
+
+"Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull
+Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles
+around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last
+one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one
+more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say
+that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped
+fire all at once.
+
+The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had
+struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or
+present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his
+hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a
+confidential undertone:--
+
+"Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o'
+you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one
+o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward
+the ironing board.
+
+"Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of
+countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what
+then?"
+
+"They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look
+sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter
+tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?"
+
+"I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly.
+
+"Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me
+right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o'
+them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all
+along, d'ye see, widdy?"
+
+And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because
+she thought she saw.
+
+
++Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80,
+or one of the following:_--
+
+
+THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER
+
+Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to
+interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the
+zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been
+announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway
+System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some
+newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor
+had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him;
+second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour
+and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him,
+while Dayton would make an honest effort.
+
+Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and
+cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview
+one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man
+peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss
+with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to
+the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the
+attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled
+tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat
+Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was
+printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters.
+
+"Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst.
+
+Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before
+him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white
+eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled.
+
+"My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a
+gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?"
+
+It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow
+in return. Dayton's manner was compelling.
+
+"And what the dev--what can I do for you?"
+
+"I'm a reporter from the ----"
+
+"What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined
+fury....
+
+--David Graham Philips ("McClure's").
+
+
+CAUGHT MASQUERADING
+
+
+When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the
+Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They
+celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way.
+
+Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things
+quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I
+was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of
+bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My
+valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I
+suppose, no one answered it.
+
+What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on
+me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking
+me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank
+goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it.
+
+"Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race;
+we'll have to go without her."
+
+"They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows."
+
+"Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole.
+
+"Not a thing, dear."
+
+"Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise
+was dreadful!"
+
+"Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me
+something to put on. I want to see the race."
+
+"I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's."
+
+"Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather
+than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now."
+
+
+(Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section
+146.)
+
+
++147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the
+choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and
+by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an
+accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise
+statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made
+interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite
+fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country
+or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for
+those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest
+them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we
+find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person
+will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our
+narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case
+we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work
+you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly.
+
+To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all
+that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said.
+The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is
+addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts
+are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section
+81.)
+
+
++148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of
+our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each
+sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has
+been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by
+relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series
+of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such
+details as are not essential to the unity of the story.
+
+If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow
+the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one
+must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be
+carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time,
+meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events
+belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time,
+usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together
+so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the
+understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the
+changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one
+or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following
+chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the
+introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's
+_The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of
+events is to be related.
+
+It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as
+indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our
+narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be
+related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally.
+
+2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order.
+Relate one of them orally.
+
+3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the
+first person; in the third person.
+
+4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if
+you were writing a short account for a newspaper?
+
+5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was
+acquainted with the persons in the accident?
+
+6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine
+story that you read.
+
+
++Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can
+be carefully followed._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. The irate conductor.
+  2. A personal adventure with a window.
+  3. An interrupted nap.
+  4. Lost in the woods.
+  5. In a runaway.
+  6. An amusing adventure.
+  7. A day at grandfather's.
+
+(Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.)
+
+
++Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which
+different events are going on at the same time._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A skating accident.
+  2. The hunters hunted.
+  3. Capsized on the river.
+  4. How he won the race.
+  5. An experience with a balky horse.
+  6. The search for a lost child.
+  7. How they missed each other.
+  8. A strange adventure.
+  9. A tip over in a bobsleigh.
+
+
+(How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well
+connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the
+different events?)
+
+
++149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the
+interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of
+narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in
+plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its
+development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one
+another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union
+in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of
+the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our
+interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere
+story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little
+permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of
+character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives
+of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but
+a deeper study of the play sets forth and reënforces the character of
+Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of
+literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot,
+and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by
+means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human
+life and human character.
+
+On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that
+indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In
+order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons
+concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not
+only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done,
+we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in
+our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by
+the use of description. (See Section 134.)
+
+Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the
+character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were
+to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of
+Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this
+sketch.
+
+
+It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard
+my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he
+was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor
+aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary,
+that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend
+Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his
+heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the
+wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle
+in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted
+the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the
+desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen
+Pitkin mad.
+
+Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was
+so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his
+books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to
+tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with
+fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away
+to hide themselves under the desk.
+
+I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat
+and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the
+stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they
+melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar
+and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and
+if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again
+in fifteen minutes.
+
+"What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow
+not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes
+he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in
+general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and
+his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the
+room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be
+heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a
+mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was
+impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on
+the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description
+of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a
+hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our
+university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this
+point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and
+that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently
+insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply
+quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won."
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will
+show how Dickens portrays character by use of action.
+
+2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do?
+
+3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their
+character.
+
+4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine
+stories.
+
+5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you
+form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the
+descriptive matter help you determine his character?
+
+
++Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character
+by means of action._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The girl from Texas.
+  2. The Chinese cook.
+  3. Taking care of the baby.
+  4. Nathan's temptation.
+  5. The small boy's triumph.
+  6. A village character.
+  7. The meanest man I ever knew.
+
+
+(Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown
+character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by
+adding some description?)
+
+
++150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may
+be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable
+information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration.
+A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories
+contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently,
+too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied
+argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of
+a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and
+explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about
+whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and
+descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent
+that the story ceases to be interesting.
+
+The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make
+our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time,
+his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third.
+Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are
+neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be
+determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a
+short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If
+a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be
+read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with
+good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing
+upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds
+of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that
+they help us better to understand the real character of the man.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look
+up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite
+the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide
+beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See
+Sections 39, 52, 53.)
+
+
++Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned
+by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:--
+
+  1. Pontiac's conspiracy.
+  2. The battle of Marathon.
+  3. The Boston tea party.
+  4. The battle of Bannockburn.
+  5. Sherman's march to the sea.
+  6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon.
+
+(Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to
+the clear understanding of it omitted?)
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer
+about each of whom an interesting biography might be written.
+
+2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American
+writers, and two American statesmen.
+
+
++Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person.
+Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name.
+Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it
+is._
+
+
++151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration
+should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating
+of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to
+bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it.
+If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur,
+it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the
+narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the
+actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how
+or why they occur.
+
+Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the
+two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy
+Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that
+follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a
+marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with
+grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a
+dreadful spot after dark. The fact that André was captured here adds to
+the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and
+had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been
+disappointed.
+
+
+About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and
+ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's
+swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this
+stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a
+group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a
+cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It
+was at this identical spot that the unfortunate André was captured, and
+under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised
+him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are
+the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark.
+
+As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up,
+however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the
+ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of
+starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran
+broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the
+delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the
+contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it
+was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of
+brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and
+heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward,
+snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a
+suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at
+this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive
+ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the
+brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It
+stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic
+monster ready to spring upon the traveler.
+
+--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.
+
+
+The most important use of description in connection with narration is that
+of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character
+of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do
+much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section
+134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature.
+Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals
+as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII.
+Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and
+give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must
+be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not
+their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the
+desired impressions.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some
+description which explains how or why events occur._
+
+(Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the
+narration?)
+
+
++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in
+giving an impression of character._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Holding the fort.
+  2. A steamer trip.
+  3. How I played truant.
+  4. Kidnapped.
+  5. The misfortunes of our circus.
+  6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen.
+
+
+(Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to
+form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive
+moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories,
+    letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the
+    relation of events.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,--
+    _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place,
+          and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the
+          point of the narrative.
+    _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment.
+    _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of
+          the reader.
+    _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance
+          with the principle of unity.
+    _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order.
+    _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in
+          the appreciation of the point.
+    _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation.
+    _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from
+            (1) Proper choice of words.
+            (2) Suitable comparisons and figures.
+            (3) Variety of sentence structure.
+    _i._ A brief conclusion.
+
+
+
+X.  EXPOSITION
+
+
++152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make
+clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is
+to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the
+two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to
+study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please,
+while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions
+as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers
+attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge.
+
+In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to
+burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:--
+
+
+1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing
+iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same
+heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the
+polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot
+enough the prints should be rubbed with a glacé polish, which is sold for
+this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints
+should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher
+being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the
+degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure
+being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being
+polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the
+prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above.
+
+--_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_.
+
+
+2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the
+sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for
+instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on
+both sides of the paper.
+
+Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the
+paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be
+split by the top surface being removed.
+
+The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to
+each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without
+hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will
+be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste
+in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+A. Explain orally any two of the following:--
+    1. How to fly a kite.
+    2. How a robin builds her nest.
+    3. How oats are harvested.
+    4. How tacks are made.
+    5. How to make a popgun.
+    6. How fishes breathe.
+    7. How to swim.
+    8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief.
+    9. How to play golf.
+   10. How salt is obtained.
+
+
+B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar.
+
+
++Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do.
+Write a theme on the subject chosen._
+
+(Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See
+Sections 67 and 68.)
+
+Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are
+combined, as in the following:--
+
+
+In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do
+not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and
+lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water,
+if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This
+treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of
+sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body
+has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If
+respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial
+respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept
+quiet in bed for some time.
+
+--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_.
+
+
+Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_?
+nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:--
+
+
+JOURNALISM
+
+What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a
+trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes
+from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages,
+and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day.
+Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals
+were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the
+pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or
+statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a
+circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the
+public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a
+specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often
+enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically
+and distributed to subscribers.
+
+A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than
+one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person
+who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work
+on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This
+use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to
+persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper
+men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or
+contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its
+comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of
+producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of
+professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and
+detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and
+conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which
+is ideally perfect in every department.
+
+Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money
+making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the
+thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial
+comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation
+to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten
+the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with
+unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with
+intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching
+courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the
+dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of
+thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces
+that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth.
+
+This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the
+editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression
+in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim.
+This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as
+more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in
+completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of
+its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in
+the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the
+type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong
+encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation.
+
+--_The Boston Herald._
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following
+questions:--
+
+1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one?
+
+2. Why should we study history?
+
+3. Why does a baseball curve?
+
+4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England?
+
+5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers?
+
+6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn?
+
+7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China?
+
+8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends
+of the rails?
+
+
++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a
+subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as
+possible._
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the
+questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain?
+
+
++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the
+above list._
+
+(Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness,
+unity, and coherence.)
+
+
++153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important
+because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions
+of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education,
+and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter
+what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of
+discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted
+with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not
+be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the
+sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced
+if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture.
+In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the
+relative merits of his goods to his customers.
+
+Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature.
+The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not
+sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary
+to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in
+clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the
+other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in
+explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in
+our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to
+explain during the last week or two.
+
+2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned
+through explanation.
+
+3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for
+explanation.
+
+4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the
+explanation clear.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three
+of the preceding exercise._
+
+(Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation
+clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?)
+
+
++154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation
+is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the
+explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject
+ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in
+our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally
+confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to
+explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a
+canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the
+process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how
+it is done.
+
+The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations
+is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly
+acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the
+lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas.
+Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an
+additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure.
+Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking
+for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are
+given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be
+useless to attempt an explanation.
+
+2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear
+explanations of them.
+
+3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you
+feel sure that you can obtain information.
+
+4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of
+them.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in
+number four of the preceding exercise._
+
+(Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the
+themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness.
+Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.)
+
+
++155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for
+explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning
+the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is
+rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the
+person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to
+that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that
+selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the
+audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation
+will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing
+a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not
+understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence.
+
+Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people
+do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it?
+
+
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as
+vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may
+comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince,
+gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and
+noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own
+district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the
+vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to
+come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was
+engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court
+when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his
+master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they
+were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates,
+which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to
+follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held
+courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the
+knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles,
+distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of
+whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and
+peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like
+brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored.
+
+Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he
+summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men
+corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had
+been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey
+the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates,
+to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in
+their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the
+peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one
+array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for
+fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal
+system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages.
+
+--Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_.
+
+
++Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_--
+
+1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle.
+
+2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age.
+
+3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of
+the school board of an adjoining city.
+
+4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made.
+
+5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured.
+
+6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile.
+
+
+(Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.)
+
+
++156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that
+there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the
+topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the
+natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of
+general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the
+circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to
+follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body.
+In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the
+material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture
+in order through its successive stages.
+
+In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult.
+We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding
+of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the
+proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some
+length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong
+together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately.
+If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be
+united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the
+transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will
+cause no confusion.
+
+In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group
+of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole
+idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea,
+but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain
+facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation
+clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the
+understanding of others shall come first.
+
+Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and
+the arrangement of those groups:--
+
+
+Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good
+health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be
+mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas
+which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if
+inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or
+stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and
+poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again,
+will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the
+removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its
+place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings,
+and its importance cannot be overestimated.
+
+In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort,
+ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus
+allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy
+and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be
+supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good
+ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air
+is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters
+through the cracks of the doors and windows.
+
+Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation
+may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings
+should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which
+the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a
+shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room
+from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according
+to the size of the room.
+
+--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_.
+
+
+THE QUEEN BEE
+
+It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the
+entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one
+mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a
+royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up
+the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage,
+and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the
+patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much
+larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain
+contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal
+cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by
+taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it,
+till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in
+the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her
+cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but
+guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder
+every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the
+other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine,
+trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not
+being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or
+two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her
+successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in
+favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms
+can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her
+unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the
+same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who
+formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the
+victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we
+are indebted to the blind Huber.
+
+It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always
+vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty
+stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret.
+
+The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees
+is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects.
+Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial
+mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the
+Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to
+the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute
+democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The
+power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers.
+They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer
+its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They
+regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the
+hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the
+queen to it.
+
+The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that
+she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a
+mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and
+the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their
+queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart
+and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey.
+
+The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to
+be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting
+nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen.
+
+--John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Duties of the sheriff.
+  2. How a motor works.
+  3. How wheat is harvested.
+  4. Why the tide exists.
+  5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated.
+  6. What is meant by the theory of evolution.
+  7. The manufacture of ----.
+  8. How to make a ----.
+
+
+(Consider the arrangement of your statements.)
+
+
++157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we
+need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is;
+we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our
+readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best
+show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage,
+especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of
+an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well
+chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or
+not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid
+clearness by giving unity and coherence.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you
+know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in
+making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts,
+arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the
+explanation clear to your classmates.
+
+  1. The value of a school library.
+  2. Sponges.
+  3. The manufacture of clocks.
+  4. Drawing.
+  5. Athletics in the high school.
+  6. Examinations.
+  7. Debating societies.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of
+the subjects chosen._
+
+
+(Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.)
+
+
++158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of
+general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in
+the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be
+accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term
+intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is
+familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea
+of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose.
+If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical
+definition.
+
+
++159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits
+to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members
+of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything
+that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of
+two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined
+belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term
+from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_,
+and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the
+class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into
+genus and differentia.
+
+
+  TERM TO BE      |       CLASS          |    DISTINGUISHING
+   DEFINED        |     _(Genus)_        |    CHARACTERISTIC
+                  |                      |    _(Differentia)_
+                  |                      |
+A parallelogram   |  is a quadrilateral  |  whose opposite sides
+                  |                      |  are parallel
+                  |                      |
+Exposition        |  is that form of     |  which seeks to explain
+                  |  discourse           |  the meaning of a term.
+                  |                      |
+
+
+Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the
+genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the
+order named.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the
+differentia) in each of the following:--
+
+1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle.
+
+2. A square is an equilateral rectangle.
+
+3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square.
+
+4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture.
+
+5. The characters composing written words are called letters.
+
+6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves.
+
+7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the
+speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of.
+
+8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other
+insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the
+hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called
+balancers or halters.
+
+
++160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a
+logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the
+thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame
+a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting
+the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term
+to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a
+metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the
+definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term
+beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for
+the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the
+definition is to make the meaning clear to him.
+
+The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the
+selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what
+characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members
+of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would
+find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which
+distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical
+instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty
+lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Select proper differentia for the following:--
+
+                   |
+TERM TO BE DEFINED |     CLASS (Genus)         |   DISTINGUISHING
+                   |                           |   CHARACTERISTIC
+                   |                           |  _(Differentia)_
+                   |                           |
+1. Narration       | is that form of discourse |         ?
+                   |                           |
+2. A circle        | is a portion of a plane   |         ?
+                   |                           |
+3. A dog           | is an animal              |         ?
+                   |                           |
+4. A hawk          | is a bird                 |         ?
+                   |                           |
+5. Physiography    | is the science            |         ?
+                   |                           |
+6. A sneak         | is a person               |         ?
+                   |                           |
+7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure         |         ?
+                   |                           |
+8. A barn          | is a building             |         ?
+                   |                           |
+9. A bicycle       | is a machine              |         ?
+                   |                           |
+10. A lady         | is a woman                |         ?
+
+
+_B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below.
+
+1. Telephone.
+
+2. Square.
+
+3. Hammer.
+
+4. Novel
+
+5. Curiosity.
+
+6. Door.
+
+7. Camera.
+
+8. Brick.
+
+9. Microscope.
+
+
++161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not
+properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact,
+because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If
+we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information,"
+the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that
+give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care
+should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Which of the following are exact?
+
+1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool.
+
+2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs.
+
+3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun.
+
+4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper
+side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the
+side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in
+front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae.
+
+5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers.
+
+6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof
+of the truth or falsity of a proposition.
+
+7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no
+other.
+
+8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves.
+
+9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers
+the whole leaf.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the
+following:_--
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Household science and arts.
+  2. Architecture.
+  3. Aesthetics.
+  4. Poetry.
+  5. Fiction.
+  6. Half tones.
+  7. Steam fitting.
+  8. Swimming.
+
+
+(Consider the definitions you have used.)
+
+
++162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division.
+Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its
+parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish
+triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we
+may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we
+divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique
+triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By
+completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is
+included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions
+equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has
+been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included
+in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are
+neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle
+can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete
+and exact division is called _classification_.
+
+Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We
+may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and
+secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division
+we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss
+_sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different
+from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their
+uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential
+that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an
+overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division.
+Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into
+cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the
+principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort
+them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle
+is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight
+goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor
+exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while
+other pieces might properly be placed in all three.
+
+In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification
+is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better
+accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might
+consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and
+omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did
+not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we
+wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would
+be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
+and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few
+special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes.
+An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and
+unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is
+called _partition_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are
+partitions? Which are defective?
+
+
+1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and
+negroes.
+
+2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked.
+
+3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction.
+
+4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and
+Democrat.
+
+5. The United States Government has control of states and territories
+
+6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering
+plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants.
+
+7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot
+consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional
+plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few.
+
+8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order,
+making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools,
+providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail,
+managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes.
+
+
+_B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made.
+
+
++1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We
+shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions.
+
+What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with
+regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that
+government in the United States is not very different from government in
+the other civilized countries of the world.
+
+Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United
+States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This
+part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local
+self-government, and will show that our system differs from European
+systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local
+self-government.
+
+Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and
+duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of
+the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of
+the federal government.
+
+Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such
+as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an
+outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of
+business and property.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+2. +Zoölogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog,
+however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be
+classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog
+does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about
+its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the
+kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer
+world and its special fitness for life.
+
+All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog
+constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by
+scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the
+500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of
+animals and is the science _zoölogy_. Names have been given to these
+different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily
+make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zoölogy called
+animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do,
+or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about
+the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of
+animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and
+their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zoölogy or animal
+_classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to
+their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and
+other animals, is called animal _ecology_.
+
+Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zoölogy, may include all
+or any of these parts of zoölogy.
+
+--Kellogg: _Elementary Zoölogy_.
+
+
+3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future
+rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:--
+
+First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in
+the modern world.
+
+Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American
+character, which are:--
+
+  (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise.
+  (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail,
+        of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand.
+  (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness
+        our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward
+        the world.
+  (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the
+        Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in
+        His hands.
+  (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to
+        organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the
+        movement in American life toward the simple and sincere.
+
+--Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_.
+
+
+ _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book
+and notice the main divisions.
+
+ _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division.
+
+ _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:--
+
+  1. The pupils in your school.
+  2. Your neighbors.
+  3. The books in the school library.
+  4. The buildings you see on the way to school.
+  5. The games you know how to play.
+  6. Dogs.
+  7. Results of competition.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions
+you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following
+topics:_--
+
+1. Mathematics.
+
+2. The school system of our city.
+
+3. The churches of our town.
+
+4. Methods of transportation.
+
+5. Our manufacturing interests.
+
+6. Games that girls like.
+
+7. The inhabitants of the United States.
+
+
+(Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you
+included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible
+principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best
+suited to your purpose?)
+
+
++163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so
+that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like
+terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a
+specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one.
+
+When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once
+be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in
+the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this
+case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation
+of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from
+Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by
+explaining its terms:--
+
+
+The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say
+that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of
+itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying
+that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the
+process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular
+adjustments, to the end, locomotion.
+
+
+It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a
+proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the
+proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary
+to make use of methods of exposition discussed later.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms
+likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood:
+
+1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion.
+
+2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications.
+
+3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature.
+
+4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults.
+
+5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw
+their own inferences.
+
+6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful
+antiseptic.
+
+7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal."
+
+8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression
+would be if the exponent were positive.
+
+
++Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_
+
+1. Birds of a feather flock together.
+
+2. Truths and roses have thorns about them.
+
+3. Where there's a will, there's a way.
+
+4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl.
+
+5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty.
+
+6.               All things that are,
+Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed.
+
+7. Be not simply good--be good for something.
+
+8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center,
+and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts
+Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon.
+
+
+(Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it
+means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you
+thoroughly understand its meaning.)
+
+
++164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development
+(Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may
+be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition
+may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself
+make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each
+repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or
+in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more
+definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take
+advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt
+to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over
+and over in his mind until it is understood.
+
+Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of
+repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement.
+
+
+How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in
+the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general
+problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of
+conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat
+the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our
+affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a
+citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which
+nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of
+ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great
+thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which
+education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function
+which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of
+any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such
+functions.
+
+--Herbert Spencer: _Education_.
+
+
+The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as
+though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and
+tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves
+abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually
+doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but
+swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked
+by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here
+one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of
+our eyes to follow.
+
+--F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_.
+
+
++Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below
+by means of repetition._
+
+1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school.
+
+2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so.
+
+3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated.
+
+4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands
+off territory in North and South America.
+
+5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties.
+
+6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take
+a man to distant countries.
+
+7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and
+useful career in the civil service of the United States.
+
+
+(Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph
+really explain the proposition?)
+
+
++165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general
+subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general
+statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the
+reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his
+paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no
+further explanation is necessary.
+
+The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:--
+
+
+The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are
+called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest
+example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the
+same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the
+sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is
+drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware
+River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned
+valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most
+famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the
+estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are
+drowned valleys.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
++Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an
+expository paragraph by use of examples:_--
+
+1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds.
+
+2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails.
+
+3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act.
+
+4. Men become criminals by a gradual process.
+
+5. Men's lives are affected by small things.
+
+6. Defeat often proves to be real success.
+
+
+(Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the
+topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?)
+
+
++166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our
+explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with
+something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall
+need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to
+or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though
+customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with
+some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is
+probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in
+the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the
+one with the other.
+
+
+Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with
+Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there
+should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is
+the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism
+affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools
+and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give
+to every man according to his need and require from every man according to
+his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some
+fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive
+system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the
+duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall
+produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the
+preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there
+are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken
+from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government;
+Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual
+absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will;
+Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the
+entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at
+every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the
+social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of
+the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is
+true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two
+antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly
+for industry, not at all for government. But how a coöperative industry
+can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels,
+no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even
+suggested.
+
+--Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_.
+
+
++Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_--
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A bad habit is a tyrant.
+  2. Typewritten letters.
+  3. The muskrat's house.
+  4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_.
+  5. Methods of reading.
+  6. All the world's a stage.
+  7. Compare life to a flower.
+
+(Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you
+been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?)
+
+
++167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is
+necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it
+may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the
+statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not
+anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really
+is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and
+by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind.
+
+
+The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace
+to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations;
+not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle,
+in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical
+determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy
+boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its
+natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the
+spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by
+removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former
+unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give
+permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by
+discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond
+of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government.
+
+
++168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most
+natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a
+general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to
+make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This
+method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations.
+
+Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:--
+
+
+Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must
+know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year
+when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by
+instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts
+the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a
+whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in
+mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded
+by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects
+his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a
+patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not
+attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he
+raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has
+fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he
+takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth.
+He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be
+sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick
+at an angle of about 45°, making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of
+this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation,
+for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is
+unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically.
+Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and
+is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short
+now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one
+who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished
+it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places
+the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and
+cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way
+through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the
+ground unheeded.
+
+When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a
+calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a
+short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through
+the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated
+silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished
+whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick
+between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle
+touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface
+has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the
+stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he
+holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back
+to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it
+again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we
+breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines
+and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the
+straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping
+up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of
+the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece.
+
+The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and
+know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically,
+for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into
+his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he
+lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place,
+fitting the parts nicely together.
+
+The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go?
+Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb?
+
+With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble
+instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes;
+while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is
+broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other
+sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit
+of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural
+song of earth.
+
+It goes!
+
+--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.
+(Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.)
+
+
++Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following
+subjects, making use of particulars or details:_--
+
+  1. How ice cream is made.
+  2. The cultivation of rice.
+  3. Greek architecture.
+  4. How paper is made.
+  5. A tornado.
+  6. Description of a steam engine.
+  7. The circulatory system of a frog.
+  8. A western ranch.
+  9. Street furniture.
+ 10. A street fair.
+
+(Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you
+used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics
+easy in this theme?)
+
+
++169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in
+the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind
+as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the
+general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the
+causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition
+we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes
+and effects. (See Section 49.)
+
+Notice the following example:--
+
+
+The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water
+in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the
+center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the
+sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the
+sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately
+greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the
+polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up
+around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar
+regions than above latitude 30°-40°, and the atmospheric pressure is
+correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the
+centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of
+the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure
+is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one
+side and the polar whirls on the other.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
++Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. The causes of the French Revolution.
+  2. How ravines are formed.
+  3. Irrigation.
+  4. Effects of smoking.
+  5. Lack of exercise.
+  6. Volcanic eruptions.
+
+
+(Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation?
+Did you make use of description in any place?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to
+    explain.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are--
+    _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts
+          essential to its purpose.
+    _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order.
+
+3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general
+    propositions.
+
+4. The steps in the exposition of a term are--
+    _a._ Definition. This may be--
+          (1) By synonym (inexact).
+          (2) By use of the logical definition (exact).
+    _b._ Division. This may be--
+          (1) Complete (classification).
+          (2) Incomplete (partition).
+         The same principle of division should be followed throughout.
+
+5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the
+following methods--
+    _a._ By repetition.
+    _b._ By giving examples.
+    _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts.
+    _d._ By making obverse statements.
+    _e._ By relating particulars or details.
+    _f._ By stating cause or effect.
+    _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods.
+
+
+
+XI. ARGUMENT
+
+
++170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from
+exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the
+meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a
+person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does
+understand, he does not believe, we argue.
+
+Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the
+reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view
+of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that
+is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that
+the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the
+meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish.
+This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the
+proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole.
+
+There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot
+argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what
+is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an
+argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to
+choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even
+with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to
+be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under
+discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory
+outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our
+government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of
+single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a
+proposition either expressed or implied.
+
+
++171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions
+state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore
+aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory.
+The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific
+proposition; for example:--
+
+
+  Nero was guilty of burning Rome.
+  Joan of Arc was burned at the stake.
+  Barbara Frietchie actually existed.
+  Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester.
+  Homer was born at Chios.
+
+
+The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory;
+for example:--
+
+
+  A college education is a profitable investment.
+  Light is caused by a wave motion of ether.
+
+
++172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may
+be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is,
+as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does
+not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly
+formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before
+trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes,
+and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will
+assist in making his own thought clear and definite.
+
+If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of
+all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then
+we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our
+proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought
+we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose
+their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as
+well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes
+in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this
+proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject?
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:--
+
+  1. Immigration.
+  2. Elevated railways.
+  3. American history.
+  4. Military training.
+  5. Single session.
+  6. Athletics.
+
+_B_. Explain the following propositions:--
+
+  1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy.
+  2. Is vivisection justifiable?
+  3. The author has greater influence than the orator.
+  4. The civil service system should be abolished.
+  5. The best is always cheapest.
+
+_C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that
+the meaning of each will be made more definite?
+
+1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be
+    abolished?)
+
+2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for
+    whom?)
+
+3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high
+    school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be
+    taught to _all_ high school pupils?)
+
+4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency.
+
+5. The commercial course is better than the classical course.
+
+6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits.
+
+
++Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as
+restated in Exercise C above._
+
+(Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the
+arrangement of your argument.)
+
+
++173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the
+proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in
+its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two
+sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must
+present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is
+true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell
+him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the
+statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical
+thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for
+our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions.
+
+
++174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to
+convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for
+believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and
+me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe
+them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a
+proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should
+present our material in order to cause others to believe the same
+proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as
+I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others.
+
+Are the following propositions true or false? Why do
+you believe or refuse to believe each?
+
+  1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter.
+  2. Dogs bark.
+  3. Kettles are made of iron.
+  4. Grasshoppers jump.
+  5. Giraffes have long necks.
+  6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime.
+  7. The sun will rise to-morrow.
+  8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge.
+  9. Honest people are respected.
+ 10. Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit.
+ 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do.
+
+
+It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of
+these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the
+propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not
+made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have
+seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater
+the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception,
+the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun
+to rise because it has never failed).
+
+The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth
+of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+.
+
+
++175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by
+showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable
+explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is
+true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual
+cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we
+assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is
+established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being
+made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found
+that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course,
+was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon
+further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids,
+scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue
+litmus red.
+
+In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward
+many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in
+pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to
+be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to
+and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been
+for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found
+unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been
+replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of
+astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory.
+
+Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as
+well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never
+told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on
+the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this
+as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the
+strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the
+absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion.
+
+The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large
+number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition,
+but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not
+all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun
+may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still
+it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the
+propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our
+inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will
+be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either
+directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument.
+
+We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from
+many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general
+proposition.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is
+shown by giving particular examples:--
+
+
+1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst
+points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves
+are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped
+hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody
+noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town
+spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand,
+whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as
+noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so
+clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so;
+that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more
+than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible
+thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to
+catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction
+of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is
+paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention
+is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would
+be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who
+stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent
+society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further
+evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater
+a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a
+correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each.
+
+--Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_.
+
+
+
+2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of
+English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of
+these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that
+the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20
+had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from
+the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had
+been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent
+(always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9
+per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the
+middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not
+determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_.
+
+--Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_.
+
+
+3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault
+of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of
+a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King
+Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his
+misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter
+would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had
+cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I
+need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor
+the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second
+woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against
+his error:--
+
+"Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool
+Do with so good a wife?"
+
+In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought
+to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The
+Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two
+princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death
+by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the
+queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the
+foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are
+opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In
+_Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved
+her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her
+prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the
+curse of living as the destroyer of his country.
+
+--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.
+
+
+4.
+
+  _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves;
+_The world is still deceived with ornament_.
+In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt
+But, being season'd with a gracious voice,
+Obscures the show of evil? In religion,
+What damned error, but some sober brow
+Will bless it and approve it with a text,
+Hiding the grossness with fair ornament?
+There is no vice so simple but assumes
+Some mark of virtue on his outward parts:
+How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false
+As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins
+The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars,
+Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk;
+And these assume but valor's excrement
+To render them redoubted! Look on beauty,
+And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight;
+Which therein works a miracle in nature,
+Making them lightest that wear most of it:
+So are those crisped snaky golden locks
+Which make such wanton gambols with the wind,
+Upon supposed fairness, often known
+To be the dowry of a second head,
+The skull that bred them in the sepulcher.
+Thus ornament is but the guiled shore
+To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf
+Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word,
+The seeming truth which cunning times put on
+To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold,
+Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee;
+Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge
+'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead,
+Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught,
+Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence;
+And here choose I: joy be the consequence!
+
+--Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_.
+
+
++Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following statements:_--
+
+1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the
+smaller towns by electric car lines.
+
+2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools.
+
+3. Examinations develop dishonesty.
+
+4. Novel reading is a waste of time.
+
+5. Tramps ought not to be fed.
+
+(Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section
+72.)
+
+
++176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty
+generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it
+happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A
+broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization
+will not hold.
+
+Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of
+their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others
+are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased
+at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There
+are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming
+that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of
+some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that
+particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may,
+upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance
+coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or
+outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be
+weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples.
+
+Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that
+all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a
+belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have
+learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens
+of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess
+one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes
+to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches
+us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to
+establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be
+selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common
+sense.
+
+
++177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been
+established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by
+showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and
+say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition,
+"All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process
+of reasoning would be--
+
+  _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable.
+  _B._ This ring is made of gold.
+  _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable.
+
+A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It
+consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion
+(_C_).
+
+Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as
+the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the
+same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific
+instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning.
+
+
++178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive
+reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning,
+for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form,
+the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it,
+however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these
+premises are general principles that have been themselves established by
+inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more
+_sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the
+proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in
+many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty.
+
+
++179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the
+syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass
+directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not
+succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply,
+"Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A
+knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A
+shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is
+called an enthymeme.
+
+Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in
+connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a
+moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some
+unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die
+sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If
+asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die
+sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the
+general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt.
+
+Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this
+case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by
+the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose
+that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be
+allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all
+the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The
+omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be
+established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out
+of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would
+admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if
+only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major
+premise and likewise the conclusion.
+
+It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we
+must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An
+argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the
+premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably
+follows.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:--
+
+   1. John will succeed because he has a college education.
+   2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money.
+   3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar.
+   4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy.
+   5. This dog must be angry because he is growling.
+   6. This fish can swim.
+   7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gärten_.
+   8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled.
+
+_B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the
+following:--
+
+   1. This book should not be read.
+   2. This hammer is useful.
+   3. That dog will bite.
+   4. This greyhound can run rapidly.
+   5. The leaves have fallen from the trees.
+   6. That boy ought to be punished.
+   7. It is too early to go nutting.
+   8. This boy should not study.
+   9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor.
+
+
++Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+
+1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind.
+
+2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York.
+
+3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose
+writing.
+
+4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed.
+
+5. Ireland should have Home Rule.
+
+6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote
+of the people.
+
+
+(Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.)
+
+
++180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if
+properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid
+false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the
+syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider
+briefly three chief errors.
+
+If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion
+is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be
+taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing
+the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught
+to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of
+the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not
+that used in the second.
+
+It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example,
+the syllogism,--
+
+
+All hawks eat flesh;
+This bird is a hawk;
+Therefore this bird eats flesh,--
+
+
+contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two
+appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is
+called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement
+about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion
+may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:--
+
+
+All hawks are birds;
+This chicken is a bird;
+Therefore this chicken is a hawk.
+
+
+In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks
+are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The
+conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy.
+
+The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In
+the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the
+suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are
+cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to
+test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by
+seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a
+fatal weakness in the thought.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Which of the following are incorrect?
+
+
+1. The government should pay for the education of its people;
+   Travel is a form of education;
+   Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the
+     people.
+
+2. All horses are useful;
+   This animal is useful;
+   Therefore this animal is a horse.
+
+3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject.
+
+4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with
+     the rights of others.
+
+5. All fish can swim;
+   Charles can swim;
+   Therefore Charles is a fish.
+
+6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie.
+
+7. All dogs bark;
+   This animal barks;
+   Therefore this animal is a dog.
+
+
++Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+1. The government should establish a parcels post.
+
+2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition.
+
+3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the
+public schools.
+
+4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the
+city.
+
+5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest
+President since Lincoln.
+
+(State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?)
+
+
++181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement
+by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an
+actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that
+show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the
+testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the
+subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of
+any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the
+fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term
+_evidence_.
+
+Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of
+apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If
+instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the
+evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you
+saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your
+testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence
+against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his
+lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you
+give will be direct.
+
+Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is
+nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the
+direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several
+persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even
+though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall
+give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and
+to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell
+the truth.
+
+Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and
+circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that
+they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition?
+
+
+Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr.
+Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part
+of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to
+pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they
+found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in
+retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of
+their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the
+column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion
+a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree,
+which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the
+bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this
+allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no
+permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The
+prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be
+distributed as food.
+
+--Robert Brown: _Science for All_.
+
+
++Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove
+one of the following propositions:_--
+
+Select some question of local interest as:--
+  1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin.
+  2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game.
+  3. Our heating system is inadequate.
+  4. It rained last night.
+
+If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:--
+  1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers.
+  2. The climate of our country is changing.
+  3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press.
+  4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites.
+  5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay.
+
+(Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts
+that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?)
+
+
++182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and
+pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several
+such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of
+automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its
+superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can
+give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to
+your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as
+a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think
+that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with
+your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them
+is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he
+may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra
+study.
+
+While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget
+that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing
+than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely
+stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important
+ones.
+
+
+                      EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each
+of the following:--
+
+1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the
+teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work.
+
+2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school
+ground is not large enough for practice.
+
+3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need
+physical training will neglect it.
+
+4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts
+from interest in studies.
+
+5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had
+experience.
+
+_B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following:
+
+1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an
+automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but
+one argument, but make it as strong as possible.
+
+2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd.
+
+3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate
+from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the
+high school? For your wishing to attend college?
+
+4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman
+suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage.
+
+_C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select
+the one that you consider the most important.
+
+1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of
+cigarette smoking.
+
+2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management
+of the faculty.
+
+3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils
+themselves.
+
+4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin.
+
+5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin.
+
+
++Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write
+out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._
+
+  (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is
+your argument deductive or inductive?)
+
+
++183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this?
+the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case
+under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or
+theory which applies to it.
+
+One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high
+schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to
+train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy
+will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of
+political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are
+not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the
+principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at
+that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is
+evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of
+political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion
+of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true.
+
+We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe
+that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he
+believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another
+principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would
+choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States
+should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories
+of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our
+beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general
+theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and
+especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we
+wish to convince.
+
+
++184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful
+argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that
+the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his
+church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members
+believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in
+addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an
+argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the
+validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a
+case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do
+believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general
+principles themselves.
+
+If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe
+competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must
+remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look
+upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers
+to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have
+confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may
+count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any
+one of importance or prominence.
+
+In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a
+proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim,
+"Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too.
+Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally
+believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation
+of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and
+causes him to believe our proposition.
+
+
++185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced
+into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the
+proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a
+general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious
+of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even
+more than the explicit statement of the general theory would.
+
+An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you
+shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be
+called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim,
+comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question
+in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an
+argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects
+your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection
+from Macaulay:--
+
+
+Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a
+self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are
+fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old
+story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim.
+If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery,
+they may indeed wait forever.
+
+--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+
+
++186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we
+quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because
+they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in
+argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may
+probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument
+in such a way as to appeal to those theories.
+
+
++Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_--
+
+1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an
+entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father.
+
+2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons.
+
+3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the
+college preparatory course instead of the commercial course.
+
+
+(Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you
+appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.)
+
+
++187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need
+to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and
+that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own
+beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material
+in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that
+no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general
+principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the
+following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective
+order of arrangement.
+
++188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in
+Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this
+probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common
+speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or
+event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one
+that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near
+to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our
+arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability,
+or actuality.
+
+If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both
+possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in
+the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not
+question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that
+it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is
+extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual
+occurrence.
+
+A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could
+not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or
+stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This
+possibility, reënforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by
+the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would
+lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually
+responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be
+discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the
+servants.
+
+Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so
+gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is
+impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another
+probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do
+all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both
+possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to
+demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to
+show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed
+and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable
+witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the
+evidence pointing to probable guilt may be.
+
+
++189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the
+relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We
+accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate
+has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our
+belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause.
+
+Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to
+the belief that the other is also true:--
+
+_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college
+entrance examinations.
+
+_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to
+death before the physician arrives.
+
+_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen.
+
+_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact.
+But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or
+probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our
+arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_.
+
+
++190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that
+when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we
+direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with
+its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a
+cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning
+from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south
+indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby
+has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict
+the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has
+been there.
+
+If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the
+argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has
+frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a
+lowering of the temperature.
+
+If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive
+only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not
+produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one
+of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did
+it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death,
+the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did
+not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of
+elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that
+your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many
+possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the
+attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to
+assume that it was the one.
+
+Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we
+pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause;
+as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or,
+"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a
+good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not
+mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another.
+
+As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from
+attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened
+near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the
+other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that
+in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such
+a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process.
+The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times
+that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys
+frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable
+presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of
+some one who kindled it.
+
+In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the
+relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do
+not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as
+a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds
+something to the probability.
+
+
++191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of
+inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to
+establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the
+physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are
+considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the
+class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the
+class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective
+in proving the certainty of a proposition.
+
+In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom
+proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under
+given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments
+by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish
+not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This
+persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the
+argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition
+should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a
+friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we
+may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined.
+
+
++192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in
+practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of
+similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that
+the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that
+the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the
+earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited.
+
+An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in
+argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily
+observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a
+proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the
+strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the
+differences existing between the two propositions considered. False
+analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and
+especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when
+the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve
+to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument.
+
+
+It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure
+than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's)
+picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us,
+though his analogies are more apt to be false than true....
+
+The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to
+convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home
+and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old
+and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason.
+Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says
+that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and
+bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity....
+
+The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great
+stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types
+everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one
+thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with
+a thing is often merely fanciful....
+
+I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of
+the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer,
+"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports
+the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A
+tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that
+these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and
+experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not
+supported by the analogy.
+
+John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_.
+
+
+Notice the use of analogy in the argument below.
+
+
+There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom
+produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell
+he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or
+recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon,
+but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty
+may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the
+house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to
+bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of
+opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered
+elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a
+system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos.
+
+--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+
+
++193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because
+some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his
+mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing
+way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then
+the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can.
+We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments
+from sign, and arguments from example in the order named.
+
+Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually
+precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish
+general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience
+already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted.
+
+Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with
+reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more
+than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it
+convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him
+the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of
+several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the
+hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last.
+
+In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One
+proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally
+suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order
+must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by
+following the order which gives the greatest coherence.
+
+
++Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_
+
+1. The Presidential term should be extended.
+
+2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school
+study.
+
+3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in
+height.
+
+4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable.
+
+5. No pupil should carry more than four studies.
+
+6. This school should have a debating society.
+
+
+(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used
+arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your
+arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten
+your theme without weakening it?)
+
+
++194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In
+fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be
+given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more
+definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In
+description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the
+impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In
+exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but
+in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly
+arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to
+convince.
+
+The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact,
+but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation
+may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements,
+but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A
+single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind
+prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to
+convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show
+that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once
+endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill,
+but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the
+governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and
+that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt
+upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole
+argument, and the governor signed the bill.
+
+The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of
+complete sentences rather than of topics.
+
+Notice the following example.
+
+
++Term examinations should be abolished.+
+
+
+AFFIRMATIVE
+
+
+I. There is no necessity for such examinations.
+
+1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations.
+
+2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable.
+
+II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages
+that may be derived from them.
+
+1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their
+strength.
+
+2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject.
+
+3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them.
+
+III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability.
+
+1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer
+one or two of the questions given him.
+
+2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an
+examination and pass very creditably.
+
+3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are
+not able to do themselves justice.
+
+
+
+NEGATIVE
+
+
+If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above
+proposition, the brief might be as follows:--
+
+I. Examinations are indispensable to school work.
+
+1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know
+about their subjects, especially in large classes.
+
+2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let
+their work lag.
+
+II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability.
+
+1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a
+good examination.
+
+2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination.
+
+3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term
+examination.
+
+III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations.
+  (1) For college entrance examinations.
+  (2) For examinations at college.
+  (3) For civil service examinations.
+  (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions.
+Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so.
+
+1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school.
+  (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils.
+  (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at
+        home.
+  (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation.
+
+2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the
+  street (county or state) fair.
+  (1) They will all go at least one day.
+  (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go
+        the same day.
+
+3. Women should be allowed to vote.
+  (1) They are now taxed without representation.
+  (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the
+        government, it has been an advantage to that government.
+  (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote.
+
+_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or
+negative):--
+
+1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of
+the course.
+
+2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country.
+
+3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed.
+
+4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study.
+
+5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable.
+
+6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods.
+
+7. We are all selfish.
+
+8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school.
+
+
++Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the
+preceding propositions._
+
+(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write.
+Can you improve it? )
+
+
++Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_--
+
+1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States.
+
+2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of
+the Seven Gables_.
+
+3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition.
+
+4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered.
+
+5. The standing army of the United States should be increased.
+
+6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the
+city.
+
+(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged
+with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider
+each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.)
+
+
++Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._
+
+(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read
+Section 79.)
+
+
++195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we
+have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth
+of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most
+frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than
+merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause
+him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something.
+Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and
+is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In
+argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince;
+in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to
+action.
+
+
++196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical
+affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large
+and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are
+included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly
+related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of
+conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite
+as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness
+depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success
+in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in
+accordance with our desires.
+
+
++197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince
+our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a
+proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added
+to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in
+accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion.
+Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite,
+or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience
+to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if
+we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he
+will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself
+diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he
+neglects to act and failure is the result.
+
+
++198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the
+nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish,
+or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others
+to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge
+them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We
+may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty.
+When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure
+in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their
+interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in
+politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general.
+
+
++199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and
+may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose.
+We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences
+there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We
+may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a
+capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument
+demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New
+Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used,
+description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion;
+but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental
+belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration
+would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and
+who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not
+interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our
+argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice
+against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In
+each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire
+of the person whom we seek to persuade.
+
+
++200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce
+action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not
+affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may
+need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may
+be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an
+appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of
+these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his
+love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to
+be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may
+be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced
+if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are
+persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own
+efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious
+prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what
+particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case?
+
+1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college.
+
+2. Urge a friend to give up card playing.
+
+3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons.
+
+4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community.
+
+5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium.
+
+6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life.
+
+7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle.
+
+8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people.
+
+9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park.
+
+
++Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.)
+
+
++201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our
+hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there
+is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently
+both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few
+exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely
+distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both
+forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in
+Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and
+persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove
+that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for
+his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their
+curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the
+various appeals?
+
+In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that
+persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings
+are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches.
+
+
+They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an
+adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or
+the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British
+guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by
+irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual
+resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive
+phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir,
+we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of
+nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the
+holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are
+invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir,
+we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides
+over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our
+battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the
+vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we
+were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the
+contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains
+are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war
+is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is
+vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but
+there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps
+from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our
+brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so
+dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and
+slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take;
+but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death.
+
+--Patrick Henry.
+
+
+The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are
+true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw,
+and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the
+reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying
+day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their
+little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went
+among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with
+hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one
+looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls.
+
+The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one
+dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and
+administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the
+spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their
+sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who
+still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I
+say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food....
+
+The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist
+to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter
+to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the
+United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World,
+the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and
+responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western
+Hemisphere.
+
+Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that
+is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot
+intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means
+war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached
+the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not
+peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will
+toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their
+fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine
+of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come
+abiding peace.
+
+Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be
+God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won
+except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has
+ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of
+unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into
+the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation
+Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the
+Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime;
+force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows
+of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at
+Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the
+clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode
+with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at
+Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made
+"niggers" men.
+
+Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for
+further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready
+to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my
+country, and my God.
+
+--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an
+evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to
+his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's
+objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings?
+
+2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the
+question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their
+reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made
+more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general
+appeals.
+
+3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for
+president. What qualifications should a good class president have?
+
+
++Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have
+written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix
+them._
+
+(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the
+introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?)
+
+
++Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you
+have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and
+intellect._
+
+(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.)
+
+
++Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of
+entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._
+
+(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?)
+
+
++Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive
+theme:_--
+
+1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day.
+
+2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay.
+
+3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf.
+
+4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats.
+
+5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be
+cruel to the lower animals.
+
+
++202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim
+to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home
+life and in our social and religious life these questions are always
+arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the
+question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it
+expedient?
+
+The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us
+to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to
+what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is
+right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or
+in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question
+honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to
+ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is
+it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be
+clear.
+
+An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient?
+presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is
+right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater
+advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration
+we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of
+any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or
+to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never
+be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own
+course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow,
+we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that
+either course is right.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called
+upon to decide.
+
+2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's
+experience.
+
+3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often
+differ.
+
+4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another?
+
+
++Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the
+following:_--
+
+1. Should two pupils ever study together?
+
+2. Is a lie ever justifiable?
+
+3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe?
+
+4. Woman's suffrage should be established.
+
+5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Give reasons for or against the following:--
+
+1. We should abolish class-day exercises.
+
+2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language.
+
+3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States.
+
+4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed.
+
+5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school.
+
+6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries.
+
+7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools.
+
+8. High school secret societies should not be allowed.
+
+
++Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using
+one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._
+
+(What advantages have you made most prominent?
+To what feelings have you appealed?)
+
+
++Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to
+decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_.
+
+(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of
+Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the
+arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero
+decided rightly?)
+
++203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two
+sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the
+hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such
+a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often
+find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the
+expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing
+proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This
+tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive
+argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing
+down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own.
+
+Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given
+time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which
+are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful
+teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the
+pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater
+consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his
+argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing
+objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that
+they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw"
+for the purpose of knocking him down.
+
+Notice the refutation in the following argument:--
+
+
+In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so
+pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing
+"up" and "down" stream.
+
+"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie
+with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or
+the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and
+fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the
+increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above
+the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than
+those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a
+muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and
+unnatural.
+
+On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to
+the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his
+limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in
+each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or
+more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the
+ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs,
+under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches
+every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water,
+and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry
+trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown
+against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader
+drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked
+and bedraggled, following slowly behind.
+
+By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting
+the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the
+banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from
+the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish
+to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock.
+They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a
+few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to
+proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the
+bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or
+eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the
+banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in
+ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising
+and feeding.
+
+Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a
+hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well
+hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when
+rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader.
+Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep
+the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising
+trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the
+gritty impact of the steel.
+
+In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the
+surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch,
+has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies
+that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly
+up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind
+them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small
+stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a
+trout's make-up.
+
+--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_.
+
+
++Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the
+following pairs:_--
+
+  1. Canoeing or sailing.
+  2. Bicycling or automobiling.
+  3. Golf or polo.
+  4. Basket ball or tennis.
+  5. Football or baseball.
+
+
++Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points
+on the other side and write out a refutation of them_.
+
+
++Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._
+
+
++Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and
+write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._
+
+
+(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the
+class.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of
+a proposition.
+
+2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases
+we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.
+
+3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires--
+  _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific
+        instances supporting it.
+  _b._ That these facts be true.
+  _c._ That they be pertinent.
+  _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary
+        proposition.
+
+4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth
+of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.
+
+5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive
+reasoning requires--
+  _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members
+        of a class.
+  _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration
+        belongs to the class named.
+  _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class
+        applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a
+        syllogism.
+
+6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.
+
+7. Errors of deduction arise--
+  _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.
+  _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member
+        of the class denoted by the middle term.
+  _c._ If either premise is false.
+
+8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise--
+  _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and
+        pertinent.
+  _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which
+        applies to it.
+
+In arguing therefore we--
+  _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or
+  _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,
+        allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call
+        up such theories.
+
+9. Classes of arguments:--
+  _a._ Arguments from cause.
+  _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances.
+  _c._ Arguments from example and analogy.
+
+10. Arrangement.
+  _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and
+        arguments from sign should precede arguments from example.
+  _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.
+  _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.
+  _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.
+
+11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be
+observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false
+may be excluded.
+
+12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course
+of action.
+
+13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.
+  _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,
+        commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,
+        or loss of self-esteem.
+  _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of
+        one's powers.
+  _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or
+        anticipated.
+
+14. Persuasion is concerned with--
+  _a._ Questions of right.
+  _b._ Questions of expediency.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+I. ELEMENTS OF FORM
+
++1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the
+correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the
+thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be
+given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our
+thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to
+succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great
+purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is
+aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
+
+Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and
+if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes
+directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential
+that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be
+correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to
+correct it.
+
+Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors
+rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an
+incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man
+may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to
+have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the
+error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is
+correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with
+reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for
+correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is
+merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next
+theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual
+mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a
+definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really
+accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In
+this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing
+but one thing at a time.
+
+Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of
+these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in
+class work.
+
+
+1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks.
+Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will
+often render copying unnecessary.
+
+2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship,
+and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly
+written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one
+that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so
+valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
+
+3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for
+composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page
+without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to
+write on only one side of the paper.
+
+4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet.
+Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the
+right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under
+each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the
+lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded
+into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next
+line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as
+steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided
+by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
+
+5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the
+center of the line above the composition, and should have all important
+words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as
+follows:--
+
+
+                          MY TRIP TO CHICAGO
+                             ON A BICYCLE
+
+
+With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same
+distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater
+than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
+
+6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink
+eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an
+incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be
+written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a
+caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
+
+7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to
+inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such
+as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page
+should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with
+neatness and precision.
+
+
++2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of
+using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name,
+such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we
+should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written
+by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are
+so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters
+would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that
+capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of
+deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I,
+the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage
+varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such
+expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of
+Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to
+write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they
+are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The
+general then spoke.
+
+
++3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry
+begin with capitals.
+
+2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of
+sentences, begins with a capital.
+
+3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with
+capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer
+capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic.
+
+4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with
+capitals.
+
+5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc.,
+begin with capitals.
+
+6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
+
+7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring
+thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
+
+8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in
+text-books indicating topics.
+
+
++4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the
+grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are
+reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this
+grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and
+inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses
+do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection
+and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are
+important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear.
+There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may
+all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only
+such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
+
+What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by
+custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with
+which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present
+tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear
+understanding of the sentence.
+
+There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be
+made so definite, and the application of them requires care and
+judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by
+practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating
+punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you,
+and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted
+afterward.
+
+
++5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate
+words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
+
+  Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
+
+  The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a
+    good place to live in at least part of the year.
+
+
+If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma
+may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
+
+
+  The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
+
+
+2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
+
+
+  The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of
+    wild life.
+
+
+3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of
+the sentence.
+
+
+  Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.
+  O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
+
+
+4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are
+set off by commas.
+
+
+  However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
+
+  This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or
+    playgrounds.
+
+
+If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to
+the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently
+used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
+
+
+5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound
+predicate.
+
+
+  Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man
+    who can wield an ax.
+
+
+6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or
+with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
+
+
+  One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with
+small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name
+as many species of birds as possible.
+
+
+7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their
+natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+
+
+  A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
+
+  To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
+
+
+8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they
+are set off by commas.
+
+
+  They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
+
+
+9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause
+from the rest of the sentence.
+
+
+  The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money
+    and spent it.
+
+  While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the
+    testing department.
+
+
+If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when
+the dependent clause comes last.
+
+
+  I will be there when the train arrives.
+
+
+10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be
+separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
+
+
+  Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just
+    returned to England.
+
+
+If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or
+limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
+
+
+  This is the best article that he ever wrote.
+
+
+
+11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when
+they are short or closely connected.
+
+
+  Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
+
+    Breathe it, exult in it,
+    All the day long,
+    Glide in it, leap in it,
+    Thrill it with song.
+
+
+12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
+a comma.
+
+
+  "There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
+
+
+13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by
+commas.
+
+
+  If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+
+
++6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a
+compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should
+be used to separate them.
+
+
+  Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a
+    college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate,
+    and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one
+    of these men could do more than this one thing.
+
+--Wendell Phillips.
+
+  We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be
+    obliged to soon.
+
+
+2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they
+should be separated from one another by semicolons.
+
+
+  As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at
+    it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew
+    him.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_.
+
+
+  Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
+
+
+4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on
+what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by
+semicolons.
+
+
+  When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more
+    heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous
+    exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting
+    kinds--woolens.
+
+
++7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used
+before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before
+the conclusion of a previous statement.
+
+
+  Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only
+    himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons
+    though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world
+    is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has
+    been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
+
+--George Dana Boardman.
+
+  Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and
+    definitive adjectives.
+
+  The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.
+    Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
+
+
+2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound
+sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
+
+
+  It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too
+    pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else
+    do it when the busy time is over.
+
+
++8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close
+of imperative and declarative sentences.
+
+2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+
+
++9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark
+should be used after all direct questions.
+
+
++10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and
+exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation
+mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole
+exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a
+comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
+
+
+See, how the lightning flashes!
+
+
++11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden
+changes in thought or breaks in speech.
+
+
+I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does.
+
+
+2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis
+to set off parenthetical expressions.
+
+
+In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce--
+abounds.
+
+
+3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to
+point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
+
+
+I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in
+the rain--all evidences of wasted time.
+
+
+4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations,
+before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced
+statement.
+
+
++12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used
+to inclose direct quotations.
+
+
+"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
+
+
+2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation
+marks.
+
+
+"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady
+of a clerk in Brooklyn.
+
+
+3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the
+different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
+
+
+"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
+
+4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks
+are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last
+one.
+
+
++13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to
+denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to
+form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
+
+
+In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which
+can't be distinguished from engravings.
+
+
+
+II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
+
+
+THE SENTENCE
+
+
++14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their
+relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a
+group of words that expresses a complete thought.
+
+
++15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the
+office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The
+_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_
+is that which asserts something about the subject.
+
+Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself
+to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been
+singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck
+_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute
+complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)].
+
+The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought
+(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group
+of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term,
+_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above
+given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement,
+objective complement).
+
+In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups
+of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more
+exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are
+used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_.
+
+[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears
+the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).]
+
+Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:
+
+[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover];
+one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].
+
+The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the
+_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_.
+
+The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is
+present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the
+_complete predicate_.
+
+Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple
+predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_.
+
+
++16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified
+according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_,
+and _imperative_ sentences.
+
+A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares
+something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].
+
+An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote
+_Mother Goose_?].
+
+An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
+["Fling away ambition"].
+
+Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the
+sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the
+children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?"
+(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!"
+(exclamatory imperative)].
+
+Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative
+forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.
+
+
+WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES
+
+
++17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are
+_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse,
+he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value,
+more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue,
+he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_
+and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation
+between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The
+word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would
+seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills
+the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following
+sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is
+evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in
+the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the
+second sentence by _is_.
+
+All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a
+connecting or relational office.
+
+
+PARTS OF SPEECH
+
+
++18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences
+we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words
+are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves
+as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of
+Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence
+shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of
+speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a
+_phrase_ or a _clause_.
+
+A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate,
+that is used as a single part of speech.
+
+A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate,
+that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it
+is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the
+word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only.
+
+
++19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as
+follows:--
+
+  I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
+ II. Assertives: verbs.
+III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
+ IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
+  V. Interjections.
+
+
++20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as
+follows:--
+
+(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name.
+
+(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person,
+place, or thing without naming it.
+
+(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive.
+
+(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being---
+concerning a substantive.
+
+(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another
+adverb.
+
+(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive
+that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.
+
+(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used
+in the same way.
+
+(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of
+the sentence.
+
+
+                              NOUNS
+
+
++21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes:
+_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl].
+
+Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns
+[army].
+
+Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction].
+
+
++22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in
+its meaning is termed _inflection_.
+
+
++23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows
+us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to
+denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but
+one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one
+object is _plural_ in number.
+
+The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to
+the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
+
+Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:--
+
+1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children].
+
+2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
+
+3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_
+[leaf, leaves].
+
+4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and
+add _es_ [enemy, enemies].
+
+5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You
+have used too many _i_'s].
+
+6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according
+to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
+
+7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
+  (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
+plural [sheep, deer].
+  (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
+  (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
+  (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
+news, politics].
+
+8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part
+of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the
+compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a
+plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of
+as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
+
+ 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are
+preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the
+title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters.
+The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs.
+Harrisons.]
+
+ 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth,
+cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+
+
++24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun
+bears to some other word in the sentence.
+
+Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting
+case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English
+language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but
+nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and
+objective cases have the same form.
+
++25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in
+the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by
+adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].
+
+In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the
+apostrophe [girls'].
+
+A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the
+'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].
+
+Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word.
+This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
+[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].
+
+Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second
+noun only: [My sister Martha's book].
+
+Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to
+denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness].
+
+
++26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex.
+Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those
+denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things
+without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender.
+
+
++27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show
+whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken
+of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to
+be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are
+not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them
+because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what
+persons they represent.
+
+
++28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions
+of nouns:--
+
+(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession.
+
+(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:--
+
+1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame]
+
+2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of
+the year].
+
+3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!].
+
+4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!].
+
+5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the
+sunshine].
+
+6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of
+Genoa, discovered America].
+
+(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:--
+
+ 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the
+object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils].
+
+ 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_].
+
+ 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring].
+
+ 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New
+England_].
+
+ 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go
+without delay].
+
+ 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I
+thought it to be _John_ (_him_)].
+
+ 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_].
+
+ 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone,
+the great _explorer_].
+
+
++29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
+
+1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas].
+
+2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great].
+
+3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the
+process].
+
+4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_].
+
+5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to
+act_].
+
+6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun
+clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and
+appositive.
+
+7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out].
+
+
+                             PRONOUNS
+
+
++30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun.
+The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the
+_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person,
+number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_.
+
+
++31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five
+classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2)
+relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns,
+(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).
+
+
++32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they
+show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the
+third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he,
+she_, and _it_.
+
+
++33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used
+in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the
+personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be
+understood.
+
+1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a
+sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is
+used _impersonally_.
+
+2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a
+sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb:
+[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called
+an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way.
+
+
++34. Cautions and Suggestions.+
+
+1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its,
+yours, ours_, and _theirs_.
+
+2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute
+complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_].
+
+3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of
+the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such
+sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk.
+Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us
+to make the possessive pronouns singular.
+
+_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is
+convenient not to use the expression _his or her_.
+
+4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case:
+[I asked _him_ to go].
+
+5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the
+verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective
+case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the
+subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was
+_he_].
+
+6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt
+in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.
+
+7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_:
+[_Those_ books are mine].
+
+
++35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our,
+your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and
+_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound
+personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:--
+
+1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the
+subject].
+
+2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_].
+
+
++36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which,
+what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than
+equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are
+often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent
+either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive
+pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate
+clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they
+modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_.
+
+
++37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and
+objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_
+and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things.
+
+When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular
+person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the
+clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently
+used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a
+_non-restrictive clause_.
+
+[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the
+omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in
+England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the
+clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.
+
+In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to
+separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys.
+Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so
+_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial
+boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is
+indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is
+put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.
+
+
++38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used
+as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and
+possessive modifier.
+
+The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its
+antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_,
+who _am_ your friend, will assist you].
+
+The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause
+in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for
+the position].
+
+
++39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are
+formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who,
+which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives,
+and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_
+wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see].
+
+
++40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are
+used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_
+pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to
+persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_
+and _what_ are uninflected.
+
+The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did
+you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the
+clause itself is called an _indirect question_.
+
+The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of
+substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_:
+["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book
+did you choose?].
+
+
++41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals
+_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they
+point out individual persons or things.
+
+
++42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any,
+many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be
+used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_
+and _other_, are inflected.
+
+
+                SINGULAR     PLURAL       SINGULAR     PLURAL
+
+NOM. AND OBJ.    one          ones         other       others
+
+POSS.            one's        ones'        other's     others'
+
+
++43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has
+been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the
+office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question
+is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the
+word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_.
+[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).]
+
+
+ADJECTIVES
+
+
++44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives:
+the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and
+the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so
+called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any
+adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is
+named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very
+large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_
+adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small
+part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook].
+
+
++45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives
+include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have
+been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_),
+and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_.
+
+
++46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_
+and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are
+inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a
+difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There
+are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and
+the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the
+syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and
+superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives
+of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before
+the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer,
+longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].
+
++47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared
+irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar
+with the correct forms.
+
+
+POSITIVE     COMPARATIVE     SUPERLATIVE
+
+bad  }
+evil }         worse           worst
+ill  }
+
+far            farther         farthest
+
+good }         better          best
+well }
+
+fore           former        { foremost
+                             { first
+
+late         { later         { latest
+             { latter        { last
+
+little         less            least
+
+many }         more            most
+much }
+
+near           nearer        { nearest
+                             { next
+
+old          { older         { oldest
+             { elder         { eldest
+
+
+The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive
+degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:--
+
+
+(forth)             further                 furthest
+
+(in)                inner                 { innermost
+                                          { inmost
+
+(out)              { outer                { outermost
+                   { utter                { utmost
+                                          { uttermost
+
+(up)                upper                 { upmost
+                                          { uppermost
+
+
++48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+
+
+1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is
+placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an
+industrious, faithful pupil].
+
+2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be
+repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].
+
+3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only
+before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker
+and real estate agent].
+
+4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun
+they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds].
+
+5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used:
+[This is the more complete of the two].
+
+6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should
+be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house
+better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any
+house].
+
+7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is
+he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class
+consisting of many kinds.
+
+
++49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or
+limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective
+limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is
+called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as
+attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute
+complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)].
+
+
++50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents
+for the typical adjective:--
+
+1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret
+Ogilvy_," is very beautiful].
+
+2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song].
+
+3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of
+kindness_ and _of love_].
+
+4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between
+the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called
+mercenaries].
+
+5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_].
+
+6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_
+is the one I want].
+
+
+
+                               VERBS
+
+
++51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an
+assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the
+whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_
+serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation.
+The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the
+_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate
+words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not
+always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must
+believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like
+the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_
+verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such
+as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They
+attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.
+
+
++52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are
+divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_.
+
+A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed
+or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product
+of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The
+transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here
+the object is implied.
+
+An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its
+meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an
+action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away.
+They were standing at the water's edge].
+
+A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are
+always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and
+_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them.
+The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning,
+while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may
+sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest].
+
+The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or
+intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.
+
+         [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive).
+          The fire _burned_ the building (transitive).
+          The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive).
+          The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).]
+
+Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died
+a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.
+
+
++53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a
+complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such
+verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts].
+
+All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words
+to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be
+incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is
+termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the
+_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_].
+Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an
+_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to
+the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the
+predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be
+either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is
+_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most
+conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.
+
+
++54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to
+express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the
+so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may,
+must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of
+these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.
+
+_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject.
+
+_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus
+the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"
+
+_Must_ indicates necessity.
+
+_Ought_ expresses obligation.
+
+_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in
+past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have
+done_ it].
+
+_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].
+
+_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours].
+Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of
+_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60.
+
+
++55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be
+called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them--
+are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the
+_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been].
+The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts.
+
+
++56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have
+certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or
+_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the
+case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs
+are _conjugated_.
+
+
++57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected
+language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person
+and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the
+third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in
+the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_].
+
+
++58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in
+person and number. The following suggestions concerning
+agreement may be helpful:--
+
+1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb:
+[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food].
+
+2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_,
+differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer
+of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame].
+
+3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by
+_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this
+book or that _is_ mine].
+
+4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc.,
+do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of
+the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my
+books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame].
+
+5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject,
+the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_
+number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of
+children _have_ been playing in the sand pile].
+
+6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is
+singular: [You _were_ here yesterday].
+
+7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the
+collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.
+
+
++59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called
+_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or
+condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses:
+_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses
+for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and
+_future perfect_.
+
+English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I
+love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary
+verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have,
+be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and
+participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb
+are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent
+division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later.
+
++60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_
+or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_.
+
+The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:--
+
+
+    SINGULAR                  PLURAL
+
+1. I shall fall          1. We shall fall
+2. Thou wilt fall        2. You will fall
+3. He will fall          3. They will fall
+
+
+_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but
+determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].
+
+_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of
+the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the
+determination of the speaker with reference to others.
+
+Notice:--
+
+1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun
+clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same
+auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used
+independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that
+her son _shall_ not be left alone].
+
+2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes
+simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination:
+[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there].
+
+3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second
+and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the
+answer.
+
+(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.)
+
+
++61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+
+
+1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past
+participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present
+perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_].
+
+2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle
+is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or
+_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_].
+
+3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall
+have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the
+_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_].
+
+
++62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a
+subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This
+is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he
+means well. I knew he meant well].
+
+The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not
+necessarily in the same tense.
+
+
+   [I think he _is_ there.         I thought he was there.
+    I think he _was_ there.        I thought he had been there.
+    I think he _will be_ there.    I thought he would be there.]
+
+
+In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the
+tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense
+requires.
+
+General truths and present facts should be expressed in the
+present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He
+believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president
+of your society?].
+
+The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at
+the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you].
+
++63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a
+doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how
+an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language
+there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of
+mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or
+attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb.
+
+The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact:
+[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?].
+
+The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of
+condition: [If she were here, I should be glad].
+
+The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here].
+
+
++64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from
+colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely.
+
+The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the
+present and preterite:--
+
+
+           IND.       SUBJ.                  IND.        SUBJ.
+        { I am        I be                { I was       I were
+        { Thou art    Thou be             { Thou wast   Thou were
+PRESENT { He is       He be    PRETERITE  { He was      He were
+        { We are      We be               { We were     We were
+        { You are     You be              { You were    You were
+        { They are    They be             { They were   They were
+
+
+In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except
+that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal
+endings.
+
+
+INDICATIVE               Thou learnest            He learns
+SUBJUNCTIVE              Thou learn               He learn
+
+
+The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing
+the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and
+_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am
+allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to),
+_should_ is indicative.
+
+The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:--
+
+1. A wish: [The Lord be with you].
+
+2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we
+think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go].
+When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb
+precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me].
+
+3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn].
+
+4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom].
+
+5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I
+shall pity him].
+
+6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late].
+
+The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional
+clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though
+the earth be removed, we shall not fear].
+
+The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case
+is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased].
+
+The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time:
+[If you had been here, this would not have happened].
+
+The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are
+sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall
+within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is
+only an incumbrance.
+
+
++65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and
+entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one
+tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is
+usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the
+imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my
+books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the
+verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative.
+
+
++66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they
+represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they
+represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their
+very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices,
+for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted
+upon.
+
+The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the
+passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the
+object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by
+my dog (passive)].
+
+Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
+referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct
+object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him
+_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when
+the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called
+_a coward_ by John].
+
+Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active:
+[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject
+in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_
+[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John].
+
+
++67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a
+verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the
+noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does
+not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers
+and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun.
+
+There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by
+_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or
+_infinitive in -ing_.
+
+1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice].
+
+2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences
+the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the
+sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object
+_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the
+adverb _rapidly_.
+
+Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its
+object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition.
+The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is
+used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be
+a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses.
+
+The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The
+_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the
+principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to
+write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference
+to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her].
+
+
++68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_
+the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun
+_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_.
+
+The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an
+ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is
+formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_.
+
+There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or
+infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the
+noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_
+the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_
+the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)].
+
+Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used
+for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for
+the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used
+in all the adjective constructions.
+
+One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction,
+or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been
+finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a
+clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the
+main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the
+substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging
+to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As
+the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_.
+
+
++69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various
+forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be
+found in any text-book on English grammar.
+
+The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive
+conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a
+_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some
+form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing].
+
+It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past
+participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the
+same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always
+shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as
+an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work
+(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)].
+
+
++70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as
+regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which
+form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the
+present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others
+_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the
+history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and
+those of the _strong_ conjugations.
+
+The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_,
+or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change
+of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_.
+
+All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are
+_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the
+past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is
+_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations.
+
+A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the
+most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of
+which mistakes occur.
+
+
+PRESENT              PRETERITE            PAST PARTICIPLE
+am                     was                     been
+arise                  rose                    arisen
+bear                   bore                    borne, born[1]
+begin                  began                   begun
+bid (command)          bade                    bidden
+bite                   bit                     bitten
+blow                   blew                    blown
+break                  broke                   broken
+bring                  brought                 brought
+burst                  burst                   burst
+catch                  caught                  caught
+choose                 chose                   chosen
+climb                  climbed                 climbed
+come                   came                    come
+do                     did                     done
+drink                  drank                   drunk[2]
+drive                  drove                   driven
+drown                  drowned                 drowned
+eat                    ate                     eaten
+fall                   fell                    fallen
+fly                    flew                    flown
+freeze                 froze                   frozen
+get                    got                     got
+give                   gave                    given
+go                     went                    gone
+grow                   grew                    grown
+have                   had                     had
+hide                   hid                     hidden
+hurt                   hurt                    hurt
+know                   knew                    known
+lay                    laid                    laid
+lie (recline)          lay                     lain
+lead                   led                     led
+read                   read                    read
+ride                   rode                    ridden
+ring                   rang                    rung
+run                    ran                     run
+see                    saw                     seen
+shake                  shook                   shaken
+show                   showed                  shown
+sing                   sang                    sung
+sink                   sank                    sunk
+sit                    sat                     sat
+slay                   slew                    slain
+speak                  spoke                   spoken
+spring                 sprang                  sprung
+steal                  stole                   stolen
+swell                  swell                 { swelled
+                                             { swollen
+swim                   swam                    swum
+take                   took                    taken
+tear                   tore                    torn
+throw                  threw                   thrown
+wear                   wore                    worn
+wish                   wished                  wished
+write                  wrote                   written
+
+[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."]
+[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.]
+
+
+CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always
+use the past participle form in the compound tenses.
+
+
+
+ADVERBS
+
+
++71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning.
+It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we
+may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and
+_conjunctive_ adverbs.
+
+_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_].
+
+_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come?
+He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)].
+
+_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_
+we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a
+modifier of _stayed_.
+
+Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:
+
+1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls].
+
+2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them].
+
+3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed].
+
+Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of
+_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a
+rigid one.
+
+Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in
+_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like
+meaning: [She sang very loud].
+
+Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When?
+
+Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with
+the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.
+
+_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs
+modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
+
+
++72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot
+easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_
+as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.
+
+
++73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the
+purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.
+
+The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the
+syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of
+adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_
+and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest;
+skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully,
+least carefully].
+
+Some adverbs are compared irregularly:--
+
+badly     }            worse                 worst
+ill (evil)}
+far   }              { farther             { farthest
+forth }              { further             { furthest
+late                   later               { latest
+                                           { last
+little                 less                  least
+much                   more                  most
+nigh                   nigher              { nigher
+                                           { next
+well                   better                best
+
+
++74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+
+
+1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same
+form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part
+of speech each is.
+
+(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).
+
+(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.
+
+2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which
+should not be confused.
+
+(Adjective) She is a good student.
+
+(Adverb) He works well.
+
+3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a
+copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad;
+not, I feel badly].
+
+4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to
+denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].
+
+
++75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+
+
+1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_].
+
+2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_].
+
+3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_].
+
+
+
+PREPOSITIONS
+
+
++76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after,
+against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through,
+till, to, under, up_, and _with_.
+
+Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath,
+across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_.
+
+
++77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are
+frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully
+discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition
+will be given.
+
+
+afraid _of_.
+agree _with_ a person.
+agree _to_ a proposal.
+bestow _upon_.
+compare _to_ (to show similarity).
+compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference).
+comply _with_.
+conform _to_.
+convenient _for_ or _to_.
+correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing).
+correspond _with_ (a person).
+dependent _on_.
+differ _from_ (a person or thing).
+differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion).
+different _from_.
+disappointed _in_.
+frightened _at_ or _by_.
+glad _of_.
+need _of_.
+profit _by_.
+scared _by_.
+taste _of_ (food).
+taste _for_ (art).
+thirst _for_ or _after_.
+
+
+_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses,
+called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be
+used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do].
+The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do].
+
+The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_
+denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_
+the garden].
+
+
++78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what
+is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when
+it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb,
+adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He
+sat _on the bench_ (adverb)].
+
+Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and
+_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes:
+[The ship lay to. A storm came on].
+
+
+
+CONJUNCTIONS
+
+
++79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to
+their use into two general classes: the _coördinate_ and the _subordinate_
+conjunctions.
+
+_Coördinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses
+of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.
+
+The principal coördinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_.
+_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what
+has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also,
+besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions,
+_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_
+because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coördinate
+conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has
+already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however,
+nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in
+its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.
+
+Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_.
+_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_
+conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and
+as are _coördinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following:
+[She has been running, for she is out of breath].
+
+Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those
+of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and
+result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a
+_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go].
+
+There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are
+called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so
+... as, if ... then, though ... yet_.
+
+
++80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review
+the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_.
+
+The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the
+coördinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The
+predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made
+merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded:
+[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay].
+
+In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject
+and one predicate, is said to be _simple_.
+
+When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject
+and predicate--are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is
+said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard
+preferred to play railroad].
+
+The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its
+omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play
+Indian; Richard preferred another game].
+
+
++81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_
+conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause,
+thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in
+order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any
+group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills
+the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In
+the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I
+knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main
+clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went."
+"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a
+_substantive_ relation to the verb.
+
+Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions
+(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a
+clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_.
+If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is
+_compound-complex_.
+
+The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.
+
+
+
+SENTENCE STRUCTURE
+
+
++82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.
+
+From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its
+introductory word or words, as:--
+
+1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_].
+
+2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_].
+
+3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_].
+
+Classified as to use, a phrase may be--
+
+1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_].
+
+2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_].
+
+3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_].
+
+
++83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either
+principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one
+that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the
+sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases,
+it does not hold in cases like the following:--
+
+1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.
+
+2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.
+
+The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in
+connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve
+the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal
+clauses.
+
+
++84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may
+be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses.
+
+_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:--
+
+1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment].
+
+2. Object: [I know _what you wish_].
+
+3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally
+believed].
+
+4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_].
+
+_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions.
+
+Thus:--
+
+1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine].
+
+2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible].
+
+_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the
+introductory word.
+
+(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who,
+which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound
+relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both
+relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is
+painted white. I know _whom you_ mean].
+
+(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The
+man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to
+take_].
+
+(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as
+_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where,
+whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie
+lives_].
+
+(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because,
+since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order
+that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_].
+
+_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of
+the thought expressed.
+
+(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a
+fine view].
+
+(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down].
+
+(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can].
+
+(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go].
+
+(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults].
+
+(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_].
+
+(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_].
+
+(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go].
+
+(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_].
+
+Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying
+clauses.
+
+(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"].
+
+(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_].
+
+(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was].
+
+Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive
+clauses.
+
+
++85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting
+of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some
+completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an
+_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both
+subject and predicate may have modifiers.
+
+The usual modifiers of the subject are:--
+
+1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken].
+
+2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful].
+
+3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful].
+
+4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost].
+
+5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will
+open the debate].
+
+6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend].
+
+7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing].
+
+8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way].
+
+The modifiers of the predicate are:--
+
+1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_].
+
+2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_].
+
+3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an
+important question].
+
+4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_].
+
+5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_].
+
+6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience
+dispersed].
+
+Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire
+thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_
+I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you].
+
+
+
+LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS
+
+
++86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which
+appear as various parts of speech:---
+
++a+      (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.
+
++about+  (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked
+             _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the
+             same way.
+
++above+  (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go
+             _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4)
+            Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has
+            the same uses.
+
++after+  (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He
+             came _after_ she went away.
+
++all+    (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I
+             gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue.
+             (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right.
+
++as+     (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive
+             adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other
+             grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot,
+             we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend.
+             (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well.
+
++before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive
+             Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never
+             been here _before_.
+
++both+   (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2)
+             Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_
+             good and beautiful.
+
++but+    (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition:
+             All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail.
+
++either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction:
+             _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun:
+             _Either_ is right.
+
++fast+   (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb:
+             The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker.
+
++for+    (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2)
+             Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her.
+             (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you.
+
++hard+   (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_.
+
++like+   (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This
+             process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father
+             pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me.
+             (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a
+             _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb:
+             You _like_ your work.
+
++little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_.
+             (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses.
+
++many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree.
+
++notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were
+              content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy,
+              _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid.
+
++only+   (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_
+             experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should
+             go, _only_ it is stormy.
+
++since+  (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2)
+             Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it.
+             (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive
+             Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have.
+
++still+  (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is
+             _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is
+             entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil
+             is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of
+             noonday the song of the locust was loud.
+
++than+   (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_
+             whom there is none wiser.
+
++that+   (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive
+             Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective:
+             _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you
+             may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction:
+             _That_ this is true is evident.
+
++the+    (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ...
+             _the_ merrier.
+
++then+   (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so
+             decide, _then_ we may go.
+
++there+  (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are
+             many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There!
+             there!_ it makes no difference!
+
++what+   (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said.
+             Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective:
+             _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I
+             know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this
+             and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6)
+             Interjection: _What! what!_
+
++while+  (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time.
+             (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows.
+
+
+
+III. FIGURES OF SPEECH
+
+
++87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual
+form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These
+changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or
+because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.
+
+While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression,
+we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural
+as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most
+learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This
+arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions.
+When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that
+the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of
+figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple
+expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our
+poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but
+it is in poetry that we find most of them.
+
+
++88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects
+belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all
+resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two
+beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a
+tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may
+form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same
+class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one
+strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.
+
+
+1. How far that little candle throws its beams!
+   So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared;
+   Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.
+
+--Matthew Arnold.
+
+
+3. In the primrose-tinted sky
+   The wan little moon
+   Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.
+
+--Francis C. Rankin.
+
+
++89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison
+is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as
+the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily
+changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_
+another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Select the metaphors in the following and change them to
+similes:--
+
+
+1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood,
+   A living wall, a human wood.
+
+--James Montgomery.
+
+
+2. The familiar lines
+   Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+3. Life is a leaf of paper white,
+   Whereon each one of us may write
+   His word or two, and then comes night.
+
+--Lowell.
+
+
++90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor
+in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of
+persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:--
+
+
+1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene
+   The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts
+   And puts them back into his golden quiver.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.
+
+--Charles Pierce Burton.
+
+
+3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest,
+   And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.
+
+--Wordsworth.
+
+
+4. See the mountains kiss high heaven,
+     And the waves clasp one another;
+   No sister flower would be forgiven
+     If it disdained its brother.
+
+--Shelley.
+
+
++91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an
+additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or
+the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus
+formed apostrophe.
+
+The following are examples of apostrophe:--
+
+
+1. Break, break, break,
+   At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight,
+   Make me a child again just for to-night!
+     Mother, come back from the echoless shore,
+     Take me again to your heart as of yore.
+
+--Elizabeth Akers Allen.
+
+
++92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another,
+the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the
+other.
+
+  1. The pupils are reading George Eliot.
+  2. Each hamlet heard the call.
+  3. Strike for your altars and your fires.
+  4. Gray hairs should be respected.
+
+
++93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything
+for the whole or a whole for the part.
+
+  1. A babe, two summers old.
+  2. Give us this day our daily bread.
+  3. Ring out the thousand years of woe,
+     Ring in the thousand years of peace.
+  4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.
+
+
++94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics,
+the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already
+given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two
+former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the
+last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or
+paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned
+elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be
+given here.
+
+1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning,
+but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.
+
+  What has the gray-haired prisoner done?
+  Has murder stained his hands with gore?
+  Not so; his crime is a fouler one--
+  God made the old man poor.
+
+--Whittier.
+
+
+2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase
+the effectiveness of a statement.
+
+
+He was a man of boundless knowledge.
+
+
+3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast
+may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire
+paragraph.
+
+
+  Look like the innocent flower,
+  But be the serpent under it.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.
+
+
+I came, I saw, I conquered.
+
+
+5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information
+but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of
+_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question
+affirms.
+
+  1. Am I my brother's keeper?
+  2. Am I not free?
+
+
+
+IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE
+
+
++95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we
+have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as
+applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles
+are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it
+contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas
+are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A
+sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is
+perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that
+deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of
+a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general
+terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by
+employing the devices of balance and contrast.
+
+We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition
+and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite
+likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or
+unity often results in a lack of emphasis.
+
+
++96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a
+general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very
+religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and
+in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical.
+The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or
+more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular
+relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture.
+We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus:
+(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very
+religious man.)
+
+2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled
+when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to
+seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously
+deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous
+dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should
+be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and
+words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his
+captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who
+had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)
+
+3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his
+shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The
+ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is
+little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the
+sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look
+strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous
+ideas.
+
+4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the
+men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers
+to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the
+thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the
+subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of
+impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they
+had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions,
+they began to think of catching the thief.)
+
+5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical
+unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant
+day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences,
+when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of
+the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas
+expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are
+gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I
+went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)
+
+
++97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was
+returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his
+staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred
+to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of
+phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many
+hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers,
+was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing
+the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the
+word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of
+these words.
+
+2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in
+that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to
+his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.)
+In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not
+clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the
+pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a
+very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is
+found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told
+this parent the night before in his room.)
+
+3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully
+preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a
+great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is
+manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had
+carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on
+Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)
+
+4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to
+school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he
+went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the
+coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical
+relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well
+as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it
+rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went
+to school).
+
+5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed
+courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.)
+Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure
+from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to
+confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The
+stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)
+
+
++98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event
+to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged
+his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are
+"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,--
+at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this
+order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In
+the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its
+modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the
+introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling
+enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be
+reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical.
+(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This
+sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended
+structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest
+as well as for securing emphasis.
+
+2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted,
+hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest
+idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry,
+dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)
+
+3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning
+house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed"
+and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and
+"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to
+express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we
+only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct
+sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then,
+we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity.
+(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)
+
+4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the
+brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A
+consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to
+the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a
+large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following
+sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to
+the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the
+stream.)
+
+5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the
+fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of
+past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of
+righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it,
+the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating
+what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form
+gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel
+parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed.
+This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however,
+will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded
+in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other
+is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Point out the specific faults and correct:--
+
+1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.
+
+2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the
+novel.
+
+3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other
+players for a time, he got up and left the room.
+
+4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could
+overcome.
+
+5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a
+bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.
+
+6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and
+courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.
+
+7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind
+heart.
+
+8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed
+them.
+
+9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous
+disorder.
+
+10. The boys were only injured a little.
+
+11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we
+are wise enough to discover it.
+
+12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope
+was hypocritical and spiteful.
+
+13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little
+to live for.
+
+14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most
+valorous knight.
+
+15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.
+
+16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and
+Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.
+
+17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at
+this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream
+issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.
+
+18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names
+for ourselves and to acquire property.
+
+19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist.
+
+20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man.
+
+21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until
+last year.
+
+22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect.
+
+
+
+V. LIST OF SYNONYMS
+
+
+Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from.
+
+Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate.
+
+Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe.
+
+Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual.
+
+Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power.
+
+Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out.
+
+Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame.
+
+Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied.
+
+Absolve, acquit, clear.
+
+Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance.
+
+Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical,
+preposterous, unreasonable, wild.
+
+Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful.
+
+Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner.
+
+Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple.
+
+Actual, authentic, genuine, real.
+
+Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact.
+
+Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful.
+
+Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring.
+
+Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate.
+
+Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate.
+
+Admixture, alloy.
+
+Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling.
+
+Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome.
+
+Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham.
+
+Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state.
+
+Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable.
+
+Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor.
+
+Akin, alike, identical.
+
+Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful.
+
+Allay, appease, calm, pacify.
+
+Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion.
+
+Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest.
+
+Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure.
+
+Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro.
+
+Amend, better, mend, reform, repair.
+
+Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen.
+
+Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime.
+
+Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment.
+
+Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism.
+
+Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort.
+
+Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent.
+
+Apiece, individually, severally, separately.
+
+Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable.
+
+Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand.
+
+Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon.
+
+Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency,
+superciliousness, vanity.
+
+Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman.
+
+Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated.
+
+Assent, agree, comply.
+
+Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility,
+insolence, officiousness, rudeness.
+
+Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit.
+
+Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless.
+
+Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught.
+
+Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure.
+
+Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake.
+
+Attitude, pose, position, posture.
+
+Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute.
+
+Axiom, truism.
+
+
+Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder,
+impede, retard, thwart.
+
+Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism.
+
+Beg, plead, press, urge.
+
+Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy.
+
+Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity.
+
+Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict.
+
+Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer,
+glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle.
+
+Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly.
+
+Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show.
+
+Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless,
+gallant, heroic, undismayed.
+
+Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism.
+
+Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse.
+
+Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over.
+
+
+Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap.
+
+Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased,
+unprejudiced, unreserved.
+
+Candor, frankness, truth, veracity.
+
+Caprice, humor, vagary, whim.
+
+Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty.
+
+Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure.
+
+Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason,
+purpose.
+
+Caution, discretion, prudence.
+
+Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach.
+
+Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament.
+
+Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait.
+
+Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative.
+
+Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification,
+happiness, jollity, satisfaction.
+
+Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly.
+
+Class, circle, clique, coterie.
+
+Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen.
+
+Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit.
+
+Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate.
+
+Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy.
+
+Compassionate, gracious, humane.
+
+Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect.
+
+Confirm, corroborate.
+
+Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated.
+
+Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various.
+
+Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise.
+
+Conscious, aware, certain.
+
+Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot.
+
+Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted.
+
+Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable.
+
+Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted.
+
+
+Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice.
+
+Dangerous, formidable, terrible.
+
+Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify.
+
+Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish.
+
+Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious,
+ruinous.
+
+Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender.
+
+Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying.
+
+Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying.
+
+Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander.
+
+Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract.
+
+Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir.
+
+
+Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary.
+
+Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly.
+
+Emergency, extremity, necessity.
+
+Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain,
+visionary.
+
+Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom.
+
+Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing.
+
+Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge.
+
+Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege.
+
+Explicit, express.
+
+
+Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid,
+listless, purposeless.
+
+Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty.
+
+Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary.
+
+Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt.
+
+Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack.
+
+Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver.
+
+Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity.
+
+
+Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow.
+
+
+Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous.
+
+
+Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught.
+
+Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing.
+
+Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable.
+
+Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying.
+
+Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful.
+
+Irritation, offense, pique, resentment.
+
+
+Probably, presumably.
+
+
+Reliable, trustworthy, trusty.
+
+Remnant, trace, token, vestige.
+
+Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy.
+
+
+VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE
+
+Ability, capacity.
+
+Accept, except.
+
+Acceptance, acceptation.
+
+Access, accession.
+
+Accredit, credit.
+
+Act, action.
+
+Admire, like.
+
+Admittance, admission.
+
+Advance, advancement, progress, progression.
+
+Affect, effect.
+
+After, afterward.
+
+Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating.
+
+Allege, maintain
+
+Allow, guess, think.
+
+Allusion, illusion, delusion.
+
+Almost, most, mostly.
+
+Alone, only.
+
+Alternate, choice.
+
+Among, between.
+
+Amount, number, quantity.
+
+Angry, mad.
+
+Apparently, evidently.
+
+Apt, likely, liable.
+
+Arise, rise.
+
+At, in.
+
+Avocation, vocation.
+
+Awfully, very.
+
+
+Balance, rest, remainder.
+
+Begin, commence.
+
+Beside, besides.
+
+Both, each, every.
+
+Bring, fetch.
+
+By, with.
+
+
+Calculate, intend.
+
+Carry, bring, fetch.
+
+Casuality, casualty.
+
+Character, reputation.
+
+Claim, assert.
+
+Clever, pleasant.
+
+College, university, school.
+
+Completeness, completion.
+
+Compliment, complement.
+
+Confess, admit.
+
+Construe, construct.
+
+Contemptible, contemptuous.
+
+Continual, continuous.
+
+Convince, convict.
+
+Council, counsel.
+
+Couple, pair.
+
+Credible, creditable, credulous.
+
+Custom, habit.
+
+
+Deadly, deathly.
+
+Decided, decisive.
+
+Decimate, destroy.
+
+Declare, assert.
+
+Degrade, demean.
+
+Depot, station, R.R.
+
+Discover, invent.
+
+Drive, ride.
+
+
+Each other, any other, one another.
+
+Emigration, immigration, migration.
+
+Enormity, enormousness.
+
+Estimate, esteem.
+
+Exceptional, exceptionable.
+
+Expect, suppose.
+
+
+Falseness, falsity.
+
+Fly, flee.
+
+Funny, odd.
+
+Grant, give.
+
+Habit, practice.
+
+Haply, happily.
+
+Healthy, healthful, wholesome.
+
+Human, humane.
+
+
+Lady, woman.
+
+Last, latest, preceding.
+
+Learn, teach.
+
+Lease, hire.
+
+Less, fewer.
+
+Lie, lay.
+
+Loan, lend.
+
+Love, like.
+
+
+Mad, angry.
+
+Majority, plurality.
+
+Manly, mannish.
+
+May, can.
+
+Mutual, common.
+
+
+Necessities, necessaries.
+
+Nice, pleasant, attractive.
+
+Noted, notorious.
+
+
+Observation, observance.
+
+Official, officious.
+
+Oral, verbal.
+
+
+Part, portion.
+
+Partly, partially.
+
+Persecute, prosecute.
+
+Person, party.
+
+Practicable, practical.
+
+Prescribe, proscribe.
+
+Prominent, predominant.
+
+Purpose, propose.
+
+
+Quite, very, rather.
+
+
+Relation, relative.
+
+Repair, mend.
+
+Requirement, requisite.
+
+Rise, raise.
+
+
+Scholar, pupil, student.
+
+Sensible of, sensitive to.
+
+Series, succession.
+
+Settle, locate.
+
+Sewage, sewerage.
+
+Shall, will.
+
+Should, would.
+
+Sit, set.
+
+Splendid, elegant.
+
+Statement, assertion.
+
+Statue, statute, stature.
+
+Stay, stop.
+
+
+Team, carriages.
+
+Transpire, happen.
+
+
+Verdict, testimony.
+
+Without, unless.
+
+Womanly, womanish.
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Abbott.
+Action: observation of.
+Actuality: in argument.
+Adams.
+Adjectives.
+Advantages:
+  of expressing ideas gained from experience;
+  of imaginative theme writing.
+Adverbs.
+Agreement.
+Allen, Elizabeth A.
+Allen, James Lane.
+Ambiguity.
+Analogy: argument from.
+Antithesis.
+Apostrophe:
+  rule for;
+  as figure of speech.
+Argument:
+  purpose of;
+  use of explanation in;
+  by stating advantages and disadvantages;
+  by use of specific instances;
+  refutation or indirect;
+  differs from exposition;
+  clear thinking essential;
+  by inference;
+  from cause;
+  from sign;
+  from example;
+  from analogy;
+  differs from persuasion;
+  with persuasion.
+Argumentative themes.
+Arnold.
+Arrangement:
+  _see_ coherence;
+  in argument;
+  summary of.
+Attendant circumstances: argument from.
+Authority: appeals to in argument.
+Auxiliary verbs.
+Ayton.
+
+
+Bagley.
+Baldwin.
+Ballad.
+Bancroft.
+Belief:
+  necessity in debate;
+  establishing a general theory;
+  basis of.
+Beveridge.
+Biography.
+Blank verse.
+Boardman.
+Bourdillon.
+Bowles.
+Bradley.
+Brief.
+Brown.
+Browning.
+Bryant.
+Budgell.
+Burke.
+Burns.
+Burroughs.
+Byron.
+
+
+Cable.
+Camp.
+Capitals.
+Cary.
+Case.
+Cause and effect:
+  development of paragraph by use of;
+  development of composition by use of;
+  use in exposition;
+  use in argument.
+Cautions and suggestions:
+  use of figures of speech;
+  in debating;
+  use of pronouns;
+  use of adjectives;
+  use of verbs;
+  use of adverbs;
+  prepositions.
+Character sketch.
+Choice of words:
+  adapted to reader;
+  as to meaning;
+  simple.
+Clark.
+Classification.
+Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive.
+Clearness.
+Climax:
+  in narration;
+  in argument;
+  as figure of speech.
+Coherence:
+  definition;
+  in outline;
+  in composition;
+  arrangement of details;
+  arrangement of facts in exposition;
+  aided by outline;
+  in argument;
+  in sentences.
+Coleridge.
+Colon: rules for.
+Colton.
+Comma: rules for.
+Comparison:
+  as an aid to formation of images;
+  development of a paragraph by;
+  definitions supplemented by;
+  as a method of developing a composition;
+  as an aid in establishing fundamental image;
+  as an aid to effectiveness in description;
+  use in exposition;
+  analogy;
+  of adjectives;
+  of adverbs.
+Complete and incomplete verbs.
+Composition:
+  kinds of;
+  general principles of.
+Conclusion.
+Conjugation.
+Conjunctions.
+Connolly.
+Connor.
+Constructions:
+  of nouns;
+  of personal pronouns;
+  of relative pronouns;
+  of adjectives.
+Contrast:
+  development of a paragraph by;
+  development of a composition by;
+  use in exposition.
+Conversation.
+Cooper.
+Copeland-Rideout.
+Correction of themes.
+
+
+Darwin.
+Dash: rules for.
+Debate:
+  value of;
+  statement of question;
+  necessity of belief;
+  order of presentation;
+  cautions.
+Deductive reasoning: errors of.
+Definition:
+  by synonym;
+  by use of simpler words;
+  definitions to be supplemented;
+  first step in exposition;
+  logical;
+  difficulty in framing;
+  inexact.
+Description:
+  Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes);
+  defined;
+  effectiveness in;
+  classes of objects frequently described:
+    buildings;
+    natural features;
+    sounds;
+    color;
+    animals;
+    plants;
+    persons;
+  impression of;
+  impression as purpose of;
+  in narration;
+  general description.
+Descriptive themes.
+Details:
+  selection of;
+  paragraph developed by;
+  related in time-order;
+  related with reference to position in space;
+  used in general description;
+  in general narration;
+  composition developed by giving details in time-order;
+  by giving details with reference to position in space;
+  selection of, affected by point of view;
+  selection of essential;
+  selection and subordination of minor;
+  arrangement of;
+  in narration;
+  arrangement;
+  selection of facts in exposition;
+  exposition by use of.
+Dewey.
+Diction.
+Discourse: forms of
+  presupposes an audience.
+Division.
+Dixey.
+Dramatic poetry.
+Dryer.
+Dunbar, Mary Louise.
+
+
+Ease.
+Effectiveness in description
+  comparison and figures of speech, as aids to.
+Elegance.
+Elegy.
+Eliot, George.
+Emphasis
+  in sentences.
+Enthymeme.
+Epic.
+Equivalents: for nouns
+  for adjectives.
+  for adverbs
+Essentials of expression.
+Euphony.
+Evidence.
+Examples: use in exposition
+  argument from _(see also_ specific instances).
+Exclamation mark: rule for.
+Expediency: questions of.
+Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination
+  impressions limited to.
+Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of
+  importance of
+  clear understanding necessary
+  of terms
+  of propositions
+  by repetition
+  by examples
+  by comparison and contrast
+  by obverse statements
+  by details
+  by cause and effect
+  by general description
+  by general narration
+  by use of specific instances.
+Expository themes.
+Expression: essentials of.
+
+
+Fallacy.
+Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion.
+Feet.
+Fields.
+Figures of speech
+  use of
+  as an aid to effectiveness in description.
+Ford.
+Form: importance of
+   directions as to.
+Forms of discourse.
+Fundamental image.
+
+
+Gender.
+General theory: how established,
+  basis of
+  appeals to.
+George, Marian M.
+Gilman.
+Grammar review.
+Gray.
+
+
+Hare.
+Harland.
+Harris.
+Hawthorne.
+Henry.
+Higginson and Channing.
+Hinman.
+History: writing of.
+Hoar.
+Holland.
+Holmes.
+Howells.
+Hyperbole.
+
+
+Ideas: from experience, Chapter I;
+from imagination, Chapter II; from
+language, Chapter III.
+  pleasure in expressing
+  sources of
+  advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience
+  from imagination
+  ideas from pictures
+  acquired through language.
+Images: making of
+  complete and incomplete
+  reproduction of
+  other requirements to determine meaning
+  fundamental
+  union with impression.
+Imagination, Chapter II.
+Impression:
+  of description,
+  as purpose of description,
+  necessity of observing impressions,
+  limited to experience,
+  affected by mood,
+  union with image.
+Improbability.
+Incentive moment.
+Indentation.
+Inductive reasoning:
+  errors of.
+Inference: use in argument.
+Infinitives.
+Interrogation.
+Interrogation mark: rule for.
+Introduction.
+Invitations.
+Irony.
+Irving.
+
+
+Jackson, Helen Hunt.
+Jordan and Kellogg.
+
+
+Kellogg.
+Kingsley.
+Kipling.
+
+
+Language:
+  as a medium through which ideas are acquired,
+  adapted to reader,
+Letter writing: Chapter VI;
+  importance of,
+  paper,
+  beginning,
+  body,
+  conclusion,
+  envelope,
+  rule of,
+  business letters,
+  letters of friendship,
+  adaptation to reader,
+  notes.
+Lodge.
+Longfellow.
+Lovelace.
+Lowell.
+Lyric poetry.
+
+
+Macaulay.
+Macy-Norris.
+Madame de Stael.
+Matthews.
+Maxims: appeals to in argument.
+McCarthy, Justin.
+Meaning of words.
+Memory.
+Metaphor:
+  mixed.
+Methods of developing a composition:
+  with reference to time-order,
+  with reference to position in space,
+  by use of comparison or contrast,
+  by use of generalization and facts,
+  by stating cause and effect,
+  by a combination of methods.
+Metonymy.
+Metrical romance.
+Metrical tale.
+Mill.
+Mill, J. S.
+Miller, Mary Rogers.
+Milton.
+Mode.
+Montgomery.
+Morris, Clara.
+Motive, in persuasion.
+
+
+Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below);
+  kinds of,
+  use of description in,
+  general narration,
+  narrative poetry.
+Narrative themes.
+Newcomer.
+Notes:
+  formal,
+  informal.
+Nouns.
+Number.
+
+
+Observation:
+  of actions,
+  order of,
+  accuracy in,
+  observation of impression.
+Obverse statements.
+Ode.
+Ollivaut.
+Oral compositions.
+Order of events.
+Outline:
+  of a paragraph.
+  the brief.
+  making of.
+  use of in exposition.
+
+
+Palmer.
+Paragraph:
+  defined,
+  topic statement,
+  importance of,
+  length,
+  indentation,
+  reasons for studying,
+  methods of development--
+    by specific instances,
+    by giving details,
+    in time-order,
+    as determined by position in space,
+    by comparison,
+    by cause and effect,
+    by repetition,
+    by a combination of methods.
+Paraphrasing.
+Participles.
+Partition.
+Parts of speech.
+Period: rules for.
+Person.
+Personification.
+Persuasion:
+  differs from argument,
+  importance and necessity of,
+  motive in,
+  material of,
+  appeal to feelings,
+  with argument.
+Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart.
+Philips, David Graham.
+Phillips, Wendell.
+Phrases.
+Plot:
+  interrelation with character.
+Poe.
+Poetry: Chapter VII;
+  aim of,
+  kinds of.
+Point: of a story,
+  _see also_ climax.
+Point of view:
+  selection of details effected by,
+  implied,
+  changing,
+  place in paragraph.
+Possibility: in argument.
+Post.
+Prepositions.
+Preston and Dodge.
+Principal parts of verbs.
+Probability:
+  in narration,
+  in argument.
+Procter, Adelaide.
+Pronouns.
+Pronunciation.
+Proportion of parts: for emphasis.
+Propositions:
+  specific,
+  general,
+  exposition of,
+  necessary to argument,
+  of fact and of theory,
+  statement of.
+Proverbs: use in argument.
+Punctuation.
+
+
+Quotation marks: rules for.
+
+
+Rankin.
+Read.
+Reasoning:
+  inductive,
+  errors of induction,
+  deductive,
+  relation between inductive and deductive,
+  errors of deduction.
+Reasons: number and value of.
+Recitations:
+  preparation for,
+  topical.
+Refutation.
+Reid, Captain Mayne.
+Repetition:
+  developing a paragraph by,
+  exposition by use of.
+Reproduction:
+  of a story,
+  of the thought of a paragraph.
+Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
+Rhyme.
+Rhythm: variation in.
+Richards, Laura E.
+Right: questions of.
+Robertson.
+Roosevelt.
+Ruskin.
+
+
+Scansion.
+Scott.
+Semicolon: rules for.
+Sentences:
+  length,
+  in conversation,
+  relations,
+  rhetorical features.
+Sewell, Anna.
+Shakespeare.
+Shelley.
+Sign: argument from.
+Simile.
+Slang.
+Smith.
+Song.
+Sonnet.
+Sources of ideas.
+Specific instances:
+  development of a paragraph by use of,
+  use in argument and exposition,
+  development of a composition by use of,
+  use in exposition.
+Spelling.
+Spencer.
+Stanza.
+Stevenson.
+Stoddard.
+Strong verbs.
+Subject:
+  selection of,
+  adapted to reader,
+  sources,
+  should be definite,
+  narrowing.
+Suggestions, _see_ cautions.
+Summaries, at the end of the chapters.
+Summarizing paragraph.
+Syllogism.
+Symons.
+Synecdoche.
+Synonyms.
+
+
+Tarkington.
+Taylor.
+Tennyson.
+Tense.
+Terms:
+  specific, general,
+  explanation of,
+  exposition of,
+  use in argument and exposition.
+Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and
+  reproduction themes.
+Thoreau.
+Thurston.
+Time-order.
+Title: selecting of.
+Topic statement.
+Transition from one paragraph to another.
+Transition paragraph.
+Trowbridge.
+Turner.
+
+
+Unity:
+  aided by time relations,
+  aided by position in space,
+  definition,
+  in life;
+  in outline,
+  in composition,
+  in sentences,
+  selection of details giving,
+  selection of facts in exposition,
+  aided by outline.
+
+
+Van Dyke.
+Van Rensselaer (Mrs.).
+Variety.
+Verbs.
+Verse: names of.
+Vocabulary:
+  how to increase,
+  words applicable to classes of objects.
+Voice.
+
+
+Wallace.
+Warner.
+Wessels.
+Whittier.
+Wilcox, Ella Wheeler.
+Woode.
+Words:
+  choice of,
+  spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use,
+  relations of,
+  adapted to reader,
+  selection,
+  use of simpler words,
+  selection,
+  applicable to classes of objects,
+  offices of,
+  special list of.
+Wordsworth.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks
+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Composition-Rhetoric
+
+Author: Stratton D. Brooks
+
+Release Date: April 20, 2004 [EBook #12088]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPOSITION-RHETORIC ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Maddock, John R. Bilderback and PG
+Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+                         COMPOSITION-RHETORIC
+
+                                 BY
+
+                          STRATTON D. BROOKS
+               _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._
+
+                                AND
+
+                           MARIETTA HUBBARD
+      _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                    NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO
+                         AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
+
+                                1905
+                         STRATTON D. BROOKS.
+
+                  Entered at Stationers' Hall, London.
+
+                   *       *       *       *       *
+
+                            Brooks's Rhet.
+                              W.P. 10
+
+
+                        To MARCIA STUART BROOKS
+                   Whose teaching first demonstrated
+                   to the authors that composition
+                   could become a delight and pleasure,
+                   this book is dedicated......
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor
+to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to
+enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly,
+whatever he may find within him worthy of expression.
+
+Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the
+book:--
+
+First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition
+of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of
+the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the
+pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of
+much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for
+the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to
+correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process;
+and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition
+teaching.
+
+Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the
+needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of
+discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such
+a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need
+to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in
+each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book,
+therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration,
+exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete
+treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the
+material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil.
+
+Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under
+favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and
+emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most
+important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write
+something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The
+authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high
+school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It
+is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every
+theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the
+criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary,
+pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well;
+and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed
+toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal
+embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him
+of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching
+of composition.
+
+The plan of the book is as follows:--
+
+1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration,
+exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that
+inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent
+repetition of an act.
+
+2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and
+the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false
+standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it
+appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of
+details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces
+hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that
+inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other
+things, it is better to do but one thing at a time.
+
+3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed
+to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended
+to provide for frequent drills in oral composition.
+
+4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of
+composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater
+length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as
+a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to
+make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more
+important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a
+coherent and unified whole.
+
+5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil
+some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known
+to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that
+the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in
+its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If
+the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little
+advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique,
+or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and
+distribute his commas.
+
+6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I,
+but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is
+adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By
+means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of
+the topics they are studying.
+
+7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in
+rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because
+comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the
+increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school
+to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can
+be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school
+course.
+
+8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to
+furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the
+pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a
+principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into
+practice.
+
+Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon
+the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and
+suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book.
+
+The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to
+Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois;
+Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English,
+Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High
+School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E.
+Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School.
+
+The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier,
+Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and
+by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of
+their works.
+
+Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century
+Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for
+permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the
+publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's,
+Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to
+Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and
+Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin
+H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+PART I
+
+1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience
+
+II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination
+
+III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language
+
+IV. The Purpose of Expression
+
+V. The Whole Composition
+
+VI. Letter Writing
+
+VII. Poetry
+
+
+PART II
+
+VIII. Description
+
+IX. Narration
+
+X. Exposition
+
+XI. Argument
+
+Appendix
+
+I. Elements of Form
+
+II. Review of Grammar
+
+III. Figures of Speech
+
+IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence
+
+V. List of Synonyms
+
+VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage
+
+Index
+
+
+
+PART 1
+
+
+1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE
+
++1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot
+write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk
+about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know
+little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as
+subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that
+there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are
+those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we
+tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise
+interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of
+ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of
+ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure
+to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this
+book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with
+pleasure_.
+
+
++2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them.
+There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from
+experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and
+we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by
+conversation or by reading.
+
+Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and
+do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the
+greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in
+this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression
+of ideas gained through experience.
+
+We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We
+may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or
+to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes
+pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to
+do with the expression of ideas of this kind.
+
+We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through
+conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of
+value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is
+treated in the third chapter.
+
+
++3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people
+sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say."
+Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience.
+Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell
+about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your
+friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of
+school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience
+furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and
+this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_.
+The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your
+own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and
+seldom worth doing.
+
+Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own,
+but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and
+what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that
+they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself.
+
+Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not
+presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes
+the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best
+set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the
+things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best
+apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are
+best known to you.
+
+Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and
+definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar
+language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than
+does either imagination or reading.
+
+
++4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends
+upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you
+mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say
+may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your
+hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must
+first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express
+it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You
+will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether
+you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not
+so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the
+meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask
+yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said
+what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the
+listener?"
+
+
++Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_--
+
+1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your
+parents or friends? Tell the class about it.
+
+2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class
+may know exactly what you did.
+
+3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two
+or three months. Tell the class about one of them.
+
+4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you
+told the event exactly as it occurred?
+
+
++5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an
+interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain
+this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you
+have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning
+of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different.
+Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its
+purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we
+mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take
+care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest.
+
+
++6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such
+a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are
+related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an
+important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to
+render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually
+desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and
+_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by
+telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question,
+_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I
+were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and
+who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were
+in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are
+to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the
+trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks"
+could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the
+story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ
+from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went
+to visit a friend in New York."
+
+It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the
+introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story
+telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken
+from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the
+preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story
+may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In
+relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it
+may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or
+'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time
+is not definitely stated.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Notice what elements are included in each of the following
+introductions:--
+
+1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly
+three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two
+tried on some persons accused of witchcraft.
+
+2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered
+from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command.
+
+3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted
+civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open
+boat.
+
+4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the
+small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad
+shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever
+with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his
+head.
+
+5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about
+a musket shot from the fort.
+
+6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer
+sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a
+grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a
+brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at
+its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit.
+
+7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from
+Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the
+country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a
+mild discussion of the American universities.
+
+8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge.
+
+"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah;
+you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all
+didn't find no birds."
+
+The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two
+companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against
+the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was
+tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular.
+
+9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he;
+   I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three;
+   "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew,
+   "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through.
+   Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest,
+   And into the midnight we galloped abreast.
+--Browning.
+
+
++Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which
+you were personally concerned._
+
+The following may suggest a subject:--
+   1. How I made friends with the squirrels.
+   2. A trick of a tame crow.
+   3. Why I missed the train.
+   4. How a horse was rescued.
+   5. Lost and found.
+   6. My visit to a menagerie.
+
+(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you
+know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that
+your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there.
+Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in
+understanding the events which follow.)
+
+
++7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned
+with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace
+occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more
+important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be
+readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events.
+The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is
+reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a
+story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the
+point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the
+beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag.
+
+At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest?
+
+
+During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was
+alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were
+away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old
+ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of
+injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed,
+for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such
+detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we
+felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or
+rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements.
+
+One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious.
+Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men
+crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the
+fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief
+glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over
+his shoulder, while the other carried a saber.
+
+"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers
+in the orchard."
+
+Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the
+orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they
+were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and
+sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine
+which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns.
+
+Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it
+was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on
+stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house.
+We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and
+the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what
+seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house.
+
+Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and
+look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the
+corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men
+were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson.
+They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window,
+the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped
+to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday."
+
+Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber,
+while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket.
+
+
+What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story
+to begin it as follows?
+
+
+"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa
+Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and
+the other a pitchfork."
+
+
+Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the
+beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the
+house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story?
+Is it necessary to add anything to the story?
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its
+climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which
+suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when
+you come to it?
+
+
+1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a
+great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They
+kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a
+pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after
+the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted
+nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down
+the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed
+with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature
+had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that
+was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely
+turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the
+other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and
+another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by
+a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and
+some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were
+not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of
+serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded
+the camp?
+
+Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what
+to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept
+out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead
+them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the
+level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly.
+
+He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval
+bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at
+the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As
+far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A
+strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out
+what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded.
+
+He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep;
+and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure
+they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke
+and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures
+round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by
+hundreds into the water.
+
+The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at
+a glance.
+
+"Turtles," he said.
+
+"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?"
+
+"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great
+hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand."
+
+--Captain Mayne Reid.
+
+Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the
+beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place
+of turtles?
+
+
+2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn
+Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man
+who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington &
+Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the
+important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield,
+the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St.
+Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never
+asked to see his pass.
+
+"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of
+my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my
+train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find
+this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for
+Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from
+the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass
+reminded me that I did not have it.
+
+"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on
+my mere representation that I had a pass.
+
+"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on
+company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in
+time. You must take me."
+
+"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and
+could not afford to make any mistakes.
+
+"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office;
+but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I
+settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an
+all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting.
+Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to
+the conductor.
+
+"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness.
+
+"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent
+yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one
+dollar and twelve cents."
+
+"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a
+palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my
+pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my
+fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that
+made his eyes stick out.
+
+"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't
+raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you
+were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule."
+
+"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years,
+that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way."
+
++Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued
+throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice
+each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and
+relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting
+of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish
+opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal
+incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:--
+
+  1. A day with my cousin.
+  2. Caught in the act.
+  3. A joke on me.
+  4. My peculiar mistake.
+  5. My experience on a farm.
+  6. My experience in a strange Sunday school.
+  7. What I saw when I was coming to school.
+
+(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What
+must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the
+point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the
+point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too
+long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?)
+
++8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or
+short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate
+by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will
+be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential
+characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily
+directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in
+this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for
+yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what
+is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to
+make such decisions.
+
+To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or
+suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you
+are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you.
+
+
++Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used
+for an oral composition._
+
+(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read
+smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that
+the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say?
+Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?)
+
+
++9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of
+interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after
+the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point
+marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring
+the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest
+itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a
+forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil
+War related on page 18.
+
+
++Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. A school picnic.
+  2. A race.
+  3. The largest fire I have seen.
+  4. A skating accident.
+  5. A queer mistake.
+  6. An experience with a tramp.
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the
+introduction; the point; the conclusion.)
+
+
++10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences
+arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what
+we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to
+telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was
+done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs
+during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our
+description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so
+that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly,
+methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless,
+haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very
+different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the
+differences are.
+
+
++Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._
+
+    Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work.
+  2. How my neighbor mows his lawn.
+  3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down.
+  4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other
+     animal.
+  5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did.
+
+
+(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable
+words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need
+to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?)
+
+
++11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling
+events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to
+include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some
+interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear
+everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a
+statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket,
+but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain
+interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is
+desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and
+that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point,
+are better omitted.
+
+
++Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the
+following subjects, or one suggested by them:_--
+
+  1. My first hunt.
+  2. Why I was tardy.
+  3. My first fishing trip.
+  4. My narrow escape.
+  5. A runaway.
+  6. What I did last Saturday.
+
+(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said
+what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the
+introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.)
+
+
++12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in
+establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about
+only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they
+actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who
+were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first
+what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear
+to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they
+really happened at the same time.
+
+In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the
+relation in time that the different events bear to one another.
+
+
+At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great
+commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be
+described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small
+as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into
+the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the
+time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water.
+By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger
+than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the
+mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and
+two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by
+the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing
+towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy
+were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the
+first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_
+desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders.
+_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it
+seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he
+would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from
+the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with
+powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and
+lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived.
+
+Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_,
+etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under
+discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a
+direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without
+their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time
+relations.
+
+
++Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named
+under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you
+have not already used._
+
+(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of
+the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is
+concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the
+transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader?
+Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What
+other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+  1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas.
+
+  2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language.
+
+  3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for
+       composition purposes because--
+       _a._ They are interesting.
+       _b._ They are your own.
+       _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite.
+       _d._ They offer free choice of language.
+
+  4. The two essentials of expression are--
+       _a._ To say what you mean.
+       _b._ To say it clearly.
+  5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest.
+       Therefore,--
+       _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why.
+       _b._ Every story worth telling has a point.
+       _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the
+       development
+       of the point.
+       _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly
+       after the point is told.
+
+  6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or
+       more events occur at the same time.
+
+  7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of
+       correction.
+
+
+
+II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION
+
+
++13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and
+spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new
+combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to
+distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred
+from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of
+writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an
+imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been
+carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an
+excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that
+imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The
+production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has
+occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater
+part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of
+the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative
+character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes
+and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and
+effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences.
+
+
++14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas
+furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished
+by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails.
+Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the
+time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression
+upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in
+the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas
+as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along.
+This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater
+freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are
+less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more
+difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold
+the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached.
+
+
++15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is
+equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which
+imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as
+you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not
+determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events
+are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without
+limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and
+probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater
+interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story
+which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy
+tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real
+world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should
+tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An
+imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and
+say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more
+satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something
+manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing
+is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life,
+and states his imaginary events so that they seem real.
+
+
++Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You
+need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should
+be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._
+
+  1. A trip in a sailboat.
+  2. The travels of a penny.
+  3. How I was lost.
+  4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt.
+  5. The mouse's account of the same hunt.
+  6. My experience with a burglar.
+  7. The burglar's story.
+
+
++16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other
+desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as
+"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally
+clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem
+harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and
+smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in
+suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious
+effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy
+sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may
+remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality
+which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the
+eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme
+aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will
+assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to
+eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations.
+
+
++17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme
+none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same
+thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains
+interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the
+continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and
+equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times.
+
+Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is
+better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the
+thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next.
+High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is
+sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_
+needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show
+that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A
+professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by
+underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that
+he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words
+used too frequently, and often incorrectly.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it
+with one of your own themes.
+
+
+I was  witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went
+out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large
+ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long,
+and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they
+never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips
+incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were
+covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a
+_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against
+the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these
+Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground
+was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black.
+
+It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I
+ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged
+in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human
+soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau.
+
+
+2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently,
+underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it
+in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so
+as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions
+give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your
+composition.
+
+
+Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. The trout's revenge.
+  2. A sparrow's mistake.
+  3. A fortunate shot.
+  4. The freshman and the professor.
+  5. What the bookcase thought about it.
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary
+_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the
+euphony by a different choice of words?)
+
+
+18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length
+of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some
+pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:--
+
+
+Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one
+of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The
+child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare.
+
+
+A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is
+tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent.
+Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not
+satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come
+to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might
+be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their
+habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he
+finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts
+and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce
+sentences of different length and different structure, because they more
+clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in
+accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this,
+we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony.
+
+In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken
+not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too
+many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the
+meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be
+introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the
+meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to
+separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones
+into those of greater length.
+
+Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several
+ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the
+meaning obscure:--
+
+
+Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three
+days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the
+South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark
+and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where
+the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went,
+squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding
+through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground
+hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and
+brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in
+wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows.
+
+
++Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. School in the year 2000.
+  2. The lost door key.
+  3. Our big bonfire.
+  4. Kidnapped.
+  5. A bear hunt.
+  6. A mistake in the telegram.
+  7. How Fido rescued his master.
+
+
+(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into
+longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you
+omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can
+you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the
+subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in
+your story seem probable?)
+
+
++19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section
+that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as
+long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion,
+are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with
+good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences
+are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may
+be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by
+the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness
+on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either
+because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a
+familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words
+grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of
+words and their faulty combination into sentences.
+
+You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely
+to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written
+work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language.
+Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use
+will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find
+that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take
+their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may
+not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where
+such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find
+that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by
+giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of
+_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_.
+
+In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short
+sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would
+seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is
+put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying
+the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely
+relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several
+printed reports of conversation.
+
+
++20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to
+tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by
+experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to
+arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances
+that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not
+begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you
+write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by
+the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In
+the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the
+picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be
+accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it.
+
+
++Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in
+the picture on page 38._
+
+(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change
+the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of
+variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each
+time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to
+its chief point?)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
++21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a
+word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired.
+The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes.
+As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase.
+We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and
+we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there
+is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to
+express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary.
+
+It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our
+writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We
+know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use
+them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which
+we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear
+in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do
+not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words
+from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word,
+it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear
+in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word
+to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use
+it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious
+effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable.
+
+A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to
+_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is
+restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always
+_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can
+only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he
+has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English.
+Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between
+ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words
+is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out
+these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be
+gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction
+in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each
+other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix.
+
+
++22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper
+meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited
+to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school
+age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use
+by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be
+suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help
+you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent.
+
+The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the
+wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable
+adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence;
+a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a
+lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in
+story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs.
+
+What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following
+selection, taken from an old school reader?
+
+
+_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been
+running so violently?
+
+_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting
+myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he
+came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from
+him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the
+geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very
+loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their
+gallant chief.
+
+_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the
+gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the
+appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember
+Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came
+they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much
+intelligence as any of the feathered tribe.
+
+_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that
+term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice
+of so degrading an epithet.
+
+
++23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with
+relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We
+may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible.
+There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from
+the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such
+tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is
+shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older.
+
+By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to
+give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a
+story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader
+for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if
+the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under
+similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where
+the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because
+the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales
+neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability.
+
+
++Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below.
+Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._
+
+  1. A week in Mars.
+  2. Exploring the lake bottom.
+  3. The cat's defense of her kittens.
+     (_a_) As told by the cat.
+     (_b_) As told by the dog.
+  4. How the fox fooled the hound.
+  5. Diary of a donkey.
+  6. A biography of Jack Frost.
+
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to
+be assigned by the teacher.)
+
+
++24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you
+can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase
+your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you
+will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your
+own. To do this, four things must be attended to:--
+
+1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until
+its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the
+mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will
+study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by
+mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you
+can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of
+the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering
+of the words peculiar to that subject.
+
+2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its
+pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it,
+and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture.
+
+3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition
+as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions
+glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is
+necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with
+the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea
+clearly from others closely related to it.
+
+4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come
+into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important
+that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you
+_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_
+soon and often.
+
+
++Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following
+subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._
+
+  1. The good fairy.
+  2. Mary's luck.
+  3. The man in the moon.
+  4. The golden apple.
+  5. A wonderful fountain pen.
+  6. The goobergoo and the kantan.
+
+
+(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to
+be assigned by the teacher.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences
+    is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of
+    literature.
+
+2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for
+    composition purposes, because--
+    _a._ They are your own.
+    _b._ They offer free choice of language.
+   They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because--
+    _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency.
+    _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording.
+    _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of
+         statement that will keep the interest of the reader.
+
+3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who
+    most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so
+    that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing.
+
+4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition.
+
+5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by--
+    _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases.
+    _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways.
+    _c._ Using sentences of different lengths.
+
+6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences.
+
+7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions.
+
+8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ.
+    Each should be increased. With each new word
+    attention should be given to--
+    _a._ Spelling.
+    _b._ Pronunciation.
+    _c._ Meaning.
+    _d._ Use.
+
+
+
+III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE
+
+
++25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have
+been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which
+we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and
+imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view.
+Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a
+medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer
+must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part
+of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and
+these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is
+absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will
+be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language.
+
+
++26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form
+a clear mental image of each scene:--
+
+
+At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable
+woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant
+soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long
+generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green
+moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle
+dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian
+chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of
+hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had
+hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over
+a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred
+cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to
+lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group
+of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids;
+deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the
+fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals
+beneath a canopy of forest boughs.
+
+
+Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same
+time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The
+formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent
+effort to create them.
+
+Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness,
+innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set
+forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the
+dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the
+ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of
+the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of
+dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently
+accompanied by pictures.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of
+the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise
+from those that do not.
+
+
+1.  Before these fields were shorn and tilled,
+      Full to the brim our rivers flowed;
+    The melody of waters filled
+      The fresh and boundless wood;
+    And torrents dashed, and rivulets played,
+      And fountains spouted in the shade.
+
+--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_.
+
+
+2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and
+at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward
+felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the
+delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate
+examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the
+black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest
+yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the
+shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like
+a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island.
+
+--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_.
+
+
+3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to
+the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through
+the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof
+and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The
+vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the
+neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with
+wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks
+and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for
+a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms
+abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration
+which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret
+gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
+4.  Under a spreading chestnut tree
+      The village smithy stands;
+    The smith, a mighty man is he,
+      With large and sinewy hands;
+    And the muscles of his brawny arms
+      Are strong as iron bands.
+
+--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_.
+
+
+5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary,
+    Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore--
+    While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping,
+    As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door;
+    "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door--
+       Only this, and nothing more."
+
+--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_.
+
+
+6.  Where with black cliffs the torrents toil,
+    He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil,
+    Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes
+    Beheld the River Demon rise;
+    The mountain mist took form and limb
+    Of noontide hag or goblin grim.
+
+--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_.
+
+
+7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of
+the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with
+thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch
+fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of
+breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons
+down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout
+keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and
+assist him with his load.
+
+--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_.
+
+
++27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their
+purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image
+correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an
+unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image
+represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image
+presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich;
+she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the
+meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not
+be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress
+may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or
+indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is
+blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word
+_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not
+called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or
+substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore
+either incomplete or inaccurate.
+
+An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth,
+and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always
+possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more
+or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often
+in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind
+and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare
+image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure
+or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more
+strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness
+in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well
+for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact
+expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises
+from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the
+formation of incomplete and inaccurate images.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings
+you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not
+attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct
+image.
+
+
+1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of
+whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks.
+
+2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an
+attractive object.
+
+3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to
+face with a familiar figure.
+
+4.  Somewhat back from the village street
+    Stands the old-fashioned country seat.
+    Across its antique portico
+    Tall poplar trees their shadows throw,
+    And from its station in the hall
+    An ancient timepiece says to all:
+      "Forever--never!
+       Never--forever!"
+
+--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_.
+
+5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels
+from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture
+was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building.
+
+6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which
+escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had
+reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the
+western water bastion of the fort.
+
+7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochere_, on the extreme
+edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it.
+She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again.
+
+8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a
+valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on
+the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices.
+
+9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from
+afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an
+alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae
+in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it
+springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a
+heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment.
+
+
+_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete
+images in every case?
+
+
+_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete.
+Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to
+form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not
+clear, but only those that assist in forming images.
+
+
++Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or
+place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates
+complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_--
+
+  1. A party dress I should like.
+  2. My room.
+  3. A cozy glen.
+  4. In the apple orchard.
+  5. Going to the fire.
+  6. The hand-organ man.
+  7. A hornets' nest.
+  8. The last inning.
+  9. An exciting race.
+
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the
+_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear
+your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when
+writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you
+rewrite them so as to give variety?)
+
+
++28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident
+which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of
+their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a
+vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each
+scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more
+difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language
+is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through
+experience.
+
+When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our
+memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image,
+and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The
+author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words
+and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy
+work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we
+may be able to find.
+
+Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is
+necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer
+presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of
+a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image
+memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained
+pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I
+ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task
+will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has.
+In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves
+described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these
+images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With
+him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and
+reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly
+in mind. Try this in your own lessons.
+
+If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story
+that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of
+the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making
+the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be
+concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and
+not with the language that first caused them to appear.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you
+have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will
+cause the class to form clear mental images.
+
+2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the
+Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_.
+
+3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what
+happened.
+
+4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine.
+Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers
+will form like images.
+
+
++Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._
+
+(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of
+their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least
+importance.)
+
+
++29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call
+up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct
+mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar.
+Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand
+correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a
+comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it
+is like.
+
+If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would
+give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike
+animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as
+well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper
+image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled
+to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal.
+
+If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes
+figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes
+and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make
+language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of
+expression.
+
+We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like
+another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is
+directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by
+_like, as_, etc.
+
+
+    He fought like a lion.
+    The river wound like a serpent around the mountains.
+
+
+If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality,
+their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a
+statement that one is the other.
+
+
+    "He was a lion in the fight."
+    "The river wound its serpent course."
+
+
+Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals
+are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called
+personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based
+upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher.
+
+
+    This music crept by me upon the waters.
+
+    Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to
+      season.
+    Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say,
+    That time comes stealing on by night and day?
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
++30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile,
+metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the
+others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some
+suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners.
+
+1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly
+everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare
+English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the
+essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your
+expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add
+to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature
+are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the
+beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative
+purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose
+writing will show how rarely they are used.
+
+2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are
+appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject
+and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in
+his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them.
+
+3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative,
+depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things
+compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to
+one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if
+neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers.
+
+4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but
+hackneyed figures are worse than none.
+
+5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short
+ones, should be avoided.
+
+6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be
+carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results
+which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of
+beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors
+in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical.
+The following will serve to illustrate:--
+
+
+1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance
+and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope.
+
+2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his
+country and a surveyor of ability.
+
+3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all
+on board.
+
+4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship
+"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a
+cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every
+city, town, and village in the United States.
+
+5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden
+footprints of an unseen hand.
+
+6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or
+climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire
+into its shell.
+
+7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Are the images which you form made more vivid by
+the use of the figures in the following selections?
+
+1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds.
+
+2. And when its force expended,
+   The harmless storm was ended;
+   And as the sunrise splendid
+      Came blushing o'er the sea--
+
+3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear,
+   Heels over head, to his proper sphere--
+   Heels over head and head over heels,--
+   Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,--
+   So fell Darius.
+
+--J.T. Trowbridge.
+
+4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social
+life, somebody is always at the drowning point.
+
+--Hawthorne.
+
+5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with
+her at last.
+
+--Hawthorne.
+
+6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled
+up.
+
+--George Eliot.
+
+7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow
+limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his
+hair, and barking out a question now and then.
+
+8. A sky above,
+   Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move.
+
+--Lowell.
+
+9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is
+attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who
+prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under
+its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to
+exterminate it after a defeat.
+
+--Macaulay.
+
+10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our
+time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of
+every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the
+English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest
+declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field
+of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery.
+
+--Macaulay.
+
+11.                     And close behind her stood
+    Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men,
+    Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain,
+    And labor. Each was like a Druid rock,
+    Or like a spire of land that stands apart
+    Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind
+    On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as
+ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use
+hold to their moorings forever.
+
+--Mill.
+
+
++Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one
+of the following subjects:_--
+
+  1. A modern fable.
+  2. The willow whistle.
+  3. How I baked a cake.
+  4. The delayed picnic.
+  5. The missing slipper.
+  6. A misdirected letter.
+  7. A ride on a raft.
+  8. The rescue of Ezekiel.
+  9. A railway experience.
+ 10. A soldier's soldier.
+
+(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form?
+Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.)
+Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance
+with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it
+placed so as to give the correct meaning?)
+
+
++31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The
+emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is
+all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language
+we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is
+concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our
+understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the
+meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word
+groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the
+relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these
+will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to
+consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs.
+
+
++32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must
+understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups
+(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and
+expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any
+conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex,
+the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know
+what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which
+is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case
+our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations
+between words and word groups. We may understand them without any
+knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a
+knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated
+in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here.
+
+
++33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the
+introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images.
+When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar
+way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words
+used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will
+fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the
+peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think
+precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings
+of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas
+than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get
+confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine
+exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language
+expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element
+of success in life.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that
+we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following
+sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence?
+Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning
+clear.
+
+1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political
+speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of
+the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms.
+
+2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to
+prevent mistakes.
+
+3. The aerial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem
+structure.
+
+4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean
+temperature over the region embraced in the map.
+
+5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles
+of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to
+the membrane closing the oval window.
+
+6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open
+order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian
+phalanx.
+
+7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of
+carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day
+that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should
+be done daily, whether assigned or not.
+
+
+34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader
+should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a
+paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words
+employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be
+understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a
+particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is
+doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood.
+When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question,
+Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar?
+
++Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using
+words that you think will be understood by your readers:_--
+
+  1. How we breathe.
+  2. How to make a kite.
+  3. The causes of the seasons.
+  4. Why wood floats on water.
+  5. The use of baking powder.
+  6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra.
+
+(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader
+will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice
+the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?)
+
+
++35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but
+little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys
+his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the
+exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are
+thus of double importance (Section 21).
+
+Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises
+from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes
+one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and
+expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent
+with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These
+usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings
+of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences.
+
+In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many
+sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the
+dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter
+on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the
+text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After
+you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class
+that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will
+consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly
+used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to
+illustrate such reports:--
+
+1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or
+deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the
+result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as
+advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of
+these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his
+partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice
+that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take
+_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to
+accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to
+settle the case out of court by paying a large sum."
+
+2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by
+considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_,
+to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from
+secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but
+both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The
+latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited
+newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired
+yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used,
+it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may
+transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed
+channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a
+gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become
+known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know
+of them though few can tell just how the information was spread.
+_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge.
+
+
++Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following
+groups of words:_--
+
+  1. Allude, mention.
+  2. Beside, besides.
+  3. Character, reputation.
+  4. Degrade, demean, debase.
+  5. Last, latest, preceding.
+  6. Couple, pair.
+  7. Balance, rest, remainder.
+
+(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can
+you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do
+the illustrative reports above?)
+
+NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are
+given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and
+at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found
+profitable.
+
+
++36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of
+several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any
+particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding.
+In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must
+understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others.
+Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them."
+Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the
+first.
+
+In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others.
+Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the
+sentences are considered in their relations to each other.
+
+
+Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the
+world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the
+projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand
+shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other
+great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing
+else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great
+occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear
+the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody
+spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin,
+so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes.
+
+
+Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was
+much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing.
+So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He
+was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old
+building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There
+was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make
+it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as
+his workshop.
+
+
+In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence
+takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal
+pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or
+place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the
+other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation
+in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some
+preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer,
+the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and
+the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to
+cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning
+clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules.
+Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those
+mentioned above are used.
+
+
++Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. The last quarter.
+  2. An excursion with the physical geography class.
+  3. What I saw while riding to town.
+  4. The broken bicycle.
+  5. An hour in the study hall.
+  6. Seen from my study window.
+
+(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are
+the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid
+ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If
+imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?)
+
+
++37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is
+not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context,
+just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or
+follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made
+clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail
+in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more
+important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are
+assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be
+memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of
+importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor
+details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations
+that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the
+lesson.
+
+In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what
+they are, but not what is said about them.
+
+
+In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased
+by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and
+flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams
+and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a
+system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would
+be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of
+his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where
+he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that
+in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square
+miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation.
+Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as
+productive as that of the Nile.
+
+Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually
+furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded
+highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than
+overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and
+cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage
+or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions
+which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found
+along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream
+valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the
+windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses
+through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some
+stream on the other side.
+
+Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery.
+Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without
+water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the
+brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation
+which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land
+into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream
+valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as
+well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny
+meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado
+canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
+In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to
+some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the
+same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences
+related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+
+
+
++38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page
+67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is
+about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or
+sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur
+in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and
+concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive
+summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement.
+
+In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select
+or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our
+own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may
+easily grasp the topic statement of each.
+
+When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a
+sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is
+usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or
+more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the
+paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly
+different form.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not
+expressed, make one.
+
+
+1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is
+trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His
+imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then
+trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them.
+The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and
+sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the
+exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power.
+She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children
+freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers.
+
+--Bradley
+
+
+2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It
+is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though
+there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as
+habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some
+of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores
+of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts,
+punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And
+so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they
+were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at
+table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the
+other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they
+brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their
+minds, a part of their life, like their religion.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This
+fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be
+accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes
+to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never
+exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and
+processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost
+care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1
+lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a
+grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is
+very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of
+a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to
+estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement
+may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer
+than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use
+of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly
+with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one
+millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this
+approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is
+not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more
+than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can
+be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet;
+but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not
+being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected.
+Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833
+miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles.
+
+--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of
+society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found
+in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and
+the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance
+have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of
+the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as
+well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the
+various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and
+provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great
+human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were
+for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now
+from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna.
+
+--Macaulay: _History of England_.
+
+
+5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He
+was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the
+shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid
+all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the
+company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington,
+the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the
+kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New
+England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the
+bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or   of the
+waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's
+voice to his home by the summer sea.
+
+--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_.
+
+
+6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime.
+There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by
+one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and
+the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass
+into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when
+winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land
+snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun
+hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the
+stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in
+the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the
+horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under
+the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the
+frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells.
+
+--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_.
+
+7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a
+symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a
+catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort
+of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of
+living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these
+fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how
+they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they
+cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take
+pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless
+Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is
+no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not
+generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are
+not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not
+require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to
+drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait
+an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes
+open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no
+one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and
+yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good
+eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to
+school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they
+have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the
+time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not
+too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life
+of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless
+attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to
+rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched,
+he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have
+stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is
+empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable
+eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life.
+
+--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a
+topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this
+topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic,
+or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close
+connection in thought?
+
+
++Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over
+private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it
+into a short paragraph._
+
+(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of
+your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in
+each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider
+the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to
+your paragraphs?)
+
+
++39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to
+reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability
+to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is
+evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of
+each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different
+subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one
+subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have
+in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:--
+
+
+General subject: The uses of rivers.
+  First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by
+    irrigation.
+  Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and
+    commerce.
+  Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery.
+
+
+While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper
+understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand
+thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The
+idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations
+to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you
+understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them.
+This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving
+thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It
+is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic
+statement.
+
+Read the following paragraph:--
+
+
+The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period
+of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds,
+and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil
+thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a
+rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest
+population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood
+plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a
+distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless
+desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the
+highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which
+overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one
+of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense
+population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris
+and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in
+ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older
+than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang
+in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the
+most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely
+productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
+Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are
+productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the
+rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations.
+
+In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind
+an outline about as follows:--
+
+Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world.
+
+1. Reasons.
+2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands.
+             (_b_) Nile.
+             (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates.
+             (_d_) Ganges.
+             (_e_) Hoang.
+             (_f_) Mississippi.
+
+In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in
+the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic
+statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or
+more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could
+furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about
+bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that
+could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile
+might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the
+recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not
+materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to
+remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power.
+
+It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written
+outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of
+dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an
+analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to
+remember the language of the writer.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of
+the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you
+furnish different illustrations?
+
+
+Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography,
+and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of
+western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist,
+western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler
+altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that
+the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the
+leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across
+central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic
+winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the
+mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and
+northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's
+temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As
+North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds,
+they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed
+Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous
+in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many
+nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps
+between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India.
+Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give,
+and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few
+peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state.
+Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water,
+which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting
+slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial
+rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of
+water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is
+employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A
+large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water
+power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with
+water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore
+the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest
+sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for
+agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the debris of the rocks washed
+into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus
+the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the
+soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry.
+The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large
+revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty
+million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many
+thousands of persons.
+
+--Adams: _Commercial Geography_.
+
+
+
+OUTLINE (to be completed)
+
+Mountain ranges have great influence upon--
+  I. Climate.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+ II. Political geography.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+III. Commerce.
+        Why?
+        Where?
+         _a, b,_ etc.
+
+
+_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:--
+
+
+1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the
+law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body,
+brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords,
+excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines
+and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that
+they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were
+permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The
+third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could
+not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms
+excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and
+stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn
+blowers.
+
+--Gilman: _Story of Rome_.
+
+
+_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the
+paragraphs.
+
+
++Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the
+teacher._
+
+(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of
+what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea.
+Use different illustrations if you can.)
+
+NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable.
+
+
++40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the
+importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly
+depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The
+writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of
+sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that
+very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some
+central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our
+sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs
+that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make
+clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other
+and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any
+subject.
+
+
++41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be
+determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require
+several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single
+illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations
+may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make
+his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader
+will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words
+will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea,
+each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate
+paragraph.
+
+
++42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a
+paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a
+paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph.
+Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the
+reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about
+to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently.
+There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed
+conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the
+indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon
+clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing?
+
+Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet
+lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupes
+in frantic search for his own.
+
+"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a
+snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into
+the dark coupe, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions,
+turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat.
+
+There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her
+nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff
+against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her
+knees.
+
+Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car
+tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled
+in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows.
+
+Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery
+panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting
+vision.
+
+Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box,
+struck a light, and groaned as he read the time.
+
+At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then,
+as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt
+upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay.
+
+He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and
+hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the
+face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on.
+
+"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?"
+
+The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful
+mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--"
+
+
+
++Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_--
+
+  1. A personal incident.
+  2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses.
+  3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just
+     preceding.
+
+(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important
+enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one
+paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written,
+consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of
+them too short or too long?)
+
+
++43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in
+which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it
+contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually
+one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our
+thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both
+to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our
+own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence
+we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development.
+
+
++44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general
+statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once
+of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular
+occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido,
+knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some
+of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific
+instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we
+use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of
+our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific
+instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is
+a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and
+the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such
+illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to
+explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will
+use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose.
+
+In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and
+repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last
+part by means of several specific instances:--
+
+
+Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does
+not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is
+that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we
+must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a
+high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation
+will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good
+working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his
+business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the
+way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so
+doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great.
+At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his
+train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty
+people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine
+would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied
+a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a
+number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron
+vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on
+shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on
+a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer
+in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by
+hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders.
+The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half
+a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the
+gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the
+explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that
+type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that
+this instance is not an exception to the rule.
+
+--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish
+specific instances, in the following paragraphs?
+
+My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down
+from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy,
+middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and
+evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady,
+afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the
+safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for
+the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy.
+Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us,
+produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust
+Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new
+idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a
+printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of
+which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made
+to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his
+approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island,
+observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to
+widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next
+appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the
+sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power
+here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble
+stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of
+sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton
+dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He
+advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first
+wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed
+in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point
+of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither,
+till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down--
+down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock.
+
+--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_.
+
+
+No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no
+strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over
+till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me
+with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a
+man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?"
+
+"A what?" I asked.
+
+"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not
+offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of
+that name."
+
+With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and
+Newfoundland?"
+
+"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both
+these places."
+
+"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained.
+
+But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued:
+
+"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a
+milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?"
+
+At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded
+the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands
+together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?"
+
+"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained.
+
+"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who
+plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?"
+
+It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered
+thus for explanation.
+
+--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by
+giving specific instances.
+
+
++Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one
+of the following topic statements:_--
+
+
+1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one
+does not mind his business.
+
+2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer.
+
+3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at
+fault.
+
+4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks.
+
+5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much
+intelligence.
+
+6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty.
+
+7. Our school clock must see many interesting things.
+
+8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones.
+
+9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous.
+
+10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of
+people.
+
+11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting.
+
+(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic
+statement? Have you said what you intended to say?
+Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used
+_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?).
+
+
++45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a
+desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by
+giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once
+arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed
+my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These
+details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our
+interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our
+understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the
+details:--
+
+
+1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season
+of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was
+wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The
+tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether
+they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick
+stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like
+that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo.
+The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth
+was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away;
+and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher
+than my head.
+
+--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_.
+
+
+2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the
+estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet
+her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread
+and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt
+cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant.
+Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the
+Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and
+necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a
+magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked
+cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of
+forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian
+feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in
+turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who
+stood to receive them.
+
+--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_
+("Atlantic Monthly ").
+
+
++Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the
+following topic statements:_--
+
+
+1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer
+vacation.
+
+2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one
+who is not used to the language of the woods.
+
+3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's
+house.
+
+4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways.
+
+5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good
+judgment.
+
+6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city.
+
+7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow.
+
+8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type.
+
+9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance.
+
+10. A freshman's trials are numerous.
+
+
+(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and
+rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the
+order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?)
+
+
++46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow
+each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once
+think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in
+establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the
+details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of
+showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in
+Section 11.
+
+If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into
+paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The
+time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the
+paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow
+the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do
+not have topic sentences.
+
+In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time
+relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole
+selection:--
+
+
+He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the
+trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces
+off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a
+loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps
+until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door.
+
+There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which
+stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came
+trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking
+a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted
+across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid
+colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but
+she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so
+sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself.
+
+I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing
+the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had
+not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously
+about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the
+road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur,
+for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and
+leaning a little forward, we dashed after them.
+
+For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right;
+after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my
+mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing
+at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up
+the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To
+the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up
+the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another
+bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the
+flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground
+upon her at all.
+
+An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped
+and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord
+Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She
+has turned off there."
+
+I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven
+ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a
+scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with
+ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a
+headlong gallop.
+
+We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the
+green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long
+brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back,
+as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that
+strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the
+ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance
+that we might overtake her.
+
+While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but
+now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground
+in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we
+gained on them every moment.
+
+About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the
+earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this
+would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled
+among the rough clods, and fell.
+
+--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_.
+
+
++Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by
+means of the time relations._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. An adventure on horseback.
+  2. A trip with the engineer.
+  3. A day on the river.
+  4. Fido's mishaps.
+  5. An inquisitive crow.
+  6. The unfortunate letter carrier.
+  7. Teaching a calf to drink.
+  8. The story of a silver dollar.
+  9. A narrow escape.
+  10.An afternoon at the circus.
+  11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the
+     picture on page 90.
+
+
+(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences
+treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your
+story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.)
+
+
++47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of
+presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details
+themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct
+general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details
+clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two
+and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will
+depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye
+passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling
+the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining
+one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and
+states the details in his description in the order in which we would
+naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he
+most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the
+general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the
+description proceeds.
+
+
+The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong,
+tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant
+exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form,
+having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained
+a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was
+covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French
+call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar.
+His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was
+calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers.
+High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt
+almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and
+might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of
+passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead,
+the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache
+quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest
+might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in
+every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and
+seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping
+it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep
+scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a
+sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on
+the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight
+and partial degree distorted.
+
+The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in
+shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed
+that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the
+right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a
+peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather
+inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves
+and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to
+the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less
+obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his
+mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the
+knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel,
+ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the
+ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the
+rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged
+dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person.
+
+He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the
+road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully
+accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head,
+having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle
+hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other
+the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed
+sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his
+master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole,
+or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon
+his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at
+the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It
+was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being
+seen.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
+Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing
+to another, placing together in the description those which occur together
+in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing
+to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be
+called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first
+sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his
+forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description
+covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it
+those things which are associated in space.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the
+following details should be included in each paragraph?
+
+(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general
+appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_)
+coat, (_k_) nose.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the
+outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups.
+
+
+_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline
+and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their
+position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them?
+
+
+1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others.
+There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and
+the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps
+and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet
+feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had
+once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and
+vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a
+picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot
+where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all
+that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery,
+deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August
+sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A
+half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water
+long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they
+lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below
+the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting
+at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as
+if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow
+from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a
+pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it
+wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the
+eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were
+abrupt.
+
+--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday,
+Page & Co.)
+
+
+2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract
+observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely
+fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity
+which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat
+enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give
+expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt,
+to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt
+brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in
+numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature.
+These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length,
+intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden
+chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung
+around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her
+dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung
+a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves,
+which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was
+crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk,
+interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could
+be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after
+the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders.
+
+--Scott: _Ivanhoe_.
+
+
++Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference
+to their association in space._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. Ichabod Crane.
+  2. Rip Van Winkle.
+  3. The man who lives near us.
+  4. A minister I met yesterday.
+  5. Our family doctor.
+  6. The gymnasium.
+  7. A fire engine.
+  8. The old church.
+  9. The shoe factory.
+  10. Some character in the book you are reading.
+
+
+(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the
+details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space
+order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form
+the mental image you wish him to form?)
+
+
++48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison,
+whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of
+objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained
+by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing
+with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to
+it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we
+at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A
+writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired
+comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand
+the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are
+unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other.
+
+In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they
+are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes
+differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may
+be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a
+paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following
+paragraphs:--
+
+
+1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the
+highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the
+height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty.
+Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than
+Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two
+falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong,
+though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the
+force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap.
+
+2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely.
+They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive
+accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's
+central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which
+tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh,
+grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the
+cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over
+the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reechoes through the narrow
+canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of
+discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of
+London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less
+jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the
+wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be
+soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first
+disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._
+
+3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is
+active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the
+discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention;
+his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just,
+wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for
+battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet
+ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things,
+their claims, and their places.
+
+--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.
+
+
++Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._
+
+
+Suggested topics:--
+
+  1. The school, a beehive.
+  2. The body, a steam engine.
+  3. Two generals about whom you have read.
+  4. Girls, boys.
+  5. Two of your studies.
+  6. Graded school work, high school work.
+  7. Animal life, plant life.
+  8. Two of your classmates.
+
+
+(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the
+other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the
+reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not
+really needed.)
+
+
++49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied
+with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have
+produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another
+has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the
+question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is
+stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic
+statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its
+causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the
+effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its
+causes.
+
+The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is
+discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:--
+
+
+The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There
+is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause,
+or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in
+nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change
+to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long
+train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor
+of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen
+everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function
+of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena,
+and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and
+dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become
+wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when
+reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of
+causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and
+clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds
+interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study.
+
+--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the
+use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly,
+consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._
+
+_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following
+paragraphs?
+
+
+1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its
+temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at
+great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it
+can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and,
+being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the
+atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated
+springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the
+water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills;
+sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the
+water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves
+them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating
+on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted
+with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly
+evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath
+leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the
+roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until
+these meet and form one continuous column of stone.
+
+--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_.
+
+
+2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects
+the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed
+and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes
+paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker.
+Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent
+weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is
+impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell
+which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the
+comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and
+bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil
+effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent
+physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of
+forty.
+
+--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_.
+
+
+3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For
+example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with
+foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in
+morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also
+devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a
+part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to
+the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in
+things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done
+that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic
+Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more
+into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the
+Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men
+of his day.
+
+--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_.
+
+
++Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into
+paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_--
+
+1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would
+not last long.
+
+2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads.
+
+3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this
+country than in Europe.
+
+4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization.
+
+5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature.
+
+6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate.
+
+7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation.
+
+8. There are many swift rivers in New England.
+
+9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers.
+
+
+(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects
+which you have stated really follow the given causes?)
+
+
++50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different
+form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This
+is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons.
+In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts
+to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar
+way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of
+the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more
+than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making
+this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is
+excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault.
+
+Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to
+explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing
+is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to
+the original idea.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following
+paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:--
+
+
+1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people.
+No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the
+habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a
+change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it
+is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no
+changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man
+likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else.
+I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that
+liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the
+law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because
+he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and
+there is no protest in his soul against the doing.
+
+--Frederick William Robertson.
+
+
+3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived
+from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own
+acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild
+beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or
+in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could
+walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the
+soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if
+it had been shouted in their ears.
+
+--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_.
+
+
+4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed
+to the public service corporation, exist to render public services.
+Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing
+should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for
+the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and
+transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the
+streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation.
+To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal
+revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their
+public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not
+gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public
+service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its
+employment.
+
+--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_
+("Atlantic Monthly").
+
+
++Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a
+paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_--
+
+1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured.
+
+2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day.
+
+3. The government is always in need of honest men.
+
+4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life.
+
+5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage.
+
+6. Haste is waste.
+
+7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health.
+
+
+(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer
+or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have
+you used?)
+
+
++51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have
+unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does
+not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken
+at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be
+difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In
+general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods
+is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is
+used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between
+them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main
+thought.
+
+The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect
+with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a
+combination of repetition with specific instances.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods,
+are used in the following selections?
+
+
+1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not
+mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his
+opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do
+and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not
+only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not
+only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are
+right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account.
+Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Duerer writes
+calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better
+done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two
+that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their
+fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious
+undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them,
+but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God
+made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man
+they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful.
+
+--Ruskin.
+
+
+2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its
+prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced
+among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and
+the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia
+Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown
+wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of
+quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly
+because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite
+sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different
+parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some
+extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish,
+those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica,
+which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown
+or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a
+Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a
+peculiarly deep and brilliant black.
+
+--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_.
+
+
+3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain
+sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold
+winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a
+third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its
+population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every
+style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this
+respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could
+devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets
+and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and
+schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all
+parts of the world.
+
+--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.
+
+
+4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of
+ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue
+of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes
+three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is
+everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note
+or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador,
+is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his
+seasickness when a new gull appears in sight.
+
+--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_.
+
+
++Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of
+methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto
+suggested that you have not already used._
+
+
+(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph
+possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?)
+
+
++52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may
+ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil
+to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in
+clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it,
+the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each
+paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has
+been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it
+has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the
+non-essential elements.
+
+A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able
+to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of
+them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by
+giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5)
+by repetition.
+
+Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and
+consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to
+others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or
+state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus
+become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were
+expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for
+composition purposes._
+
+
++53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have
+read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may
+make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in
+advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging
+the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we
+shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves,
+and enable us to present it more effectively to others.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's
+introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_--
+
+
+There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart
+from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and
+illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to
+make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor
+details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of
+his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many
+writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all
+great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet
+consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be
+simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving
+from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things
+one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen
+new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old
+ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion.
+Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved
+himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a
+single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist
+Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and
+celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the
+bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like
+the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with
+elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic
+power.
+
+This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name
+structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their
+very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many
+parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or
+friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together
+again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each
+essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And
+each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton:
+the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in
+the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic.
+And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways,
+but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an
+expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a
+topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences--
+often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the
+utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay.
+
+Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay
+becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or
+laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his
+argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was
+ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For
+example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every
+day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like
+Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long
+comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley,
+between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the
+fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of
+instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of
+Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the
+writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear
+contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that
+Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland
+cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had
+an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit
+their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo
+Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations.
+He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a
+very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four
+quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring
+the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind
+doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains,
+bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing.
+
+It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and
+clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People
+found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on,
+never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of
+every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental
+effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to
+support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the
+simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting
+for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to
+the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain
+had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the
+discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was
+surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if
+he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as
+a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose,
+trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the
+same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and
+contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged
+dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy
+of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms.
+Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall
+have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor;
+"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it
+the means of contenting both you and myself."
+
+
+_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let
+the class tell what method of development you have used.
+
+
+_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the
+methods of development.
+
+
++Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but
+developing each by a different method._
+
+Suggested topic statements:--
+
+1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money.
+
+2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now.
+
+3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years.
+
+4. There is a difference between law and justice.
+
+5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety.
+
+6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless
+activity.
+
+7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole
+nation.
+
+
+(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have
+you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though
+they begin with the same sentence?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through
+   which ideas are acquired.
+
+2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:--
+    _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming
+           incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section
+           33).
+    _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words,
+           phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32).
+
+3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes--
+    _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse
+           the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28).
+    _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we
+           can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or
+           state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them
+           or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52).
+         Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired
+           through language are undesirable for composition purposes.
+
+4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal
+   or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech.
+
+5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.)
+    _a._ A simile is a direct comparison.
+    _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison.
+    _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human
+           attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals.
+
+6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech.
+    _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them.
+    _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject.
+    _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader.
+    _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures.
+    _e._ Avoid long figures.
+    _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors.
+
+7. Choice of words.
+    _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader.
+    _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar
+           words.
+    _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17).
+
+8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the
+   use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences,
+   especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36).
+
+9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one
+   central idea.
+10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of
+    the contents of the paragraph.
+
+11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed--
+    _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44).
+    _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details
+           are told may be determined by--
+             (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46).
+             (2) Their position in space (Section 47).
+    _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48).
+    _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49).
+    _e._ By repetition (Section 50).
+    _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above.
+
+12. The topical recitation demands--
+    _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able
+          to make the topic statement.
+    _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the
+          remaining ideas in the paragraph.
+    _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the
+          paragraph has been developed.
+    _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of
+          his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.)
+
+
+
+IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION
+
+
++54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the
+purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of
+writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that
+we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness.
+Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it
+may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value
+of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that
+entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest
+and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these
+characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis
+shall be given.
+
+Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and
+argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It
+will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which
+the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms
+of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you
+persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and
+you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and
+effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have
+considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A
+more extended treatment is given in later chapters.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the
+following belong?
+
+
+1. A business letter.
+
+2. The story of a runaway.
+
+3. A description of a lake written by a geologist.
+
+4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it.
+
+5. A letter to a friend describing a trip.
+
+6. A text-book on algebra.
+
+7. An application for a position as stenographer.
+
+8. A recipe for making cake.
+
+9. How I made a cake.
+
+10. How to make a kite.
+
+11. A political speech.
+
+12. A debate.
+
+
+_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could
+the same object be described for the purpose of giving information?
+
+_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments?
+
++55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is
+communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone.
+It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If
+its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it
+must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us,
+because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because
+it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe
+in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we
+narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that
+which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth
+of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be
+useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer
+shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will
+receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or
+writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it
+penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say
+precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so
+shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a
+question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be
+forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of
+least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the
+differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust,
+without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make
+the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of
+apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George
+Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.]
+
+In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a
+writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be
+neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt
+what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will
+become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of
+paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of
+methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers.
+
+
++Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of
+paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the
+mind usually acts._
+
+(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development
+treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting
+the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been
+written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you
+improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?)
+
+
++56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for
+us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should
+choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The
+elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered
+later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the
+suitableness of a subject:--
+
+First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear
+to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and
+definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is
+one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any
+subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must
+not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we
+may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may
+discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may
+be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons
+or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even
+if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own
+experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by
+getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from
+reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to
+write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a
+subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we
+understand because we can remember the language in which they were
+expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write
+well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but
+little.
+
+Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult
+for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no
+special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real
+interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a
+manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more
+interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in
+that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts
+conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a
+subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our
+interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but
+the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested.
+This interest will lead him to a further search for information about
+Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes
+entertaining to others.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient
+knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you
+interested? Which would you need to "read up" about?
+
+1. Golf.
+2. Examinations.
+3. Warships.
+4. Wireless telegraphy.
+5. Radium.
+6. Tennis.
+7. Automobiles.
+8. Picnics.
+9. Printing.
+10. Bees.
+11. Birds.
+12. Pyrography.
+13. Photography.
+14. Beavers.
+15. Making calls.
+16. Stamp collecting.
+17. The manufacture of tacks.
+18. The manufacture of cotton.
+19. The smelting of zinc.
+20. The silver-plating process.
+
+
+_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something.
+
+
+_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested.
+
+
+_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient
+knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph.
+
+
++Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the
+lists in the preceding exercise._
+
+(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your
+paragraphs unity of thought?)
+
+
++57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and
+possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it
+may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some
+knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on
+the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning
+this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing
+both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a
+failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third
+grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you
+know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real
+"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your
+readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital
+and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a
+subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers.
+
+
++58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest
+touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for
+anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a
+suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are
+everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we
+hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss
+for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show
+a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider
+the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's
+outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our
+thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may
+be used for written exercises_.
+
++59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are
+more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and
+abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by
+recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence
+of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins."
+The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general
+subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the
+second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might
+write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult
+to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a
+general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a
+specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really
+know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in
+it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows
+something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels
+expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative
+interest on his part.
+
+On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject
+than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject
+presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than
+aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer
+possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects
+successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite
+subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of
+Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean
+scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme.
+
+
++60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in
+order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of
+ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation
+of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more
+interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or
+on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the
+length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a
+subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a
+chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be
+quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it
+would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of
+Milk at Toledo."
+
+A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the
+writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn
+something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become
+interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most
+general ones shall come first:--
+
+  1. The intelligence of wild animals.
+    How a fox escaped from the hounds.
+    How animals escape destruction by their enemies.
+    Animals.
+
+  2. The benefits that arise from war.
+    The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius.
+    War.
+    The value of military strength to the Romans.
+
+  3. Pleasure.
+    A summer outing in the Adirondacks.
+    Value of vacations.
+    Catching bass.
+
+
+_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may
+be treated in a single paragraph:--
+
+1. Fishing.
+2. Engines.
+3. Literature.
+4. Heroes of fiction.
+5. Cooking.
+6. Houses.
+7. Games.
+8. Basketball.
+9. Cats.
+10. Canaries.
+11. Sympathy.
+12. Sailboats.
+13. Baseball.
+14. Rivers.
+15. Trees.
+
+
+C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which
+would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example--
+
+  General subject,--Education.
+  Specific subjects,--
+    1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.)
+    2. School taxes. (Farmers.)
+    3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.)
+
+In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects
+so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or
+more classes of persons:--
+
+       Subjects               Classes
+  1. Vacations.         1. Farmers.
+  2. Mathematics.       2. High School Pupils.
+  3. Picnics.           3. Ministers.
+  4. Civil service.     4. Merchants.
+  5. Elections.         5. Sailors.
+  6. Botany.            6. Girls.
+  7. Fish.              7. Boys.
+
+
++Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._
+
+(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development
+have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to
+your readers?)
+
+
++61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but
+not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of
+considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this
+brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and
+arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A
+peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly
+selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the
+title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect
+is unsatisfactory.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the
+following:--
+
+1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse."
+    Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient
+             time.
+
+2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance.
+    Subject: Description of a coaching parade.
+
+3. Title: A Brave Defense.
+    Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from
+             their nest.
+
+4. Title: The Banquet Book.
+    Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an
+             aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner
+             speech, and the occasional address.
+
+5. Title: Dragons of the Air.
+    Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles.
+
+6. Title: Rugs and Rags.
+    Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic
+             point of view.
+
+7. Title: Lives of the Hunted.
+    Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three
+             birds.
+
+8. Title: The Children of the Nations.
+    Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization.
+
+
+_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher.
+
+_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine
+article you have read this month.
+
+
++62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with
+reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his
+paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet
+he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language
+suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use
+is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with
+ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age
+and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best
+express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves.
+But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in
+life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our
+readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if
+necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to
+your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the
+following is intended?
+
+
+In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an
+error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both
+local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays.
+
+The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning
+Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the
+drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an
+easy out.
+
+Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme
+left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to
+catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to
+left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a
+screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored
+if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and
+Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns
+got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut
+back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the
+initial sack, but could not prevent the tally.
+
+--_Boston Herald._
+
+
+His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the
+boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his
+senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was
+Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things,
+athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of
+the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time
+had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track
+team.
+
+But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up
+to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and
+in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get
+his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although
+he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows
+always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and
+thoroughly exhausted.
+
+Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would
+have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his
+mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very
+proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y."
+
+So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition
+of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a
+distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men
+running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked
+upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the
+first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on
+just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games,
+and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place
+in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it
+faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when
+the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it
+soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard
+games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to
+Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed
+that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood
+a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards,
+along at a fast gait for the first mile.
+
+So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half
+mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast
+second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should
+go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the
+attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come
+up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to
+finish first.
+
+The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track
+heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were
+the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and
+consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it
+developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest
+grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual
+trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a
+really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the
+time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner
+should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way
+behind.
+
+At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders,
+during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the
+Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and,
+being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed
+uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not,
+and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates
+gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis,
+Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early,
+whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the
+third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three
+desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore,
+they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some
+fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man
+try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who
+was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter
+finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come
+up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to
+make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened
+out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let
+himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the
+last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had
+opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to
+expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned
+into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it
+was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and,
+moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the
+Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy
+pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the
+gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of
+Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He
+could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it
+was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the
+crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from
+home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to
+stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted
+the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last!
+
+--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook")
+
+
+In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made
+the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class
+composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report?
+
+In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know
+what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful
+presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to
+adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with
+the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first
+account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would
+need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration
+would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order
+to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that
+game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning
+of the terms we use.
+
+
++Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand
+the game about some contest which you have seen_.
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+1. A basket ball game.
+2. A football game.
+3. A tennis match.
+4. A baseball game.
+5. A croquet match.
+6. A golf tournament.
+7. A yacht race.
+8. A relay race.
+
+(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary
+explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is
+rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper
+time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without
+affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?)
+
+
++Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for
+Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._
+
+
+(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten
+the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.)
+
+
++63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers
+calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular
+object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any
+one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term.
+For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific
+term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme
+XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling
+about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement
+was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by
+"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would
+apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition
+called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is
+always concerned with that which is general, while description and
+narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake;
+but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to
+any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general
+terms is one form of exposition.
+
+
++64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a
+general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it
+is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question,
+What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is
+explanation.
+
+Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the
+smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For
+example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or
+vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however,
+seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by
+comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of
+meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing
+the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For
+example:--
+
+
+Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is
+found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in
+the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility,
+difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less
+strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One
+can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery,
+while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered.
+Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new
+inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to
+science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical
+resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our
+knowledge, and has often been made by accident.
+
+--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_.
+
+
+If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical
+definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter.
+
+
++Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following
+groups:_--
+
+
+1. Caustic, satirical, biting.
+2. Imply, signify, involve.
+3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike.
+4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge.
+5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate.
+6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty.
+7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete.
+8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament,
+9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry.
+
+
++65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must
+be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood
+by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in
+explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_,
+and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our
+explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all
+probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language
+have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of
+our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than
+our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar
+ones.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Give familiar equivalents for the following words:--
+
+
+1. emancipate.
+2. procure.
+3. opportunity.
+4. peruse.
+5. elapsed.
+6. approximately.
+7. abbreviate.
+8. constitute.
+9. simultaneous.
+10. familiar.
+11. deceased.
+12. oral.
+13. adhere.
+14. edifice.
+15. collide.
+16. suburban.
+17. repugnance.
+18. grotesque.
+19. equipage.
+20. exaggerate.
+21. ascend.
+22. financial.
+23. nocturnal.
+24. maternal.
+25. vision.
+26. affinity.
+27. cohere.
+28. athwart.
+29. clavicle.
+30. omnipotent.
+31. enumerate.
+32. eradicate.
+33. application.
+34. constitute.
+35. employer.
+36. rendezvous.
+37. obscure.
+38. indicate.
+39. prevaricate.
+
+
++66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is
+to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere
+statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often
+make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable
+comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we
+must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure
+that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate.
+
+
++Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as
+exact a definition as you can frame._
+
+1. A "fly" in baseball.
+2. A "foul" in basket ball.
+3. A "sneak."
+4. A hero.
+5. A "spitfire."
+6. A laborer.
+7. A capitalist.
+8. A coward.
+9. A freshman.
+10. A "header."
+
+
+(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its
+meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example?
+Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by
+arranging your material in a different order?)
+
+
++67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term
+by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate
+the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features.
+This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader
+picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader
+a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England
+villages, the paragraph would become a general description.
+
+Such a general description would include all the characteristics common
+to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit
+any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general
+description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If
+an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception
+of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the
+object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in
+effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description.
+It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly
+employed by writers of scientific books.
+
+Notice the following examples of general description:--
+
+
+1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and
+stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and
+variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of
+the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains
+with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly
+painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and
+surrounded with red and white railings and fences.
+
+The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different
+hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch.
+Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white
+as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon
+perforated like lace. The pointed facades are surmounted with a small
+weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers.
+Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last
+for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions,
+such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the
+houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his
+arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two
+persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely
+reach to the knees of a four-year-old child.
+
+
+2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three
+inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles
+running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar,
+pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk
+grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color,
+divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to
+each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower
+is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in
+most of the states in rich, shady soils.
+
+
+3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a
+benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the
+trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of
+the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her
+jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk
+and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in
+an American police court.
+
+Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that
+she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The
+bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap
+paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account
+finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory.
+Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be
+done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of
+the page and pay it.
+
+--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star").
+
+
++Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_--
+
+1. A bicycle.
+2. A country hay barn.
+3. A dog.
+4. A summer cottage.
+5. An Indian wigwam.
+6. A Dutch windmill.
+7. A muskrat's house.
+8. A robin's nest.
+9. A blacksmith's shop.
+10. A chipmunk.
+11. A threshing machine.
+12. A sewing circle.
+
+
+(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general
+notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that
+applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make
+your meaning clear?)
+
+
++Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a
+specific description of some particular object._
+
+
+(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you
+introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the
+general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper
+position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you
+mean him to have?)
+
+
++68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture,
+methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of
+generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod
+house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of
+events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some
+one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of
+the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general
+narration is really exposition.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing
+what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special
+occasion is introduced.
+
+
+She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up,
+running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something
+like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the
+mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile
+or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a
+little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her
+enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of
+her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way
+back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem,
+she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to
+perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track.
+
+--Richard Atton.
+
+
+_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects
+it differs from the preceding selection.
+
+Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day
+since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy
+pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I
+was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence
+of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought
+themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he
+passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind
+inquiry after their fathers and uncles.
+
+After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and
+the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I
+was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop
+out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the
+way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by
+extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none
+of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me
+if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called
+in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard
+one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder
+they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's
+crying, "Stole away."
+
+This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising
+ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without
+the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them
+above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of
+running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country,"
+as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a
+sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such
+manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first
+pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she
+had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same
+time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid
+to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among
+them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but
+once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or
+one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being
+taken notice of.
+
+The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up
+again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first
+started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly
+knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and
+servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty.
+One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase
+was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain
+behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a
+large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must
+confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything
+around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a
+double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the
+sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most
+lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was
+innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare,
+that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when
+the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They
+were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for
+almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a
+sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst
+not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode
+forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after
+delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept
+alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several
+of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable
+captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the
+good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a
+creature that had given him so much diversion.
+
+--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_.
+
+
++Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general
+narration:_--
+
+  1. Baking bread.
+  2. How paper is made.
+  3. How to play tennis (or some other game).
+  4. Catching trout.
+  5. Life at school.
+  6. How to pitch curves.
+
+
+(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order?
+Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity?
+Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.)
+
+
++69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language
+presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does
+not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one
+else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who
+wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The
+question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts
+shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince
+my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later
+chapter, but a few of them are given here.
+
+
++70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we
+must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to
+make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which
+he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to
+convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent
+to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different
+courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced
+as to which is best for you.
+
+If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would
+be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already
+understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only
+waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he
+already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your
+reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your
+school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not
+understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It
+is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make
+depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we
+explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the
+reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow.
+
+The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step
+in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must
+consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended.
+
+
++71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often
+concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or
+another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the
+advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of
+the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause.
+
+If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city
+officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In
+support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that
+would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of
+delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the
+greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons
+seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too
+much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages
+were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense.
+
+Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not
+discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of
+what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or
+disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the
+disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon
+to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the
+facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up
+our mind which side we favor.
+
+You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you
+believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should
+take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to
+be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind
+you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as
+advantages.
+
+Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School
+Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of
+the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:--
+
+
+The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their
+recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been
+sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages.
+There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses,
+shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between
+recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we
+have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the
+system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in
+gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides
+this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various
+classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not
+occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to
+these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a
+respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the
+mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in
+every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can
+often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides
+that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave
+work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some
+other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and
+we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or
+less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they
+cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing
+space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous
+application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance
+the disadvantages.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the
+following propositions? State them orally.
+
+
+1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground.
+
+2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles
+   per hour.
+
+3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular
+   school days.
+
+4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on
+   Fridays and Saturdays.
+
+5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday.
+
+6. The school session should be lengthened.
+
+
++Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages
+and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any
+one of the following:_
+
+1. This school should have a longer recess.
+
+2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess.
+
+3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock.
+
+4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room.
+
+5. The public library should be in the high school building.
+
+6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice.
+
+7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments.
+
+
++72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make
+the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances.
+If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the
+paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the
+reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true,
+we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific
+instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following
+paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the
+proposition:--
+
+
+Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct
+acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice
+plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by
+intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct,
+but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act
+of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit
+and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind
+of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is
+prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set
+up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show
+intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its
+enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk
+does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of
+intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string
+stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how
+shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a
+gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to
+profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal
+were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in
+intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of
+the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an
+afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go
+upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct
+which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience
+with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A
+pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly
+grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous
+calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath
+them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed;
+the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is
+intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence;
+it is untaught.
+
+John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either
+the following propositions or their opposites?
+
+1. Dogs are intelligent.
+
+2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination.
+
+3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination.
+
+4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples.
+
+5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer.
+
+6. A college education pays.
+
+7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores.
+
+8. Advertising pays.
+
+
++Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of
+the propositions in the preceding exercise:_
+
+
+(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they
+show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true
+for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the
+proposition?)
+
+
++73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes
+excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side
+of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and
+from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to
+the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in
+favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so
+sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability
+to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively,
+and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are
+true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an
+accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from
+practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of
+arguments.
+
+
++74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in
+the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as,
+"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be
+lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the
+affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the
+negative why it should not be lengthened.
+
+In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be
+definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that
+no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real
+arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is
+possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue
+fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with
+the meanings of terms.
+
+
++75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a
+purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which
+we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the
+desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance
+with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question,
+having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the
+selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition
+in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he
+did not really believe.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the
+affirmative or the negative?
+
+1. This city needs a new high school building.
+
+2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic
+   association.
+
+3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field.
+
+4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half
+   fare.
+
+5. There should be a lunch room in this school.
+
+6. Fairy stories should not be told to children.
+
+
++Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the
+propositions in the preceding exercise:_
+
+(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?)
+
+
++76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the
+propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind
+both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in
+which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the
+circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that
+is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to
+you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will
+occupy the central portion of your theme.
+
+
++77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages,
+examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of
+the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which
+you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is
+called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is
+made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the
+debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve
+to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to
+present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is
+composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:--
+
+Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics.
+
+                          _Affirmative_
+
+1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the
+    developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for--
+       _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do
+              and how to do it.
+       _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind.
+
+2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for--
+       _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided.
+       _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided.
+
+3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for--
+       _a._ The objects made are valuable.
+       _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value
+              in after life.
+
+4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for--
+       _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual
+              training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation
+              of something useful or beautiful.
+       _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in
+              workmanship cannot be concealed.
+       _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while
+              manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful.
+
+5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the
+    school; for--
+       _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the
+              maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual
+              training.
+
+
++78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not
+only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by
+our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is
+called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents
+is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to
+show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an
+exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the
+argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged.
+Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the
+argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken
+possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is
+of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related
+points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the
+refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument.
+
+From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by
+rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise
+of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen
+boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week
+as a debating club.
+
+
++Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the
+propositions in Section 75._
+
+
+(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they
+have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on
+the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the
+strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side,
+either omit them or make their discussion very brief.)
+
+
++79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument
+we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a
+few cautions will be helpful.
+
+1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as
+interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you
+to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the
+statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or
+not at all.
+
+2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be
+false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This
+does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition
+unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be
+real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that
+there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that
+seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth
+and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of
+the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition.
+
+3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth.
+Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in
+season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will
+Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time
+in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others.
+They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to
+doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything.
+
+4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe
+a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement
+must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes.
+
+5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to
+action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear,
+accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical
+arguments, is the first essential.
+
+
++Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the
+   high school.
+
+2. Novel reading is a waste of time.
+
+3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick.
+
+4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States.
+
+5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity.
+
+6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited.
+
+
+(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section
+79.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain.
+
+2. The forms of discourse are--
+      _a._ Description.
+      _b._ Narration.
+      _c._ Exposition.
+      _d._ Argument (Persuasion).
+
+3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use
+    language adapted to that audience.
+
+4. The suitableness of a subject is determined--
+      _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject.
+              (1) This may be based on experience, or
+              (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and
+                     reading.
+      _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject.
+              (1) This may exist from the first, or
+              (2) It may be aroused by our search for information.
+      _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of
+             present, vital interest to him.
+
+5. Subjects.
+      _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited.
+      _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in
+            order to be made definite.
+      _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse
+            a desire to hear the theme.
+
+6. Exposition is explanation.
+
+7. We may make clear the meaning of a term--
+      _a._ By using synonyms.
+      _b._ By using simpler words.
+      _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons.
+
+8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members
+     of a class of objects.
+
+9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that
+     characterize a process or action whenever it occurs.
+
+10. Argument.
+    _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument.
+    _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to
+           determine which side of a question we believe.
+    _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or
+           argument.
+
+11. Debate.
+    _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a
+           resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question.
+    _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last
+           positions.
+    _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most
+           effective order.
+    _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed
+           just before our own last and strongest argument.
+    _e._ Cautions in debating.
+            (1) Be fair.
+            (2) Be honest with yourself.
+            (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your
+                 desire for truth.
+            (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument.
+            (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument.
+
+
+
+
+V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION
+
+
++80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important
+principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and
+emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and
+used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of
+securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is
+the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially
+as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III,
+for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the
+same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs.
+
+
++81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears
+directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme
+determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that
+is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a
+theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a
+theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a
+broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the
+selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61);
+the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other
+material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen
+title.
+
+
++82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in
+such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the
+last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph
+than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence.
+Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward
+in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one.
+
+In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke
+his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have
+a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though
+each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks
+coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what
+happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of
+the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story
+clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of
+vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story.
+Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that
+will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they
+are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection
+of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place
+gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my
+story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the
+selection on page 106.
+
+
++83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic
+than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In
+debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments.
+In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed
+by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains
+in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones
+of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an
+otherwise good story.
+
+Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and
+space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any
+division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the
+total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote
+two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life
+would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount
+of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be
+taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its
+importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is
+of greatest worth.
+
+Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph.
+This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too
+short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about
+the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to
+make its meaning clear.
+
+Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance
+than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first
+three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient
+measure.
+
+
++84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity,
+coherence, and emphasis.
+
+1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity
+requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject.
+There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can
+be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will
+suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list
+all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less
+important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we
+have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme.
+
+Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the
+complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything
+be added?
+
+
+_My First Partridge_
+
+
+Where I lived ten years ago.
+Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels.
+Partridge drumming.
+My father went hunting often.
+How he was injured.
+Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities.
+Loading the gun.
+Going to the woods.
+Why partridge live near birch brush.
+Fall season.
+Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December.
+Tramping through the woods.
+Something moving.
+Creeping up.
+How I felt; excited; hand shook.
+Partridge on log.
+Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly.
+The shot; the recoil.
+The flurry of the bird.
+How partridges fly.
+How they taste when cooked.
+Getting the bird.
+Going home.
+Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields.
+What my sister said.
+My brother's interest.
+My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot.
+What mother did.
+
+
+2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we
+have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the
+unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent
+order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple
+narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our
+memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a
+series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These
+groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their
+actual time-order gives coherence to the composition.
+
+After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange
+the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make
+and what would you include in each?
+
+3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some
+outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first,
+in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a
+natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by
+the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give
+unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and
+the conclusion are short.
+
+
++Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in
+length._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. How I was saved from drowning.
+    2. The largest string of fish I ever caught.
+    3. An incident of the skating season.
+    4. What I did on Christmas day.
+    5. A Saturday with my grandmother.
+    6. To the city and back.
+
+
+(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and
+emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to
+unity, coherence, and emphasis.)
+
+
++85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+--
+Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first
+that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a
+composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each
+paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes
+steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is
+so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the
+paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order
+is usually indicated.
+
+Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is
+shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from
+a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:--
+
+
+1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a
+      summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down...
+
+2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting
+      nervous...
+
+3. The dusk deepens...
+
+4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low,
+      and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home...
+
+5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when
+      the first of the fleet heaves in sight...
+
+6. After that they arrive rapidly...
+
+7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_...
+
+8. Through the entire night they keep coming...
+
+9. Next morning...
+
+
++Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length,
+showing the time-order._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. The race up the river.
+    2. The life of some well-known man.
+    3. The cake that fell.
+    4. Retell some incident that you have recently read.
+    5. Relate some personal experience.
+    6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160.
+
+
+(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each
+paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of
+the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate
+the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?)
+
+
++86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+--
+A second method of development is to relate details with reference to
+their position in space.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by
+following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme
+coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position
+in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the
+whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph
+(Section 47).
+
+In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should
+contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The
+paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and
+coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass
+most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the
+images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may
+supplement time-order in giving coherence.
+
+If the most attractive features of an art room are its
+wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may
+be as follows:--
+
+    1. Point of view: general impression.
+    2. The north wall: general impression; details.
+    3. The east wall: general impression; details.
+    4. The south wall: general impression; details.
+    5. The west wall: general impression; details.
+
+
+It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following
+paragraphs would be appropriate:--
+
+        1. Point of view.
+        2. The fireplace.
+        3. The easy-chair.
+        4. The table.
+        5. The bookcase.
+        6. The cozy nook.
+
+
+Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be
+secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it.
+
+There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position
+of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of
+development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the
+location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details
+should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would
+serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions
+of the objects described.
+
+The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_
+rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched
+away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into
+foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle,
+lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San
+Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_
+the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown,
+_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple
+veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the
+foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado.
+
+--Stoddard: _California_.
+
+
++Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Some well-known building (exterior).
+    2. A prominent person.
+    3. An attractive room.
+    4. The interior of a church.
+
+(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion
+of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and
+emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.)
+
+
++87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time
+and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such
+expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at
+all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought
+between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the
+selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding
+paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by
+the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the
+transition from one paragraph to the next.
+
+_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object
+of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had
+consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months
+since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was
+worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made
+to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for
+while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really
+meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in
+the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought
+town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette,
+who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp
+dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were
+intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from
+the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at
+Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he
+would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display
+military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular
+intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he
+marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania
+militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did
+not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city,
+and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he
+could easily strike if any move was made by the British army.
+
+--Henry Cabot Lodge.
+
+
++88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to
+denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole
+paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs
+to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one
+general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other
+general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different
+point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of
+the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it
+may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general
+terms.
+
+
++89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our
+thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme.
+Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our
+paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in
+order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a
+similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence
+which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the
+paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57.
+
+
++90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third
+method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea
+which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it.
+We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are
+few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our
+comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs,
+and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method.
+
+In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual
+occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in
+outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to
+arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and
+emphasis.
+
+
++Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by
+comparison._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive,
+        defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.).
+    2. Show that the body resembles a machine.
+    3. In what way is the school like a factory?
+    4. How do two books that you have read differ?
+    5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different?
+    6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree?
+    7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other.
+    8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools
+        with those of private academies.
+
+
++91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+--
+Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition
+to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the
+demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this
+purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the
+proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each
+important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while
+several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same
+paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more
+important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions.
+
+Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the
+truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated
+in the last sentence.
+
+
+DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE
+
+
+While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet
+it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason
+animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would
+degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a
+quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism.
+
+The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through
+degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from
+the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The
+young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike
+creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the
+simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as
+a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a
+notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a
+backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal
+cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type.
+But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a
+little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or
+wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life
+fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it
+loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses
+its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with
+a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal.
+
+A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The
+barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps.
+The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming
+nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next
+larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two
+antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life.
+When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself
+to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound
+eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of
+locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it
+loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class.
+
+Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the
+family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration
+that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red
+orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other
+fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge,
+but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other
+organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin,
+circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the
+insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak,
+which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the
+"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap,
+which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under
+the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little
+larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from
+under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they
+settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast
+their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers.
+Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and
+laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no
+longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of
+eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt
+again and secrete the thin wax scale over them.
+
+Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by
+the loss of the power to move and of all structures related
+to it.
+
+--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_.
+
+
+Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is,
+of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a
+scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate
+degeneration through quiescence?
+
+Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to
+each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate
+generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these
+subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph
+which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other
+method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization
+followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be
+taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most
+closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by
+giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish.
+
+
++Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or
+proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Young persons should not drink coffee.
+    2. Reasons for the curfew bell.
+    3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways.
+    4. There are several kinds of boys in this school.
+    5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation
+        increase.
+    6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country.
+    7. Presence of mind often averts danger.
+
+
++92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The
+statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth
+method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that
+applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect
+(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be
+given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one
+paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or
+statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order
+is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that
+which traces events backward from effects to causes.
+
+
++Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and
+effects._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. Why hospitals are necessary.
+    2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous.
+    3. Why girls should take music lessons.
+    4. The effect of climate upon health.
+    5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a
+        country.
+    6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and
+        travel.
+    7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the
+        sea level, and why?
+    8. Why our city is located where it is.
+    9. Why I came late to school.
+
+
++93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation
+of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the
+methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often
+interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements
+need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all
+in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for
+cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which
+would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space.
+In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first
+_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do
+that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of
+the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and
+emphasis.
+
+
++Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of
+development or any combination of methods._
+
+(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all
+the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with
+reference to each point in your list of questions.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. General principles of composition.
+    _a._ Unity.
+    _b._ Coherence.
+    _c._ Emphasis.
+        (1) By position.
+        (2) By proportion of parts.
+
+2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed--
+    _a._ With reference to time-order.
+    _b._ With reference to position in space.
+    _c._ By use of comparison and contrast.
+    _d._ By stating generalization and facts.
+    _e._ By stating cause and effect.
+    _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods.
+
+4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions.
+
+
+
+VI. LETTER WRITING
+
+
++94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of
+written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form.
+The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business,
+personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We
+are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered
+businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be
+able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as
+regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means
+of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful
+friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in
+our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study.
+
+The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence
+to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing.
+Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of
+attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of
+the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often
+anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected
+either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or
+because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are
+the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and
+carefulness concerning them.
+
+
++95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our
+choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper,
+about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes
+of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately
+tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of
+highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure
+to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is
+customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for
+other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is
+preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used
+may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the
+reader.
+
+Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible.
+Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact,
+all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are
+added several others.
+
++96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the
+beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these
+forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter
+usually includes the heading, the address of the person or
+persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation.
+
+Notice the following examples:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              171 Miles Ave.,         |
+ |                                  Cleveland, Ohio.    |
+ |                                      Oct. 21, 1905.  |
+ |  Marshall Field & Co.,                               |
+ |      State St., Chicago, Ill.                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Gentlemen:                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    Ottawa, Ill.      |
+ |                                        Nov. 9, 1905. |
+ |   Dear Harold,                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                       1028 Jackson Boulevard,        |
+ |                                   Chicago Ill.       |
+ |                                       Nov. 10, 1905. |
+ |  Messrs. Johnson & Foote,                            |
+ |    120 Main St.,                                     |
+ |      Pittsfield, Mass.                               |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Sirs,                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                           120 P Street,              |
+ |                                 Lincoln, Neb.        |
+ |                                     Oct. 17, 1905.   |
+ |  My dear Mrs. Scott,                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                      Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Dear Mother,                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(6)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              33 Front St.,           |
+ |                                   Adrian, Mich.      |
+ |                                       Nov. 30, 1905. |
+ |  Miss Gertrude Brown,                                |
+ |    228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill.                    |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Dear Madam:                                         |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(7)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                               New Hartford, Conn.    |
+ |                                   Nov. 3, 1905.      |
+ |  My dear Henry,                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of
+the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the
+street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example
+(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother
+frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and
+number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to
+whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the
+letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number
+will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to
+make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the
+heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two
+lines is preferable.
+
+Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the
+right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in
+business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter,
+but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning.
+The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the
+page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first
+line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line.
+Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line.
+
+In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of
+the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it
+will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble
+both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not
+allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great
+importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop,
+we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great
+importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is
+better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05.
+
+In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or
+persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines
+may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than
+the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the
+address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below
+it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a
+little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the
+salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as
+in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7).
+
+The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing
+between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My
+dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters.
+The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My
+dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are
+acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of
+friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with
+each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary,
+Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_.
+
+There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The
+comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in
+connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of
+all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently
+in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business
+letters.
+
+
++97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part;
+in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It
+will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in
+order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a
+rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and
+either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not
+improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same
+line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the
+variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter.
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             1694 Cedar Ave.,         |
+ |                                  Cleveland, Ohio.    |
+ |                                      June 23, 1905.  |
+ | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co.,                          |
+ |   Aurora, Ill.                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00,      |
+ | etc.                                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Everett, Washington.     |
+ |                                     Oct. 20, 1905.   |
+ |   My dear Robert,                                    |
+ |      We are very glad that you have decided to make  |
+ | us a visit, etc.                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Greenwich, N.Y.          |
+ |                                    Sept. 19, 1905.   |
+ |  My dear Miss Russ,                                  |
+ |      Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                           2 University Ave.,         |
+ |                                Nashville, Tenn.      |
+ |                                    April 19, 1905.   |
+ |  The American Book Company,                          |
+ |    300 Pike St.,                                     |
+ |      Cinncinnati, O.                                 |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies  |
+ |  of Halleck's English Literature, etc.               |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
++98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is
+termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been
+agreed upon, which should be closely followed.
+
+Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends
+upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing.
+Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your
+affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist
+between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so
+intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours,
+Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in
+business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms
+_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only
+when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person
+of high rank or position.
+
+The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of
+the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page.
+Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be
+placed at its close.
+
+The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the
+complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name
+should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of
+unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore
+important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made
+plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in
+their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as
+_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or
+_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address
+below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid
+confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials.
+
+Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                            Appleton, Wisconsin.      |
+ |                                     Sept. 3, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  My dear Cousin,                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              Yours with love,        |
+ |                                   Gertrude Edmonds.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                            192 Lincoln Ave.,         |
+ |                                Worcester, Mass.      |
+ |                                     Nov. 25, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   L.B. Bliss & Co.,                                  |
+ |        109 Summer St.,                               |
+ |             Boston, Mass.                            |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs;                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                   (Body of letter.)                  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Very truly yours,        |
+ |                                 Walter A. Cutler.    |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                               Paxton, Ill.           |
+ |                                   July 3, 1905.      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   American Typewriter Co.,                           |
+ |       263 Broadway, New York.                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |     Gentlemen:                                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                   (Body of letter.)                  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                          Very truly yours,           |
+ |                         (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    May 5, 1905.      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Daniel Low & Co.,                                   |
+ |      232 Essex St., Salem, Mass.                     |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Dear Sirs;                                        |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                    Mary E. Ball      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mrs. George W. Ball,                              |
+ |             415 Fourth St.,                          |
+ |                     La Salle, Ill.                   |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Marshalltown, Iowa.      |
+ |                                     Oct. 3, 1905.    |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   My dear Miss Meyer,                                |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                  (Body of letter.)                   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                              Sincerely yours,        |
+ |                                  Dorothy Doddridge.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and
+signatures for the following letters:--
+
+1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules
+    for basket ball.
+
+2. To your older brother.
+
+3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium.
+
+4. To some business house, making application for a position.
+
+5. To the governor of your state.
+
+6. From one stranger to another.
+
+7. From an older brother to his little sister.
+
+8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate
+    friend.
+
+
++99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the
+superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons
+to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful
+and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure
+the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination.
+
+The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line
+beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be
+written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope,
+and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If
+there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at
+the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the
+city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly
+written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any
+special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the
+letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown."
+
+Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is
+married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used,
+unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men
+should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as
+_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc.,
+in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be
+entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as
+_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._
+
+The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that
+these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other
+similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West
+Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the
+other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation
+besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma
+after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either
+form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be
+employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be
+used in one line and omitted in another.
+
+Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:--
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Mr. Milo R. Maltbie
+ |                   85 West 118th St.
+ |                             New York.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Mr. John D. Clark
+ |                          New York
+ |                             N.Y.
+ |
+ |  Teachers College
+ |    Columbia University.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Mrs. Edgar N. Foster
+ |                      South Haven
+ |                              Mich.
+ |
+ | Avery Beach Hotel.
+ | ______________________________________________________
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Miss Louise M. Baker
+ |                        Nottingham
+ |                                Ohio.
+ |
+ |   Box 129.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |            Dr. James M. Postle
+ |                           De Kalb
+ |                                 Ill.
+ |
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+(6)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |
+ |             Miss Ida Morrison
+ |                          Chicago
+ |                                Ill.
+ |
+ |
+ | 1048 Warren Ave.
+ |______________________________________________________
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:--
+
+1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska.
+
+2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance.
+
+3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
+    Michigan.
+
+4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend.
+
+5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill.
+
+6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York.
+
+7. To a friend at a seaside resort.
+
+8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California.
+
+
++100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing
+is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print
+over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous
+and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which
+you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years.
+Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a
+use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter,
+"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter
+yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask
+yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me
+credit if it should be published?"
+
+
++101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to
+inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In
+asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that
+there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the
+information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to
+state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake.
+
+Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men
+are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish
+to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the
+desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only
+pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but
+nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we
+should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to
+appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit
+important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations.
+
+We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer,
+besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the
+letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any.
+All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be
+arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it
+is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but
+in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and
+concisely if we follow some other order.
+
+What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing
+might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics
+concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already
+suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write
+only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be
+businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters.
+
+A few examples are here given for your notice:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                             Ypsilanti, Mich.         |
+ |                                     April 4, 1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Mr. William Wylie,                                  |
+ |     807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill.                       |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Mr. Wylie;                                    |
+ |    Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers   |
+ |  of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of        |
+ |  mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so     |
+ |  much as you now receive, but in many respects the   |
+ |  position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply  |
+ |  for it.                                             |
+ |                          Sincerely yours,            |
+ |                                Charles M. Gates.     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                      586 State St.,                  |
+ |                               Chicago, Ill.          |
+ |                                      July 20,1905.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |  Mrs. Charles H. McNett,                             |
+ |         2345 Franklin St.,                           |
+ |               Denver, Colorado.                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We  |
+ |  beg to say that we sent you the books by express,   |
+ |  prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached   |
+ |  you by this time. If you have not received them,    |
+ |  please notify us, and we will send a tracer after   |
+ |  them.                                               |
+ |                          Very truly yours,           |
+ |                                 Brown and Sherman.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |                         Elgin High School,           |
+ |                               Elgin, Ill.            |
+ |                                      Sept. 4, 1905.  |
+ |                                                      |
+ |                                                      |
+ | Miss Ella B. Walker,                                 |
+ |       Herkimer, New York.                            |
+ |                                                      |
+ |   My dear Miss Walker:                               |
+ |           I am very sorry to have to trouble you,    |
+ | but I am desirous of obtaining some information      |
+ | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly  |
+ | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up   |
+ | to date prior to your departure and also whether the |
+ | accession book was in use up to that time?           |
+ |   I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will     |
+ | give me this information.                            |
+ |                          Very sincerely yours,       |
+ |                                   Edward J. Taylor.  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention
+to the rules for writing business letters:--
+
+1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their
+    catalogues.
+
+2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours,
+    proposing a game.
+
+3. Write the reply.
+
+4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of
+    clerk or bookkeeper.
+
+5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your
+    address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue,
+    Beatrice, Nebraska.
+
+6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to
+    the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit.
+
+
++102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be
+obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters
+is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice
+that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that
+found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives
+pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but
+visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as
+enjoyable as possible.
+
+So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of
+letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite
+statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they
+should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should
+be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a
+requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining
+letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and
+lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your
+letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and
+explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who
+read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling
+    him of the school of which he was once a member.
+
+2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St.
+    Louis.
+
+3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother
+    or sister at home.
+
+4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of
+    interest that you have visited.
+
+5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping
+    experience.
+
+6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the
+    home life.
+
+7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended.
+
+8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare
+    the two towns.
+
+
++103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is,
+Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of
+yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most
+interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity
+of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement
+of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends
+we must include many very minor things, because we know that our
+correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed
+jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What
+we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the
+successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have
+mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that
+sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we
+were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt
+and sincere.
+
+In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good
+friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was
+misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that
+which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the
+smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid
+all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or
+fault-finding to the most sensitive.
+
+
++104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes,
+formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies,
+requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations
+and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on
+almost every possible subject.
+
+
++105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third
+person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged
+that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a
+somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary
+close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be
+written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left,
+and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it
+directly below or a little to the right.
+
+Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third
+person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date
+and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this
+reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation.
+
+A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both
+invitations and replies:--
+
+
+(1)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |       Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson        |
+ |        request the pleasure of your company          |
+ |        on Monday evening, December thirtieth,        |
+ |             at half-past eight o'clock.              |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(2)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |      Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and      |
+ |    Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening,    |
+ |    December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock.   |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(3)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement     |
+ |   prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's     |
+ |   kind invitation for Monday evening, December       |
+ |   the thirtieth.                                     |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the        |
+ |    pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner   |
+ |    on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock.   |
+ |                                                      |
+ |    1068 Euclid Ave.                                  |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+(5)
+  ______________________________________________________
+ |                                                      |
+ |    Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept        |
+ |    Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to    |
+ |    dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December      |
+ |    sixth.                                            |
+ |                                                      |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding.
+
+2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week
+    Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation.
+
+3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation.
+
+4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation.
+
+5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your
+    guest, Miss Grace Mason.
+
+
++106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the
+same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference
+is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in
+form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading
+is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is
+omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the
+date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the
+signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal,
+but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal
+invitations.
+
+A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are
+constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the
+purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write
+congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to
+another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of
+advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They
+should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject.
+
+Notice the following examples of informal notes:--
+
+
+(1)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ | My dear Mrs. Lathrop,                                           |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |             Will you not give us the pleasure of your company   |
+ | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd   |
+ | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet |
+ | her.                                                            |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                       Very sincerely yours,                     |
+ |                                     Ethel M. Trainor.           |
+ | 840 Forest Avenue,                                              |
+ | Dec. 5, 1905.                                                   |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(2)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                                          Dec. 6, 1905.          |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |   My dear Mrs. Trainor,                                         |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |       I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation   |
+ |   to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous     |
+ |   engagement which it will be impossible for me to break.       |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |                   Yours most sincerely,                         |
+ |                              Emma Lathrop.                      |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(3)
+  _________________________________________________________________
+ |                                                                 |
+ |   My dear Blanche,                                              |
+ |                                                                 |
+ |          Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party      |
+ | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other         |
+ | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have     |
+ | you with us.                                                    |
+ |                      Very cordially yours,                      |
+ |                                 Margaret Gilmore.               |
+ |                                                                 |
+
+
+(4)
+  ______________________________________________________________
+ |                                                              |
+ | My dear Margaret,                                            |
+ |                                                              |
+ |             Fortunately I have no other engagement for this  |
+ | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an  |
+ | evening with you and your friends.                           |
+ |                                                              |
+ |                      Very sincerely yours,                   |
+ |                                   Blanche A. Church.         |
+ |                                                              |
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write the following informal notes:--
+
+1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book.
+
+2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party.
+
+3. Write the reply.
+
+4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you.
+
+5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you
+    left at home this morning.
+
+6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write
+    out the invitation.
+
+7. Write the acceptance.
+
+
+
+
+VII.  POETRY
+
+[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical
+form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it
+has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter.
+The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to
+which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation
+of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils
+attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or
+more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example,
+one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar
+ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.]
+
++107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to
+furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform
+and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the
+other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set
+forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In
+poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always
+aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real
+poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense;
+that is, to our love of the beautiful.
+
+In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both
+upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it
+may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective
+arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain
+devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may
+occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of
+poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere
+nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not
+the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The
+merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but
+there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us
+because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of
+the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable
+from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase
+into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless
+and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a
+work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic
+sense.
+
++108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the
+use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm
+is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its
+widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses,
+sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry
+consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular
+succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of
+a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular
+recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which
+appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of
+poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:--
+
+
+1.
+
+We were crowded in the cabin;
+  Not a soul would dare to speak;
+It was midnight on the waters
+  And a storm was on the deep.
+
+--James T. Fields.
+
+
+2.
+
+Break, break, break,
+  At the foot of thy crags, O sea!
+But the tender grace of a day that is dead
+  Will never come back to me.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+3.
+
+Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December,
+  And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor
+
+--Poe.
+
+
+4.
+
+Sweet and low, sweet and low,
+  Wind of the western sea,
+Low, low, breathe and blow,
+  Wind of the western sea!
+
+Over the rolling waters go,
+  Come from the dying moon and blow,
+Blow him again to me;
+  While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+5.
+
+Stone walls do not a prison make,
+  Nor iron bars a cage;
+Minds innocent and quiet take
+  That for a hermitage.
+
+--Lovelace.
+
+
+6.
+
+Merrily swinging on brier and weed,
+  Near to the nest of his little dame,
+Over the mountain side or mead,
+  Robert of Lincoln is telling his name:
+Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link,
+  Spink, spank, spink,
+Snug and safe is this nest of ours,
+  Hidden among the summer flowers.
+                  Chee, chee, chee.
+
+--Bryant.
+
+
+7.
+
+Grow old along with me!
+  The best is yet to be,
+The last of life, for which the first was made:
+  Our times are in His hand
+Who saith, "A whole I planned,
+  Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!"
+
+--Browning.
+
+
++109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced
+by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of
+accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular
+feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the
+dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach,
+are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often
+considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of
+convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the
+unaccented syllables thus: U.
+
+_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the
+last.
+
+
+ U   _| U  _| U    _|   U     _| U   _|
+Let not ambition mock their useful toil.
+
+--Gray.
+
+
+U     _|U     _| U     _|U    _|
+He prayeth best who loveth best
+
+   U       _| U       _| U      _|
+  All things both great and small;
+
+ _   U | U     _| U    _|U   _|
+For the dear God who loveth us,
+
+   U    _| U     _|U   _|
+  He made and loveth all.
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on
+the last.
+
+
+U  U  _| U    U   _|U  U   _|
+I am monarch of all I survey.
+U   U    _  | U    U    _   | U  U    _  |
+I would hide with the beasts of the chase.
+
+
+_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the
+first.
+
+
+ _  U  | _  U  | _    U | _    U|
+Double, double, toil and trouble.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+ _  U | _   U |_  U  |_  U |
+Let us then be up and doing,
+ _   U| _    U | _U | _  |
+With a heart for any fate,
+ _    U |_  U  | _     U|_   U |
+Still achieving, still pursuing,
+ _    U | _ U |_   U | _  |
+Learn to labor and to wait.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the
+first.
+
+
+_   U  U | _    U   U  |
+Cannon to right of them,
+_   U  U | _   U   U  |
+Cannon to left of them,
+_   U  U | _    U   U  |
+Cannon in front of them,
+_   U    U  |_    U   |
+Volleyed and thundered.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the
+anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee
+and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable.
+
+
+_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are
+accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry.
+
+
+  U   _  | _    _   |  U    _|  U  _  |
+Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er.
+
+
+_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are
+unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line.
+
+
+             U  _ | U  _  | U  _|U U
+           Life is so full of misery.
+
+
+_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with
+the accent on the second.
+
+
+           U _  U    U  _   U|  U  _  U| U    _  |
+           Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend.
+
+
++110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A
+stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot,
+it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a
+trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of
+six feet, a hexameter.
+
+               _  U
+Monometer.   Slowly.
+
+
+          _   U   U| _  U  U |
+Dimeter.  Emblem of happiness.
+
+
+            _   U| _U| _   U |
+Trimeter.  Like a poet hidden.
+
+
+              _    U| _   U|  _  U  | _  U  |
+Tetrameter.  Tell me not in mournful numbers.
+
+
+             U   _  |U  _ |U   _| U    _ | U     _  |
+Pentameter.  O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath.
+
+
+             _    U  U | _ U   U | _ U    U | _  U  U | _    U
+Hexameter.  This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and
+                U |  _  U  |
+               the hemlocks.
+
+
+When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that
+every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by
+stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number
+of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic
+tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic
+trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following
+selections, and name the kind of verse:--
+
+1.
+
+Build me straight, O worthy Master!
+  Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel
+That shall laugh at all disaster
+  And with wave and whirlwind wrestle.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+2.
+
+I know not where His islands lift
+  Their fronded palms in air,
+I only know I cannot drift
+  Beyond His love and care.
+
+--Whittier.
+
+
+3.
+
+For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place
+  The flood may bear me far,
+I hope to see my Pilot face to face
+  When I have crossed the bar.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+4.
+
+Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the
+  garner;
+Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the
+  foremost,
+Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father
+  bequeathed him,
+Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for
+  mortals.
+
+--Kingsley.
+
+
+5.
+
+Have you read in the Talmud of old,
+In the Legends the Rabbins have told,
+  Of the limitless realms of the air,
+Have you read it,--the marvelous story
+Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory,
+  Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer?
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in
+trochaic verse.
+
+2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse.
+
+3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find
+in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade."
+
+4. Write two anapestic lines.
+
+
++111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by
+the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the
+same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth
+notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is
+given the same amount of time.
+
+Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular,
+although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line
+for a two-syllable iambus:--
+
+
+ U _  |   U   _  | U _  |   U    _ |  U     _   |
+Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade,
+  U    _   |  U   _  | U _| U U _ |  U    _  |
+Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap,
+ _   U | U   _ | U  _  | U  _ |U  _ |
+Each in his narrow cell for ever laid,
+ U  _  |  U   _ | U  _ | U  _  | U  _ |
+The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep.
+
+
+The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees
+for dactyls:--
+
+
+ _     U    U  |  _  U  |  _     U   U | _  U   U | _ U U | _ U |
+Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed.
+
+ _   U     U  | _    U |   _     U    U | _  U | _     U  U|_  U
+Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October
+
+ _     U    U | _     U   U |_    U |   _  U   U  | _  U     U |_  U |
+Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean.
+
+ _      U   U | _ U   U | _  U   U | _   U U | _  U   U |  _   U
+Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre.
+
+
+It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent
+is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the
+last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are
+both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged.
+
+There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one
+foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of
+the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a
+trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an
+accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is
+scarcely noticeable.
+
+
+_ U | U   _  | U  _  |U  _ |
+Over the rail my hand I trail.
+
+_  U  | U   _ |   U   _    | U   _ |
+Silent the crumbling bridge we cross!
+
+
+But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the
+substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place,
+interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring
+effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the
+verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis
+thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in
+the rhythm produced by the change of accent.
+
+Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or
+too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line,
+but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted
+skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken.
+
+When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse
+is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a
+line.
+
+
+U  _   |U   U    _   |U   _ | U
+I stood on the bridge at midnight,
+
+   U  U    _   |  U    _  |U   U   _  |
+  As the clocks were striking the hour;
+
+ U   U    _ |  U   _  | U   _|U
+And the Moon rose o'er the city,
+
+  U   _ | U   _  |  U      _  |
+  Behind the dark church tower.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+ U     _  | U    _ |U   _ |          U   _ |  U    _  | U    _  |
+Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies,
+
+ U  _ |  U    _  | U  _  |      U    _  | U   _  |U   _  |
+In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies;
+
+ U    _ | U   _  |  U    _  |       U     _ |U _ | U   _  |
+And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow,
+
+ U    _ | U  _  | U   _ |       U   _| U    _  | U  _|
+You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below.
+
+--Adelaide A. Procter.
+
+
+In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative
+position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be
+in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the
+rhythm unbroken.
+
+When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or
+dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the
+second and fourth below.
+
+
+_   U   U |  _   U  U |  _     U    U| _   U |
+Up with the lark in the first flush of morning,
+
+   _   U    U  | _    U   U |  _   U  U |  _ |
+  Ere the world wakes to its work or its play;
+
+ _   U  U|  _   U  U | _     U   U    | _  U |
+Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country,
+
+   _   U    U |  _      U  U  | _ U U|_ |
+  Far from the close, stifling city away.
+
+
+Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the
+rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by
+suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with
+a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed
+elision, and the latter, slurring.
+
+
+ U     _ | U    _ |U  _   | U     _  | U   _ |
+Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form
+          U                   U
+
+ _   U |U    _| U  _ |  U
+Glasses itself in tempests.
+
+--Byron.
+
+
+An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs
+most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the
+beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or
+rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken.
+
+
+u  _ | u  _ | u _  |
+ Break, break, break,
+
+  U  U   _  | U    _    | U  _ |
+ On thy cold gray stones, O sea!
+
+  U  U   _  | U    U   _   | U    _|U
+ And I would that my tongue could utter
+
+  U     _    | U   U _  |U   _|
+ The thoughts that arise in me.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of
+the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added.
+Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said
+to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of
+syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable,
+it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the
+required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by
+comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are
+enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius
+Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect
+the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines.
+
+
+ U   _|  U   _ | U   _|  U  _| U _ |
+You all did see that on the Lupercal
+
+U   _   | U  _|  U  _ |U  _| U   _|
+I thrice presented him a kingly crown
+
+ U     _| U    _   |U  _  |  U   _  | U  _| U
+Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition?
+
+ U   _| U   _ |  U  _ | U _ | U
+Yet Brutus says he was ambitious.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
++112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is
+the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura
+is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the
+sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely
+lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In
+the following selection it is marked thus: ||.
+
+
+ U   _ |  U   _ |   U _| U   _  |
+The sun came up || upon the left,
+
+   _   U| U   _  |    U  _ |
+  Out of the sea || came he;
+
+ U   _|   U    _     |   U  _|  U   _|
+And he shone bright, || and on the right
+
+    U   _   |   U_ | U   _ |
+  Went down || into the sea
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+Lives of great men || all remind us
+  We can make our lives || sublime,
+And, departing, || leave behind us,
+  Footprints || on the sands of time.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the
+cesural pauses.
+
+
++113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which
+compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic
+movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables.
+Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually
+the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and
+elusions.
+
+
+1.
+
+The night has a thousand eyes,
+  And the day but one;
+Yet the light of the bright world dies
+  With the dying sun.
+The mind has a thousand eyes,
+  And the heart but one;
+Yet the light of a whole life dies
+  When love is gone.
+
+--Francis W. Bourdillon.
+
+
+2.
+
+Laugh, and the world laughs with you,
+Weep, and you weep alone;
+For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth,
+But has trouble enough of its own.
+
+--Ella Wheeler Wilcox.
+
+
+3.
+
+Hear the robin in the rain,
+Not a note does he complain.
+But he fills the storm refrain
+With music of his own.
+
+--Charles Coke Woode.
+
+
+4.
+
+The mistletoe hung in the castle hall,
+The holly branch shone on the old back wall
+And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay,
+And keeping their Christmas holiday.
+
+--Thomas Haynes Bagley.
+
+
++114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad
+sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it
+refers to terminal sounds.
+
+Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a
+recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The
+interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different
+poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed
+throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic
+perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the
+rhythm of the verse.
+
+Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be
+the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word
+which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a
+rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The
+rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on
+sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the
+final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be
+different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young;
+debating, relating_.
+
+Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:--
+
+
+1.
+
+My soul to-day is far away,
+Sailing the Vesuvian Bay;
+My winged boat, a bird afloat,
+Swims round the purple peaks remote.
+
+--T. Buchanan Read.
+
+
+2.
+
+I come from haunts of coot and hern,
+  I make a sudden sally,
+And sparkle out among the fern,
+  To bicker down the valley.
+
+By thirty hills I hurry down,
+  Or slip between the ridges,
+By twenty thorps, a little town,
+  And half a hundred bridges.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+3.
+
+I know it is a sin
+For me to sit and grin
+  At him here;
+But the old three-cornered hat
+And the breeches, and all that,
+  Are so queer!
+
+--Holmes.
+
+
+4.
+
+  The splendor falls on castle walls
+    And snowy summits old in story;
+  The long light shakes across the lakes
+    And the wild cataract leaps in glory.
+Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying;
+Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+5.
+
+Breathes there a man with soul so dead
+Who never to himself hath said,
+  This is my own, my native land!
+Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned
+As home his footsteps he hath turned
+  From wandering in a foreign strand!
+If such there be, go mark him well:
+For him no minstrel raptures swell;
+High though his titles, proud his name,
+Boundless his wealth as wish can claim:
+Despite those titles, power, and pelf,
+The wretch concentered all in self,
+Living, shall forfeit fair renown
+And, doubly dying, shall go down
+To the vile dust from whence he sprung,
+Unwept, unhonored, and unsung.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
++115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is
+the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate
+for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse
+makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions.
+Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:--
+
+
+1.
+
+  So live, that when thy summons comes to join
+The innumerable caravan that moves
+To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take
+His chamber in the silent halls of death,
+Thou go not like the quarry slave at night
+Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed
+By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave
+Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch
+About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.
+
+--Bryant.
+
+
+2.
+
+           I stood upon the steps--
+The last who left the door--and there I found
+The lady and her friend. The elder turned
+And with a cordial greeting took my hand,
+And rallied me on my forgetfulness.
+Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice.
+Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke
+Her name. She was my mother's early friend
+Whose face I had not seen in all the years
+That had flown over us, since, from her door,
+I chased her lamb to where I found--myself.
+
+--Holland.
+
+
++116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into
+groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound
+together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of
+the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show
+a variety of structure.
+
+Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often
+form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in
+divided poems.
+
+
+1.
+
+The western waves of ebbing day
+Roll'd o'er the glen their level way.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
+2.
+
+A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid;
+Her satin snood, her silken plaid,
+Her golden brooch such birth betray'd.
+
+--Scott.
+
+
+A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a
+variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme
+with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may
+rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the
+example on page 208, and also the following:--
+
+
+1.
+
+I ask not wealth, but power to take
+  And use the things I have aright.
+Not years, but wisdom that shall make
+  My life a profit and delight.
+
+--Phoebe Cary.
+
+
+2.
+
+I count this thing to be grandly true:
+  That a noble deed is a step toward God,--
+  Lifting the soul from the common sod
+To a purer air and a broader view.
+
+--Holland.
+
+
+A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is
+called an elegiac stanza.
+
+
+Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight,
+  And all the air a solemn stillness holds,
+Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight,
+  And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds.
+
+--Gray.
+
+
+The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which
+the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third.
+
+
+Let knowledge grow from more to more,
+  But more of reverence in us dwell;
+  That mind and soul, according well,
+May make one music as before.
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are
+examples:--
+
+
+1.
+
+We look before and after,
+  And pine for what is not;
+Our sincerest laughter
+  With some pain is fraught;
+Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought.
+
+--Shelley.
+
+
+2.
+
+And if I should live to be
+The last leaf upon the tree
+  In the spring.
+Let them smile as I do now,
+At the old forsaken bough
+  Where I cling.
+
+--Holmes.
+
+
+3.
+
+The upper air burst into life;
+And a hundred fire flags sheen,
+To and fro they were hurried about;
+And to and fro, and in and out,
+The wan stars danced between.
+
+--Coleridge.
+
+
+The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic
+pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine.
+Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The
+following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:--
+
+
+O Scotia! my dear, my native soil!
+  For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent!
+Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil
+  Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content!
+  And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent
+From luxury's contagion, weak and vile!
+  Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent,
+A virtuous populace may rise the while,
+And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+_A._ Scan the following:--
+
+
+Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting:
+The soul that rises with us, our life's star,
+  Hath had elsewhere its setting,
+    And cometh from afar:
+  Not in entire forgetfulness,
+  And not in utter nakedness,
+But trailing clouds of glory do we come
+    From God, who is our home.
+
+--Wordsworth.
+
+
+Into the sunshine,
+  Full of light,
+Leaping and flashing
+  From morn to night!
+
+--Lowell.
+
+
+_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:--
+
+
+  Hear the sledges with the bells--
+          Silver bells!
+What a world of merriment their melody foretells!
+  How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,
+  In the icy air of night!
+While the stars that oversprinkle
+  All the heavens seem to twinkle
+    With a crystalline delight--
+  Keeping time, time, time,
+  In a sort of Runic rhyme
+To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells
+  From the bells, bells, bells, bells,
+    Bells, bells, bells--
+From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells.
+
+--Poe.
+
+
++117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry:
+narrative, lyric, and dramatic.
+
+_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events
+which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic,
+the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad.
+
+_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that
+deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural
+control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by
+the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects,
+by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is
+considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so
+difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than
+one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German
+_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's
+_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures.
+
+A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less
+dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_
+and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry.
+
+_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than
+the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's
+_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision
+of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale.
+
+_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It
+relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this
+kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any
+beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well
+known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the
+Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here
+that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two
+different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a
+difference of opinion as regards the classification.
+
+_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be
+sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied
+to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals
+primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief,
+hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its
+chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet.
+
+A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into
+sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are
+examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or
+sentimental.
+
+An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than
+the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St.
+Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode
+on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's
+_Commemoration Ode_.
+
+An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy.
+Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a
+Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies.
+
+A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single
+idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete
+poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the
+emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its
+climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through
+the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment
+expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable
+for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice
+the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet
+will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:--
+
+
+When I consider how my light is spent
+Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide,
+And that one talent, which is death to hide,
+Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent
+To serve therewith my Maker, and present
+My true account, lest he, returning, chide;
+Doth God exact day labor, light denied?
+I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent
+That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need,
+Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best
+Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state
+Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed,
+And post o'er land and ocean without rest;
+They also serve who only stand and wait.
+
+
+There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its
+arrangement from the Italian sonnet.
+
+_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is
+designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it
+is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified
+and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama
+has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker,
+the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and
+amusing.
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+
+Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an
+elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in
+Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things
+which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms
+of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the
+index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be
+found.
+
+
+[Illustration: See page 224, _C._]
+
+
+
+VIII. DESCRIPTION
+
+
++118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of
+the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired
+are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking
+would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that
+we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such
+writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as
+that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an
+image.
+
+As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the
+senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is
+formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this
+kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently
+concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and
+seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this
+chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using
+language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen.
+
+
++119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage
+to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way
+as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary
+and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that
+same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need
+in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of
+observation is.
+
+Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of
+size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you
+add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further
+observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window
+panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us
+that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will
+show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or
+the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we
+become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see
+the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the
+details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see
+the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we
+add detail after detail.
+
+Following this natural order of observation a description should begin
+with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the
+whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading
+the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you
+to form.
+
+
+The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment
+with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all
+beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were
+all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox,
+and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer
+and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which
+Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a
+huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and
+grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room,
+smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur.
+
+--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.
+
+
+_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning,
+brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown
+hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set
+close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting
+cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn
+visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old
+muzzle-loading shotgun.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
++120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a
+whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description
+should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will
+include the main characteristics of the object described. While the
+fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such
+that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should
+begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large
+two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would
+form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the
+house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the
+porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture
+until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would
+be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the
+description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its
+neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but
+was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he
+had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the
+word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care
+must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in
+the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are
+describing.
+
+Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:--
+
+
+Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty
+wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various
+points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The
+street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm
+tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every
+town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits
+to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for
+the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the
+great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice.
+
+
+Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its
+completion as follows:--
+
+
+Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it,
+was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to
+church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice,
+which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind.
+There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in
+pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint
+figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or
+stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of
+glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side
+the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect
+of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one
+great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes,
+admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the
+second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath
+the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms.
+Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little
+spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular
+portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up
+that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of
+the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so
+bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken
+halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which
+the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of
+strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make
+among men's daily interests.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental
+image in each of the following selections:--
+
+1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies,
+frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and
+staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two
+cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on
+opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other,
+their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that
+they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm
+dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also
+were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the
+deer by coats of black paint and shellac.
+
+--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an
+old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or
+almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his
+forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the
+room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive
+that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly,
+and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor,
+had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his
+physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait.
+It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his
+countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it--
+seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to
+recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among
+half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a
+positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain
+impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory
+splendor, or be at once extinguished.
+
+--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.
+
+
+3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the
+kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black,
+with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look
+very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers
+of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the
+books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by
+the dark feathers.
+
+--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.
+(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.)
+
+
+Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image
+in example 3.
+
+_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are
+familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image.
+Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building
+each is written.
+
+_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each,
+giving the fundamental image.
+
+
++Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are
+familiar._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+    1. The county court house.
+    2. The new church.
+    3. My neighbor's house.
+    4. Where we go fishing.
+    5. A neighboring lake.
+    6. A cozy nook.
+
+
+(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the
+reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to
+be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your
+description proceeds?)
+
+
++121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of
+view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a
+different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from
+another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that
+would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene
+described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include
+details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that
+they exist.
+
+Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen
+from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:--
+
+
+_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and
+irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked
+together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread
+below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of
+drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of
+flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the
+voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell
+him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the
+open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it,
+while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them;
+and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over
+the devoted places.
+
+Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.
+(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.)
+
+
+The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing
+four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of
+steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a
+child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their
+compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers;
+farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of
+the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest.
+
+--Cable: _Old Creole Days_.
+
+
++122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer
+will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the
+leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer
+effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen
+point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection
+below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen
+at a distance of six miles.
+
+
+So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or
+southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately
+overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of
+some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and
+irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of
+these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a
+procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention.
+
+"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a
+little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops
+of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is
+Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living."
+
+--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.
+(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so
+small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given,
+when we are asked to observe things far away.
+
+
+Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end
+of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._
+They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber
+cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and
+luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds,
+pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the
+scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at
+hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement,
+the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the
+scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees.
+Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little
+glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course
+the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing.
+
+--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town
+of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green,
+and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A
+closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be
+squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in
+the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with
+mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel
+in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs
+will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in
+the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village
+glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes.
+
+--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_
+("Harper's").
+
+
+  Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful
+And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low!
+The crows and choughs that wing the midway air
+Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down
+Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade!
+Methinks he seems no bigger than his head.
+The fishermen that walk upon the beach
+Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark
+Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy
+Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge
+That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes,
+Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more,
+Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight
+Topple down headlong.
+
+--Shakespear: _King Lear_
+
+
++123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically
+stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is
+located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a
+description that could not be obtained by direct statements.
+
+In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied?
+
+
+1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill
+with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river
+flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the
+trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so
+bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the
+sight, for it reminded him of his own country.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's
+Sons.)
+
+
+2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little
+rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken
+down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished
+making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one
+end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand
+beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the
+rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a
+castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top
+of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks
+themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great,
+smooth diamonds. This is Light Island.
+
+--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.
+
+
++124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house
+from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each
+side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is
+immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely
+implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one
+to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from
+that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to
+think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would
+be defective.
+
+Notice the changing point of view in the following:--
+
+
+At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence
+in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull,
+snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your
+boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze,
+you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few
+bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming
+speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the
+coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you
+floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate
+hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain
+isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of
+wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two
+miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on
+the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a
+sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a
+solitary lighthouse.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_.
+(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
++125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be
+expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader
+must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners
+will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired
+images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it
+must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned
+that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image.
+For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes
+both the point of view and the fundamental image.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to--
+    (_a_) The point of view.
+    (_b_) The fundamental image.
+    (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see
+            Sections 26, 27).
+
+
+1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line
+almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated
+in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the
+country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a
+shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our
+eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow.
+Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain;
+an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than
+color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the
+pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep
+in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of
+man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on
+the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of
+fancy could almost hear it buzzing.
+
+--Stevenson: _St. Ives_.
+(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed
+him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by
+the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of
+Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus
+once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space
+that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now
+than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being
+forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated
+them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps
+of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in
+time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain,
+effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing
+inequalities of nature.
+
+--Madame De Stael: _Corinne: Italy_.
+
+
+_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether
+each has a point of view expressed or implied:--
+
+  Cooper: Last of the Mohicans.
+  Scott: Ivanhoe.
+  Scott: Lady of the Lake.
+  Irving: Sketch Book.
+  Burroughs: Wake Robin.
+  Van Dyke: The Blue Flower.
+  Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham.
+  Muir: Our National Parks.
+  Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm.
+
+
++Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of
+view and a fundamental image._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The crossroads inn.
+  2. A historical building.
+  3. The shoe factory.
+  4. The gristmill.
+  5. The largest store in town.
+  6. The union station.
+
+
+(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can
+you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the
+reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description
+enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?)
+
+
++126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only
+must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to
+reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description
+while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do
+the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly
+always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe
+we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is
+evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must
+stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our
+description accurate.
+
+The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our
+ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the
+province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall
+strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies,
+particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing
+powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been
+suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort
+in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down
+as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and
+determine what you have left out.
+
+2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of
+the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important
+ones you have omitted.
+
+3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay
+this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene
+as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your
+picture?
+
+4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with
+which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first
+opportunity notice how accurate your list is.
+
+5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the
+wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see
+at first? What colors?
+
+6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you
+go home notice what you have omitted.
+
+7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more
+persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the
+window contains. Compare lists with one another.
+
+
++Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._
+
+(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view
+and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to
+write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the
+sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will
+enable the reader to form an accurate image.)
+
+
++127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of
+view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a
+correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our
+attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been
+properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each
+succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness
+of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but
+the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental
+picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in
+photography.
+
+If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form,
+they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or
+distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be
+introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the
+post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can
+form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which
+give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been
+mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some
+following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more
+imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one
+side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two
+stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing
+the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time
+emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its
+characteristic feature?
+
+2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice
+most vividly?
+
+3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the
+other church buildings?
+
+4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance?
+In actions?
+
+
++Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following
+subjects:_--
+
+  1. A mountain view.
+  2. An omnibus.
+  3. A fort.
+  4. A lighthouse.
+  5. A Dutch windmill.
+  6. A bend in the river.
+  7. A peculiar structure.
+  8. The picture on this page.
+
+(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the
+description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.)
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
++128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions
+the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that
+might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such
+details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to
+render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented,
+minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but
+if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and
+confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must
+be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the
+greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly
+subordinated.
+
+Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the
+sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of
+the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly
+evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick
+house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the
+general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by
+describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds
+some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a
+whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and
+_unkempt_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way
+in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by
+re-arranging them?
+
+
+1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of
+that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and
+walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is
+the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of
+wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the
+hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the
+horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the
+lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the
+cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different
+every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they
+huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief,
+and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass
+of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky
+with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of
+rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill.
+The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a
+little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship
+and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed
+to crawl like flies on a lighted pane.
+
+--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk.
+He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a
+drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore
+a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat,
+too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls
+of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired
+neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the
+more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with
+little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface;
+umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of
+trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the
+horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered
+along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of
+the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and
+laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber
+picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty
+rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over
+his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to
+have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the
+kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails;
+a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an
+editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few
+visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office,
+looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and
+fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a
+treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the
+secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them!
+
+--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_.
+
+
++Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. A steamboat.
+  2. An orchard.
+  3. A colonial mansion.
+  4. A wharf.
+  5. A stone quarry.
+  6. A shop.
+
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view,
+fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged
+to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been
+introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective
+or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which
+your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme
+with reference to unity. Section 81.)
+
+
++129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as
+much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under
+paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the
+details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47
+and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be
+departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be
+made, as shown in the following selection:--
+
+
+A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly
+possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry
+morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the
+crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if
+you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the
+curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing--
+cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to
+throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long
+have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a
+weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which
+was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his
+forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly
+curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm
+sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown;
+his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the
+color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent,
+frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad,
+as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was
+far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt,
+clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom.
+Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed
+and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches,
+held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons.
+
+--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_.
+(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.)
+
+
+The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in
+space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were
+to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would
+lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer
+skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the
+face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is
+closely followed.
+
+
++Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. The bayou.
+  2. Looking down the mountain.
+  3. Looking up the mountain.
+  4. The floorwalker.
+  5. An old-fashioned rig.
+  6. A house said to be haunted.
+  7. The deacon.
+
+(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in
+space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis.
+Sections 82 and 83.)
+
+
++130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should
+aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much
+the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those
+which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less
+definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which
+cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon
+the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description.
+But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to
+description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection
+of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to
+their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet
+fail to be satisfactory as a description.
+
+For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves
+to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure
+and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word
+here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of
+suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to
+these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that
+we wish now to turn our attention.
+
+
++131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend
+largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is
+limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly
+limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope
+to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of
+the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and
+then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical
+process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the
+word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our
+vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace;
+but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have
+at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives
+individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs,
+and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a
+reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or
+_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and
+how much the description is enhanced by their careful use.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words
+which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:--
+
+1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling,
+violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world.
+
+2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands
+lay north and east and south.
+
+3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland
+and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and
+full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a
+red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye.
+
+Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate
+gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the
+surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of
+our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull
+of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and
+then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden
+jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge
+steaming with mist.
+
+We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that
+separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and
+driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the
+northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could
+be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white
+spot, the Sligachan Hotel.
+
+I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a
+futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The
+Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood,
+and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot
+population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors.
+The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain.
+
+Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's").
+
+
++132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech
+not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add
+a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the
+effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following
+descriptions:--
+
+
+He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but
+quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of
+his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased,
+with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his
+tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled
+through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk.
+
+--Kipling: _Jungle Book_.
+
+
+Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short
+stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle;
+his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip
+perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on,
+the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A
+small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of
+forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out
+almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his
+steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was
+altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad
+daylight.
+
+--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.
+
+
++Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_--
+
+  1. My cat.
+  2. The pony at the farm.
+  3. The glen.
+  4. The prairie.
+  5. The milldam.
+  6. The motorman.
+  7. The picture on this page.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your
+choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they
+improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony.
+Section 16.)
+
+
++133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the
+things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes
+of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater
+occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or
+trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary
+applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects
+of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account
+of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe
+objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately
+the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such
+objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort
+should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to
+each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the
+number of such words with which we are unfamiliar.
+
+
+1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._
+
+
+In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding
+story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making
+it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open
+colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing
+to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base,
+but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the
+palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it
+was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles
+rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by
+sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned
+figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono
+furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath
+my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace
+joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not
+generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be
+decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle,"
+and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and
+represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment
+angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon."
+
+--Hare: _Venice_.
+
+
++Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._
+
+
++Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._
+
+
++Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as
+an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._
+
+(Consider each description with reference to--
+  _a._ Point of view.
+  _b._ Fundamental image.
+  _c._ Selection of essential details.
+  _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details.
+  _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in
+          space.
+  _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.)
+
+
+2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._
+
+
+Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie
+the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves
+out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly
+rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and
+there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great
+bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the
+prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend
+for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the
+great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features
+of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain
+scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into
+the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie.
+Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they
+narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their
+blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white
+peaks far away.
+
+--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_.
+
+
+Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm;
+And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands;
+Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf
+In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher
+A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill;
+And high in heaven behind it a gray down
+With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood,
+By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes
+Green in a cuplike hollow of the down.
+
+--Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_.
+
+
++Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field,
+woods, or prairie._
+
+
++Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or
+waterfall._
+
+(Consider especially your choice of words.)
+
+
+3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._
+
+
+And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but
+they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as
+Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not
+drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it
+is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf--
+steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet
+mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the
+rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It
+is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook--
+much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have
+known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor
+of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an
+exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made
+audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the
+American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid
+motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many
+nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence.
+
+--Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century").
+
+
+Yell'd on the view the opening pack;
+Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back;
+To many a mingled sound at once
+The awaken'd mountain gave response.
+A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong,
+Clatter'd a hundred steeds along,
+Their peal the merry horns rung out,
+A hundred voices join'd the shout;
+With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo,
+No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew.
+Far from the tumult fled the roe,
+Close in her covert cower'd the doe;
+The falcon, from her cairn on high,
+Cast on the rout a wondering eye,
+Till far beyond her piercing ken
+The hurricane had swept the glen.
+Faint, and more faint, its failing din
+Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn,
+And silence settled, wide and still,
+On the lone wood and mighty hill.
+
+--SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_.
+
+
++Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a
+description introducing sounds._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Alone in the house.
+  2. In the woods at night.
+  3. Beside the brook.
+  4. In the factory.
+  5. A day at the beach.
+  6. Before the Fourth.
+  7. On the seashore.
+
+
+(Notice especially the words that indicate sound.)
+
+
+4. _Color or the use of color._
+
+
+A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with
+gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the
+mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower
+gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a
+somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had
+gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their
+nakedness.
+
+--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_.
+
+
+The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which
+we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing
+in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the
+plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau
+and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the
+hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble
+glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun
+went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing
+purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep
+violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a
+dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened
+as twilight came on.
+
+--Taylor: _Views Afoot_.
+
+
++Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters
+largely._
+
+5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._
+
+
+The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and
+huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and
+terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression
+incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh,
+dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a
+knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his
+reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a
+challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults.
+
+--Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_.
+(Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.)
+
+
+Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page
+242).
+
+
++Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._
+
+(What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?)
+
+6. _Trees and plants._
+
+
+How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander
+it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and
+decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped
+and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead
+of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes.
+White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it,
+no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy,
+indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at
+Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on
+bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing
+wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock
+or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to
+make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should
+hold so precious, indoors and out.
+
+--Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_.
+
+
+A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak,
+and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a
+short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick,
+tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A
+tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes.
+
+--Marian M. George.
+
+
++Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._
+
+(Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of
+composition treated in Chapter V.)
+
+
++134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles
+of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should
+be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our
+interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is
+concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become
+character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen
+gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing
+character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole
+purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are
+introduced which accomplish this purpose.
+
+In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character
+sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character
+indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions
+and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no
+descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to
+fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive
+elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are
+distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements
+and emphasizes the character shown by the actions.
+
+Notice the following examples:--
+
+
+The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene,
+perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of
+early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was
+quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without
+a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and
+fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders,
+although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were
+thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his
+expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect;
+so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly
+and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are
+apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with
+oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch
+a minister, but he was every nerve a man.
+
+--Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the
+period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her
+complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly
+parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth,
+tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by
+drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden
+hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her
+back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy
+softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an
+effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were
+added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can
+impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things
+impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven,
+itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast,
+as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening
+eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph
+turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as
+with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on.
+
+--Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_.
+(Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.)
+
+
+When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years
+of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy
+and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending
+dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been
+tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of
+occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled
+him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid,
+his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils
+seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark
+blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an
+earnestness that was almost sad.
+
+--Bancroft.
+
+
+There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was
+the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very
+striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of
+romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long
+hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect
+originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as
+if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the
+common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting
+him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be
+a literary king.
+
+--Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young
+man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely
+cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired
+and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl;
+soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker;
+the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb.
+
+--Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture
+anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each
+helps you in this?
+
+
++Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._
+
+(Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching
+so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.)
+
+
+[Illustrations]
+
+
++135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a
+description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our
+feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the
+following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how
+the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of
+forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots,
+hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the
+shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression.
+Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by
+its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn
+appearance of the Battery.
+
+
+All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy;
+but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there
+some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade
+upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am
+certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the
+paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a
+stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At
+that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of
+strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade,
+a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this
+weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in
+the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore,
+with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some
+happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the
+sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the
+night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother,
+that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so
+much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the
+green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside
+their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at
+the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world
+seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had
+brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the
+women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and
+which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side
+were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which
+were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various
+unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the
+water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now
+the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these
+lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue
+water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
+The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but
+they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a
+single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single
+impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by
+the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same
+time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in
+the following:--
+
+
+It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most
+impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it
+is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose
+which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that
+gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the
+track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap
+under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its
+fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path,
+you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt
+your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any
+circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility,
+almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car
+and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost
+thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that
+you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts
+for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses
+you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird
+character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather
+points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train
+stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a
+doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing
+beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers
+getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking
+the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane
+satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of
+the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the
+sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a
+blank slumber.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
++136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it
+gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in
+Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of
+an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in
+mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a
+clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have
+chosen different details and would have presented them in different
+language.
+
+The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two
+different observers because each may discover a different set of
+likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential
+characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some
+one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the
+effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will
+in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select
+details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the
+picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and
+essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is
+to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet,
+the elements that are important for the producing of the desired
+impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture.
+
+When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to
+present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others
+to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene
+affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we
+felt.
+
+
++137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a
+description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must
+know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary
+for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our
+impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what
+our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene
+that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall
+affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these
+elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes
+necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of
+those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause
+us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this
+impression to our reader, our description must include the details that
+give that impression of untidiness to us.
+
+Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made
+stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may
+supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet
+they add much to the impression which we get.
+
+
+Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there
+were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes
+of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_,
+a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable
+book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which
+prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly
+against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a
+comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and
+security to our travelers.
+
+--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_.
+
+
++138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a
+description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression
+that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara
+has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard
+to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a
+situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of
+grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No
+two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our
+temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences
+affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we
+get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely
+upon the definite perception of our feelings.
+
+
++139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected
+by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced
+by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer
+at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous;
+to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood,
+but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to
+arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer,
+which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and
+shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer
+takes advantage of these emotional tendencies.
+
+
+Not far we fared--
+The river left behind--when, looking back,
+I saw the mountain in the searching light
+Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride
+In my adventure, I can ne'er forget
+The disappointment and chagrin which fell
+Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep
+Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun,
+Had left the scene; and in its place I saw
+A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed,
+Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod.
+Its grand impossibilities and all
+Its store of marvels and of mysteries
+Were flown away, and would not be recalled.
+
+--Holland: _Katrina_.
+
+
++140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image
+making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they
+necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image,
+however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description,
+however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is
+rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for
+their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little
+moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images
+are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the
+images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This
+subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent
+and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality
+few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that
+the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture
+exactly what was seen:--
+
+
+The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best
+cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The
+celebrated _Lacrymae Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally
+devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to
+perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples,
+and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn
+with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by
+degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your
+approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their
+large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer
+seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no
+nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and
+the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet.
+
+--Madame De Stael: _Corinne: Italy_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by
+each:--
+
+
+The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor
+fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the
+other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a
+little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might
+mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning
+have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you
+taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the
+forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a
+fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance
+you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what
+you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart
+and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never
+get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the
+laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams.
+On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering
+leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At
+tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt,
+and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the
+sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long,
+arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded
+streets you will hone after the friendly forest.
+
+--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_.
+(Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.)
+
+
+Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly
+converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the
+sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river
+valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the
+hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great
+majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and
+fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are
+acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all
+this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know--
+the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown
+thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate
+land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or
+neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned
+homes of disheartened and defeated men.
+
+Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society
+grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro,
+avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of
+some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the
+woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among
+the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they
+are never seen again.
+
+In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come;
+the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle
+down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is
+covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but
+useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie
+jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent
+cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It
+seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the
+making of the earth.
+
+--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's").
+
+
+When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone,
+I saw below me, like a jeweled cup,
+The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip--
+The serrate green against the serrate blue--
+Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant
+With a divine elixir--lucent floods
+Poured from the golden chalice of the sun,
+At which my spirit drank with conscious growth,
+And drank again with still expanding scope
+Of comprehension and of faculty.
+
+I felt the bud of being in me burst
+With full, unfolding petals to a rose,
+And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene.
+By sudden insight of myself I knew
+That I was greater than the scene,--that deep
+Within my nature was a wondrous world,
+Broader than that I gazed on, and informed
+With a diviner beauty,--that the things
+I saw were but the types of those I held,
+And that above them both, High Priest and King,
+I stood supreme, to choose and to combine,
+And build from that within me and without
+New forms of life, with meaning of my own,
+And then alone upon the mountain top,
+Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head
+Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul
+Baptized and set apart for poetry.
+
+--Holland: _Katrina_.
+
+
++Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an
+impression that you have experienced._
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its
+     purpose the creation of an image.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of a description are:--
+       _a._ A point of view,
+            (1) It may be fixed or changing.
+            (2) It may be expressed or implied.
+            (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen
+                 from the point of view chosen.
+       _b._ A correct fundamental image.
+       _c._ A few characteristic and essential details
+            (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary
+                 in order to select the essential details.
+       _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details.
+       _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their
+              natural position in space.
+       _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from
+            (1) Proper choice of words.
+            (2) Suitable comparisons and figures.
+            (3) Variety of sentence structures.
+
+3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many
+     classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some
+     indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character
+     sketch.
+
+4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an
+     impression.
+       _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying
+              the impression he desires his readers to receive.
+       _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately,
+              because he cannot convey to others that which he has not
+              himself experienced.
+       _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person.
+       _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated.
+
+
+
+IX. NARRATION
+
+
++141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of
+happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most
+interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be
+interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking
+about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in
+narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes
+the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and
+magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn
+from our libraries.
+
+Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must
+include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas,
+histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also
+includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of
+accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently
+the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be
+found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your
+school in which you think your classmates are interested.
+
+2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of
+interest to members of your school.
+
+3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city
+during the last two or three years.
+
+4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you.
+
+5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your
+classmates.
+
+6. Name three national events of recent occurrence.
+
+7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have
+heard.
+
+8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see
+how it turned out.
+
+9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be
+interesting? If not, why not?
+
+
++Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school,
+telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_.
+
+(Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.)
+
+
++142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few
+words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in
+which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The
+principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of
+Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:--
+
+
+A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of
+the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair.
+When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back
+the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this
+word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek
+the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has
+established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters
+authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where
+they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as
+students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the
+first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who
+recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by
+a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept
+them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa,
+a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady
+Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the
+alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On
+the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril
+sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of
+ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine
+reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight
+falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and
+Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before
+the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her
+father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with
+soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince,
+after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes
+with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three
+brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to
+decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with
+fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on
+the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are
+vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded.
+
+But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown
+more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has
+said of Lady Psyche's little child:--
+
+
+"I took it for an hour in mine own bed
+This morning: there the tender orphan hands
+Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence
+The wrath I nursed against the world."
+
+
+When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she
+kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the
+wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's
+blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart,
+
+
+Her iron will was broken in her mind,
+Her noble heart was broken in her breast.
+
+
+From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a
+natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him
+into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she
+comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all."
+
+--Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_.
+
+
++Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:--
+
+  1. _Lochinvar_, Scott.
+  2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving.
+  3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens.
+  4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot.
+  5. The last magazine story you have read.
+  6. Some story assigned by the teacher.
+
+
++Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one
+that will make the most interesting story._
+
+
++Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in
+the preceding theme._
+
+(Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?)
+
+
++143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear
+understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often
+be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place,
+characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the
+introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall
+contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a
+well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the
+first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to
+the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun
+with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see
+that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to
+enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest
+will begin to lag.
+
+
++Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The Christmas surprise.
+  2. How the mortgage was paid.
+  3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine.
+  4. The new girl in the boarding school.
+  5. The Boss, and how he won his title.
+
+(Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is
+understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what
+you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?)
+
+
++144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to
+arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the
+better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his
+story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement
+designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which
+interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following
+selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where.
+(Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the
+time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the
+adventure ended.
+
+
+On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in
+the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty
+of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy,
+heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some
+heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared
+very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion.
+The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now
+lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed
+manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind
+of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same
+time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front.
+He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood
+smelled so oily.
+
+I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and
+single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled,
+although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to
+place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his
+annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire.
+
+The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he
+decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he
+jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant
+headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast.
+The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of
+mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into
+halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch
+of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very
+hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his
+miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new
+strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his
+way back to civilization.
+
+--P.L. Wessels.
+
+
++Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog.
+  2. An unpleasant experience.
+  3. A story told by the school clock.
+  4. Disturbing a hornet's nest.
+  5. The fate of an Easter bonnet.
+  6. Chased by a wolf.
+
+(Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?)
+
+
++145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually
+somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That
+turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is
+greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the
+story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually
+increase from the incentive moment to the climax.
+
+In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot,
+several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to
+each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up
+to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to
+the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of
+Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and
+Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the
+minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one.
+
+In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There
+should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and
+especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close,
+and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been
+reached.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read.
+
+_B._ Where is the climax in the following selection?
+
+
+We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts,
+And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed
+Together, as two eagles on one prey
+Come rushing down together from the clouds,
+One from the east, one from the west; their shields
+Dashed with a clang together, and a din
+Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters
+Make often in the forest's heart at morn,
+Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows
+Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed.
+And you would say that sun and stars took part
+In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud
+Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun
+Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose
+Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain,
+And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair.
+In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone;
+For both the onlooking hosts on either hand
+Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure,
+And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream.
+But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes
+And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield
+Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear
+Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin,
+And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan.
+Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm,
+Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest
+He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume,
+Never till now denied, sank to the dust;
+And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom
+Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air,
+And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse,
+Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;--
+No horse's cry was that, most like the roar
+Of some pained desert lion, who all day
+Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side,
+And comes at night to die upon the sand.
+The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear,
+And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream.
+But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on,
+And struck again; and again Rustum bowed
+His head; but this time all the blade, like glass,
+Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm,
+And in the hand the hilt remained alone.
+Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes
+Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear,
+And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout,
+And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step,
+And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form;
+And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped
+His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side.
+He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground,
+And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell,
+And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all
+The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair--
+Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet,
+And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand.
+
+--Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_.
+
+
++Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The immigrant's error.
+  2. A critical moment.
+  3. An intelligent dog.
+  4. The lost key.
+  5. Catching a burglar.
+  6. A hard test.
+  7. Won by the last hit.
+  8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen.
+
+
+(Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense
+until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?)
+
+
++146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a
+conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have
+the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we
+listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes
+from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to
+order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as
+possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How
+many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation
+orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own
+speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following
+selection:--
+
+
+Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him.
+
+"It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance
+in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand
+to drop limply.
+
+"Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded.
+
+"Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came.
+
+"What business have you got with me?"
+
+"Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to
+do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for
+your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called
+to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night."
+
+"You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore.
+"My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants
+anything let her come here."
+
+Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock."
+
+--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's").
+
+
+_B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the
+incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements.
+
+
+When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as
+mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door.
+
+"William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've
+worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest."
+
+"Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was
+born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old
+Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice
+as mad as before.
+
+"Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a
+chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day,"
+he added cheerfully.
+
+The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still
+colder day for him before he struck the weather again.
+
+"Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively.
+
+"Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing
+board and slamming it down on the table.
+
+"An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him
+just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough
+for all next winter and spring."
+
+"Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly
+wrecked the table.
+
+"An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you
+see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower
+lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and
+hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board.
+
+"No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle,
+an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the
+creases out of the tablecloth.
+
+"But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was
+jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to
+build a new--"
+
+By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she
+wouldn't.
+
+"Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull
+Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles
+around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last
+one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one
+more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say
+that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped
+fire all at once.
+
+The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had
+struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or
+present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his
+hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a
+confidential undertone:--
+
+"Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o'
+you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one
+o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward
+the ironing board.
+
+"Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of
+countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what
+then?"
+
+"They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look
+sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter
+tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?"
+
+"I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly.
+
+"Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me
+right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o'
+them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all
+along, d'ye see, widdy?"
+
+And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because
+she thought she saw.
+
+
++Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80,
+or one of the following:_--
+
+
+THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER
+
+Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to
+interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the
+zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been
+announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway
+System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some
+newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor
+had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him;
+second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour
+and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him,
+while Dayton would make an honest effort.
+
+Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and
+cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview
+one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man
+peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss
+with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to
+the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the
+attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled
+tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat
+Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was
+printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters.
+
+"Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst.
+
+Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before
+him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white
+eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled.
+
+"My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a
+gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?"
+
+It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow
+in return. Dayton's manner was compelling.
+
+"And what the dev--what can I do for you?"
+
+"I'm a reporter from the ----"
+
+"What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined
+fury....
+
+--David Graham Philips ("McClure's").
+
+
+CAUGHT MASQUERADING
+
+
+When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the
+Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They
+celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way.
+
+Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things
+quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I
+was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of
+bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My
+valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I
+suppose, no one answered it.
+
+What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on
+me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking
+me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank
+goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it.
+
+"Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race;
+we'll have to go without her."
+
+"They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows."
+
+"Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole.
+
+"Not a thing, dear."
+
+"Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise
+was dreadful!"
+
+"Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me
+something to put on. I want to see the race."
+
+"I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's."
+
+"Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather
+than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now."
+
+
+(Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section
+146.)
+
+
++147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the
+choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and
+by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an
+accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise
+statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made
+interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite
+fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country
+or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for
+those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest
+them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we
+find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person
+will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our
+narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case
+we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work
+you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly.
+
+To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all
+that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said.
+The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is
+addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts
+are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section
+81.)
+
+
++148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of
+our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each
+sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has
+been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by
+relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series
+of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such
+details as are not essential to the unity of the story.
+
+If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow
+the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one
+must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be
+carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time,
+meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events
+belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time,
+usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together
+so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the
+understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the
+changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one
+or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following
+chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the
+introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's
+_The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of
+events is to be related.
+
+It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as
+indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our
+narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be
+related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally.
+
+2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order.
+Relate one of them orally.
+
+3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the
+first person; in the third person.
+
+4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if
+you were writing a short account for a newspaper?
+
+5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was
+acquainted with the persons in the accident?
+
+6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine
+story that you read.
+
+
++Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can
+be carefully followed._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. The irate conductor.
+  2. A personal adventure with a window.
+  3. An interrupted nap.
+  4. Lost in the woods.
+  5. In a runaway.
+  6. An amusing adventure.
+  7. A day at grandfather's.
+
+(Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.)
+
+
++Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which
+different events are going on at the same time._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A skating accident.
+  2. The hunters hunted.
+  3. Capsized on the river.
+  4. How he won the race.
+  5. An experience with a balky horse.
+  6. The search for a lost child.
+  7. How they missed each other.
+  8. A strange adventure.
+  9. A tip over in a bobsleigh.
+
+
+(How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well
+connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the
+different events?)
+
+
++149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the
+interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of
+narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in
+plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its
+development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one
+another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union
+in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of
+the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our
+interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere
+story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little
+permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of
+character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives
+of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but
+a deeper study of the play sets forth and reenforces the character of
+Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of
+literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot,
+and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by
+means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human
+life and human character.
+
+On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that
+indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In
+order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons
+concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not
+only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done,
+we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in
+our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by
+the use of description. (See Section 134.)
+
+Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the
+character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were
+to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of
+Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this
+sketch.
+
+
+It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard
+my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he
+was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor
+aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary,
+that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend
+Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his
+heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the
+wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle
+in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted
+the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the
+desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen
+Pitkin mad.
+
+Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was
+so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his
+books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to
+tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with
+fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away
+to hide themselves under the desk.
+
+I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat
+and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the
+stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they
+melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar
+and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and
+if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again
+in fifteen minutes.
+
+"What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow
+not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes
+he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in
+general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and
+his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the
+room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be
+heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a
+mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was
+impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on
+the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description
+of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a
+hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our
+university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this
+point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and
+that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently
+insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply
+quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won."
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will
+show how Dickens portrays character by use of action.
+
+2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do?
+
+3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their
+character.
+
+4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine
+stories.
+
+5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you
+form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the
+descriptive matter help you determine his character?
+
+
++Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character
+by means of action._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. The girl from Texas.
+  2. The Chinese cook.
+  3. Taking care of the baby.
+  4. Nathan's temptation.
+  5. The small boy's triumph.
+  6. A village character.
+  7. The meanest man I ever knew.
+
+
+(Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown
+character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by
+adding some description?)
+
+
++150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may
+be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable
+information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration.
+A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories
+contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently,
+too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied
+argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of
+a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and
+explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about
+whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and
+descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent
+that the story ceases to be interesting.
+
+The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make
+our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time,
+his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third.
+Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are
+neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be
+determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a
+short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If
+a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be
+read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with
+good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing
+upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds
+of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that
+they help us better to understand the real character of the man.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look
+up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite
+the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide
+beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See
+Sections 39, 52, 53.)
+
+
++Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned
+by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:--
+
+  1. Pontiac's conspiracy.
+  2. The battle of Marathon.
+  3. The Boston tea party.
+  4. The battle of Bannockburn.
+  5. Sherman's march to the sea.
+  6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon.
+
+(Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to
+the clear understanding of it omitted?)
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer
+about each of whom an interesting biography might be written.
+
+2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American
+writers, and two American statesmen.
+
+
++Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person.
+Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name.
+Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it
+is._
+
+
++151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration
+should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating
+of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to
+bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it.
+If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur,
+it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the
+narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the
+actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how
+or why they occur.
+
+Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the
+two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy
+Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that
+follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a
+marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with
+grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a
+dreadful spot after dark. The fact that Andre was captured here adds to
+the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and
+had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been
+disappointed.
+
+
+About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and
+ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's
+swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this
+stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a
+group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a
+cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It
+was at this identical spot that the unfortunate Andre was captured, and
+under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised
+him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are
+the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark.
+
+As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up,
+however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the
+ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of
+starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran
+broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the
+delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the
+contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it
+was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of
+brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and
+heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward,
+snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a
+suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at
+this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive
+ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the
+brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It
+stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic
+monster ready to spring upon the traveler.
+
+--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_.
+
+
+The most important use of description in connection with narration is that
+of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character
+of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do
+much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section
+134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature.
+Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals
+as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII.
+Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and
+give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must
+be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not
+their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the
+desired impressions.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some
+description which explains how or why events occur._
+
+(Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the
+narration?)
+
+
++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in
+giving an impression of character._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Holding the fort.
+  2. A steamer trip.
+  3. How I played truant.
+  4. Kidnapped.
+  5. The misfortunes of our circus.
+  6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen.
+
+
+(Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to
+form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive
+moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories,
+    letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the
+    relation of events.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,--
+    _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place,
+          and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the
+          point of the narrative.
+    _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment.
+    _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of
+          the reader.
+    _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance
+          with the principle of unity.
+    _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order.
+    _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in
+          the appreciation of the point.
+    _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation.
+    _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from
+            (1) Proper choice of words.
+            (2) Suitable comparisons and figures.
+            (3) Variety of sentence structure.
+    _i._ A brief conclusion.
+
+
+
+X.  EXPOSITION
+
+
++152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make
+clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is
+to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the
+two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to
+study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please,
+while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions
+as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers
+attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge.
+
+In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to
+burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:--
+
+
+1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing
+iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same
+heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the
+polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot
+enough the prints should be rubbed with a glace polish, which is sold for
+this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints
+should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher
+being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the
+degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure
+being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being
+polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the
+prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above.
+
+--_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_.
+
+
+2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the
+sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for
+instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on
+both sides of the paper.
+
+Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the
+paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be
+split by the top surface being removed.
+
+The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to
+each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without
+hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will
+be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste
+in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+A. Explain orally any two of the following:--
+    1. How to fly a kite.
+    2. How a robin builds her nest.
+    3. How oats are harvested.
+    4. How tacks are made.
+    5. How to make a popgun.
+    6. How fishes breathe.
+    7. How to swim.
+    8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief.
+    9. How to play golf.
+   10. How salt is obtained.
+
+
+B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar.
+
+
++Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do.
+Write a theme on the subject chosen._
+
+(Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See
+Sections 67 and 68.)
+
+Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are
+combined, as in the following:--
+
+
+In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do
+not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and
+lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water,
+if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This
+treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of
+sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body
+has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If
+respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial
+respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept
+quiet in bed for some time.
+
+--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_.
+
+
+Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_?
+nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:--
+
+
+JOURNALISM
+
+What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a
+trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes
+from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages,
+and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day.
+Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals
+were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the
+pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or
+statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a
+circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the
+public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a
+specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often
+enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically
+and distributed to subscribers.
+
+A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than
+one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person
+who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work
+on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This
+use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to
+persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper
+men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or
+contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its
+comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of
+producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of
+professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and
+detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and
+conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which
+is ideally perfect in every department.
+
+Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money
+making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the
+thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial
+comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation
+to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten
+the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with
+unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with
+intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching
+courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the
+dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of
+thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces
+that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth.
+
+This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the
+editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression
+in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim.
+This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as
+more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in
+completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of
+its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in
+the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the
+type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong
+encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation.
+
+--_The Boston Herald._
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following
+questions:--
+
+1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one?
+
+2. Why should we study history?
+
+3. Why does a baseball curve?
+
+4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England?
+
+5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers?
+
+6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn?
+
+7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China?
+
+8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends
+of the rails?
+
+
++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a
+subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as
+possible._
+
+EXERCISE
+
+Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the
+questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain?
+
+
++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the
+above list._
+
+(Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness,
+unity, and coherence.)
+
+
++153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important
+because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions
+of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education,
+and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter
+what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of
+discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted
+with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not
+be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the
+sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced
+if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture.
+In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the
+relative merits of his goods to his customers.
+
+Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature.
+The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not
+sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary
+to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in
+clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the
+other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in
+explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in
+our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to
+explain during the last week or two.
+
+2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned
+through explanation.
+
+3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for
+explanation.
+
+4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the
+explanation clear.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three
+of the preceding exercise._
+
+(Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation
+clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?)
+
+
++154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation
+is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the
+explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject
+ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in
+our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally
+confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to
+explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a
+canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the
+process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how
+it is done.
+
+The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations
+is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly
+acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the
+lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas.
+Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an
+additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure.
+Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking
+for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are
+given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be
+useless to attempt an explanation.
+
+2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear
+explanations of them.
+
+3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you
+feel sure that you can obtain information.
+
+4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of
+them.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in
+number four of the preceding exercise._
+
+(Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the
+themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness.
+Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.)
+
+
++155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for
+explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning
+the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is
+rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the
+person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to
+that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that
+selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the
+audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation
+will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing
+a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not
+understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence.
+
+Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people
+do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it?
+
+
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as
+vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may
+comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince,
+gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and
+noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own
+district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the
+vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to
+come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was
+engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court
+when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his
+master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they
+were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates,
+which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to
+follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held
+courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the
+knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles,
+distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of
+whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and
+peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like
+brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored.
+
+Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he
+summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men
+corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had
+been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey
+the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates,
+to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in
+their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the
+peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one
+array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for
+fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal
+system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages.
+
+--Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_.
+
+
++Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_--
+
+1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle.
+
+2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age.
+
+3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of
+the school board of an adjoining city.
+
+4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made.
+
+5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured.
+
+6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile.
+
+
+(Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.)
+
+
++156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that
+there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the
+topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the
+natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of
+general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the
+circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to
+follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body.
+In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the
+material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture
+in order through its successive stages.
+
+In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult.
+We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding
+of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the
+proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some
+length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong
+together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately.
+If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be
+united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the
+transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will
+cause no confusion.
+
+In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group
+of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole
+idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea,
+but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain
+facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation
+clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the
+understanding of others shall come first.
+
+Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and
+the arrangement of those groups:--
+
+
+Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good
+health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be
+mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas
+which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if
+inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or
+stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and
+poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again,
+will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the
+removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its
+place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings,
+and its importance cannot be overestimated.
+
+In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort,
+ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus
+allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy
+and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be
+supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good
+ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air
+is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters
+through the cracks of the doors and windows.
+
+Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation
+may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings
+should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which
+the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a
+shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room
+from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according
+to the size of the room.
+
+--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_.
+
+
+THE QUEEN BEE
+
+It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the
+entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one
+mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a
+royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up
+the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage,
+and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the
+patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much
+larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain
+contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal
+cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by
+taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it,
+till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in
+the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her
+cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but
+guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder
+every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the
+other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine,
+trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not
+being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or
+two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her
+successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in
+favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms
+can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her
+unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the
+same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who
+formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the
+victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we
+are indebted to the blind Huber.
+
+It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always
+vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty
+stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret.
+
+The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees
+is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects.
+Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial
+mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the
+Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to
+the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute
+democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The
+power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers.
+They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer
+its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They
+regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the
+hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the
+queen to it.
+
+The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that
+she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a
+mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and
+the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their
+queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart
+and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey.
+
+The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to
+be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting
+nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen.
+
+--John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._
+
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Duties of the sheriff.
+  2. How a motor works.
+  3. How wheat is harvested.
+  4. Why the tide exists.
+  5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated.
+  6. What is meant by the theory of evolution.
+  7. The manufacture of ----.
+  8. How to make a ----.
+
+
+(Consider the arrangement of your statements.)
+
+
++157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we
+need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is;
+we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our
+readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best
+show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage,
+especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of
+an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well
+chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or
+not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid
+clearness by giving unity and coherence.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you
+know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in
+making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts,
+arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the
+explanation clear to your classmates.
+
+  1. The value of a school library.
+  2. Sponges.
+  3. The manufacture of clocks.
+  4. Drawing.
+  5. Athletics in the high school.
+  6. Examinations.
+  7. Debating societies.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of
+the subjects chosen._
+
+
+(Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.)
+
+
++158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of
+general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in
+the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be
+accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term
+intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is
+familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea
+of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose.
+If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical
+definition.
+
+
++159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits
+to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members
+of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything
+that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of
+two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined
+belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term
+from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_,
+and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the
+class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into
+genus and differentia.
+
+
+  TERM TO BE      |       CLASS          |    DISTINGUISHING
+   DEFINED        |     _(Genus)_        |    CHARACTERISTIC
+                  |                      |    _(Differentia)_
+                  |                      |
+A parallelogram   |  is a quadrilateral  |  whose opposite sides
+                  |                      |  are parallel
+                  |                      |
+Exposition        |  is that form of     |  which seeks to explain
+                  |  discourse           |  the meaning of a term.
+                  |                      |
+
+
+Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the
+genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the
+order named.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the
+differentia) in each of the following:--
+
+1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle.
+
+2. A square is an equilateral rectangle.
+
+3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square.
+
+4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture.
+
+5. The characters composing written words are called letters.
+
+6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves.
+
+7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the
+speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of.
+
+8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other
+insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the
+hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called
+balancers or halters.
+
+
++160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a
+logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the
+thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame
+a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting
+the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term
+to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a
+metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the
+definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term
+beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for
+the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the
+definition is to make the meaning clear to him.
+
+The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the
+selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what
+characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members
+of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would
+find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which
+distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical
+instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty
+lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Select proper differentia for the following:--
+
+                   |
+TERM TO BE DEFINED |     CLASS (Genus)         |   DISTINGUISHING
+                   |                           |   CHARACTERISTIC
+                   |                           |  _(Differentia)_
+                   |                           |
+1. Narration       | is that form of discourse |         ?
+                   |                           |
+2. A circle        | is a portion of a plane   |         ?
+                   |                           |
+3. A dog           | is an animal              |         ?
+                   |                           |
+4. A hawk          | is a bird                 |         ?
+                   |                           |
+5. Physiography    | is the science            |         ?
+                   |                           |
+6. A sneak         | is a person               |         ?
+                   |                           |
+7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure         |         ?
+                   |                           |
+8. A barn          | is a building             |         ?
+                   |                           |
+9. A bicycle       | is a machine              |         ?
+                   |                           |
+10. A lady         | is a woman                |         ?
+
+
+_B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below.
+
+1. Telephone.
+
+2. Square.
+
+3. Hammer.
+
+4. Novel
+
+5. Curiosity.
+
+6. Door.
+
+7. Camera.
+
+8. Brick.
+
+9. Microscope.
+
+
++161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not
+properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact,
+because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If
+we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information,"
+the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that
+give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care
+should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact.
+
+
+EXERCISE
+
+
+Which of the following are exact?
+
+1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool.
+
+2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs.
+
+3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun.
+
+4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper
+side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the
+side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in
+front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae.
+
+5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers.
+
+6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof
+of the truth or falsity of a proposition.
+
+7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no
+other.
+
+8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves.
+
+9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers
+the whole leaf.
+
+
++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the
+following:_--
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. Household science and arts.
+  2. Architecture.
+  3. Aesthetics.
+  4. Poetry.
+  5. Fiction.
+  6. Half tones.
+  7. Steam fitting.
+  8. Swimming.
+
+
+(Consider the definitions you have used.)
+
+
++162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division.
+Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its
+parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish
+triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we
+may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we
+divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique
+triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By
+completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is
+included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions
+equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has
+been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included
+in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are
+neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle
+can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete
+and exact division is called _classification_.
+
+Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We
+may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and
+secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division
+we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss
+_sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different
+from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their
+uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential
+that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an
+overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division.
+Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into
+cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the
+principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort
+them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle
+is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight
+goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor
+exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while
+other pieces might properly be placed in all three.
+
+In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification
+is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better
+accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might
+consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and
+omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did
+not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we
+wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would
+be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors,
+and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few
+special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes.
+An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and
+unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is
+called _partition_.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are
+partitions? Which are defective?
+
+
+1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and
+negroes.
+
+2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked.
+
+3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction.
+
+4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and
+Democrat.
+
+5. The United States Government has control of states and territories
+
+6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering
+plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants.
+
+7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot
+consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional
+plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few.
+
+8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order,
+making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools,
+providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail,
+managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes.
+
+
+_B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made.
+
+
++1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We
+shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions.
+
+What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with
+regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that
+government in the United States is not very different from government in
+the other civilized countries of the world.
+
+Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United
+States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This
+part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local
+self-government, and will show that our system differs from European
+systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local
+self-government.
+
+Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and
+duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of
+the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of
+the federal government.
+
+Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such
+as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an
+outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of
+business and property.
+
+--Clark: _The Government_.
+
+
+2. +Zooelogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog,
+however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be
+classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog
+does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about
+its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the
+kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer
+world and its special fitness for life.
+
+All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog
+constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by
+scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the
+500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of
+animals and is the science _zooelogy_. Names have been given to these
+different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily
+make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zooelogy called
+animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do,
+or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about
+the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of
+animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and
+their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zooelogy or animal
+_classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to
+their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and
+other animals, is called animal _ecology_.
+
+Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zooelogy, may include all
+or any of these parts of zooelogy.
+
+--Kellogg: _Elementary Zooelogy_.
+
+
+3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future
+rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:--
+
+First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in
+the modern world.
+
+Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American
+character, which are:--
+
+  (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise.
+  (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail,
+        of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand.
+  (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness
+        our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward
+        the world.
+  (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the
+        Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in
+        His hands.
+  (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to
+        organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the
+        movement in American life toward the simple and sincere.
+
+--Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_.
+
+
+ _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book
+and notice the main divisions.
+
+ _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division.
+
+ _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:--
+
+  1. The pupils in your school.
+  2. Your neighbors.
+  3. The books in the school library.
+  4. The buildings you see on the way to school.
+  5. The games you know how to play.
+  6. Dogs.
+  7. Results of competition.
+
+
++Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions
+you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following
+topics:_--
+
+1. Mathematics.
+
+2. The school system of our city.
+
+3. The churches of our town.
+
+4. Methods of transportation.
+
+5. Our manufacturing interests.
+
+6. Games that girls like.
+
+7. The inhabitants of the United States.
+
+
+(Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you
+included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible
+principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best
+suited to your purpose?)
+
+
++163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so
+that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like
+terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a
+specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one.
+
+When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once
+be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in
+the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this
+case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation
+of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from
+Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by
+explaining its terms:--
+
+
+The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say
+that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of
+itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying
+that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the
+process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular
+adjustments, to the end, locomotion.
+
+
+It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a
+proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the
+proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary
+to make use of methods of exposition discussed later.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms
+likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood:
+
+1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion.
+
+2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications.
+
+3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature.
+
+4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults.
+
+5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw
+their own inferences.
+
+6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful
+antiseptic.
+
+7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal."
+
+8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression
+would be if the exponent were positive.
+
+
++Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_
+
+1. Birds of a feather flock together.
+
+2. Truths and roses have thorns about them.
+
+3. Where there's a will, there's a way.
+
+4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl.
+
+5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty.
+
+6.               All things that are,
+Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed.
+
+7. Be not simply good--be good for something.
+
+8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center,
+and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts
+Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon.
+
+
+(Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it
+means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you
+thoroughly understand its meaning.)
+
+
++164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development
+(Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may
+be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition
+may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself
+make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each
+repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or
+in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more
+definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take
+advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt
+to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over
+and over in his mind until it is understood.
+
+Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of
+repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement.
+
+
+How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in
+the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general
+problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of
+conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat
+the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our
+affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a
+citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which
+nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of
+ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great
+thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which
+education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function
+which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of
+any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such
+functions.
+
+--Herbert Spencer: _Education_.
+
+
+The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as
+though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and
+tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves
+abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually
+doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but
+swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked
+by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here
+one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of
+our eyes to follow.
+
+--F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_.
+
+
++Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below
+by means of repetition._
+
+1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school.
+
+2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so.
+
+3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated.
+
+4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands
+off territory in North and South America.
+
+5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties.
+
+6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take
+a man to distant countries.
+
+7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and
+useful career in the civil service of the United States.
+
+
+(Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph
+really explain the proposition?)
+
+
++165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general
+subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general
+statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the
+reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his
+paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no
+further explanation is necessary.
+
+The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:--
+
+
+The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are
+called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest
+example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the
+same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the
+sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is
+drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware
+River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned
+valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most
+famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the
+estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are
+drowned valleys.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
++Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an
+expository paragraph by use of examples:_--
+
+1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds.
+
+2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails.
+
+3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act.
+
+4. Men become criminals by a gradual process.
+
+5. Men's lives are affected by small things.
+
+6. Defeat often proves to be real success.
+
+
+(Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the
+topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?)
+
+
++166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our
+explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with
+something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall
+need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to
+or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though
+customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with
+some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is
+probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in
+the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the
+one with the other.
+
+
+Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with
+Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there
+should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is
+the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism
+affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools
+and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give
+to every man according to his need and require from every man according to
+his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some
+fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive
+system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the
+duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall
+produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the
+preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there
+are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken
+from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government;
+Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual
+absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will;
+Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the
+entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at
+every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the
+social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of
+the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is
+true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two
+antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly
+for industry, not at all for government. But how a cooeperative industry
+can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels,
+no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even
+suggested.
+
+--Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_.
+
+
++Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_--
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+  1. A bad habit is a tyrant.
+  2. Typewritten letters.
+  3. The muskrat's house.
+  4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_.
+  5. Methods of reading.
+  6. All the world's a stage.
+  7. Compare life to a flower.
+
+(Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you
+been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?)
+
+
++167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is
+necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it
+may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the
+statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not
+anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really
+is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and
+by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind.
+
+
+The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace
+to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations;
+not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle,
+in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical
+determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy
+boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its
+natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the
+spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by
+removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former
+unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give
+permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by
+discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond
+of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government.
+
+
++168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most
+natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a
+general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to
+make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This
+method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations.
+
+Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:--
+
+
+Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must
+know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year
+when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by
+instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts
+the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a
+whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in
+mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded
+by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects
+his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a
+patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not
+attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he
+raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has
+fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he
+takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth.
+He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be
+sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick
+at an angle of about 45 deg., making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of
+this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation,
+for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is
+unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically.
+Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and
+is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short
+now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one
+who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished
+it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places
+the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and
+cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way
+through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the
+ground unheeded.
+
+When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a
+calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a
+short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through
+the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated
+silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished
+whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick
+between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle
+touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface
+has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the
+stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he
+holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back
+to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it
+again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we
+breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines
+and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the
+straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping
+up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of
+the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece.
+
+The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and
+know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically,
+for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into
+his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he
+lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place,
+fitting the parts nicely together.
+
+The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go?
+Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb?
+
+With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble
+instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes;
+while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is
+broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other
+sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit
+of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural
+song of earth.
+
+It goes!
+
+--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_.
+(Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.)
+
+
++Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following
+subjects, making use of particulars or details:_--
+
+  1. How ice cream is made.
+  2. The cultivation of rice.
+  3. Greek architecture.
+  4. How paper is made.
+  5. A tornado.
+  6. Description of a steam engine.
+  7. The circulatory system of a frog.
+  8. A western ranch.
+  9. Street furniture.
+ 10. A street fair.
+
+(Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you
+used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics
+easy in this theme?)
+
+
++169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in
+the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind
+as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the
+general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the
+causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition
+we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes
+and effects. (See Section 49.)
+
+Notice the following example:--
+
+
+The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water
+in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the
+center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the
+sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the
+sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately
+greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the
+polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up
+around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar
+regions than above latitude 30 deg.-40 deg., and the atmospheric pressure is
+correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the
+centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of
+the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure
+is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one
+side and the polar whirls on the other.
+
+--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_.
+
+
++Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._
+
+Suggested subjects:--
+
+  1. The causes of the French Revolution.
+  2. How ravines are formed.
+  3. Irrigation.
+  4. Effects of smoking.
+  5. Lack of exercise.
+  6. Volcanic eruptions.
+
+
+(Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation?
+Did you make use of description in any place?)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+
+1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to
+    explain.
+
+2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are--
+    _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts
+          essential to its purpose.
+    _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order.
+
+3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general
+    propositions.
+
+4. The steps in the exposition of a term are--
+    _a._ Definition. This may be--
+          (1) By synonym (inexact).
+          (2) By use of the logical definition (exact).
+    _b._ Division. This may be--
+          (1) Complete (classification).
+          (2) Incomplete (partition).
+         The same principle of division should be followed throughout.
+
+5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the
+following methods--
+    _a._ By repetition.
+    _b._ By giving examples.
+    _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts.
+    _d._ By making obverse statements.
+    _e._ By relating particulars or details.
+    _f._ By stating cause or effect.
+    _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods.
+
+
+
+XI. ARGUMENT
+
+
++170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from
+exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the
+meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a
+person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does
+understand, he does not believe, we argue.
+
+Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the
+reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view
+of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that
+is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that
+the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the
+meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish.
+This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the
+proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole.
+
+There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot
+argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what
+is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an
+argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to
+choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even
+with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to
+be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under
+discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory
+outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our
+government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of
+single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a
+proposition either expressed or implied.
+
+
++171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions
+state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore
+aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory.
+The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific
+proposition; for example:--
+
+
+  Nero was guilty of burning Rome.
+  Joan of Arc was burned at the stake.
+  Barbara Frietchie actually existed.
+  Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester.
+  Homer was born at Chios.
+
+
+The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory;
+for example:--
+
+
+  A college education is a profitable investment.
+  Light is caused by a wave motion of ether.
+
+
++172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may
+be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is,
+as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does
+not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly
+formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before
+trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes,
+and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will
+assist in making his own thought clear and definite.
+
+If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of
+all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then
+we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our
+proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought
+we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose
+their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as
+well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes
+in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this
+proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject?
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:--
+
+  1. Immigration.
+  2. Elevated railways.
+  3. American history.
+  4. Military training.
+  5. Single session.
+  6. Athletics.
+
+_B_. Explain the following propositions:--
+
+  1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy.
+  2. Is vivisection justifiable?
+  3. The author has greater influence than the orator.
+  4. The civil service system should be abolished.
+  5. The best is always cheapest.
+
+_C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that
+the meaning of each will be made more definite?
+
+1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be
+    abolished?)
+
+2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for
+    whom?)
+
+3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high
+    school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be
+    taught to _all_ high school pupils?)
+
+4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency.
+
+5. The commercial course is better than the classical course.
+
+6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits.
+
+
++Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as
+restated in Exercise C above._
+
+(Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the
+arrangement of your argument.)
+
+
++173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the
+proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in
+its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two
+sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must
+present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is
+true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell
+him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the
+statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical
+thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for
+our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions.
+
+
++174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to
+convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for
+believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and
+me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe
+them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a
+proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should
+present our material in order to cause others to believe the same
+proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as
+I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others.
+
+Are the following propositions true or false? Why do
+you believe or refuse to believe each?
+
+  1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter.
+  2. Dogs bark.
+  3. Kettles are made of iron.
+  4. Grasshoppers jump.
+  5. Giraffes have long necks.
+  6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime.
+  7. The sun will rise to-morrow.
+  8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge.
+  9. Honest people are respected.
+ 10. Water freezes at 32 deg. Fahrenheit.
+ 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do.
+
+
+It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of
+these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the
+propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not
+made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have
+seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater
+the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception,
+the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun
+to rise because it has never failed).
+
+The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth
+of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+.
+
+
++175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by
+showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable
+explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is
+true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual
+cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we
+assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is
+established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being
+made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found
+that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course,
+was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon
+further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids,
+scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue
+litmus red.
+
+In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward
+many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in
+pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to
+be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to
+and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been
+for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found
+unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been
+replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of
+astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory.
+
+Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as
+well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never
+told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on
+the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this
+as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the
+strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the
+absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion.
+
+The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large
+number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition,
+but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not
+all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun
+may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still
+it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the
+propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our
+inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will
+be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either
+directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument.
+
+We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from
+many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general
+proposition.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is
+shown by giving particular examples:--
+
+
+1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst
+points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves
+are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped
+hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody
+noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town
+spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand,
+whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as
+noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so
+clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so;
+that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more
+than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible
+thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to
+catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction
+of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is
+paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention
+is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would
+be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who
+stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent
+society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further
+evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater
+a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a
+correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each.
+
+--Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_.
+
+
+
+2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of
+English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of
+these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that
+the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20
+had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from
+the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had
+been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent
+(always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9
+per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the
+middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not
+determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_.
+
+--Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_.
+
+
+3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault
+of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of
+a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King
+Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his
+misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter
+would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had
+cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I
+need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor
+the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second
+woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against
+his error:--
+
+"Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool
+Do with so good a wife?"
+
+In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought
+to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The
+Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two
+princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death
+by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the
+queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the
+foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are
+opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In
+_Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved
+her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her
+prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the
+curse of living as the destroyer of his country.
+
+--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_.
+
+
+4.
+
+  _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves;
+_The world is still deceived with ornament_.
+In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt
+But, being season'd with a gracious voice,
+Obscures the show of evil? In religion,
+What damned error, but some sober brow
+Will bless it and approve it with a text,
+Hiding the grossness with fair ornament?
+There is no vice so simple but assumes
+Some mark of virtue on his outward parts:
+How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false
+As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins
+The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars,
+Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk;
+And these assume but valor's excrement
+To render them redoubted! Look on beauty,
+And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight;
+Which therein works a miracle in nature,
+Making them lightest that wear most of it:
+So are those crisped snaky golden locks
+Which make such wanton gambols with the wind,
+Upon supposed fairness, often known
+To be the dowry of a second head,
+The skull that bred them in the sepulcher.
+Thus ornament is but the guiled shore
+To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf
+Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word,
+The seeming truth which cunning times put on
+To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold,
+Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee;
+Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge
+'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead,
+Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught,
+Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence;
+And here choose I: joy be the consequence!
+
+--Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_.
+
+
++Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following statements:_--
+
+1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the
+smaller towns by electric car lines.
+
+2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools.
+
+3. Examinations develop dishonesty.
+
+4. Novel reading is a waste of time.
+
+5. Tramps ought not to be fed.
+
+(Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section
+72.)
+
+
++176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty
+generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it
+happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A
+broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization
+will not hold.
+
+Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of
+their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others
+are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased
+at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There
+are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming
+that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of
+some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that
+particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may,
+upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance
+coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or
+outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be
+weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples.
+
+Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that
+all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a
+belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have
+learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens
+of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess
+one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes
+to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches
+us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to
+establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be
+selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common
+sense.
+
+
++177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been
+established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by
+showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and
+say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition,
+"All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process
+of reasoning would be--
+
+  _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable.
+  _B._ This ring is made of gold.
+  _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable.
+
+A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It
+consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion
+(_C_).
+
+Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as
+the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the
+same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific
+instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning.
+
+
++178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive
+reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning,
+for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form,
+the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it,
+however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these
+premises are general principles that have been themselves established by
+inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more
+_sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the
+proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in
+many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty.
+
+
++179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the
+syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass
+directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not
+succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply,
+"Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A
+knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A
+shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is
+called an enthymeme.
+
+Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in
+connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a
+moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some
+unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die
+sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If
+asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die
+sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the
+general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt.
+
+Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this
+case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by
+the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose
+that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be
+allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all
+the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The
+omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be
+established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out
+of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would
+admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if
+only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major
+premise and likewise the conclusion.
+
+It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we
+must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An
+argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the
+premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably
+follows.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:--
+
+   1. John will succeed because he has a college education.
+   2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money.
+   3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar.
+   4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy.
+   5. This dog must be angry because he is growling.
+   6. This fish can swim.
+   7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gaerten_.
+   8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled.
+
+_B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the
+following:--
+
+   1. This book should not be read.
+   2. This hammer is useful.
+   3. That dog will bite.
+   4. This greyhound can run rapidly.
+   5. The leaves have fallen from the trees.
+   6. That boy ought to be punished.
+   7. It is too early to go nutting.
+   8. This boy should not study.
+   9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor.
+
+
++Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+
+1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind.
+
+2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York.
+
+3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose
+writing.
+
+4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed.
+
+5. Ireland should have Home Rule.
+
+6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote
+of the people.
+
+
+(Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.)
+
+
++180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if
+properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid
+false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the
+syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider
+briefly three chief errors.
+
+If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion
+is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be
+taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing
+the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught
+to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of
+the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not
+that used in the second.
+
+It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example,
+the syllogism,--
+
+
+All hawks eat flesh;
+This bird is a hawk;
+Therefore this bird eats flesh,--
+
+
+contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two
+appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is
+called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement
+about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion
+may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:--
+
+
+All hawks are birds;
+This chicken is a bird;
+Therefore this chicken is a hawk.
+
+
+In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks
+are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The
+conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy.
+
+The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In
+the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the
+suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are
+cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to
+test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by
+seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a
+fatal weakness in the thought.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Which of the following are incorrect?
+
+
+1. The government should pay for the education of its people;
+   Travel is a form of education;
+   Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the
+     people.
+
+2. All horses are useful;
+   This animal is useful;
+   Therefore this animal is a horse.
+
+3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject.
+
+4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with
+     the rights of others.
+
+5. All fish can swim;
+   Charles can swim;
+   Therefore Charles is a fish.
+
+6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie.
+
+7. All dogs bark;
+   This animal barks;
+   Therefore this animal is a dog.
+
+
++Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the
+following propositions:_--
+
+1. The government should establish a parcels post.
+
+2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition.
+
+3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the
+public schools.
+
+4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the
+city.
+
+5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest
+President since Lincoln.
+
+(State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?)
+
+
++181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement
+by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an
+actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that
+show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the
+testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the
+subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of
+any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the
+fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term
+_evidence_.
+
+Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of
+apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If
+instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the
+evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you
+saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your
+testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence
+against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his
+lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you
+give will be direct.
+
+Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is
+nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the
+direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several
+persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even
+though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall
+give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and
+to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell
+the truth.
+
+Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and
+circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that
+they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition?
+
+
+Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr.
+Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part
+of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to
+pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they
+found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in
+retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of
+their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the
+column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion
+a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree,
+which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the
+bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this
+allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no
+permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The
+prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be
+distributed as food.
+
+--Robert Brown: _Science for All_.
+
+
++Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove
+one of the following propositions:_--
+
+Select some question of local interest as:--
+  1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin.
+  2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game.
+  3. Our heating system is inadequate.
+  4. It rained last night.
+
+If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:--
+  1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers.
+  2. The climate of our country is changing.
+  3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press.
+  4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites.
+  5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay.
+
+(Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts
+that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?)
+
+
++182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and
+pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several
+such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of
+automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its
+superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can
+give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to
+your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as
+a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think
+that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with
+your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them
+is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he
+may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra
+study.
+
+While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget
+that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing
+than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely
+stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important
+ones.
+
+
+                      EXERCISES
+
+
+_A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each
+of the following:--
+
+1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the
+teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work.
+
+2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school
+ground is not large enough for practice.
+
+3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need
+physical training will neglect it.
+
+4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts
+from interest in studies.
+
+5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had
+experience.
+
+_B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following:
+
+1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an
+automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but
+one argument, but make it as strong as possible.
+
+2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd.
+
+3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate
+from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the
+high school? For your wishing to attend college?
+
+4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman
+suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage.
+
+_C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select
+the one that you consider the most important.
+
+1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of
+cigarette smoking.
+
+2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management
+of the faculty.
+
+3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils
+themselves.
+
+4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin.
+
+5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin.
+
+
++Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write
+out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._
+
+  (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is
+your argument deductive or inductive?)
+
+
++183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this?
+the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case
+under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or
+theory which applies to it.
+
+One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high
+schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to
+train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy
+will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of
+political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are
+not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the
+principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at
+that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is
+evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of
+political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion
+of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true.
+
+We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe
+that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he
+believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another
+principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would
+choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States
+should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories
+of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our
+beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general
+theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and
+especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we
+wish to convince.
+
+
++184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful
+argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that
+the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his
+church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members
+believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in
+addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an
+argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the
+validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a
+case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do
+believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general
+principles themselves.
+
+If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe
+competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must
+remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look
+upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers
+to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have
+confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may
+count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any
+one of importance or prominence.
+
+In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a
+proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim,
+"Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too.
+Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally
+believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation
+of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and
+causes him to believe our proposition.
+
+
++185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced
+into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the
+proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a
+general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious
+of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even
+more than the explicit statement of the general theory would.
+
+An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you
+shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be
+called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim,
+comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question
+in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an
+argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects
+your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection
+from Macaulay:--
+
+
+Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a
+self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are
+fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old
+story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim.
+If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery,
+they may indeed wait forever.
+
+--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+
+
++186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we
+quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because
+they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in
+argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may
+probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument
+in such a way as to appeal to those theories.
+
+
++Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_--
+
+1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an
+entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father.
+
+2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons.
+
+3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the
+college preparatory course instead of the commercial course.
+
+
+(Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you
+appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.)
+
+
++187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need
+to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and
+that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own
+beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material
+in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that
+no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general
+principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the
+following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective
+order of arrangement.
+
++188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in
+Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this
+probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common
+speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or
+event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one
+that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near
+to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our
+arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability,
+or actuality.
+
+If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both
+possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in
+the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not
+question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that
+it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is
+extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual
+occurrence.
+
+A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could
+not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or
+stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This
+possibility, reenforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by
+the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would
+lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually
+responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be
+discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the
+servants.
+
+Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so
+gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is
+impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another
+probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do
+all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both
+possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to
+demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to
+show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed
+and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable
+witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the
+evidence pointing to probable guilt may be.
+
+
++189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the
+relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We
+accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate
+has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our
+belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause.
+
+Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to
+the belief that the other is also true:--
+
+_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college
+entrance examinations.
+
+_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to
+death before the physician arrives.
+
+_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen.
+
+_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact.
+But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or
+probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our
+arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_.
+
+
++190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that
+when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we
+direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with
+its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a
+cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning
+from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south
+indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby
+has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict
+the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has
+been there.
+
+If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the
+argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has
+frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a
+lowering of the temperature.
+
+If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive
+only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not
+produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one
+of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did
+it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death,
+the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did
+not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of
+elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that
+your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many
+possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the
+attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to
+assume that it was the one.
+
+Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we
+pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause;
+as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or,
+"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a
+good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not
+mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another.
+
+As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from
+attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened
+near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the
+other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that
+in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such
+a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process.
+The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times
+that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys
+frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable
+presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of
+some one who kindled it.
+
+In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the
+relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do
+not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as
+a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds
+something to the probability.
+
+
++191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of
+inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to
+establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the
+physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are
+considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the
+class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the
+class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective
+in proving the certainty of a proposition.
+
+In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom
+proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under
+given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments
+by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish
+not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This
+persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the
+argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition
+should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a
+friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we
+may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined.
+
+
++192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in
+practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of
+similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that
+the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that
+the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the
+earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited.
+
+An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in
+argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily
+observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a
+proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the
+strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the
+differences existing between the two propositions considered. False
+analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and
+especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when
+the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve
+to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument.
+
+
+It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure
+than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's)
+picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us,
+though his analogies are more apt to be false than true....
+
+The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to
+convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home
+and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old
+and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason.
+Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says
+that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and
+bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity....
+
+The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great
+stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types
+everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one
+thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with
+a thing is often merely fanciful....
+
+I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of
+the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer,
+"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports
+the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A
+tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that
+these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and
+experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not
+supported by the analogy.
+
+John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_.
+
+
+Notice the use of analogy in the argument below.
+
+
+There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom
+produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell
+he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or
+recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon,
+but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty
+may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the
+house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to
+bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of
+opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered
+elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a
+system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos.
+
+--Macaulay: _Milton_.
+
+
++193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because
+some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his
+mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing
+way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then
+the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can.
+We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments
+from sign, and arguments from example in the order named.
+
+Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually
+precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish
+general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience
+already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted.
+
+Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with
+reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more
+than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it
+convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him
+the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of
+several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the
+hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last.
+
+In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One
+proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally
+suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order
+must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by
+following the order which gives the greatest coherence.
+
+
++Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_
+
+1. The Presidential term should be extended.
+
+2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school
+study.
+
+3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in
+height.
+
+4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable.
+
+5. No pupil should carry more than four studies.
+
+6. This school should have a debating society.
+
+
+(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used
+arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your
+arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten
+your theme without weakening it?)
+
+
++194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In
+fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be
+given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more
+definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In
+description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the
+impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In
+exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but
+in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly
+arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to
+convince.
+
+The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact,
+but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation
+may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements,
+but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A
+single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind
+prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to
+convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show
+that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once
+endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill,
+but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the
+governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and
+that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt
+upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole
+argument, and the governor signed the bill.
+
+The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of
+complete sentences rather than of topics.
+
+Notice the following example.
+
+
++Term examinations should be abolished.+
+
+
+AFFIRMATIVE
+
+
+I. There is no necessity for such examinations.
+
+1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations.
+
+2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable.
+
+II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages
+that may be derived from them.
+
+1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their
+strength.
+
+2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject.
+
+3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them.
+
+III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability.
+
+1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer
+one or two of the questions given him.
+
+2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an
+examination and pass very creditably.
+
+3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are
+not able to do themselves justice.
+
+
+
+NEGATIVE
+
+
+If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above
+proposition, the brief might be as follows:--
+
+I. Examinations are indispensable to school work.
+
+1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know
+about their subjects, especially in large classes.
+
+2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let
+their work lag.
+
+II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability.
+
+1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a
+good examination.
+
+2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination.
+
+3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term
+examination.
+
+III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations.
+  (1) For college entrance examinations.
+  (2) For examinations at college.
+  (3) For civil service examinations.
+  (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions.
+Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so.
+
+1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school.
+  (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils.
+  (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at
+        home.
+  (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation.
+
+2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the
+  street (county or state) fair.
+  (1) They will all go at least one day.
+  (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go
+        the same day.
+
+3. Women should be allowed to vote.
+  (1) They are now taxed without representation.
+  (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the
+        government, it has been an advantage to that government.
+  (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote.
+
+_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or
+negative):--
+
+1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of
+the course.
+
+2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country.
+
+3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed.
+
+4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study.
+
+5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable.
+
+6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods.
+
+7. We are all selfish.
+
+8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school.
+
+
++Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the
+preceding propositions._
+
+(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write.
+Can you improve it? )
+
+
++Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_--
+
+1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States.
+
+2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of
+the Seven Gables_.
+
+3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition.
+
+4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered.
+
+5. The standing army of the United States should be increased.
+
+6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the
+city.
+
+(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged
+with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider
+each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.)
+
+
++Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._
+
+(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read
+Section 79.)
+
+
++195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we
+have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth
+of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most
+frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than
+merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause
+him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something.
+Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and
+is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In
+argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince;
+in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to
+action.
+
+
++196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical
+affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large
+and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are
+included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly
+related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of
+conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite
+as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness
+depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success
+in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in
+accordance with our desires.
+
+
++197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince
+our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a
+proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added
+to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in
+accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion.
+Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite,
+or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience
+to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if
+we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he
+will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself
+diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he
+neglects to act and failure is the result.
+
+
++198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the
+nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish,
+or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others
+to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge
+them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We
+may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty.
+When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure
+in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their
+interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in
+politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general.
+
+
++199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and
+may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose.
+We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences
+there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We
+may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a
+capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument
+demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New
+Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used,
+description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion;
+but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental
+belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration
+would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and
+who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not
+interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our
+argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice
+against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In
+each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire
+of the person whom we seek to persuade.
+
+
++200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce
+action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not
+affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may
+need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may
+be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an
+appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of
+these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his
+love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to
+be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may
+be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced
+if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are
+persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own
+efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious
+prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what
+particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case?
+
+1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college.
+
+2. Urge a friend to give up card playing.
+
+3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons.
+
+4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community.
+
+5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium.
+
+6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life.
+
+7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle.
+
+8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people.
+
+9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park.
+
+
++Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._
+
+(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.)
+
+
++201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our
+hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there
+is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently
+both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few
+exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely
+distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both
+forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in
+Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and
+persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove
+that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for
+his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their
+curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the
+various appeals?
+
+In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that
+persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings
+are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches.
+
+
+They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an
+adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or
+the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British
+guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by
+irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual
+resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive
+phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir,
+we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of
+nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the
+holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are
+invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir,
+we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides
+over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our
+battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the
+vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we
+were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the
+contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains
+are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war
+is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is
+vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but
+there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps
+from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our
+brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so
+dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and
+slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take;
+but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death.
+
+--Patrick Henry.
+
+
+The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are
+true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw,
+and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the
+reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying
+day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their
+little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went
+among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with
+hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one
+looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls.
+
+The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one
+dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and
+administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the
+spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their
+sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who
+still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I
+say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food....
+
+The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist
+to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter
+to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the
+United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World,
+the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and
+responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western
+Hemisphere.
+
+Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that
+is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot
+intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means
+war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached
+the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not
+peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will
+toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their
+fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine
+of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come
+abiding peace.
+
+Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be
+God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won
+except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has
+ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of
+unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into
+the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation
+Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the
+Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime;
+force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows
+of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at
+Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the
+clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode
+with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at
+Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made
+"niggers" men.
+
+Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for
+further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready
+to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my
+country, and my God.
+
+--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an
+evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to
+his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's
+objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings?
+
+2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the
+question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their
+reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made
+more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general
+appeals.
+
+3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for
+president. What qualifications should a good class president have?
+
+
++Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have
+written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix
+them._
+
+(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the
+introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?)
+
+
++Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you
+have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and
+intellect._
+
+(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.)
+
+
++Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of
+entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._
+
+(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?)
+
+
++Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive
+theme:_--
+
+1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day.
+
+2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay.
+
+3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf.
+
+4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats.
+
+5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be
+cruel to the lower animals.
+
+
++202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim
+to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home
+life and in our social and religious life these questions are always
+arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the
+question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it
+expedient?
+
+The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us
+to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to
+what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is
+right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or
+in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question
+honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to
+ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is
+it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be
+clear.
+
+An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient?
+presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is
+right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater
+advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration
+we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of
+any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or
+to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never
+be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own
+course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow,
+we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that
+either course is right.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called
+upon to decide.
+
+2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's
+experience.
+
+3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often
+differ.
+
+4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another?
+
+
++Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the
+following:_--
+
+1. Should two pupils ever study together?
+
+2. Is a lie ever justifiable?
+
+3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe?
+
+4. Woman's suffrage should be established.
+
+5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Give reasons for or against the following:--
+
+1. We should abolish class-day exercises.
+
+2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language.
+
+3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States.
+
+4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed.
+
+5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school.
+
+6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries.
+
+7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools.
+
+8. High school secret societies should not be allowed.
+
+
++Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using
+one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._
+
+(What advantages have you made most prominent?
+To what feelings have you appealed?)
+
+
++Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to
+decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_.
+
+(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of
+Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the
+arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero
+decided rightly?)
+
++203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two
+sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the
+hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such
+a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often
+find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the
+expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing
+proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This
+tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive
+argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing
+down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own.
+
+Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given
+time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which
+are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful
+teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the
+pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater
+consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his
+argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing
+objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that
+they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw"
+for the purpose of knocking him down.
+
+Notice the refutation in the following argument:--
+
+
+In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so
+pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing
+"up" and "down" stream.
+
+"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie
+with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or
+the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and
+fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the
+increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above
+the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than
+those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a
+muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and
+unnatural.
+
+On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to
+the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his
+limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in
+each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or
+more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the
+ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs,
+under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches
+every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water,
+and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry
+trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown
+against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader
+drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked
+and bedraggled, following slowly behind.
+
+By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting
+the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the
+banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from
+the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish
+to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock.
+They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a
+few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to
+proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the
+bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or
+eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the
+banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in
+ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising
+and feeding.
+
+Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a
+hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well
+hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when
+rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader.
+Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep
+the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising
+trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the
+gritty impact of the steel.
+
+In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the
+surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch,
+has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies
+that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly
+up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind
+them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small
+stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a
+trout's make-up.
+
+--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_.
+
+
++Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the
+following pairs:_--
+
+  1. Canoeing or sailing.
+  2. Bicycling or automobiling.
+  3. Golf or polo.
+  4. Basket ball or tennis.
+  5. Football or baseball.
+
+
++Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points
+on the other side and write out a refutation of them_.
+
+
++Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._
+
+
++Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and
+write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._
+
+
+(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the
+class.)
+
+
+SUMMARY
+
+1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of
+a proposition.
+
+2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases
+we establish the probable truth of a general proposition.
+
+3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires--
+  _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific
+        instances supporting it.
+  _b._ That these facts be true.
+  _c._ That they be pertinent.
+  _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary
+        proposition.
+
+4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth
+of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it.
+
+5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive
+reasoning requires--
+  _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members
+        of a class.
+  _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration
+        belongs to the class named.
+  _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class
+        applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a
+        syllogism.
+
+6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed.
+
+7. Errors of deduction arise--
+  _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning.
+  _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member
+        of the class denoted by the middle term.
+  _c._ If either premise is false.
+
+8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise--
+  _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and
+        pertinent.
+  _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which
+        applies to it.
+
+In arguing therefore we--
+  _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or
+  _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims,
+        allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call
+        up such theories.
+
+9. Classes of arguments:--
+  _a._ Arguments from cause.
+  _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances.
+  _c._ Arguments from example and analogy.
+
+10. Arrangement.
+  _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and
+        arguments from sign should precede arguments from example.
+  _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments.
+  _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax.
+  _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order.
+
+11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be
+observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false
+may be excluded.
+
+12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course
+of action.
+
+13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings.
+  _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval,
+        commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster,
+        or loss of self-esteem.
+  _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of
+        one's powers.
+  _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or
+        anticipated.
+
+14. Persuasion is concerned with--
+  _a._ Questions of right.
+  _b._ Questions of expediency.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+I. ELEMENTS OF FORM
+
++1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the
+correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the
+thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be
+given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our
+thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to
+succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great
+purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is
+aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary.
+
+Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and
+if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes
+directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential
+that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be
+correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to
+correct it.
+
+Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors
+rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an
+incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man
+may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to
+have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the
+error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is
+correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with
+reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for
+correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is
+merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next
+theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual
+mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a
+definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really
+accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In
+this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing
+but one thing at a time.
+
+Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of
+these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in
+class work.
+
+
+1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks.
+Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will
+often render copying unnecessary.
+
+2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship,
+and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly
+written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one
+that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so
+valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring.
+
+3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for
+composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page
+without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to
+write on only one side of the paper.
+
+4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet.
+Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the
+right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under
+each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the
+lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded
+into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next
+line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as
+steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided
+by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them.
+
+5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the
+center of the line above the composition, and should have all important
+words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as
+follows:--
+
+
+                          MY TRIP TO CHICAGO
+                             ON A BICYCLE
+
+
+With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same
+distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater
+than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations.
+
+6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink
+eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an
+incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be
+written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a
+caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied.
+
+7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to
+inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such
+as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page
+should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with
+neatness and precision.
+
+
++2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of
+using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name,
+such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we
+should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written
+by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are
+so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters
+would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that
+capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of
+deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I,
+the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage
+varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such
+expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of
+Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to
+write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they
+are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The
+general then spoke.
+
+
++3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry
+begin with capitals.
+
+2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of
+sentences, begins with a capital.
+
+3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with
+capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer
+capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic.
+
+4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with
+capitals.
+
+5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc.,
+begin with capitals.
+
+6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized.
+
+7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring
+thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized.
+
+8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in
+text-books indicating topics.
+
+
++4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the
+grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are
+reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this
+grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and
+inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses
+do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection
+and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are
+important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear.
+There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may
+all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only
+such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense.
+
+What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by
+custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with
+which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present
+tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear
+understanding of the sentence.
+
+There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be
+made so definite, and the application of them requires care and
+judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by
+practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating
+punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you,
+and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted
+afterward.
+
+
++5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate
+words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series.
+
+  Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned.
+
+  The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a
+    good place to live in at least part of the year.
+
+
+If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma
+may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction.
+
+
+  The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food.
+
+
+2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma.
+
+
+  The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of
+    wild life.
+
+
+3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of
+the sentence.
+
+
+  Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release.
+  O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine!
+
+
+4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are
+set off by commas.
+
+
+  However, the current is narrow and very shallow here.
+
+  This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or
+    playgrounds.
+
+
+If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to
+the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently
+used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close.
+
+
+5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound
+predicate.
+
+
+  Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man
+    who can wield an ax.
+
+
+6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or
+with a long modifier, from the predicate verb.
+
+
+  One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with
+small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name
+as many species of birds as possible.
+
+
+7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their
+natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas.
+
+
+  A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all.
+
+  To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it.
+
+
+8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they
+are set off by commas.
+
+
+  They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop.
+
+
+9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause
+from the rest of the sentence.
+
+
+  The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money
+    and spent it.
+
+  While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the
+    testing department.
+
+
+If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when
+the dependent clause comes last.
+
+
+  I will be there when the train arrives.
+
+
+10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be
+separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma.
+
+
+  Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just
+    returned to England.
+
+
+If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or
+limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary.
+
+
+  This is the best article that he ever wrote.
+
+
+
+11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when
+they are short or closely connected.
+
+
+  Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there.
+
+    Breathe it, exult in it,
+    All the day long,
+    Glide in it, leap in it,
+    Thrill it with song.
+
+
+12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by
+a comma.
+
+
+  "There must be a beaver dam here," he called.
+
+
+13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by
+commas.
+
+
+  If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week.
+
+
++6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a
+compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should
+be used to separate them.
+
+
+  Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a
+    college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate,
+    and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one
+    of these men could do more than this one thing.
+
+--Wendell Phillips.
+
+  We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be
+    obliged to soon.
+
+
+2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they
+should be separated from one another by semicolons.
+
+
+  As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at
+    it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew
+    him.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_.
+
+
+  Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little.
+
+
+4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on
+what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by
+semicolons.
+
+
+  When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more
+    heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous
+    exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting
+    kinds--woolens.
+
+
++7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used
+before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before
+the conclusion of a previous statement.
+
+
+  Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only
+    himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons
+    though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world
+    is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has
+    been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self."
+
+--George Dana Boardman.
+
+  Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and
+    definitive adjectives.
+
+  The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M.
+    Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark.
+
+
+2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound
+sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons.
+
+
+  It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too
+    pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else
+    do it when the busy time is over.
+
+
++8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close
+of imperative and declarative sentences.
+
+2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period.
+
+
++9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark
+should be used after all direct questions.
+
+
++10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and
+exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation
+mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole
+exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a
+comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark.
+
+
+See, how the lightning flashes!
+
+
++11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden
+changes in thought or breaks in speech.
+
+
+I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does.
+
+
+2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis
+to set off parenthetical expressions.
+
+
+In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce--
+abounds.
+
+
+3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to
+point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed.
+
+
+I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in
+the rain--all evidences of wasted time.
+
+
+4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations,
+before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced
+statement.
+
+
++12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used
+to inclose direct quotations.
+
+
+"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked.
+
+
+2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation
+marks.
+
+
+"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady
+of a clerk in Brooklyn.
+
+
+3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the
+different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks.
+
+
+"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold."
+
+4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks
+are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last
+one.
+
+
++13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to
+denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to
+form the plural of signs, figures, and letters.
+
+
+In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which
+can't be distinguished from engravings.
+
+
+
+II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR
+
+
+THE SENTENCE
+
+
++14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their
+relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a
+group of words that expresses a complete thought.
+
+
++15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the
+office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The
+_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_
+is that which asserts something about the subject.
+
+Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself
+to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been
+singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck
+_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute
+complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)].
+
+The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought
+(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group
+of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term,
+_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above
+given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement,
+objective complement).
+
+In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups
+of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more
+exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are
+used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_.
+
+[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears
+the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).]
+
+Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified:
+
+[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover];
+one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover].
+
+The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the
+_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_.
+
+The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is
+present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the
+_complete predicate_.
+
+Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple
+predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_.
+
+
++16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified
+according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_,
+and _imperative_ sentences.
+
+A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares
+something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic].
+
+An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote
+_Mother Goose_?].
+
+An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty:
+["Fling away ambition"].
+
+Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the
+sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the
+children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?"
+(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!"
+(exclamatory imperative)].
+
+Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative
+forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark.
+
+
+WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES
+
+
++17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are
+_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse,
+he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value,
+more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue,
+he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_
+and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation
+between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The
+word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would
+seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills
+the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following
+sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is
+evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in
+the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the
+second sentence by _is_.
+
+All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a
+connecting or relational office.
+
+
+PARTS OF SPEECH
+
+
++18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences
+we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words
+are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves
+as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of
+Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence
+shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of
+speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a
+_phrase_ or a _clause_.
+
+A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate,
+that is used as a single part of speech.
+
+A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate,
+that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it
+is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the
+word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only.
+
+
++19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as
+follows:--
+
+  I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns.
+ II. Assertives: verbs.
+III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs.
+ IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions.
+  V. Interjections.
+
+
++20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as
+follows:--
+
+(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name.
+
+(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person,
+place, or thing without naming it.
+
+(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive.
+
+(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being---
+concerning a substantive.
+
+(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another
+adverb.
+
+(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive
+that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence.
+
+(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used
+in the same way.
+
+(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of
+the sentence.
+
+
+                              NOUNS
+
+
++21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes:
+_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl].
+
+Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns
+[army].
+
+Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction].
+
+
++22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in
+its meaning is termed _inflection_.
+
+
++23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows
+us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to
+denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but
+one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one
+object is _plural_ in number.
+
+The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to
+the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes].
+
+Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:--
+
+1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children].
+
+2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese].
+
+3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_
+[leaf, leaves].
+
+4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and
+add _es_ [enemy, enemies].
+
+5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You
+have used too many _i_'s].
+
+6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according
+to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena].
+
+7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number.
+  (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the
+plural [sheep, deer].
+  (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks].
+  (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh].
+  (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles,
+news, politics].
+
+8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part
+of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the
+compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a
+plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of
+as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls].
+
+ 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are
+preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the
+title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters.
+The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs.
+Harrisons.]
+
+ 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth,
+cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence].
+
+
++24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun
+bears to some other word in the sentence.
+
+Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting
+case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English
+language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but
+nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and
+objective cases have the same form.
+
++25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in
+the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by
+adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's].
+
+In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the
+apostrophe [girls'].
+
+A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the
+'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses'].
+
+Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word.
+This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used:
+[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra].
+
+Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second
+noun only: [My sister Martha's book].
+
+Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to
+denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness].
+
+
++26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex.
+Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those
+denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things
+without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender.
+
+
++27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show
+whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken
+of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to
+be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are
+not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them
+because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what
+persons they represent.
+
+
++28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions
+of nouns:--
+
+(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession.
+
+(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:--
+
+1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame]
+
+2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of
+the year].
+
+3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!].
+
+4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!].
+
+5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the
+sunshine].
+
+6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of
+Genoa, discovered America].
+
+(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:--
+
+ 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the
+object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils].
+
+ 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_].
+
+ 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring].
+
+ 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New
+England_].
+
+ 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go
+without delay].
+
+ 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I
+thought it to be _John_ (_him_)].
+
+ 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_].
+
+ 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone,
+the great _explorer_].
+
+
++29. Equivalents for Nouns.+
+
+1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas].
+
+2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great].
+
+3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the
+process].
+
+4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_].
+
+5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to
+act_].
+
+6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun
+clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and
+appositive.
+
+7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out].
+
+
+                             PRONOUNS
+
+
++30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun.
+The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the
+_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person,
+number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_.
+
+
++31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five
+classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2)
+relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns,
+(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added).
+
+
++32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they
+show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the
+third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he,
+she_, and _it_.
+
+
++33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used
+in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the
+personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be
+understood.
+
+1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a
+sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is
+used _impersonally_.
+
+2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a
+sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb:
+[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called
+an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way.
+
+
++34. Cautions and Suggestions.+
+
+1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its,
+yours, ours_, and _theirs_.
+
+2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute
+complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_].
+
+3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of
+the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such
+sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk.
+Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us
+to make the possessive pronouns singular.
+
+_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is
+convenient not to use the expression _his or her_.
+
+4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case:
+[I asked _him_ to go].
+
+5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the
+verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective
+case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the
+subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was
+_he_].
+
+6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt
+in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun.
+
+7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_:
+[_Those_ books are mine].
+
+
++35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our,
+your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and
+_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound
+personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:--
+
+1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the
+subject].
+
+2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_].
+
+
++36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which,
+what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than
+equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are
+often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent
+either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive
+pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate
+clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they
+modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_.
+
+
++37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and
+objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_
+and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things.
+
+When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular
+person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the
+clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently
+used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a
+_non-restrictive clause_.
+
+[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the
+omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in
+England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the
+clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10.
+
+In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to
+separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys.
+Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so
+_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial
+boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is
+indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is
+put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information.
+
+
++38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used
+as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and
+possessive modifier.
+
+The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its
+antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_,
+who _am_ your friend, will assist you].
+
+The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause
+in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for
+the position].
+
+
++39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are
+formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who,
+which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives,
+and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_
+wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see].
+
+
++40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are
+used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_
+pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to
+persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_
+and _what_ are uninflected.
+
+The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did
+you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the
+clause itself is called an _indirect question_.
+
+The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of
+substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_:
+["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book
+did you choose?].
+
+
++41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals
+_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they
+point out individual persons or things.
+
+
++42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any,
+many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be
+used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_
+and _other_, are inflected.
+
+
+                SINGULAR     PLURAL       SINGULAR     PLURAL
+
+NOM. AND OBJ.    one          ones         other       others
+
+POSS.            one's        ones'        other's     others'
+
+
++43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has
+been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the
+office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question
+is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the
+word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_.
+[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).]
+
+
+ADJECTIVES
+
+
++44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives:
+the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and
+the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so
+called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any
+adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is
+named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very
+large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_
+adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small
+part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook].
+
+
++45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives
+include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have
+been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_),
+and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_.
+
+
++46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_
+and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are
+inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a
+difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There
+are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and
+the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the
+syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and
+superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives
+of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before
+the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer,
+longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful].
+
++47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared
+irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar
+with the correct forms.
+
+
+POSITIVE     COMPARATIVE     SUPERLATIVE
+
+bad  }
+evil }         worse           worst
+ill  }
+
+far            farther         farthest
+
+good }         better          best
+well }
+
+fore           former        { foremost
+                             { first
+
+late         { later         { latest
+             { latter        { last
+
+little         less            least
+
+many }         more            most
+much }
+
+near           nearer        { nearest
+                             { next
+
+old          { older         { oldest
+             { elder         { eldest
+
+
+The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive
+degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:--
+
+
+(forth)             further                 furthest
+
+(in)                inner                 { innermost
+                                          { inmost
+
+(out)              { outer                { outermost
+                   { utter                { utmost
+                                          { uttermost
+
+(up)                upper                 { upmost
+                                          { uppermost
+
+
++48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+
+
+1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is
+placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an
+industrious, faithful pupil].
+
+2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be
+repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress].
+
+3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only
+before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker
+and real estate agent].
+
+4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun
+they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds].
+
+5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used:
+[This is the more complete of the two].
+
+6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should
+be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house
+better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any
+house].
+
+7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is
+he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class
+consisting of many kinds.
+
+
++49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or
+limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective
+limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is
+called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as
+attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute
+complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)].
+
+
++50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents
+for the typical adjective:--
+
+1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret
+Ogilvy_," is very beautiful].
+
+2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song].
+
+3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of
+kindness_ and _of love_].
+
+4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between
+the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called
+mercenaries].
+
+5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_].
+
+6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_
+is the one I want].
+
+
+
+                               VERBS
+
+
++51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an
+assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the
+whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_
+serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation.
+The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the
+_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate
+words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not
+always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must
+believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like
+the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_
+verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such
+as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They
+attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject.
+
+
++52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are
+divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_.
+
+A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed
+or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product
+of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The
+transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here
+the object is implied.
+
+An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its
+meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an
+action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away.
+They were standing at the water's edge].
+
+A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are
+always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and
+_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them.
+The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning,
+while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may
+sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest].
+
+The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or
+intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used.
+
+         [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive).
+          The fire _burned_ the building (transitive).
+          The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive).
+          The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).]
+
+Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died
+a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb.
+
+
++53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a
+complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such
+verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts].
+
+All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words
+to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be
+incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is
+termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the
+_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_].
+Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an
+_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to
+the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the
+predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be
+either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is
+_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most
+conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs.
+
+
++54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to
+express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the
+so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may,
+must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of
+these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added.
+
+_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject.
+
+_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus
+the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?"
+
+_Must_ indicates necessity.
+
+_Ought_ expresses obligation.
+
+_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in
+past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have
+done_ it].
+
+_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go].
+
+_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours].
+Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of
+_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60.
+
+
++55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be
+called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them--
+are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the
+_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been].
+The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts.
+
+
++56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have
+certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or
+_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the
+case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs
+are _conjugated_.
+
+
++57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected
+language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person
+and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the
+third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in
+the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_].
+
+
++58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in
+person and number. The following suggestions concerning
+agreement may be helpful:--
+
+1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb:
+[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food].
+
+2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_,
+differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer
+of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame].
+
+3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by
+_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this
+book or that _is_ mine].
+
+4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc.,
+do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of
+the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my
+books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame].
+
+5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject,
+the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_
+number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of
+children _have_ been playing in the sand pile].
+
+6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is
+singular: [You _were_ here yesterday].
+
+7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the
+collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals.
+
+
++59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called
+_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or
+condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses:
+_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses
+for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and
+_future perfect_.
+
+English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I
+love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary
+verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have,
+be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and
+participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb
+are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent
+division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later.
+
++60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_
+or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_.
+
+The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:--
+
+
+    SINGULAR                  PLURAL
+
+1. I shall fall          1. We shall fall
+2. Thou wilt fall        2. You will fall
+3. He will fall          3. They will fall
+
+
+_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but
+determination: [I will (= am determined to) go].
+
+_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of
+the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the
+determination of the speaker with reference to others.
+
+Notice:--
+
+1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun
+clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same
+auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used
+independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that
+her son _shall_ not be left alone].
+
+2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes
+simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination:
+[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there].
+
+3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second
+and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the
+answer.
+
+(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.)
+
+
++61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+
+
+1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past
+participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present
+perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_].
+
+2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle
+is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or
+_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_].
+
+3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall
+have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the
+_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_].
+
+
++62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a
+subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This
+is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he
+means well. I knew he meant well].
+
+The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not
+necessarily in the same tense.
+
+
+   [I think he _is_ there.         I thought he was there.
+    I think he _was_ there.        I thought he had been there.
+    I think he _will be_ there.    I thought he would be there.]
+
+
+In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the
+tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense
+requires.
+
+General truths and present facts should be expressed in the
+present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He
+believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president
+of your society?].
+
+The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at
+the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you].
+
++63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a
+doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how
+an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language
+there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of
+mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or
+attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb.
+
+The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact:
+[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?].
+
+The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of
+condition: [If she were here, I should be glad].
+
+The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here].
+
+
++64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from
+colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely.
+
+The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the
+present and preterite:--
+
+
+           IND.       SUBJ.                  IND.        SUBJ.
+        { I am        I be                { I was       I were
+        { Thou art    Thou be             { Thou wast   Thou were
+PRESENT { He is       He be    PRETERITE  { He was      He were
+        { We are      We be               { We were     We were
+        { You are     You be              { You were    You were
+        { They are    They be             { They were   They were
+
+
+In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except
+that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal
+endings.
+
+
+INDICATIVE               Thou learnest            He learns
+SUBJUNCTIVE              Thou learn               He learn
+
+
+The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing
+the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and
+_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am
+allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to),
+_should_ is indicative.
+
+The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:--
+
+1. A wish: [The Lord be with you].
+
+2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we
+think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go].
+When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb
+precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me].
+
+3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn].
+
+4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom].
+
+5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I
+shall pity him].
+
+6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late].
+
+The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional
+clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though
+the earth be removed, we shall not fear].
+
+The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case
+is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased].
+
+The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time:
+[If you had been here, this would not have happened].
+
+The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are
+sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall
+within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is
+only an incumbrance.
+
+
++65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and
+entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one
+tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is
+usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the
+imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my
+books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the
+verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative.
+
+
++66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they
+represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they
+represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their
+very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices,
+for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted
+upon.
+
+The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the
+passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the
+object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by
+my dog (passive)].
+
+Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects
+referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct
+object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him
+_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when
+the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called
+_a coward_ by John].
+
+Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active:
+[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject
+in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_
+[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John].
+
+
++67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a
+verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the
+noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does
+not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers
+and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun.
+
+There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by
+_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or
+_infinitive in -ing_.
+
+1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice].
+
+2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences
+the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the
+sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object
+_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the
+adverb _rapidly_.
+
+Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its
+object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition.
+The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is
+used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be
+a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses.
+
+The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The
+_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the
+principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to
+write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference
+to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her].
+
+
++68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_
+the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun
+_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_.
+
+The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an
+ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is
+formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_.
+
+There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or
+infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the
+noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_
+the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_
+the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)].
+
+Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used
+for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for
+the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used
+in all the adjective constructions.
+
+One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction,
+or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been
+finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a
+clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the
+main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the
+substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging
+to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As
+the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_.
+
+
++69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various
+forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be
+found in any text-book on English grammar.
+
+The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive
+conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a
+_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some
+form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing].
+
+It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past
+participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the
+same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always
+shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as
+an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work
+(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)].
+
+
++70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as
+regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which
+form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the
+present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others
+_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the
+history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and
+those of the _strong_ conjugations.
+
+The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_,
+or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change
+of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_.
+
+All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are
+_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the
+past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is
+_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations.
+
+A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the
+most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of
+which mistakes occur.
+
+
+PRESENT              PRETERITE            PAST PARTICIPLE
+am                     was                     been
+arise                  rose                    arisen
+bear                   bore                    borne, born[1]
+begin                  began                   begun
+bid (command)          bade                    bidden
+bite                   bit                     bitten
+blow                   blew                    blown
+break                  broke                   broken
+bring                  brought                 brought
+burst                  burst                   burst
+catch                  caught                  caught
+choose                 chose                   chosen
+climb                  climbed                 climbed
+come                   came                    come
+do                     did                     done
+drink                  drank                   drunk[2]
+drive                  drove                   driven
+drown                  drowned                 drowned
+eat                    ate                     eaten
+fall                   fell                    fallen
+fly                    flew                    flown
+freeze                 froze                   frozen
+get                    got                     got
+give                   gave                    given
+go                     went                    gone
+grow                   grew                    grown
+have                   had                     had
+hide                   hid                     hidden
+hurt                   hurt                    hurt
+know                   knew                    known
+lay                    laid                    laid
+lie (recline)          lay                     lain
+lead                   led                     led
+read                   read                    read
+ride                   rode                    ridden
+ring                   rang                    rung
+run                    ran                     run
+see                    saw                     seen
+shake                  shook                   shaken
+show                   showed                  shown
+sing                   sang                    sung
+sink                   sank                    sunk
+sit                    sat                     sat
+slay                   slew                    slain
+speak                  spoke                   spoken
+spring                 sprang                  sprung
+steal                  stole                   stolen
+swell                  swell                 { swelled
+                                             { swollen
+swim                   swam                    swum
+take                   took                    taken
+tear                   tore                    torn
+throw                  threw                   thrown
+wear                   wore                    worn
+wish                   wished                  wished
+write                  wrote                   written
+
+[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."]
+[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.]
+
+
+CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always
+use the past participle form in the compound tenses.
+
+
+
+ADVERBS
+
+
++71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning.
+It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we
+may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and
+_conjunctive_ adverbs.
+
+_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_].
+
+_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come?
+He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)].
+
+_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_
+we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a
+modifier of _stayed_.
+
+Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses:
+
+1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls].
+
+2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them].
+
+3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed].
+
+Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of
+_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a
+rigid one.
+
+Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in
+_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like
+meaning: [She sang very loud].
+
+Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When?
+
+Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with
+the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs.
+
+_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs
+modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
+
+
++72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot
+easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_
+as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc.
+
+
++73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the
+purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity.
+
+The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the
+syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of
+adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_
+and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest;
+skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully,
+least carefully].
+
+Some adverbs are compared irregularly:--
+
+badly     }            worse                 worst
+ill (evil)}
+far   }              { farther             { farthest
+forth }              { further             { furthest
+late                   later               { latest
+                                           { last
+little                 less                  least
+much                   more                  most
+nigh                   nigher              { nigher
+                                           { next
+well                   better                best
+
+
++74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+
+
+1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same
+form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part
+of speech each is.
+
+(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health).
+
+(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well.
+
+2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which
+should not be confused.
+
+(Adjective) She is a good student.
+
+(Adverb) He works well.
+
+3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a
+copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad;
+not, I feel badly].
+
+4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to
+denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him].
+
+
++75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+
+
+1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_].
+
+2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_].
+
+3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_].
+
+
+
+PREPOSITIONS
+
+
++76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after,
+against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through,
+till, to, under, up_, and _with_.
+
+Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath,
+across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_.
+
+
++77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are
+frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully
+discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition
+will be given.
+
+
+afraid _of_.
+agree _with_ a person.
+agree _to_ a proposal.
+bestow _upon_.
+compare _to_ (to show similarity).
+compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference).
+comply _with_.
+conform _to_.
+convenient _for_ or _to_.
+correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing).
+correspond _with_ (a person).
+dependent _on_.
+differ _from_ (a person or thing).
+differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion).
+different _from_.
+disappointed _in_.
+frightened _at_ or _by_.
+glad _of_.
+need _of_.
+profit _by_.
+scared _by_.
+taste _of_ (food).
+taste _for_ (art).
+thirst _for_ or _after_.
+
+
+_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses,
+called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be
+used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do].
+The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do].
+
+The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_
+denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_
+the garden].
+
+
++78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what
+is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when
+it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb,
+adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He
+sat _on the bench_ (adverb)].
+
+Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and
+_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes:
+[The ship lay to. A storm came on].
+
+
+
+CONJUNCTIONS
+
+
++79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to
+their use into two general classes: the _cooerdinate_ and the _subordinate_
+conjunctions.
+
+_Cooerdinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses
+of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank.
+
+The principal cooerdinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_.
+_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what
+has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also,
+besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions,
+_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_
+because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ cooerdinate
+conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has
+already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however,
+nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in
+its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made.
+
+Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_.
+_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_
+conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and
+as are _cooerdinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following:
+[She has been running, for she is out of breath].
+
+Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those
+of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and
+result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a
+_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go].
+
+There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are
+called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so
+... as, if ... then, though ... yet_.
+
+
++80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review
+the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_.
+
+The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the
+cooerdinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The
+predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made
+merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded:
+[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay].
+
+In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject
+and one predicate, is said to be _simple_.
+
+When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject
+and predicate--are united by a cooerdinate conjunction, the sentence is
+said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard
+preferred to play railroad].
+
+The cooerdinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its
+omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play
+Indian; Richard preferred another game].
+
+
++81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_
+conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause,
+thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in
+order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any
+group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills
+the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In
+the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I
+knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main
+clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went."
+"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a
+_substantive_ relation to the verb.
+
+Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions
+(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a
+clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_.
+If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is
+_compound-complex_.
+
+The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later.
+
+
+
+SENTENCE STRUCTURE
+
+
++82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use.
+
+From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its
+introductory word or words, as:--
+
+1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_].
+
+2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_].
+
+3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_].
+
+Classified as to use, a phrase may be--
+
+1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_].
+
+2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_].
+
+3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_].
+
+
++83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either
+principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one
+that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the
+sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases,
+it does not hold in cases like the following:--
+
+1. As the tree falls, so it must lie.
+
+2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied.
+
+The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in
+connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve
+the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal
+clauses.
+
+
++84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may
+be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses.
+
+_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:--
+
+1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment].
+
+2. Object: [I know _what you wish_].
+
+3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally
+believed].
+
+4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_].
+
+_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions.
+
+Thus:--
+
+1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine].
+
+2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible].
+
+_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the
+introductory word.
+
+(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who,
+which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound
+relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both
+relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is
+painted white. I know _whom you_ mean].
+
+(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The
+man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to
+take_].
+
+(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as
+_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where,
+whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie
+lives_].
+
+(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because,
+since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order
+that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_].
+
+_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of
+the thought expressed.
+
+(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a
+fine view].
+
+(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down].
+
+(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can].
+
+(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go].
+
+(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults].
+
+(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_].
+
+(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_].
+
+(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go].
+
+(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_].
+
+Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying
+clauses.
+
+(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"].
+
+(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_].
+
+(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was].
+
+Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive
+clauses.
+
+
++85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting
+of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some
+completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an
+_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both
+subject and predicate may have modifiers.
+
+The usual modifiers of the subject are:--
+
+1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken].
+
+2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful].
+
+3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful].
+
+4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost].
+
+5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will
+open the debate].
+
+6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend].
+
+7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing].
+
+8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way].
+
+The modifiers of the predicate are:--
+
+1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_].
+
+2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_].
+
+3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an
+important question].
+
+4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_].
+
+5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_].
+
+6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience
+dispersed].
+
+Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire
+thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_
+I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you].
+
+
+
+LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS
+
+
++86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which
+appear as various parts of speech:---
+
++a+      (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing.
+
++about+  (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked
+             _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the
+             same way.
+
++above+  (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go
+             _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4)
+            Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has
+            the same uses.
+
++after+  (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He
+             came _after_ she went away.
+
++all+    (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I
+             gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue.
+             (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right.
+
++as+     (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive
+             adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other
+             grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot,
+             we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend.
+             (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well.
+
++before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive
+             Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never
+             been here _before_.
+
++both+   (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2)
+             Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_
+             good and beautiful.
+
++but+    (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition:
+             All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail.
+
++either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction:
+             _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun:
+             _Either_ is right.
+
++fast+   (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb:
+             The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker.
+
++for+    (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2)
+             Cooerdinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her.
+             (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you.
+
++hard+   (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_.
+
++like+   (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This
+             process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father
+             pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me.
+             (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a
+             _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb:
+             You _like_ your work.
+
++little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_.
+             (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses.
+
++many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree.
+
++notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were
+              content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy,
+              _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid.
+
++only+   (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_
+             experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should
+             go, _only_ it is stormy.
+
++since+  (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2)
+             Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it.
+             (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive
+             Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have.
+
++still+  (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is
+             _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is
+             entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil
+             is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of
+             noonday the song of the locust was loud.
+
++than+   (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_
+             whom there is none wiser.
+
++that+   (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive
+             Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective:
+             _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you
+             may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction:
+             _That_ this is true is evident.
+
++the+    (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ...
+             _the_ merrier.
+
++then+   (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so
+             decide, _then_ we may go.
+
++there+  (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are
+             many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There!
+             there!_ it makes no difference!
+
++what+   (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said.
+             Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective:
+             _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I
+             know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this
+             and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6)
+             Interjection: _What! what!_
+
++while+  (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time.
+             (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows.
+
+
+
+III. FIGURES OF SPEECH
+
+
++87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual
+form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These
+changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or
+because they are more forcible, or for both reasons.
+
+While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression,
+we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural
+as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most
+learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This
+arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions.
+When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that
+the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of
+figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple
+expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our
+poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but
+it is in poetry that we find most of them.
+
+
++88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects
+belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all
+resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two
+beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a
+tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may
+form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same
+class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one
+strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects.
+
+
+1. How far that little candle throws its beams!
+   So shines a good deed in a naughty world.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared;
+   Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight.
+
+--Matthew Arnold.
+
+
+3. In the primrose-tinted sky
+   The wan little moon
+   Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare.
+
+--Francis C. Rankin.
+
+
++89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison
+is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as
+the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily
+changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_
+another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Select the metaphors in the following and change them to
+similes:--
+
+
+1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood,
+   A living wall, a human wood.
+
+--James Montgomery.
+
+
+2. The familiar lines
+   Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+3. Life is a leaf of paper white,
+   Whereon each one of us may write
+   His word or two, and then comes night.
+
+--Lowell.
+
+
++90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor
+in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of
+persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+
+Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:--
+
+
+1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene
+   The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts
+   And puts them back into his golden quiver.
+
+--Longfellow.
+
+
+2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints.
+
+--Charles Pierce Burton.
+
+
+3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest,
+   And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest.
+
+--Wordsworth.
+
+
+4. See the mountains kiss high heaven,
+     And the waves clasp one another;
+   No sister flower would be forgiven
+     If it disdained its brother.
+
+--Shelley.
+
+
++91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an
+additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or
+the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus
+formed apostrophe.
+
+The following are examples of apostrophe:--
+
+
+1. Break, break, break,
+   At the foot of thy crags, O Sea!
+
+--Tennyson.
+
+
+2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight,
+   Make me a child again just for to-night!
+     Mother, come back from the echoless shore,
+     Take me again to your heart as of yore.
+
+--Elizabeth Akers Allen.
+
+
++92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another,
+the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the
+other.
+
+  1. The pupils are reading George Eliot.
+  2. Each hamlet heard the call.
+  3. Strike for your altars and your fires.
+  4. Gray hairs should be respected.
+
+
++93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything
+for the whole or a whole for the part.
+
+  1. A babe, two summers old.
+  2. Give us this day our daily bread.
+  3. Ring out the thousand years of woe,
+     Ring in the thousand years of peace.
+  4. Fifty mast are on the ocean.
+
+
++94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics,
+the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already
+given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two
+former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the
+last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or
+paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned
+elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be
+given here.
+
+1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning,
+but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning.
+
+  What has the gray-haired prisoner done?
+  Has murder stained his hands with gore?
+  Not so; his crime is a fouler one--
+  God made the old man poor.
+
+--Whittier.
+
+
+2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase
+the effectiveness of a statement.
+
+
+He was a man of boundless knowledge.
+
+
+3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast
+may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire
+paragraph.
+
+
+  Look like the innocent flower,
+  But be the serpent under it.
+
+--Shakespeare.
+
+
+4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas.
+
+
+I came, I saw, I conquered.
+
+
+5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information
+but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of
+_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question
+affirms.
+
+  1. Am I my brother's keeper?
+  2. Am I not free?
+
+
+
+IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE
+
+
++95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we
+have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as
+applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles
+are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it
+contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas
+are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A
+sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is
+perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that
+deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of
+a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general
+terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by
+employing the devices of balance and contrast.
+
+We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition
+and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite
+likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or
+unity often results in a lack of emphasis.
+
+
++96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a
+general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very
+religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and
+in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical.
+The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or
+more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular
+relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture.
+We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus:
+(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very
+religious man.)
+
+2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled
+when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to
+seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously
+deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous
+dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should
+be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and
+words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his
+captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who
+had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.)
+
+3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his
+shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The
+ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is
+little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the
+sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look
+strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous
+ideas.
+
+4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the
+men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers
+to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the
+thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the
+subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of
+impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they
+had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions,
+they began to think of catching the thief.)
+
+5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical
+unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant
+day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences,
+when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of
+the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas
+expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are
+gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I
+went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.)
+
+
++97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was
+returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his
+staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred
+to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of
+phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many
+hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers,
+was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing
+the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the
+word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of
+these words.
+
+2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in
+that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to
+his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.)
+In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not
+clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the
+pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a
+very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is
+found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told
+this parent the night before in his room.)
+
+3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully
+preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a
+great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is
+manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had
+carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on
+Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.)
+
+4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to
+school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he
+went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the
+coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical
+relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well
+as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it
+rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went
+to school).
+
+5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed
+courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.)
+Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure
+from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to
+confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The
+stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.)
+
+
++98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+--
+
+1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event
+to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged
+his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are
+"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,--
+at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this
+order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In
+the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its
+modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the
+introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling
+enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be
+reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical.
+(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This
+sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended
+structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest
+as well as for securing emphasis.
+
+2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted,
+hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest
+idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry,
+dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.)
+
+3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning
+house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed"
+and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and
+"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to
+express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we
+only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct
+sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then,
+we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity.
+(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.)
+
+4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the
+brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A
+consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to
+the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a
+large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following
+sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to
+the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the
+stream.)
+
+5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the
+fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of
+past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of
+righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it,
+the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating
+what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form
+gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel
+parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed.
+This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however,
+will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded
+in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other
+is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety.
+
+
+EXERCISES
+
+Point out the specific faults and correct:--
+
+1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman.
+
+2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the
+novel.
+
+3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other
+players for a time, he got up and left the room.
+
+4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could
+overcome.
+
+5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a
+bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles.
+
+6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and
+courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character.
+
+7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind
+heart.
+
+8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed
+them.
+
+9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous
+disorder.
+
+10. The boys were only injured a little.
+
+11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we
+are wise enough to discover it.
+
+12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope
+was hypocritical and spiteful.
+
+13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little
+to live for.
+
+14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most
+valorous knight.
+
+15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind.
+
+16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and
+Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy.
+
+17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at
+this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream
+issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below.
+
+18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names
+for ourselves and to acquire property.
+
+19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist.
+
+20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man.
+
+21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until
+last year.
+
+22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect.
+
+
+
+V. LIST OF SYNONYMS
+
+
+Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from.
+
+Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate.
+
+Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe.
+
+Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual.
+
+Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power.
+
+Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out.
+
+Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame.
+
+Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied.
+
+Absolve, acquit, clear.
+
+Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance.
+
+Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical,
+preposterous, unreasonable, wild.
+
+Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful.
+
+Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner.
+
+Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple.
+
+Actual, authentic, genuine, real.
+
+Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact.
+
+Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful.
+
+Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring.
+
+Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate.
+
+Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate.
+
+Admixture, alloy.
+
+Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling.
+
+Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome.
+
+Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham.
+
+Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state.
+
+Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable.
+
+Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor.
+
+Akin, alike, identical.
+
+Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful.
+
+Allay, appease, calm, pacify.
+
+Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion.
+
+Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest.
+
+Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure.
+
+Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro.
+
+Amend, better, mend, reform, repair.
+
+Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen.
+
+Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime.
+
+Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment.
+
+Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism.
+
+Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort.
+
+Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent.
+
+Apiece, individually, severally, separately.
+
+Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable.
+
+Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand.
+
+Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon.
+
+Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency,
+superciliousness, vanity.
+
+Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman.
+
+Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated.
+
+Assent, agree, comply.
+
+Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility,
+insolence, officiousness, rudeness.
+
+Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit.
+
+Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless.
+
+Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught.
+
+Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure.
+
+Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake.
+
+Attitude, pose, position, posture.
+
+Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute.
+
+Axiom, truism.
+
+
+Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder,
+impede, retard, thwart.
+
+Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism.
+
+Beg, plead, press, urge.
+
+Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy.
+
+Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity.
+
+Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict.
+
+Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer,
+glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle.
+
+Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly.
+
+Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show.
+
+Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless,
+gallant, heroic, undismayed.
+
+Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism.
+
+Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse.
+
+Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over.
+
+
+Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap.
+
+Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased,
+unprejudiced, unreserved.
+
+Candor, frankness, truth, veracity.
+
+Caprice, humor, vagary, whim.
+
+Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty.
+
+Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure.
+
+Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason,
+purpose.
+
+Caution, discretion, prudence.
+
+Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach.
+
+Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament.
+
+Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait.
+
+Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative.
+
+Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification,
+happiness, jollity, satisfaction.
+
+Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly.
+
+Class, circle, clique, coterie.
+
+Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen.
+
+Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit.
+
+Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate.
+
+Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy.
+
+Compassionate, gracious, humane.
+
+Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect.
+
+Confirm, corroborate.
+
+Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated.
+
+Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various.
+
+Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise.
+
+Conscious, aware, certain.
+
+Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot.
+
+Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted.
+
+Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable.
+
+Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted.
+
+
+Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice.
+
+Dangerous, formidable, terrible.
+
+Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify.
+
+Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish.
+
+Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious,
+ruinous.
+
+Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender.
+
+Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying.
+
+Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying.
+
+Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander.
+
+Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract.
+
+Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir.
+
+
+Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary.
+
+Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly.
+
+Emergency, extremity, necessity.
+
+Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain,
+visionary.
+
+Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom.
+
+Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing.
+
+Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge.
+
+Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege.
+
+Explicit, express.
+
+
+Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid,
+listless, purposeless.
+
+Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty.
+
+Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary.
+
+Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt.
+
+Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack.
+
+Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver.
+
+Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity.
+
+
+Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow.
+
+
+Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous.
+
+
+Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught.
+
+Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing.
+
+Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable.
+
+Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying.
+
+Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful.
+
+Irritation, offense, pique, resentment.
+
+
+Probably, presumably.
+
+
+Reliable, trustworthy, trusty.
+
+Remnant, trace, token, vestige.
+
+Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy.
+
+
+VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE
+
+Ability, capacity.
+
+Accept, except.
+
+Acceptance, acceptation.
+
+Access, accession.
+
+Accredit, credit.
+
+Act, action.
+
+Admire, like.
+
+Admittance, admission.
+
+Advance, advancement, progress, progression.
+
+Affect, effect.
+
+After, afterward.
+
+Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating.
+
+Allege, maintain
+
+Allow, guess, think.
+
+Allusion, illusion, delusion.
+
+Almost, most, mostly.
+
+Alone, only.
+
+Alternate, choice.
+
+Among, between.
+
+Amount, number, quantity.
+
+Angry, mad.
+
+Apparently, evidently.
+
+Apt, likely, liable.
+
+Arise, rise.
+
+At, in.
+
+Avocation, vocation.
+
+Awfully, very.
+
+
+Balance, rest, remainder.
+
+Begin, commence.
+
+Beside, besides.
+
+Both, each, every.
+
+Bring, fetch.
+
+By, with.
+
+
+Calculate, intend.
+
+Carry, bring, fetch.
+
+Casuality, casualty.
+
+Character, reputation.
+
+Claim, assert.
+
+Clever, pleasant.
+
+College, university, school.
+
+Completeness, completion.
+
+Compliment, complement.
+
+Confess, admit.
+
+Construe, construct.
+
+Contemptible, contemptuous.
+
+Continual, continuous.
+
+Convince, convict.
+
+Council, counsel.
+
+Couple, pair.
+
+Credible, creditable, credulous.
+
+Custom, habit.
+
+
+Deadly, deathly.
+
+Decided, decisive.
+
+Decimate, destroy.
+
+Declare, assert.
+
+Degrade, demean.
+
+Depot, station, R.R.
+
+Discover, invent.
+
+Drive, ride.
+
+
+Each other, any other, one another.
+
+Emigration, immigration, migration.
+
+Enormity, enormousness.
+
+Estimate, esteem.
+
+Exceptional, exceptionable.
+
+Expect, suppose.
+
+
+Falseness, falsity.
+
+Fly, flee.
+
+Funny, odd.
+
+Grant, give.
+
+Habit, practice.
+
+Haply, happily.
+
+Healthy, healthful, wholesome.
+
+Human, humane.
+
+
+Lady, woman.
+
+Last, latest, preceding.
+
+Learn, teach.
+
+Lease, hire.
+
+Less, fewer.
+
+Lie, lay.
+
+Loan, lend.
+
+Love, like.
+
+
+Mad, angry.
+
+Majority, plurality.
+
+Manly, mannish.
+
+May, can.
+
+Mutual, common.
+
+
+Necessities, necessaries.
+
+Nice, pleasant, attractive.
+
+Noted, notorious.
+
+
+Observation, observance.
+
+Official, officious.
+
+Oral, verbal.
+
+
+Part, portion.
+
+Partly, partially.
+
+Persecute, prosecute.
+
+Person, party.
+
+Practicable, practical.
+
+Prescribe, proscribe.
+
+Prominent, predominant.
+
+Purpose, propose.
+
+
+Quite, very, rather.
+
+
+Relation, relative.
+
+Repair, mend.
+
+Requirement, requisite.
+
+Rise, raise.
+
+
+Scholar, pupil, student.
+
+Sensible of, sensitive to.
+
+Series, succession.
+
+Settle, locate.
+
+Sewage, sewerage.
+
+Shall, will.
+
+Should, would.
+
+Sit, set.
+
+Splendid, elegant.
+
+Statement, assertion.
+
+Statue, statute, stature.
+
+Stay, stop.
+
+
+Team, carriages.
+
+Transpire, happen.
+
+
+Verdict, testimony.
+
+Without, unless.
+
+Womanly, womanish.
+
+
+INDEX
+
+Abbott.
+Action: observation of.
+Actuality: in argument.
+Adams.
+Adjectives.
+Advantages:
+  of expressing ideas gained from experience;
+  of imaginative theme writing.
+Adverbs.
+Agreement.
+Allen, Elizabeth A.
+Allen, James Lane.
+Ambiguity.
+Analogy: argument from.
+Antithesis.
+Apostrophe:
+  rule for;
+  as figure of speech.
+Argument:
+  purpose of;
+  use of explanation in;
+  by stating advantages and disadvantages;
+  by use of specific instances;
+  refutation or indirect;
+  differs from exposition;
+  clear thinking essential;
+  by inference;
+  from cause;
+  from sign;
+  from example;
+  from analogy;
+  differs from persuasion;
+  with persuasion.
+Argumentative themes.
+Arnold.
+Arrangement:
+  _see_ coherence;
+  in argument;
+  summary of.
+Attendant circumstances: argument from.
+Authority: appeals to in argument.
+Auxiliary verbs.
+Ayton.
+
+
+Bagley.
+Baldwin.
+Ballad.
+Bancroft.
+Belief:
+  necessity in debate;
+  establishing a general theory;
+  basis of.
+Beveridge.
+Biography.
+Blank verse.
+Boardman.
+Bourdillon.
+Bowles.
+Bradley.
+Brief.
+Brown.
+Browning.
+Bryant.
+Budgell.
+Burke.
+Burns.
+Burroughs.
+Byron.
+
+
+Cable.
+Camp.
+Capitals.
+Cary.
+Case.
+Cause and effect:
+  development of paragraph by use of;
+  development of composition by use of;
+  use in exposition;
+  use in argument.
+Cautions and suggestions:
+  use of figures of speech;
+  in debating;
+  use of pronouns;
+  use of adjectives;
+  use of verbs;
+  use of adverbs;
+  prepositions.
+Character sketch.
+Choice of words:
+  adapted to reader;
+  as to meaning;
+  simple.
+Clark.
+Classification.
+Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive.
+Clearness.
+Climax:
+  in narration;
+  in argument;
+  as figure of speech.
+Coherence:
+  definition;
+  in outline;
+  in composition;
+  arrangement of details;
+  arrangement of facts in exposition;
+  aided by outline;
+  in argument;
+  in sentences.
+Coleridge.
+Colon: rules for.
+Colton.
+Comma: rules for.
+Comparison:
+  as an aid to formation of images;
+  development of a paragraph by;
+  definitions supplemented by;
+  as a method of developing a composition;
+  as an aid in establishing fundamental image;
+  as an aid to effectiveness in description;
+  use in exposition;
+  analogy;
+  of adjectives;
+  of adverbs.
+Complete and incomplete verbs.
+Composition:
+  kinds of;
+  general principles of.
+Conclusion.
+Conjugation.
+Conjunctions.
+Connolly.
+Connor.
+Constructions:
+  of nouns;
+  of personal pronouns;
+  of relative pronouns;
+  of adjectives.
+Contrast:
+  development of a paragraph by;
+  development of a composition by;
+  use in exposition.
+Conversation.
+Cooper.
+Copeland-Rideout.
+Correction of themes.
+
+
+Darwin.
+Dash: rules for.
+Debate:
+  value of;
+  statement of question;
+  necessity of belief;
+  order of presentation;
+  cautions.
+Deductive reasoning: errors of.
+Definition:
+  by synonym;
+  by use of simpler words;
+  definitions to be supplemented;
+  first step in exposition;
+  logical;
+  difficulty in framing;
+  inexact.
+Description:
+  Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes);
+  defined;
+  effectiveness in;
+  classes of objects frequently described:
+    buildings;
+    natural features;
+    sounds;
+    color;
+    animals;
+    plants;
+    persons;
+  impression of;
+  impression as purpose of;
+  in narration;
+  general description.
+Descriptive themes.
+Details:
+  selection of;
+  paragraph developed by;
+  related in time-order;
+  related with reference to position in space;
+  used in general description;
+  in general narration;
+  composition developed by giving details in time-order;
+  by giving details with reference to position in space;
+  selection of, affected by point of view;
+  selection of essential;
+  selection and subordination of minor;
+  arrangement of;
+  in narration;
+  arrangement;
+  selection of facts in exposition;
+  exposition by use of.
+Dewey.
+Diction.
+Discourse: forms of
+  presupposes an audience.
+Division.
+Dixey.
+Dramatic poetry.
+Dryer.
+Dunbar, Mary Louise.
+
+
+Ease.
+Effectiveness in description
+  comparison and figures of speech, as aids to.
+Elegance.
+Elegy.
+Eliot, George.
+Emphasis
+  in sentences.
+Enthymeme.
+Epic.
+Equivalents: for nouns
+  for adjectives.
+  for adverbs
+Essentials of expression.
+Euphony.
+Evidence.
+Examples: use in exposition
+  argument from _(see also_ specific instances).
+Exclamation mark: rule for.
+Expediency: questions of.
+Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination
+  impressions limited to.
+Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of
+  importance of
+  clear understanding necessary
+  of terms
+  of propositions
+  by repetition
+  by examples
+  by comparison and contrast
+  by obverse statements
+  by details
+  by cause and effect
+  by general description
+  by general narration
+  by use of specific instances.
+Expository themes.
+Expression: essentials of.
+
+
+Fallacy.
+Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion.
+Feet.
+Fields.
+Figures of speech
+  use of
+  as an aid to effectiveness in description.
+Ford.
+Form: importance of
+   directions as to.
+Forms of discourse.
+Fundamental image.
+
+
+Gender.
+General theory: how established,
+  basis of
+  appeals to.
+George, Marian M.
+Gilman.
+Grammar review.
+Gray.
+
+
+Hare.
+Harland.
+Harris.
+Hawthorne.
+Henry.
+Higginson and Channing.
+Hinman.
+History: writing of.
+Hoar.
+Holland.
+Holmes.
+Howells.
+Hyperbole.
+
+
+Ideas: from experience, Chapter I;
+from imagination, Chapter II; from
+language, Chapter III.
+  pleasure in expressing
+  sources of
+  advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience
+  from imagination
+  ideas from pictures
+  acquired through language.
+Images: making of
+  complete and incomplete
+  reproduction of
+  other requirements to determine meaning
+  fundamental
+  union with impression.
+Imagination, Chapter II.
+Impression:
+  of description,
+  as purpose of description,
+  necessity of observing impressions,
+  limited to experience,
+  affected by mood,
+  union with image.
+Improbability.
+Incentive moment.
+Indentation.
+Inductive reasoning:
+  errors of.
+Inference: use in argument.
+Infinitives.
+Interrogation.
+Interrogation mark: rule for.
+Introduction.
+Invitations.
+Irony.
+Irving.
+
+
+Jackson, Helen Hunt.
+Jordan and Kellogg.
+
+
+Kellogg.
+Kingsley.
+Kipling.
+
+
+Language:
+  as a medium through which ideas are acquired,
+  adapted to reader,
+Letter writing: Chapter VI;
+  importance of,
+  paper,
+  beginning,
+  body,
+  conclusion,
+  envelope,
+  rule of,
+  business letters,
+  letters of friendship,
+  adaptation to reader,
+  notes.
+Lodge.
+Longfellow.
+Lovelace.
+Lowell.
+Lyric poetry.
+
+
+Macaulay.
+Macy-Norris.
+Madame de Stael.
+Matthews.
+Maxims: appeals to in argument.
+McCarthy, Justin.
+Meaning of words.
+Memory.
+Metaphor:
+  mixed.
+Methods of developing a composition:
+  with reference to time-order,
+  with reference to position in space,
+  by use of comparison or contrast,
+  by use of generalization and facts,
+  by stating cause and effect,
+  by a combination of methods.
+Metonymy.
+Metrical romance.
+Metrical tale.
+Mill.
+Mill, J. S.
+Miller, Mary Rogers.
+Milton.
+Mode.
+Montgomery.
+Morris, Clara.
+Motive, in persuasion.
+
+
+Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below);
+  kinds of,
+  use of description in,
+  general narration,
+  narrative poetry.
+Narrative themes.
+Newcomer.
+Notes:
+  formal,
+  informal.
+Nouns.
+Number.
+
+
+Observation:
+  of actions,
+  order of,
+  accuracy in,
+  observation of impression.
+Obverse statements.
+Ode.
+Ollivaut.
+Oral compositions.
+Order of events.
+Outline:
+  of a paragraph.
+  the brief.
+  making of.
+  use of in exposition.
+
+
+Palmer.
+Paragraph:
+  defined,
+  topic statement,
+  importance of,
+  length,
+  indentation,
+  reasons for studying,
+  methods of development--
+    by specific instances,
+    by giving details,
+    in time-order,
+    as determined by position in space,
+    by comparison,
+    by cause and effect,
+    by repetition,
+    by a combination of methods.
+Paraphrasing.
+Participles.
+Partition.
+Parts of speech.
+Period: rules for.
+Person.
+Personification.
+Persuasion:
+  differs from argument,
+  importance and necessity of,
+  motive in,
+  material of,
+  appeal to feelings,
+  with argument.
+Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart.
+Philips, David Graham.
+Phillips, Wendell.
+Phrases.
+Plot:
+  interrelation with character.
+Poe.
+Poetry: Chapter VII;
+  aim of,
+  kinds of.
+Point: of a story,
+  _see also_ climax.
+Point of view:
+  selection of details effected by,
+  implied,
+  changing,
+  place in paragraph.
+Possibility: in argument.
+Post.
+Prepositions.
+Preston and Dodge.
+Principal parts of verbs.
+Probability:
+  in narration,
+  in argument.
+Procter, Adelaide.
+Pronouns.
+Pronunciation.
+Proportion of parts: for emphasis.
+Propositions:
+  specific,
+  general,
+  exposition of,
+  necessary to argument,
+  of fact and of theory,
+  statement of.
+Proverbs: use in argument.
+Punctuation.
+
+
+Quotation marks: rules for.
+
+
+Rankin.
+Read.
+Reasoning:
+  inductive,
+  errors of induction,
+  deductive,
+  relation between inductive and deductive,
+  errors of deduction.
+Reasons: number and value of.
+Recitations:
+  preparation for,
+  topical.
+Refutation.
+Reid, Captain Mayne.
+Repetition:
+  developing a paragraph by,
+  exposition by use of.
+Reproduction:
+  of a story,
+  of the thought of a paragraph.
+Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses.
+Rhyme.
+Rhythm: variation in.
+Richards, Laura E.
+Right: questions of.
+Robertson.
+Roosevelt.
+Ruskin.
+
+
+Scansion.
+Scott.
+Semicolon: rules for.
+Sentences:
+  length,
+  in conversation,
+  relations,
+  rhetorical features.
+Sewell, Anna.
+Shakespeare.
+Shelley.
+Sign: argument from.
+Simile.
+Slang.
+Smith.
+Song.
+Sonnet.
+Sources of ideas.
+Specific instances:
+  development of a paragraph by use of,
+  use in argument and exposition,
+  development of a composition by use of,
+  use in exposition.
+Spelling.
+Spencer.
+Stanza.
+Stevenson.
+Stoddard.
+Strong verbs.
+Subject:
+  selection of,
+  adapted to reader,
+  sources,
+  should be definite,
+  narrowing.
+Suggestions, _see_ cautions.
+Summaries, at the end of the chapters.
+Summarizing paragraph.
+Syllogism.
+Symons.
+Synecdoche.
+Synonyms.
+
+
+Tarkington.
+Taylor.
+Tennyson.
+Tense.
+Terms:
+  specific, general,
+  explanation of,
+  exposition of,
+  use in argument and exposition.
+Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and
+  reproduction themes.
+Thoreau.
+Thurston.
+Time-order.
+Title: selecting of.
+Topic statement.
+Transition from one paragraph to another.
+Transition paragraph.
+Trowbridge.
+Turner.
+
+
+Unity:
+  aided by time relations,
+  aided by position in space,
+  definition,
+  in life;
+  in outline,
+  in composition,
+  in sentences,
+  selection of details giving,
+  selection of facts in exposition,
+  aided by outline.
+
+
+Van Dyke.
+Van Rensselaer (Mrs.).
+Variety.
+Verbs.
+Verse: names of.
+Vocabulary:
+  how to increase,
+  words applicable to classes of objects.
+Voice.
+
+
+Wallace.
+Warner.
+Wessels.
+Whittier.
+Wilcox, Ella Wheeler.
+Woode.
+Words:
+  choice of,
+  spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use,
+  relations of,
+  adapted to reader,
+  selection,
+  use of simpler words,
+  selection,
+  applicable to classes of objects,
+  offices of,
+  special list of.
+Wordsworth.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks
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