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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/12047-0.txt b/12047-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..17bba6f --- /dev/null +++ b/12047-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13297 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12047 *** + +LEGENDS + +OF + +THE MADONNA, + +AS + +REPRESENTED IN THE FINE ARTS. + +BY MRS. JAMESON. + +CORRECTED AND ENLARGED EDITION. + +BOSTON: +HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY. +The Riverside Press, Cambridge. +1881. + + + + +NOTE BY THE PUBLISHERS. + +Some months since Mrs. Jameson kindly consented to prepare for this +Edition of her writings the series of _Sacred and Legendary Art_, but +dying before she had time to fulfil her promise, the arrangement has +been intrusted to other hands. The text of the whole series will be an +exact reprint of the last English Edition. + +TICKNOR & FIELDS. + +BOSTON, Oct. 1st, 1860. + + + + +CONTENTS. + +PREFACE + +INTRODUCTION-- + Origin of the Worship of the Madonna. + Earliest artistic Representations. + Origin of the Group of the Virgin and Child in the Fifth Century. + The First Council at Ephesus. + The Iconoclasts. + First Appearance of the Effigy of the Virgin on Coins. + Period of Charlemagne. + Period of the Crusades. + Revival of Art in the Thirteenth Century. + The Fourteenth Century. + Influence of Dante. + The Fifteenth Century. + The Council of Constance and the Hussite Wars. + The Sixteenth Century. + The Luxury of Church Pictures. + The Influence of Classical Literature on the Representations of the + Virgin. + The Seventeenth Century. + Theological Art. + Spanish Art. + Influence of Jesuitism on Art. + Authorities followed by Painters in the earliest Times. + Legend of St. Luke. + Character of the Virgin Mary as drawn in the Gospels. + Early Descriptions of her Person; how far attended to by the Painters. + Poetical Extracts descriptive of the Virgin Mary. + +SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN. + Proper Costume and Colours. + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS AND HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + Altar-pieces. + The Life of the Virgin Mary as treated in a Series. + The Seven Joys and Seven Sorrows as a Series. + Titles of the Virgin, as expressed in Pictures and Effigies. + Churches dedicated to her. + Conclusion. + +SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + +PART I. + +THE VIRGIN WITHOUT THE CHILD. + +LA VERGINE GLORIOSA. Earliest Figures. The Mosaics. The Virgin of San + Venanzio. The Virgin of Spoleto. + +The Enthroned Virgin without the Child, as type of heavenly Wisdom. + Various Examples. + +L'INCORONATA, the Type of the Church triumphant. The Virgin crowned by + her Son. Examples from the old Mosaics. Examples of the Coronation of + the Virgin from various Painters. + +The VIRGIN OF MERCY, as she is represented in the Last Judgment. + +The Virgin, as Dispenser of Mercy on Earth. Various Examples. + +The MATER DOLOROSA seated and standing, with the Seven Swords. + +The _Stabat Mater_, the Ideal Pietà . The Votive Pieta by Guido. + +OUR LADY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION Origin of the Subject. History + of the Theological Dispute. The First Papal Decree touching the + Immaculate Conception. The Bull of Paul V. The Popularity of the + Subject in Spain. Pictures by Guido, by Roelas, Velasquez, Murillo. + +The Predestination of the Virgin. Curious Picture by Cotignola. + + +PART II. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED. _Virgo Deipara_. The Virgin in her + Maternal Character. Origin of the Group of the Mother and Child. + Nestorian Controversy. + +The Enthroned Virgin in the old Mosaics. In early Italian Art The + Virgin standing as _Regina Coeli_. + +_La Madre Pia_ enthroned. _Mater Sapientiæ_ with the Book. + +The Virgin and Child enthroned with attendant Figures; with Angels; + with Prophets; with Apostles. + +With Saints: John the Baptist; St. Anna; St. Joachim; St. Joseph. + +With Martyrs and Patron Saints. + +_Various Examples of Arrangement_. With the Fathers of the Church; + with St. Jerome and St. Catherine; with the Marriage of St. Catherine. + The Virgin and Child between St. Catherine and St. Barbara; with Mary + Magdalene; with St. Lucia. + +The Virgin and Child between St. George and St. Nicholas; with St. + Christopher; with St. Leonard. The Virgin of Charity. + +The Madonnas of Florence; of Siena; of Venice and Lombardy. How + attended. + +The Virgin attended by the Monastic Saints. Examples from various + Painters. + +Votive Madonnas. For Mercies accorded; for Victory; for Deliverance + from Pestilence; against Flood and Fire. + +Family Votive Madonnas, Examples. The Madonna of the Bentivoglio + Family. The Madonna of the Sforza Family. The Madonna of the Moyer + Family, The Madonna di Foligno. German Votive Madonna at Rouen. + Madonna of Réné, Duke of Anjou; of the Pesaro Family at Venice. + +Half-length Enthroned Madonnas; first introduced by the Venetians. + Various Examples. + +The MATER AMABILIS, Early Greek Examples. The infinite Variety given + to this Subject. + +Virgin and Child with St. John. He takes the Cross + +The MADRE PIA; the Virgin adores her Son. + +Pastoral Madonnas of the Venetian School. + +Conclusion of the Devotional Subjects. + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + +PART I. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN FROM HER BIRTH TO HER MARRIAGE WITH JOSEPH. + +THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + +Joachim rejected from the Temple. Joachim herding his Sheep on the + Mountain. The Altercation between Anna and her Maid Judith. The + Meeting at the Golden Gate. + +THE NATIVITY OF THE VIRGIN. The Importance and Beauty of the Subject. + How treated. + +THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN. A Subject of great Importance. General + Arrangement and Treatment. Various Examples from celebrated Painters. + +The Virgin in the Temple. + +THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN. The Legend as followed by the Painters. + +Various Examples of the Marriage of the Virgin, as treated by + Perugino, Raphael, and others. + + +PART II. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE RETURN FROM +EGYPT. + +THE ANNUNCIATION, Its Beauty as a Subject. Treated as a Mystery and + as an Event. As a Mystery; not earlier than the Eleventh Century. + Its proper Place in architectural Decoration. On Altar-pieces. As + an Allegory. The Annunciation as expressing the Incarnation. Ideally + treated with Saints and Votaries. Examples by Simone Memmi, Fra + Bartolomeo, Angelico, and others. + +The Annunciation as an Event. The appropriate Circumstances. The + Time, the Locality, the Accessories. The Descent of the Angel; proper + Costume; with the Lily, the Palm, the Olive. + +Proper Attitude and Occupation of Mary; Expression and Deportment. The + Dove. Mistakes. Examples from various Painters. + +THE VISITATION. Character of Elizabeth. The Locality and + Circumstances. Proper Accessories. Examples from various Painters. + +THE DREAM OF JOSEPH. He entreats Forgiveness of Mary. + +THE NATIVITY. The Prophecy of the Sibyl. _La Madonna del Parto_. The + Nativity as a Mystery; with poetical Accessories; with Saints and + Votaries. + +The Nativity as an Event. The Time; the Places; the proper Accessories + and Circumstances; the angelic Choristers; Signification of the Ox and + the Ass. + +THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. + +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI; they are supposed to have been Kings. + Prophecy of Balaam. The Appearance of the Star. The Legend of the + three Kings of Cologne. Proper Accessories. Examples from various + Painters. The Land Surveyors, by Giorgione. + +THE PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN. The Prophecy of Simeon. Greek Legend + of the _Nunc Dimittis_. Various Examples. + +THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. The Massacre of the Innocents. The Preparation + for the Journey. The Circumstances. The Legend of the Robbers; of the + Palm. + +THE REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY. The Subject often mistaken. Proper + Treatment of the Group. The Repose at Matarea. The Ministry of Angels. + +THE LEGEND OF THE GYPSY. + +THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + + +PART III. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN FROM THE SOJOURN IN EGYPT TO THE CRUCIFIXION OF +OUR LORD. + +THE HOLY FAMILY. Proper Treatment of the Domestic Group as + distinguished from the Devotional. The simplest Form that of the + Mother and Child. The Child fed from his Mother's Bosom. The Infant + sleeps. + +Holy Family of three Figures; with the little St. John; with St. + Joseph; with St. Anna. + +Holy Family of four Figures; with St. Elizabeth and others. + +The Holy Family of Five and Six Figures. + +The Family of the Virgin grouped together. + +Examples of Holy Family as treated by various Artists. + +The Carpenter's Shop. + +The Infant Christ learning to read. + +THE DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE. The Virgin seeks her Son. + +THE DEATH OF JOSEPH. + +THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. Proper Treatment of the Virgin in this Subject; + as treated by Luini and by Paul Veronese. + +The Virgin attends on the Ministry of Christ. Mystical Treatment by + Fra Angelico. + +LO SPASIMO. Christ takes leave of his Mother. Women who are introduced + into Scenes of the Passion of our Lord. + +The Procession to Calvary, _Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_. + +THE CRUCIFIXION. Proper Treatment of the Virgin in this Subject. The + impropriety of placing her upon the ground. Her Fortitude. Christ + recommends his Mother to St. John. + +THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS. Proper Place and Action of the Virgin in + this Subject. + +THE DEPOSITION. Proper Treatment of this Form of the _Mater Dolorosa_. + Persons introduced. Various Examples. + +THE ENTOMBMENT. Treated as an historical Scene. As one of the Sorrows + of the Rosary; attended by Saints. + +The _Mater Dolorosa_ attended by St. Peter. Attended by St. John and + Mary Magdalene. + + +PART IV. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE RESURRECTION OF THE LORD TO THE +ASSUMPTION. + +THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. Beauty and Sentiment of the + old Legend; how represented by the Artists. + +THE ASCENSION OF OUR LORD. The proper Place of the Virgin Mary. + +THE DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST; Mary being one of the principal + persons. + +THE APOSTLES TAKE LEAVE OF THE VIRGIN. + +THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN. The old Greek Legend. + +The Angel announces to Mary her approaching Death. + +The Death of the Virgin, an ancient and important Subject. As treated + in the Greek School; in early German Art; in Italian Art. Various + Examples. + +The Apostles carry the Body of the Virgin to the Tomb. + +The Entombment. + +THE ASSUMPTION. Distinction between the Assumption of the Body and the + Assumption of the Soul of the Virgin. The Assumption as a Mystery; as + an Event. + +LA MADONNA BELLA CINTOLA. The Legend of the Girdle; as painted in the + Cathedral at Prato. + +Examples of the Assumption as represented by various Artists. + +THE CORONATION as distinguished from the _Incoronata_; how treated as + an historical Subject. Conclusion. + + + + +NOTE. + +The decease of Mrs. Jameson, the accomplished woman and popular +writer, at an advanced period of life, took place in March, 1860, +after a brief illness. But the frame had long been worn out by past +years of anxiety, and the fatigues of laborious literary occupation +conscientiously undertaken and carried out. Having entered certain +fields of research and enterprise, perhaps at first accidentally, Mrs. +Jameson could not satisfy herself by anything less than the utmost +that minute collection and progressive study could do to sustain her +popularity. Distant and exhausting journeys, diligent examination of +far-scattered examples of Art, voluminous and various reading, became +seemingly more and more necessary to her; and at the very time of life +when rest and slackened effort would have been natural,--not merely +because her labours were in aid of others, but to satisfy her own high +sense of what is demanded by Art and Literature,--did her hand and +brain work more and more perseveringly and thoughtfully, till at last +she sank under her weariness; and passed away. + +The father of Miss Murphy was a miniature-painter of repute, attached, +we believe, to the household of the Princess Charlotte. His daughter +Anna was naturally taught by him the principles of his own art; +but she had instincts for all,--taste for music,--a feeling for +poetry,--and a delicate appreciation of the drama. These gifts--in +her youth rarer in combination than they are now (when the connection +of the arts is becoming understood, and the love of all increasingly +diffused)--were, during part of Mrs. Jameson's life, turned to the +service of education.--It was not till after her marriage, that a +foreign tour led her into authorship, by the publication of "The Diary +of an Ennuyée," somewhere about the year 1826.--It was impossible to +avoid detecting in that record the presence of taste, thought, and +feeling, brought in an original fashion to bear on Art, Society, +Morals.--The reception of the book was decisive.--It was followed, at +intervals, by "The Loves of the Poets," "Memoirs of Italian Painters," +"The Lives of Female Sovereigns," "Characteristics of Women" (a series +of Shakspeare studies; possibly its writer's most popular book). After +this, the Germanism so prevalent five-and-twenty years ago, and now +somewhat gone by, possessed itself of the authoress, and she published +her reminiscences of Munich, the imitative art of which was new, and +esteemed as almost a revelation. To the list of Mrs. Jameson's books +may be added her translation of the easy, if not vigorous Dramas +by the Princess Amelia of Saxony, and her "Winter Studies and +Summer Rambles"--recollections of a visit to Canada. This included +the account of her strange and solitary canoe voyage, and her +residence among a tribe of Indians. From this time forward, social +questions--especially those concerning the position of women in life +and action--engrossed a large share of Mrs. Jameson's attention; and +she wrote on them occasionally, always in a large and enlightened +spirit, rarely without touches of delicacy and sentiment.--Even when +we are unable to accept all Mrs. Jameson's conclusions, or to join her +in the hero or heroine worship of this or the other favourite example, +we have seldom a complaint to make of the manner of the authoress. It +was always earnest, eloquent, and poetical. + +Besides a volume or two of collected essays, thoughts, notes on books, +and on subjects of Art, we have left to mention the elaborate volumes +on "Sacred and Legendary Art," as the greatest literary labour of a +busy life. Mrs. Jameson was putting the last finish to the concluding +portion of her work, when she was bidden to cease forever. + +There is little more to be told,--save that, in the course of her +indefatigable literary career, Mrs. Jameson drew round herself a large +circle of steady friends--these among the highest illustrators of +Literature and Art in France, Germany, and Italy; and that, latterly, +a pension from Government was added to her slender earnings. These, it +may be said without indelicacy, were liberally apportioned to the aid +of others,--Mrs. Jameson being, for herself, simple, self-relying, +and self-denying;--holding that high view of the duties belonging +to pursuits of imagination which rendered meanness, or servility, or +dishonourable dealing, or license glossed over with some convenient +name, impossible to her.--She was a faithful friend, a devoted +relative, a gracefully-cultivated, and honest literary worker, whose +mind was set on "the best and honourablest things." + + * * * * * + +Some months since Mrs. Jameson kindly consented to prepare for this +edition of her writings the "Legends of the Madonna," "Sacred and +Legendary Art," and "Legends of the Monastic Orders;" but, dying +before she had time to fulfil her promise, the arrangement has been +intrusted to other hands. The text of this whole series will be an +exact reprint of the last English Edition. + + * * * * * + +The portrait annexed to this volume is from a photograph taken in +London only a short time before Mrs. Jameson's death. + +BOSTON, September, 1860. + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + +TO THE FIRST EDITION. + +In presenting to my friends and to the public this Series of the +Sacred and Legendary Art, few preparatory words will be required. + +If in the former volumes I felt diffident of my own powers to do any +justice to my subject, I have yet been encouraged by the sympathy and +approbation of those who nave kindly accepted of what has been done, +and yet more kindly excused deficiencies, errors, and oversights, +which the wide range of subjects rendered almost unavoidable. + +With far more of doubt and diffidence, yet not less trust in the +benevolence and candour of my critics, do I present this volume to the +public. I hope it will be distinctly understood, that the general plan +of the work is merely artistic; that it really aims at nothing more +than to render the various subjects intelligible. For this reason +it has been thought advisable to set aside, in a great measure, +individual preferences, and all predilections for particular schools +and particular periods of Art,--to take, in short, the widest possible +range as regards examples,--and then to leave the reader, when thus +guided to the meaning of what he sees, to select, compare, admire, +according to his own discrimination, taste, and requirements. The +great difficulty has been to keep within reasonable limits. Though +the subject has a unity not found in the other volumes, it is +really boundless as regards variety and complexity. I may have been +superficial from mere superabundance of materials; sometimes mistaken +as to facts and dates; the tastes, the feelings, and the faith of my +readers may not always go along with me; but if attention and interest +have been exited--if the sphere of enjoyment in works of Art have been +enlarged and enlightened, I have done all I ever wished--all I ever +hoped, to do. + +With regard to a point of infinitely greater importance, I may +be allowed to plead,--that it has been impossible to treat of the +representations of the Blessed Virgin without touching on doctrines +such as constitute the principal differences between the creeds of +Christendom. I have had to ascend most perilous heights, to dive +into terribly obscure depths. Not for worlds would I be guilty of a +scoffing allusion to any belief or any object held sacred by sincere +and earnest hearts; but neither has it been possible for me to write +in a tone of acquiescence, where I altogether differ in feeling +and opinion. On this point I shall need, and feel sure that I shall +obtain, the generous construction of readers of all persuasions. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE EFFIGIES OF THE MADONNA. + +Through all the most beautiful and precious productions of human +genius and human skill which the middle ages and the _renaissance_ +have bequeathed to us, we trace, more or less developed, more or less +apparent, present in shape before us, or suggested through inevitable +associations, one prevailing idea: it is that of an impersonation in +the feminine character of beneficence, purity, and power, standing +between an offended Deity and poor, sinning, suffering humanity, and +clothed in the visible form of Mary, the Mother of our Lord. + +To the Roman Catholics this idea remains an indisputable religious +truth of the highest import. Those of a different creed may think fit +to dispose of the whole subject of the Madonna either as a form of +superstition or a form of Art. But merely as a form of Art, we cannot +in these days confine ourselves to empty conventional criticism. We +are obliged to look further and deeper; and in this department of +Legendary Art, as in the others, we must take the higher ground, +perilous though it be. We must seek to comprehend the dominant idea +lying behind and beyond the mere representation. For, after all, +some consideration is due to facts which we must necessarily accept, +whether we deal with antiquarian theology or artistic criticism; +namely, that the worship of the Madonna did prevail through all the +Christian and civilized world for nearly a thousand years; that, in +spite of errors, exaggerations, abuses, this worship did comprehend +certain great elemental truths interwoven with our human nature, and +to be evolved perhaps with our future destinies. Therefore did it work +itself into the life and soul of man; therefore has it been worked +_out_ in the manifestations of his genius; and therefore the multiform +imagery in which it has been clothed, from the rudest imitations of +life, to the most exquisite creations of mind, may be resolved, as a +whole, into one subject, and become one great monument in the history +of progressive thought and faith, as well as in the history of +progressive art. + +Of the pictures in our galleries, public or private,--of the +architectural adornments of those majestic edifices which sprung up +in the middle ages (where they have not been despoiled or desecrated +by a zeal as fervent as that which reared them), the largest and most +beautiful portion have reference to the Madonna,--her character, +her person, her history. It was a theme which never tired her +votaries,--whether, as in the hands of great and sincere artists, +it became one of the noblest and loveliest, or, as in the hands +of superficial, unbelieving, time-serving artists, one of the most +degraded. All that human genius, inspired by faith, could achieve of +best, all that fanaticism, sensualism, atheism, could perpetrate of +worst, do we find in the cycle of those representations which have +been dedicated to the glory of the Virgin. And indeed the ethics of +the Madonna worship, as evolved in art, might be not unaptly likened +to the ethics of human love: so long as the object of sense remained +in subjection to the moral idea--so long as the appeal was to the +best of our faculties and affections--so long was the image grand or +refined, and the influences to be ranked with those which have helped +to humanize and civilize our race; but so soon as the object became +a mere idol, then worship and worshippers, art and artists, were +together degraded. + +It is not my intention to enter here on that disputed point, the +origin of the worship of the Madonna. Our present theme lies within +prescribed limits,--wide enough, however, to embrace an immense +field of thought: it seeks to trace the progressive influence of +that worship on the fine arts for a thousand years or more, and to +interpret the forms in which it has been clothed. That the veneration +paid to Mary in the early Church was a very natural feeling in those +who advocated the divinity of her Son, would be granted, I suppose, +by all but the most bigoted reformers; that it led to unwise and +wild extremes, confounding the creature with the Creator, would be +admitted, I suppose, by all but the most bigoted Roman Catholics. How +it extended from the East over the nations of the West, how it grew +and spread, may be read in ecclesiastical histories. Everywhere it +seems to have found in the human heart some deep sympathy--deeper far +than mere theological doctrine could reach--ready to accept it; and in +every land the ground prepared for it in some already dominant idea +of a mother-Goddess, chaste, beautiful, and benign. As, in the oldest +Hebrew rites and Pagan superstitions, men traced the promise of a +coming Messiah,--as the deliverers and kings of the Old Testament, and +even the demigods of heathendom, became accepted types of the person +of Christ,--so the Eve of the Mosaic history, the Astarte of the +Assyrians-- + + "The mooned Ashtaroth, queen and mother both,"-- + +the Isis nursing Horus of the Egyptians, the Demeter and the +Aphrodite of the Greeks, the Scythian Freya, have been considered +by some writers as types of a divine maternity, foreshadowing the +Virgin-mother of Christ. Others will have it that these scattered, +dim, mistaken--often gross and perverted--ideas which were afterwards +gathered into the pure, dignified, tender image of the Madonna, +were but as the voice of a mighty prophecy, sounded through all the +generations of men, even from the beginning of time, of the coming +moral regeneration, and complete and harmonious development of the +whole human race, by the establishment, on a higher basis, of what +has been called the "feminine element" in society. And let me at least +speak for myself. In the perpetual iteration of that beautiful image +of THE WOMAN highly blessed--_there_, where others saw only pictures +or statues, I have seen this great hope standing like a spirit beside +the visible form; in the fervent worship once universally given to +that gracious presence, I have beheld an acknowledgment of a higher as +well as gentler power than that of the strong hand and the might that +makes the right,--and in every earnest votary one who, as he knelt, +was in this sense pious beyond the reach of his own thought, and +"devout beyond the meaning of his will." + +It is curious to observe, as the worship of the Virgin-mother expanded +and gathered to itself the relics of many an ancient faith, how +the new and the old elements, some of them apparently the most +heterogeneous, became amalgamated, and were combined into the early +forms of art;--how the Madonna, when she assumed the characteristics +of the great Diana of Ephesus, at once the type of Fertility, and the +Goddess of Chastity, became, as the impersonation of motherhood, all +beauty, bounty and graciousness; and at the same time, by virtue of +her perpetual virginity, the patroness of single and ascetic life--the +example and the excuse for many of the wildest of the early monkish +theories. With Christianity, new ideas of the moral and religious +responsibility of woman entered the world; and while these ideas were +yet struggling with the Hebrew and classical prejudices concerning the +whole sex, they seem to have produced some curious perplexity in the +minds of the greatest doctors of the faith. Christ, as they assure +us, was born of a woman only, and had no earthly father, that neither +sex might despair; "for had he been born a man (which was necessary), +yet not born of woman, the women might have despaired of themselves, +recollecting the first offence, the first man having been deceived by +a woman. Therefore we are to suppose that, for the exaltation of the +male sex, Christ appeared on earth as a man; and, for the consolation +of womankind, he was born of a woman only; as if it had been said, +'From henceforth no creature shall be base before God, unless +perverted by depravity.'" (Augustine, Opera Supt. 238, Serm. 63.) +Such is the reasoning of St. Augustine, who, I must observe, had an +especial veneration for his mother Monica; and it is perhaps for her +sake that he seems here desirous to prove that through the Virgin Mary +all womankind were henceforth elevated in the scale of being. And +this was the idea entertained of her subsequently: "Ennobler of thy +nature!" says Dante apostrophizing her, as if her perfections had +ennobled not merely her own sex, but the whole human race.[1] + +[Footnote 1: "Tu se' colei che l'umana natura Nobilitasti."] + +But also with Christianity came the want of a new type of womanly +perfection, combining all the attributes of the ancient female +divinities with others altogether new. Christ, as the model-man, +united the virtues of the two sexes, till the idea that there are +essentially masculine and feminine virtues intruded itself on the +higher Christian conception, and seems to have necessitated the +female type. + +The first historical mention of a direct worship paid to the Virgin +Mary, occurs in a passage in the works of St. Epiphanius, who died +in 403. In enumerating the heresies (eighty-four in number) which had +sprung up in the early Church, he mentions a sect of women, who had +emigrated from Thrace into Arabia, with whom it was customary to +offer cakes of meal and honey to the Virgin Mary, as if she had been a +divinity, transferring to her, in fact, the worship paid to Ceres. The +very first instance which occurs in written history of an invocation +to Mary, is in the life of St. Justina, as related by Gregory +Nazianzen. Justina calls on the Virgin-mother to protect her against +the seducer and sorcerer, Cyprian; and does not call in vain. (Sacred +and Legendary Art.) These passages, however, do not prove that +previously to the fourth century there had been no worship or +invocation of the Virgin, but rather the contrary. However this may +be, it is to the same period--the fourth century--we refer the most +ancient representations of the Virgin in art. The earliest figures +extant are those on the Christian sarcophagi; but neither in the early +sculpture nor in the mosaics of St. Maria Maggiore do we find any +figure of the Virgin standing alone; she forms part of a group of +the Nativity or the Adoration of the Magi. There is no attempt at +individuality or portraiture. St. Augustine says expressly, that there +existed in his time no _authentic_ portrait of the Virgin; but it +is inferred from his account that, authentic or not, such pictures +did then exist, since there were already disputes concerning their +authenticity. There were at this period received symbols of the person +and character of Christ, as the lamb, the vine, the fish, &c., but +not, as far as I can learn, any such accepted symbols of the Virgin +Mary. Further, it is the opinion of the learned in ecclesiastical +antiquities that, previous to the first Council of Ephesus, it was the +custom to represent the figure of the Virgin alone without the Child; +but that none of these original effigies remain to us, only supposed +copies of a later date.[1] And this is all I have been able to +discover relative to her in connection with the sacred imagery of the +first four centuries of our era. + +[Footnote 1: Vide "_Memorie dell' Immagine di M.V. dell' Imprunela_." +Florence, 1714.] + + * * * * * + +The condemnation of Nestorius by the Council of Ephesus, in the year +431, forms a most important epoch in the history of religious art. +I have given further on a sketch of this celebrated schism, and its +immediate and progressive results. It may be thus summed up here. The +Nestorians maintained, that in Christ the two natures of God and man +remained separate, and that Mary, his human mother, was parent of +the man, but not of the God; consequently the title which, during +the previous century, had been popularly applied to her, "Theotokos" +(Mother of God), was improper and profane. The party opposed to +Nestorius, the Monophysite, maintained that in Christ the divine and +human were blended in one incarnate nature, and that consequently Mary +was indeed the Mother of God. By the decree of the first Council +of Ephesus, Nestorius and his party were condemned as heretics; and +henceforth the representation of that beautiful group, since popularly +known as the "Madonna and Child," became the expression of the +orthodox faith. Every one who wished to prove his hatred of the +arch-heretic exhibited the image of the maternal Virgin holding in +her arms the Infant Godhead, either in his house as a picture, or +embroidered on his garments, or on his furniture, on his personal +ornaments--in short, wherever it could be introduced. It is worth +remarking, that Cyril, who was so influential in fixing the orthodox +group, had passed the greater part of his life in Egypt, and must nave +been familiar with the Egyptian type of Isis nursing Horus. Nor, as I +conceive, is there any irreverence in supposing that a time-honoured +intelligible symbol should be chosen to embody and formalize a creed. +For it must be remembered that the group of the Mother and Child was +not at first a representation, but merely a theological symbol set up +in the orthodox churches, and adopted by the orthodox Christians. + +It is just after the Council of Ephesus that history first makes +mention of a supposed authentic portrait of the Virgin Mary. The +Empress Eudocia, when travelling in the Holy Land, sent home such +a picture of the Virgin holding the Child to her sister-in-law +Pulcheria, who placed it in a church at Constantinople. It was at that +time regarded, as of very high antiquity, and supposed to have been +painted from the life. It is certain that a picture, traditionally +said to be the same which Eudocia had sent to Pulcheria, did exist +at Constantinople, and was so much venerated by the people as to be +regarded as a sort of palladium, and borne in a superb litter or car +in the midst of the imperial host, when the emperor led the army in +person. The fate of this relic is not certainly known. It is said to +have been taken by the Turks in 1453, and dragged through the mire; +but others deny this as utterly derogatory to the majesty of the Queen +of Heaven, who never would have suffered such an indignity to have +been put on her sacred image. According to the Venetian legend, it was +this identical effigy which was taken by the blind old Dandolo, when +he besieged and took Constantinople in 1204, and brought in triumph +to Venice, where it has ever since been preserved in the church of St. +Mark, and held in _somma venerazione_. No mention is made of St. Luke +in the earliest account of this picture, though like all the antique +effigies of uncertain origin, it was in after times attributed to him. + +The history of the next three hundred years testifies to the triumph +of orthodoxy, the extension and popularity of the worship of the +Virgin, and the consequent multiplication of her image in every form +and material, through the whole of Christendom. + +Then followed the schism of the Iconoclasts, which distracted +the Church for more than one hundred years, under Leo III., the +Isaurian, and his immediate successors. Such were the extravagances +of superstition to which the image-worship had led the excitable +Orientals, that, if Leo had been a wise and temperate reformer, he +might have done much good in checking its excesses; but he was himself +an ignorant, merciless barbarian. The persecution by which he sought +to exterminate the sacred pictures of the Madonna, and the cruelties +exercised on her unhappy votaries, produced a general destruction +of the most curious and precious remains of antique art. In other +respects, the immediate result was naturally enough a reaction, which +not only reinstated pictures in the veneration of the people, but +greatly increased their influence over the imagination; for it is at +this time that we first hear of a miraculous picture. Among those +who most strongly defended the use of sacred images in the churches, +was St. John Damascene, one of the great lights of the Oriental +Church. According to the Greek legend, he was condemned to lose his +right hand, which was accordingly cut off; but he, full of faith, +prostrating himself before a picture of the Virgin, stretched out the +bleeding stump, and with it touched her lips, and immediately a new +hand sprung forth "like a branch from a tree." Hence, among the Greek +effigies of the Virgin, there is one peculiarly commemorative of this +miracle, styled "the Virgin with three hands." (Didron, Manuel, p. +462.) In the west of Europe, where the abuses of the image-worship had +never yet reached the wild superstition of the Oriental Christians, +the fury of the Iconoclasts excited horror and consternation. The +temperate and eloquent apology for sacred pictures, addressed by +Gregory II. to the Emperor Leo, had the effect of mitigating the +persecution in Italy, where the work of destruction could not be +carried out to the same extent as in the Byzantine provinces. Hence it +is in Italy only that any important remains of sacred art anterior to +the Iconoclast dynasty have been preserved.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It appears, from one of these letters from Gregory II, +that it was the custom at that time (725) to employ religious pictures +as a means of instruction in the schools. He says, that if Lee were +to enter a school in Italy, and to say that he prohibited pictures, +the children would infallibly throw their hornbooks (_Ta volexxe del +alfabeto_) at his head.--v. _Bosio_, p. 567.] + +The second Council of Nice, under the Empress Irene in 787, condemned +the Iconoclasts, and restored the use of the sacred pictures in the +churches. Nevertheless, the controversy still raged till after the +death of Theophilus, the last and the most cruel of the Iconoclasts, +in 842. His widow Theodora achieved the final triumph of the orthodox +party, and restored the Virgin to her throne. We must observe, +however, that only pictures were allowed; all sculptured imagery +was still prohibited, and has never since been allowed in the Greek +Church, except in very low relief. The flatter the surface, the more +orthodox. + +It is, I think, about 886, that we first find the effigy of the Virgin +on the coins of the Greek empire. On a gold coin of Leo VI., the +Philosopher, she stands veiled, and draped, with a noble head, no +glory, and the arms outspread, just as she appears in the old mosaics. +On a coin of Romanus the Younger, she crowns the emperor, having +herself the nimbus; she is draped and veiled. On a coin of Nicephorus +Phocus (who had great pretensions to piety), the Virgin stands, +presenting a cross to the emperor, with the inscription, "Theotokos, +be propitious." On a gold coin of John Zimisces, 975, we first find +the Virgin and Child,--the symbol merely: she holds against her bosom +a circular glory, within which is the head of the Infant Christ. In +the successive reigns of the next two centuries, she almost constantly +appears as crowning the emperor. + +Returning to the West, we find that in the succeeding period, from +Charlemagne to the first crusade, the popular devotion to the Virgin, +and the multiplication of sacred pictures, continued steadily to +increase; yet in the tenth and eleventh centuries art was at its +lowest ebb. At this time, the subjects relative to the Virgin were +principally the Madonna and Child, represented according to the Greek +form; and those scenes from the Gospel in which she is introduced, as +the Annunciation, the Nativity, and the Worship of the Magi. + +Towards the end of the tenth century the custom of adding the angelic +salutation, the "_Ave Maria_," to the Lord's prayer, was first +introduced; and by the end of the following century, it had been +adopted in the offices of the Church. This was, at first, intended as +a perpetual reminder of the mystery of the Incarnation, as announced +by the angel. It must have had the effect of keeping the idea of +Mary as united with that of her Son, and as the instrument of the +Incarnation, continually in the minds of the people. + +The pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and the crusades in the eleventh and +the twelfth centuries, had a most striking effect on religious art, +though this effect was not fully evolved till a century later. More +particularly did this returning wave of Oriental influences modify the +representations of the Virgin. Fragments of the apocryphal gospels +and legends of Palestine and Egypt were now introduced, worked up +into ballads, stories, and dramas, and gradually incorporated with the +teaching of the Church. A great variety of subjects derived from the +Greek artists, and from particular localities and traditions of the +East, became naturalized in Western Europe, Among these were the +legends of Joachim and Anna; and the death, the assumption, and the +coronation of the Virgin. + +Then came the thirteenth century, an era notable in the history +of mind, more especially notable in the history of art. The seed +scattered hither and thither, during the stormy and warlike period of +the crusades, now sprung up and flourished, bearing diverse fruit. +A more contemplative enthusiasm, a superstition tinged with a morbid +melancholy, fermented into life and form. In that general "fit of +_compunction_," which we are told seized all Italy at this time, the +passionate devotion for the benign Madonna mingled the poetry of +pity with that of pain; and assuredly this state of feeling, with its +mental and moral requirements, must have assisted in emancipating art +from the rigid formalism of the degenerate Greek school. Men's hearts, +throbbing with a more feeling, more pensive life, demanded something +more _like_ life,--and produced it. It is curious to trace in the +Madonnas of contemporary, but far distant and unconnected schools of +painting, the simultaneous dawning of a sympathetic sentiment--for the +first time something in the faces of the divine beings responsive to +the feeling of the worshippers. It was this, perhaps, which caused +the enthusiasm excited by Cimabue's great Madonna, and made the people +shout and dance for joy when it was uncovered before them. Compared +with the spectral rigidity, the hard monotony, of the conventional +Byzantines, the more animated eyes, the little touch of sweetness in +the still, mild face, must have been like a smile out of heaven. As +we trace the same softer influence in the earliest Siena and Cologne +pictures of about the same period, we may fairly regard it as an +impress of the spirit of the time, rather than that of an individual +mind. + +In the succeeding century these elements of poetic art, expanded and +animated by an awakened observation of nature, and a sympathy with +her external manifestations, were most especially directed by the +increasing influence of the worship of the Virgin, a worship at once +religious and chivalrous. The title of "Our Lady"[1] came first into +general use in the days of chivalry, for she was the lady "of all +hearts," whose colours all were proud to wear. Never had her votaries +so abounded. Hundreds upon hundreds had enrolled themselves in +brotherhoods, vowed to her especial service;[2] or devoted to acts of +charity, to be performed in her name.[3] Already the great religious +communities, which at this time comprehended all the enthusiasm, +learning, and influence of the Church, had placed themselves solemnly +and especially under her protection. The Cistercians wore white in +honour of her purity; the Servi wore black in respect to her sorrows; +the Franciscans had enrolled themselves as champions of the Immaculate +Conception; and the Dominicans introduced the rosary. All these richly +endowed communities vied with each other in multiplying churches, +chapels, and pictures, in honour of their patroness, and expressive of +her several attributes. The devout painter, kneeling before his easel, +addressed himself to the task of portraying those heavenly lineaments +which had visited him perhaps in dreams. Many of the professed monks +and friars became themselves accomplished artists.[4] + +[Footnote 1: _Fr._ Notre Dame. _Ital._ La Madonna. _Ger._ Unser liebe +Frau.] + +[Footnote 2: As the Serviti, who were called in France, _les esclaves +de Marie_.] + +[Footnote 3: As the order of "Our Lady of Mercy," for the deliverance +of captives.--_Vide_ Legends of the Monastic Orders.] + +[Footnote 4: A very curious and startling example of the theological +character of the Virgin in the thirteenth century is figured in Miss +Twining's work, "_The Symbols of early Christian Art_;" certainly the +most complete and useful book of the kind which I know of. Here the +Madonna and Child are seated side by side with the Trinity; the Holy +Spirit resting on her crowned head.] + +At this time, Jacopo di Voragine compiled the "Golden Legend," a +collection of sacred stories, some already current, some new, or +in a new form. This famous book added many themes to those already +admitted, and became the authority and storehouse for the early +painters in their groups and dramatic compositions. The increasing +enthusiasm for the Virgin naturally caused an increasing demand for +the subjects taken from her personal history, and led, consequently, +to a more exact study of those natural objects and effects which were +required as accessories, to greater skill in grouping the figures, and +to a higher development of historic art. + +But of all the influences on Italian art in that wonderful fourteenth +century, Dante was the greatest. He was the intimate friend of Giotto. +Through the communion of mind, not less than through his writings, +he infused into religious art that mingled theology, poetry, and +mysticism, which ruled in the Giottesque school during the following +century, and went hand in hand with the development of the power and +practice of imitation. Now, the theology of Dante was the theology of +his age. His ideas respecting the Virgin Mary were precisely those +to which the writings of St. Bernard, St. Bonaventura, and St. Thomas +Aquinas had already lent all the persuasive power of eloquence, and +the Church all the weight of her authority. Dante rendered these +doctrines into poetry, and Giotto and his followers rendered them +into form. In the Paradise of Dante, the glorification of Mary, +as the "Mystic Rose" (_Roxa Mystica_) and Queen of Heaven,--with +the attendant angels, circle within circle, floating round her in +adoration, and singing the Regina Coeli, and saints and patriarchs +stretching forth their hands towards her,--is all a splendid, but +still indefinite vision of dazzling light crossed by shadowy forms. +The painters of the fourteenth century, in translating these glories +into a definite shape, had to deal with imperfect knowledge and +imperfect means; they failed in the power to realize either their own +or the poet's conception; and yet--thanks to the divine poet!--that +early conception of some of the most beautiful of the Madonna +subjects--for instance, the _Coronation_ and the _Sposalizio_--has +never, as a religious and poetical conception, been surpassed by later +artists, in spite of all the appliances of colour, and mastery of +light and shade, and marvellous efficiency of hand since attained. + +Every reader of Dante will remember the sublime hymn towards the close +of the Paradiso:-- + + "Vergine Madre, figlia del tuo figlio! + Umile ed alta più che creatura, + Terrains fisso d'eterno consiglio; + + Tu se' colei che l'umana natura + Nobilitasti si, che 'l suo fattore + Non disdegno di farsi sua fattura; + + Nel ventre tuo si raccese l'amore + Per lo cui caldo nell' eterna pace + Cosi è germinato questo fiore; + + Qui se' a noi meridiana face + Di caritade, e giuso intra mortali + Se' di speranza fontana vivace: + + Donna, se' tanto grande e tanto vali, + Che qual vuol grazia e a te non ricorre + Sua disianza vuol volar senz' ali; + + La tua benignita noa pur soccorre + A chi dimanda, ma molte fiate + Liberamente al dimandar precorre; + + In te misericordia, in te pietate, + In te magnificenza, in te s' aduna + Quantunque in creatura è di bontate!" + +To render the splendour, the terseness, the harmony, of this +magnificent hymn seems impossible. Cary's translation has, however, +the merit of fidelity to the sense:-- + + "Oh, Virgin-Mother, daughter of thy Son! + Created beings all in lowliness + Surpassing, as in height above them all; + Term by the eternal counsel preordain'd; + Ennobler of thy nature, so advanc'd + In thee, that its great Maker did not scorn + To make himself his own creation; + For in thy womb, rekindling, shone the love + Reveal'd, whose genial influence makes now + This flower to germin in eternal peace: + Here thou, to us, of charity and love + Art as the noon-day torch; and art beneath, + To mortal men, of hope a living spring. + So mighty art thou, Lady, and so great, + That he who grace desireth, and comes not + To thee for aidance, fain would have desire + Fly without wings. Not only him who asks, + Thy bounty succours; but doth freely oft + Forerun the asking. Whatsoe'er may be + Of excellence in creature, pity mild, + Relenting mercy, large munificence, + Are all combin'd in thee!" + +It is interesting to turn to the corresponding stanzas in Chaucer. +The invocation to the Virgin with which he commences the story of St. +Cecilia is rendered almost word for word from Dante:-- + + "Thou Maid and Mother, daughter of thy Son! + Thou wel of mercy, sinful soules cure!" + +The last stanza of the invocation is his own, and as characteristic of +the practical Chaucer, as it would have been contrary to the genius of +Dante:-- + + "And for that faith is dead withouten workis, + So for to worken give me wit and grace! + That I be quit from thence that most dark is; + O thou that art so fair and full of grace, + Be thou mine advocate in that high place, + There, as withouten end is sung Hozanne, + Thou Christes mother, daughter dear of Anne!" + +Still more beautiful and more his own is the invocation in the +"Prioress's Tale." I give the stanzas as modernized by Wordsworth:-- + + "O Mother Maid! O Maid and Mother free! + O bush unburnt, burning in Moses' sight! + That down didst ravish from the Deity, + Through humbleness, the Spirit that that did alight + Upon thy heart, whence, through that glory's might + Conceived was the Father's sapience, + Help me to tell it in thy reverence! + + "Lady, thy goodness, thy magnificence, + Thy virtue, and thy great humility, + Surpass all science and all utterance; + For sometimes, Lady! ere men pray to thee, + Thou go'st before in thy benignity, + The light to us vouchsafing of thy prayer, + To be our guide unto thy Son so dear. + + "My knowledge is so weak, O blissful Queen, + To tell abroad thy mighty worthiness, + That I the weight of it may not sustain; + But as a child of twelve months old, or less, + That laboureth his language to express, + Even so fare I; and therefore, I thee pray, + Guide thou my song, which I of thee shall say." + +And again, we may turn to Petrarch's hymn to the Virgin, wherein +he prays to be delivered from his love and everlasting regrets for +Laura:-- + + "Vergine bella, che di sol vestita, + Coronata di stelle, al sommo Sole + Piacesti sì, che'n te sua luce ascose. + + "Vergine pura, d'ogni parte intera, + Del tuo parto gentil figliuola e madre! + + "Vergine sola al mondo senza esempio, + Che 'l ciel di tue bellezze innamorasti." + +The fancy of the theologians of the middle ages played rather +dangerously, as it appears to me, for the uninitiated and +uninstructed, with the perplexity of these divine relationships. It is +impossible not to feel that in their admiration for the divine beauty +of Mary, in borrowing the amatory language and luxuriant allegories +of the Canticles, which represent her as an object of delight to the +Supreme Being, theologians, poets, and artists had wrought themselves +up to a wild pitch of enthusiasm. In such passages as those I have +quoted above, and in the grand old Church hymns, we find the best +commentary and interpretation of the sacred pictures of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries. Yet during the thirteenth century there was +a purity in the spirit of the worship which at once inspired and +regulated the forms in which it was manifested. The Annunciations and +Nativities were still distinguished by a chaste and sacred simplicity. +The features of the Madonna herself, even where they were not what we +call beautiful, had yet a touch of that divine and contemplative grace +which the theologians and the poets had associated with the queenly, +maternal, and bridal character of Mary. + +Thus the impulses given in the early part of the fourteenth century +continued in progressive development through the fifteenth; the +spiritual for some time in advance of the material influences; the +moral idea emanating as it were _from_ the soul, and the influences +of external nature flowing _into_ it; the comprehensive power of fancy +using more and more the apprehensive power of imitation, and both +working together till their "blended might" achieved its full fruition +in the works of Raphael. + + * * * * * + +Early in the fifteenth century, the Council of Constance (A.D. 1414), +and the condemnation of Huss, gave a new impulse to the worship of the +Virgin. The Hussite wars, and the sacrilegious indignity with which +her sacred images had been treated in the north, filled her orthodox +votaries of the south, of Europe with a consternation and horror +like that excited by the Iconoclasts of the eighth century, and were +followed by a similar reaction. The Church was called upon to assert +more strongly than ever its orthodox veneration for her, and, as a +natural consequence, votive pictures multiplied, the works of the +excelling artists of the fifteenth century testify to the zeal of the +votaries, and the kindred spirit in which the painters worked. + +Gerson, a celebrated French priest, and chancellor of the university +of Paris, distinguished himself in the Council of Constance by the +eloquence with which he pleaded for the Immaculate Conception, and the +enthusiasm with which he preached in favour of instituting a festival +in honour of this mystery, as well as another in honour of Joseph, +the husband of the Virgin. In both he was unsuccessful during his +lifetime; but for both eventually his writings prepared the way. +He also composed a Latin poem of three thousand lines in praise of +Joseph, which was among the first works published after the invention +of printing. Together with St. Joseph, the parents of the Virgin, St. +Anna more particularly, became objects, of popular veneration, and +all were at length exalted to the rank of patron saints, by having +festivals instituted in their honour. It is towards the end of the +fifteenth century, or rather a little later, that we first meet with +that charming domestic group, called the "Holy Family," afterwards +so popular, so widely diffused, and treated with such an infinite +variety. + + * * * * * + +Towards the end of this century sprung up a new influence,--the +revival of classical learning, a passionate enthusiasm for the poetry +and mythology of the Greeks, and a taste for the remains of antique +art. This influence on the representations of the Virgin, as far as +it was merely external, was good. An added dignity and grace, a more +free and correct drawing, a truer feeling for harmony of proportion +and all that constitutes elegance, were gradually infused into the +forms and attitudes. But dangerous became the craving for mere +beauty,--dangerous the study of the classical and heathen literature. +This was the commencement of that thoroughly pagan taste which in +the following century demoralized Christian art. There was now an +attempt at varying the arrangement of the sacred groups which led to +irreverence, or at best to a sort of superficial mannered grandeur; +and from this period we date the first introduction of the portrait +Virgins. An early, and most scandalous example remains to us in one +of the frescoes in the Vatican, which represents Giulia Farnese in the +character of the Madonna, and Pope Alexander VI. (the infamous Borgia) +kneeling at her feet in the character of a votary. Under the influence +of the Medici the churches of Florence were filled with pictures of +the Virgin, in which the only thing aimed at was an alluring and +even meretricious beauty. Savonarola thundered from his pulpit in the +garden of San Marco against these impieties. He exclaimed against +the profaneness of those who represented the meek mother of Christ in +gorgeous apparel, with head unveiled, and under the features of women +too well and publicly known. He emphatically declared that if the +painters knew as well as he did the influence of such pictures in +perverting simple minds, they would hold their own works in horror and +detestation. Savonarola yielded to none in orthodox reverence for the +Madonna; but he desired that she should be represented in an orthodox +manner. He perished at the stake, but not till after he had made +a bonfire in the Piazza at Florence of the offensive effigies; he +perished--persecuted to death by the Borgia family. But his influence +on the greatest Florentine artists of his time is apparent in the +Virgins of Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, and Fra Bartolomeo, all of +whom had been his friends, admirers, and disciples: and all, differing +from each other, were alike in this, that, whether it be the dignified +severity of Botticelli, or the chaste simplicity of Lorenzo di Credi, +or the noble tenderness of Fra Bartolomeo, we feel that each of them +had aimed to portray worthily the sacred character of the Mother of +the Redeemer. And to these, as I think, we might add Raphael himself, +who visited Florence but a short time after the horrible execution +of Savonarola, and must have learned through his friend Bartolomeo to +mourn the fate and revere the memory of that remarkable man, whom he +placed afterwards in the grand fresco of the "Theologia," among the +doctors and teachers of the Church. (Rome, Vatican.) Of the numerous +Virgins painted by Raphael in after times, not one is supposed to have +been a portrait: he says himself, in a letter to Count Castiglione, +that he painted from an idea in his own mind, "mi servo d' una certa +idea che mi viene in mente;" while in the contemporary works of Andrea +del Sarto, we have the features of his handsome but vulgar wife in +every Madonna he painted.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The tendency to portraiture, in early Florentine and +German art, is observable from an early period. The historical sacred +subjects of Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Van Eyck, are crowded with +portraits of living personages. Their introduction into devotional +subjects, in the character of sacred persons, is far less excusable.] + +In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the constellation of living +genius in every department of art, the riches of the Church, the +luxurious habits and classical studies of the churchmen, the decline +of religious conviction, and the ascendency of religious controversy, +had combined to multiply church pictures, particularly those of a +large and decorative character. But, instead of the reign of faith, +we had now the reign of taste. There was an absolute passion for +picturesque grouping; and, as the assembled figures were to be as +varied as possible in action and attitude, the artistic treatment, in +order to prevent the lines of form and the colours of the draperies +from interfering with each other, required great skill and profound +study: some of these scenic groups have become, in the hands of great +painters, such as Titian, Paul Veronese, and Annibale Caracci, so +magnificent, that we are inclined to forgive their splendid errors. +The influence of Sanazzaro, and of his famous Latin poem on the +Nativity ("_De Partu Virginis_"), on the artists of the middle of the +sixteenth century, and on the choice and treatment of the subjects +pertaining to the Madonna, can hardly be calculated; it was like that +of Dante in the fourteenth century, but in its nature and result how +different! The grand materialism of Michael Angelo is supposed to have +been allied to the genius of Dante; but would Dante have acknowledged +the group of the Holy Family in the Florentine Gallery, to my feeling, +one of the most profane and offensive of the so-called _religious_ +pictures, in conception and execution, which ever proceeded from +the mind or hand of a great painter? No doubt some of the sculptural +Virgins of Michael Angelo are magnificent and stately in attitude and +expression, but too austere and mannered as religious conceptions: nor +can we wonder if the predilection for the treatment of mere form led +his followers and imitators into every species of exaggeration and +affectation. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the same artist +who painted a Leda, or a Psyche, or a Venus one day, painted for the +same patron a Virgin of Mercy, or a "Mater Purissima" on the morrow. +_Here_, the votary told his beads, and recited his Aves, before +the blessed Mother of the Redeemer; _there_, she was invoked in +the purest Latin by titles which the classical mythology had far +otherwise consecrated. I know nothing more disgusting in art than the +long-limbed, studied, inflated Madonnas, looking grand with all their +might, of this period; luckily they have fallen into such disrepute +that we seldom see them. The "Madonna dell' lungo Collo" of Parmigiano +might be cited as a favourable example of this mistaken and wholly +artificial grace. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) + +But in the midst of these paganized and degenerate influences, the +reform in the discipline of the Roman Catholic Church was preparing +a revolution in religious art. The Council of Trent had severely +denounced the impropriety of certain pictures admitted into churches: +at the same time, in the conflict of creed which now divided +Christendom, the agencies of art could not safely be neglected by that +Church which had used them with such signal success. Spiritual art +was indeed no more. It was dead: it could never be revived without +a return to those modes of thought and belief which had at first +inspired it. Instead of religious art, appeared what I must call +_theological_ art. Among the events of this age, which had great +influence on the worship and the representations of the Madonna, +I must place the battle of Lepanto, in 1571, in which the combined +fleets of Christendom, led by Don Juan of Austria, achieved a +memorable victory over the Turks. This victory was attributed by Pope +Pius V. to the especial interposition of the Blessed Virgin. A new +invocation was now added to her Litany, under the title of _Auxilium +Christianorum_; a new festival, that of the Rosary, was now added to +those already held in her honour; and all the artistic genius which +existed in Italy, and all the piety of orthodox Christendom, were now +laid under contribution to incase in marble sculpture, to enrich with +countless offerings, that miraculous house, which the angels had +borne over land and sea, and set down at Loretto; and that miraculous, +bejewelled, and brocaded Madonna, enshrined within it. + + * * * * * + +In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Caracci school gave +a new impetus to religious, or rather, as it has been styled in +contradistinction, sacerdotal or theological art. If these great +painters had been remarkable merely for the application of new +artistic methods, for the success with which they combined the aims of +various schools-- + + "Di Michel Angiol la terribil via + E 'l vero natural di Tiziano," + +the study of the antique with the observation of real life,--their +works undoubtedly would never have taken such a hold on the minds of +their contemporaries, nor kept it so long. Everything to live must +have an infusion of truth within it, and this "patchwork ideal," as +it has been well styled, was held together by such a principle. The +founders of the Caracci school, and their immediate followers, felt +the influences of the time, and worked them out. They were devout +believers in their Church, and most sincere worshippers of the +Madonna. Guido, in particular, was so distinguished by his passionate +enthusiasm for her, that he was supposed to have been favoured by a +particular vision, which enabled him more worthily to represent her +divine beauty. + +It is curious that, hand in hand with this development of taste and +feeling in the appreciation of natural sentiment and beauty, and +this tendency to realism, we find the associations of a peculiar and +specific sanctity remaining with the old Byzantine type. This arose +from the fact, always to be borne in mind, that the most ancient +artistic figure of the Madonna was a purely theological symbol; +apparently the moral type was too nearly allied to the human and +the real to satisfy faith. It is the ugly, dark-coloured, ancient +Greek Madonnas, such as this, which had all along the credit of +being miraculous; and "to this day," says Kugler, "the Neapolitan +lemonade-seller will allow no other than a formal Greek Madonna, with +olive-green complexion and veiled head, to be set up in his booth." It +is the same in Russia. Such pictures, in which there is no attempt +at representation, real or ideal, and which merely have a sort of +imaginary sanctity and power, are not so much idols as they are mere +_Fetishes_. The most lovely Madonna by Raphael or Titian would not +have the same effect. Guido, who himself painted lovely Virgins, +went every Saturday to pray before the little black _Madonna della +Guardia_, and, as we are assured, held this old Eastern relic in +devout veneration. + +In the pictures of the Madonna, produced by the most eminent painters +of the seventeenth century, is embodied the theology of the time. +The Virgin Mary is not, like the Madonna di San Sisto, "a single +projection of the artist's mind," but, as far as he could put his +studies together, she is "a compound of every creature's best," +sometimes majestic, sometimes graceful, often full of sentiment, +elegance, and refinement, but wanting wholly in the spiritual element. +If the Madonna did really sit to Guido in person, (see Malvasia, +"Felsina Pittrice,") we fancy she must have revealed her loveliness, +but veiled her divinity. + +Without doubt the finest Madonnas of the seventeenth century are +those produced by the Spanish school; not because they more realize +our spiritual conception of the Virgin--quite the contrary: for here +the expression of life through sensation and emotion prevails over +abstract mind, grandeur, and grace;--but because the intensely human +and sympathetic character given to the Madonna appeals most strongly +to our human nature. The appeal is to the faith through the feelings, +rather than through the imagination. Morales and Ribera excelled +in the Mater Dolorosa; and who has surpassed Murilio in the tender +exultation of maternity?[1] There is a freshness and a depth of +feeling in the best Madonnas of the late Spanish school, which puts to +shame the mannerism of the Italians, and the naturalism of the Flemish +painters of the same period: and this because the Spaniards were +intense and enthusiastic believers, not mere thinkers, in art as in +religion. + +[Footnote 1: See in the Handbook to the Private Galleries of Art some +remarks on the tendencies of the Spanish School, p, 172.] + +As in the sixth century, the favourite dogma of the time (the union +of the divine and human nature in Christ, and the dignity of Mary +as parent of both) had been embodied in the group of the Virgin +and Child, so now, in the seventeenth, the doctrine of the eternal +sanctification and predestination of Mary was, after a long +controversy, triumphant, and took form in the "Immaculate Conception;" +that beautiful subject in which Guido and Murilio excelled, and which +became the darling theme of the later schools of art. It is worthy +of remark, that while in the sixth century, and for a thousand years +afterwards, the Virgin, in all devotional subjects, was associated in +some visible manner with her divine Son, in this she appears without +the Infant in her arms. The maternal character is set aside, and +she stands alone, absolute in herself, and complete in her own +perfections. This is a very significant characteristic of the +prevalent theology of the time. + +I forbear to say much of the productions of a school of art which +sprung up simultaneously with that of the Caracci, and in the end +overpowered its higher aspirations. The _Naturalisti_, as they were +called, imitated nature without selection, and produced some charming +painters. But their religious pictures are almost all intolerable, +and their Madonnas are almost all portraits. Rubens and Albano painted +their wives; Allori and Vandyck their mistresses; Domenichino his +daughter. Salvator Rosa, in his Satires, exclaims against this general +profaneness in terms not less strong than those of Savonarola in his +Sermons; but the corruption was by this time beyond the reach of cure; +the sin could neither be preached nor chided away. Striking effects of +light and shade, peculiar attitudes, scenic groups, the perpetual and +dramatic introduction of legendary scenes and personages, of visions +and miracles of the Madonna vouchsafed to her votaries, characterize +the productions of the seventeenth century. As "they who are whole +need not a physician, but they who are sick," so in proportion to +the decline of faith were the excitements to faith, or rather to +credulity: just in proportion as men were less inclined to believe +were the wonders multiplied which they were called on to believe. + +I have not spoken of the influence of Jesuitism on art. This Order +kept alive that devotion for the Madonna which their great founder +Loyola had so ardently professed when he chose for the "Lady" of +his thoughts, "no princess, no duchess, but one far greater, more +peerless." The learning of the Jesuits supplied some themes not +hitherto in use, principally of a fanciful and allegorical kind, and +never had the meek Mary been so decked out with earthly ornament +as in their church pictures. If the sanctification of simplicity, +gentleness, maternal love, and heroic fortitude, were calculated +to elevate the popular mind, the sanctification of mere glitter and +ornament, embroidered robes, and jewelled crowns, must have tended +to degrade it. It is surely an unworthy and a foolish excuse that, in +thus desecrating with the vainest and most vulgar finery the beautiful +ideal of the Virgin, an appeal was made to the awe and admiration +of vulgar and ignorant minds; for this is precisely what, in all +religious imagery, should be avoided. As, however, this sacrilegious +millinery does not come within the province of the fine arts, I may +pass it over here. + +Among the Jesuit prints of the seventeenth century, I remember one +which represents the Virgin and Child in the centre, and around are +the most famous heretics of all ages, lying prostrate, or hanging by +the neck. Julian the Apostate; Leo the Isaurian; his son, Constantine +Capronymus; Arius; Nestorius; Manicheus; Luther; Calvin:--very +characteristic of the age of controversy which had succeeded to the +age of faith, when, instead of solemn saints and grateful votaries, we +have dead or dying heretics surrounding the Mother of Mercy! + + * * * * * + +After this rapid sketch of the influences which modified in a general +way the pictures of the Madonna, we may array before us, and learn to +compare, the types which distinguished in a more particular manner the +separate schools, caught from some more local or individual impulses. +Thus we have the stern, awful quietude of the old Mosaics; the hard +lifelessness of the degenerate Greek; the pensive sentiment of +the Siena, and stately elegance of the Florentine Madonnas; the +intellectual Milanese, with their large foreheads and thoughtful eyes; +the tender, refined mysticism of the Umbrian; the sumptuous loveliness +of the Venetian; the quaint, characteristic simplicity of the early +German, so stamped with their nationality, that I never looked round +me in a room full of German girls without thinking of Albert Durer's +Virgins; the intense life-like feeling of the Spanish; the prosaic, +portrait-like nature of the Flemish schools, and so on. But here an +obvious question suggests itself. In the midst of all this diversity, +these ever-changing influences, was there no characteristic type +universally accepted, suggested by common religious associations, if +not defined by ecclesiastical authority, to which the artist was bound +to conform? How is it that the impersonation of the Virgin fluctuated, +not only with the fluctuating tendencies of successive ages, but even +with the caprices of the individual artist? + +This leads us back to reconsider the sources from which the artist +drew his inspiration. + +The legend which represents St. Luke the Evangelist as a painter +appears to be of Eastern origin, and quite unknown in Western Europe +before the first crusade. It crept in then, and was accepted with many +other oriental superstitions and traditions. It may have originated +in the real existence of a Greek painter named Luca--a saint, too, +he may have been; for the Greeks have a whole calendar of canonized +artists,--painters, poets, and musicians; and this Greek San Luca may +have been a painter of those Madonnas imported from the ateliers of +Mount Athos into the West by merchants and pilgrims; and the West, +which knew but of one St. Luke, may have easily confounded the painter +and the evangelist. + +But we must also remember, that St. Luke the Evangelist was early +regarded as the great authority with respect to the few Scripture +particulars relating to the character and life of Mary; so that, +in the figurative sense, he may be said to have _painted_ that +portrait of her which has been since received as the perfect type +of womanhood:--1. Her noble, trustful humility, when she receives +the salutation of the angel (Luke i. 38); the complete and feminine +surrender of her whole being to the higher, holier will--"Be it unto +me according to thy word." 2. Then, the decision and prudence of +character, shown in her visit to Elizabeth, her older relative; her +journey in haste over the hills to consult with her cousin, which +journey it is otherwise difficult to accord with the oriental customs +of the time, unless Mary, young as she was, had possessed unusual +promptitude and energy of disposition. (Luke i. 39, 40.) 3. The proof +of her intellectual power in the beautiful hymn she has left us, "_My +soul doth magnify the Lord._" (Luke i. 46.) The commentators are +not agreed as to whether this effusion was poured forth by immediate +inspiration, or composed and written down, because the same words, +"and Mary said," may be interpreted in either sense; but we can no +more doubt her being the authoress, than we can doubt of any other +particulars recorded in the same Gospel: it proves that she must have +been, for her time and country, most rarely gifted in mind, and deeply +read in the Scriptures. 4. She was of a contemplative, reflecting, +rather silent disposition. "She kept all these sayings, and pondered +them in her heart." (Luke ii. 51.) She made no boast of that wondrous +and most blessed destiny to which she was called; she thought upon it +in silence. It is inferred that as many of these sayings and events +could be known to herself alone, St. Luke the Evangelist could have +learned them only from her own lips. 5. Next her truly maternal +devotion to her divine Son, whom she attended humbly through his whole +ministry;[1] 6. and lastly, the sublime fortitude and faith with which +she followed her Son to the death scene, stood beside the cross till +all was finished, and then went home, and _lived_ (Luke xxiii.); for +she was to be to us an example of all that a woman could endure, as +well as all that a woman could be and act out in her earthly life. +(John xix. 25.) Such was the character of Mary; such the _portrait_ +really _painted_ by St. Luke; and, as it seems to me, these scattered, +artless, unintentional notices of conduct and character converge into +the most perfect moral type of the intellectual, tender, simple, and +heroic woman that ever was placed before us for our edification and +example. + +[Footnote 1: Milton places in the mouth of our Saviour an allusion to +the influence of his Mother in early life:-- + + "These growing thoughts my mother soon perceiving + By words at times cast forth, duly rejoiced, + And said to me apart, 'High are thy thoughts, + O Son; but nourish them, and let them soar + To what height sacred virtue and true worth + Can raise them, though above example high.'"] + +But in the Church traditions and enactments, another character +was, from the fifth century, assigned to her, out of which grew the +theological type, very beautiful and exalted, but absorbing to a great +degree the scriptural and moral type, and substituting for the merely +human attributes others borrowed from her relation to the great +scheme of redemption; for it was contended that, as the mother of +_the Divine_, she could not be herself less than divine; consequently +above the angels, and first of all created beings. According to the +doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, her tender woman's wisdom +became supernatural gifts; the beautiful humility was changed into a +knowledge of her own predestined glory; and, being raised bodily into +immortality, and placed beside her Son, in all "the sacred splendour +of beneficence," she came to be regarded as our intercessor before +that divine Son, who could refuse nothing to his mother. The relative +position of the Mother and Son being spiritual and indestructible was +continued in heaven; and thus step by step the woman was transmuted +into the divinity. + +But, like her Son, Mary had walked in human form upon earth, and in +form must have resembled her Son; for, as it is argued, Christ had no +earthly father, therefore could only have derived his human lineaments +from his mother. All the old legends assume that the resemblance +between the Son and the Mother must have been perfect. Dante alludes +to this belief: + + "Riguarda ormai nella faccia ch' a Christo + Piu s' assomiglia." + + "Now raise thy view + Unto the visage most resembling Christ." + +The accepted type of the head of Christ was to be taken as a model in +its mild, intellectual majesty, for that of the Virgin-mother, as far +as difference of sex would allow. + +In the ecclesiastical history of Nicephorus Gallixtus, he has inserted +a description of the person of Mary, which he declares to have been +given by Epiphanius, who lived in the fourth century, and by him +derived from a more ancient source. It must be confessed, that the +type of person here assigned to the Virgin is more energetic for a +woman than that which has been assigned to our Saviour as a man. "She +was of middle stature; her face oval; her eyes brilliant, and of an +olive tint; her eyebrows arched and black; her hair was of a pale +brown; her complexion fair as wheat. She spoke little, but she spoke +freely and affably; she was not troubled in her speech, but grave, +courteous, tranquil. Her dress was without ornament, and in her +deportment was nothing lax or feeble." To this ancient description +of her person and manners, we are to add the scriptural and popular +portrait of her mind; the gentleness, the purity, the intellect, +power, and fortitude; the gifts of the poetess and prophetess; the +humility in which she exceeded all womankind. Lastly, we are to +engraft on these personal and moral qualities, the theological +attributes which the Church, from early times, had assigned to +her, the supernatural endowments which lifted her above angels +and men:--all these were to be combined into one glorious type of +perfection. Where shall we seek this highest, holiest impersonation! +Where has it been attained, or even approached? Not, certainly, in the +mere woman, nor yet in the mere idol; not in those lovely creations +which awaken a sympathetic throb of tenderness; nor in those stern, +motionless types,--which embody a dogma; not in the classic features +of marble goddesses, borrowed as models; nor in the painted images +which stare upon us from tawdry altars in flaxen wigs and embroidered +petticoats. But where? + +Of course we each form to ourselves some notion of what we require; +and these requirements will be as diverse as our natures and our +habits of thought. For myself, I have seen my own ideal once, and only +once, attained: _there_, where Raphael--inspired if ever painter was +inspired--projected on the space before him that wonderful creation +which we style the _Madonna di San Sisto_ (Dresden Gal.); for there +she stands--the transfigured woman, at once completely human and +completely divine, an abstraction of power, purity, and love, poised +on the empurpled air, and requiring no other support; looking out, +with her melancholy, loving mouth, her slightly dilated, sibylline +eyes, quite through the universe, to the end and consummation of all +things;--sad, as if she beheld afar off the visionary sword that +was to reach her heart through HIM, now resting as enthroned on +that heart; yet already exalted through the homage of the redeemed +generations who were to salute her as Blessed. Six times have I +visited the city made glorious by the possession of this treasure, and +as often, when again at a distance, with recollections disturbed by +feeble copies and prints, I have begun to think, "Is it so indeed? is +she indeed so divine? or does not rather the imagination encircle +her with a halo of religion and poetry, and lend a grace which is not +really there?" and as often, when returned, I have stood before it and +confessed that there is more in that form and face than I had ever +yet conceived. I cannot here talk the language of critics, and speak +of this picture merely as a picture, for to me it was a revelation. +In the same gallery is the lovely Madonna of the Meyer family: +inexpressibly touching and perfect in its way, but conveying only one +of the attributes of Mary, her benign pity; while the Madonna di San +Sisto is an abstract of _all_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Expression is the great and characteristic excellence of +Raphael more especially in his Madonnas. It is precisely this which +all copies and engravings render at best most imperfectly; and in +point of expression the most successful engraving of the Madonna di +San Sisto is certainly that of Steinla.] + + * * * * * + +The poets are ever the best commentators on the painters. I have +already given from the great "singers of high poems" in the fourteenth +century _their_ exposition of the theological type of the Madonna. +Now, in some striking passages of our modern poets, we may find a most +beautiful commentary on what I have termed the _moral_ type. + +The first is from Wordsworth, and may be recited before the Madonna di +San Sisto:-- + + "Mother! whose virgin bosom was uncrost + With the least shade of thought to sin allied! + Woman! above all women glorified; + Out tainted nature's solitary boast; + Purer than foam on central ocean tost; + Brighter than eastern skies at daybreak strewn + With fancied roses, than the unblemish'd moon + Before her wane begins on heaven's blue coast, + Thy Image falls to earth. Yet some I ween, + Not unforgiven, the suppliant knee might bend, + As to a visible Power, in which did blend + All that was mix'd and reconcil'd in thee, + Of mother's love with maiden purity, + Of high with low, celestial with terrene." + +The next, from Shelley, reads like a hymn in honour of the Immaculate +Conception:-- + + Seraph of Heaven! too gentle to be human, + Veiling beneath that radiant form of woman + All that is insupportable in thee + Of light, and love, and immortality! + Sweet Benediction in the eternal curse! + Veil'd Glory of this lampless Universe! + Thou Moon beyond the clouds! Thou living Form + Among the Dead! Thou Star above the storm! + Thou Wonder, and thou Beauty, and thou Terror! + Thou Harmony of Nature's art! Thou Mirror + In whom, as in the splendour of the Sun, + All shapes look glorious which thou gazest on!" + + "See where she stands! a mortal shape endued + With love, and life, and light, and deity; + The motion which may change but cannot die, + An image of some bright eternity; + A shadow of some golden dream; a splendour + Leaving the third sphere pilotless." + +I do not know whether intentionally or not, but we have here assembled +some of the favourite symbols of the Virgin--the moon, the star, the +"_terribilis ut castrorum acies_" (Cant. vi. 10), and the mirror. + +The third is a passage from Robert Browning, which appears to me to +sum up the moral ideal:-- + + "There is a vision in the heart of each, + Of justice, mercy, wisdom, tenderness + To wrong and pain, and knowledge of their cure; + And these embodied in a woman's form + That best transmits them pure as first received + From God above her to mankind below!" + + + + +II. SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN. + + +That which the genius of the greatest of painters only once expressed, +we must not look to find in his predecessors, who saw only partial +glimpses of the union of the divine and human in the feminine form; +still less in his degenerate successors, who never beheld it at all. + +The difficulty of fully expressing this complex ideal, and the +allegorical spirit of the time, first suggested the expedient of +placing round the figure of the glorified Virgin certain accessory +symbols, which should assist the artist to express, and the observer +to comprehend, what seemed beyond the power of art to portray;--a +language of metaphor then understood, and which we also must +understand if we would seize the complete theological idea intended +to be conveyed. + +I shall begin with those symbols which are borrowed from the Litanies +of the Virgin, and from certain texts of the Canticles, in all ages +of the Church applied to her; symbols which, in the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, frequently accompany those representations +which set forth her Glorification or Predestination; and, in the +seventeenth, are introduced into the "Immaculate Conception." + +1. The Sun and the Moon.--"Electa ut Sol, pulchra ut Luna," is one +of the texts of the Canticles applied to Mary; and also in a passage +of the Revelation, "_A woman clothed with the sun, having the moon +under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars._" Hence the +radiance of the sun above her head, and the crescent moon beneath her +feet. From inevitable association the crescent moon suggests the +idea of her perpetual chastity; but in this sense it would be a pagan +rather than a Christian attribute. + +2. The STAR.--This attribute, often embroidered in front of the veil +of the Virgin or on the right shoulder of her blue mantle, has become +almost as a badge from which several well-known pictures derive +their title, "La Madonna della Stella." It is in the first place +an attribute alluding to the most beautiful and expressive of her +many titles:--"_Stella Maris_" Star of the Sea,[1] which is one +interpretation of her Jewish name, _Miriam_: but she is also "_Stella +Jacobi_," the Star of Jacob; "_Stella Matutina_," the Morning Star; +"_Stella non Erratica_," the Fixed Star. When, instead of the single +star on her veil or mantle, she has the crown of twelve stars, the +allusion is to the text of the Apocalypse already quoted, and the +number of stars is in allusion to the number of the Apostles.[2] + +[Footnote 1: + "Ave Maris Stella + Dei Mater alma!" &c.] + +[Footnote 2: "In capite inquit ejus corona stellarum duodecim; quidni +coronent sidera quam sol vestit?"--_St. Bernard_.] + +3. The LILY.--"_I am the rose of Sharon, and lily of the valleys._" +(Cant. ii. 1, 2.) As the general emblem of purity, the lily is +introduced into the Annunciation, where it ought to be without +stamens: and in the enthroned Madonnas it is frequently placed in +the hands of attendant angels, more particularly in the Florentine +Madonnas; the lily, as the emblem of their patroness, being chosen +by the citizens as the _device_ of the city. For the same reason it +became that of the French monarchy. Thorns are sometimes interlaced +with the lily, to express the "_Lilium inter Spinas_." (Cant. ii. 2.) + +4. The ROSE.--She is the rose of Sharon, as well as the lily of the +valley; and as an emblem of love and beauty, the rose is especially +dedicated to her. The plantation or garden of roses[1] is often +introduced; sometimes it forms the background of the picture. There +is a most beautiful example in a Madonna by Cesare di Sesto (Milan, +Brera); and another, "the Madonna of the Rose Bush," by Martin Schoen. +(Cathedral, Colmar.) + +[Footnote 1: Quasi plantatio rosæ in Jericho.] + +5. The ENCLOSED GARDEN (_Hortus conclusus_) is an image borrowed, +like many others, from the Song of Solomon. (Cant. iv. 12.) I have +seen this enclosed garden very significantly placed in the background +of the Annunciation, and in pictures of the Immaculate Conception. +Sometimes the enclosure is formed of a treillage or hedge of roses, as +in a beautiful Virgin by Francia.[1] Sometimes it is merely formed of +stakes or palisades, as In some of the prints by Albert Durer. + +[Footnote 1: Munich Gal.; another by Antonio da Negroponte in the +San Francesco della Vigna at Venice, is also an instance of this +significant background.] + +The WELL always full; the FOUNTAIN forever sealed; the TOWER of David; +the TEMPLE of Solomon; the CITY of David (_Civitas sancti_), (Cant iv. +4. 12, 15); all these are attributes borrowed from the Canticles, and +are introduced into pictures and stained glass. + +6. The PORTA CLAITSA, the Closed Gate, is another metaphor, taken from +the prophecy of Ezekiel (xliv. 4). + +7. The CEDAR of Lebanon (_Cedrus exaliata_, "exalted as a cedar in +Lebanon"), because of its height, its incorruptible substance, +its perfume, and the healing virtues attributed to it in the East, +expresses the greatness, the beauty, the goodness of Mary. + +The victorious PALM, the Plantain "far spreading," and the Cypress +pointing to heaven, are also emblems of the Virgin. + +The OLIVE, as a sign of peace, hope, and abundance, is also a fitting +emblem of the graces of Mary.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Quasi oliva speciosa in campis.] + +8. The Stem of Jesse (Isa. xi. 1), figured as a green branch entwined +with flowers, is also very significant. + +9. The MIRROR (_Specula sine macula_) is a metaphor borrowed from the +Book of Wisdom (vii, 25). We meet with it in some of the late pictures +of the Immaculate Conception. + +10. The SEALED BOOK is also a symbol often placed in the hands of the +Virgin in a mystical Annunciation, and sufficiently significant. The +allusion is to the text, "In that book were all my members written;" +and also to the text in Isaiah (xxix. 11, 12), in which he describes +the vision of the book that was sealed, and could be read neither by +the learned nor the unlearned. + +11. "The Bush which burned and was not consumed," is introduced, with +a mystical significance, into an Annunciation by Titian. + + * * * * * + +Besides these symbols, which have a mystic and sacred significance, +and are applicable to the Virgin only, certain attributes and +accessories are introduced into pictures of the Madonna and Child, +which are capable of a more general interpretation. + +1. The GLOBE, as the emblem of sovereignty, was very early placed in +the hand of the divine Child. When the globe is under the feet of +the Madonna and encircled by a serpent, as in some later pictures, +it figures our Redemption; her triumph over a fallen world--fallen +through sin. + +2. The SERPENT is the general emblem of Sin or Satan; but under the +feet of the Virgin it has a peculiar significance. She has generally +her foot on the head of the reptile. "SHE shall bruise thy head," as +it is interpreted in the Roman Catholic Church.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Ipsa_ conteret caput tuum.] + +3. The APPLE, which of all the attributes is the most common, +signifies the fall of man, which made Redemption necessary. It is +sometimes placed in the hands of the Child; but when in the hand of +the Mother, she is then designated as the second Eve.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Mors per Evam: vita per Mariam.] + +4. The POMEGRANATE, with the seeds displayed, was the ancient emblem +of hope, and more particularly of religious hope. It is often placed +in the hands of the Child, who sometimes presents it to his Mother. + +Other fruits and flowers, always beautiful accessories, are frequently +introduced according to the taste of the artist. But fruits in a +general sense signified "the fruits of the Spirit--joy, peace, love;" +and flowers were consecrated to the Virgin: hence we yet see them +placed before her as offerings. + +5. EARS OF WHEAT in the hand of the Infant (as in a lovely little +Madonna by Ludovico Caracci)[1] figured the bread in the Eucharist, +and GRAPES the wine. + +[Footnote 1: Lansdowne Collection. There was another exactly similar +in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +6. The BOOK.--In the hand of the Infant Christ, the book is the Gospel +in a general sense, or it is the Book of Wisdom. In the hand of the +Madonna, it may have one of two meanings. When open, or when she has +her finger between the leaves, or when the Child is turning over the +pages, then it is the Book of Wisdom, and is always supposed to be +open at the seventh chapter. When the book is clasped or sealed, it is +a mystical symbol of the Virgin herself, as I have already explained. + +7. The DOVE, as the received emblem of the Holy Spirit, is properly +placed above, as hovering over the Virgin. There is an exception to +this rule in a very interesting picture in the Louvre, where the +Holy Dove (with the _nimbus_) is placed at the feet of the Child.[1] +This is so unusual, and so contrary to all the received proprieties +of religious art, that I think the _nimbus_ may have been added +afterwards. + +[Footnote 1: The Virgin has the air of a gipsy. (Louvre, 515.)] + +The seven doves round the head of the Virgin signify the seven gifts +of the Spirit. These characterize her as personified Wisdom--the Mater +Sapientiæ. + +Doves placed near Mary when she is reading, or at work in the temple, +are expressive of her gentleness and tenderness. + +8. BIRDS.--The bird in the Egyptian hieroglyphics signified the soul +of man. In the very ancient pictures there can be no doubt, I think, +that the bird in the hand of Christ figured the soul, or the spiritual +as opposed to the material. But, in the later pictures, the original +meaning being lost, birds became mere ornamental accessories, or +playthings. Sometimes it is a parrot from the East, sometimes a +partridge (the partridge is frequent in the Venetian pictures): +sometimes a goldfinch, as in Raphael's Madonna _del Cardellino_. In a +Madonna by Guercino, the Mother holds a bird perched on her hand, and +the Child, with a most _naïve_ infantine expression, shrinks back from +it.[1] In a picture by Baroccio, he holds it up before a cat (Nat. +Gal. 29), so completely were the original symbolism and all the +religious proprieties of art at this time set aside. + +[Footnote 1: It was in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +Other animals are occasionally introduced. Extremely offensive are +the apes when admitted into devotional pictures. We have associations +with the animal as a mockery of the human, which render it a very +disagreeable accessory. It appears that, in the sixteenth century, +it became the fashion to keep apes as pets, and every reader of +Vasari will remember the frequent mention of these animals as pets +and favourites of the artists. Thus only can I account for the +introduction of the ape, particularly in the Ferrarese pictures. +Bassano's dog, Baroccio's cat, are often introduced. In a famous +picture by Titian, "La Vierge au Lapin," we have the rabbit. (Louvre.) +The introduction of these and other animals marks the decline of +religious art. + +Certain women of the Old Testament are regarded as especial types of +the Virgin. + +EVE. Mary is regarded as the second Eve, because, through her, came +the promised Redemption. She bruised the head of the Serpent. The Tree +of Life, the Fall, or Eve holding the Apple, are constantly introduced +allusively in the Madonna pictures, as ornaments of her throne, or +on the predella of an altar-piece, representing the Annunciation, the +Nativity, or the Coronation. + +RACHEL figures as the ideal of contemplative life. + +RUTH, as the ancestress of David. + +ABISHAG, as "the Virgin who was brought to the King." (I Kings i. 1.) + +BATHSHEBA, because she sat upon a throne on the right hand of her Son. + +JUDITH and ESTHER, as having redeemed their people, and brought +deliverance to Israel. It is because of their typical character, as +emblems of the Virgin, that these Jewish heroines so often figure in +the religious pictures.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The artistic treatment of these characters as types of +the Virgin, will be found in the fourth series of "Legendary Art."] + +In his "Paradiso" (c. xxxii.), Dante represents Eve, Rachel, Sara, +Ruth, Judith, as seated at the feet of the Virgin Mary, beneath her +throne in heaven; and next to Rachel, by a refinement of spiritual and +poetical gallantry, he has placed his Beatrice. + +In the beautiful frescoes of the church of St. Apollinaris at Remagen, +these Hebrew women stand together in a group below the throne of the +Virgin. + +Of the Prophets and the Sibyls who attend on Christ in his character +of the Messiah or Redeemer, I shall have much to say, when describing +the artistic treatment of the history and character of Our Lord. +Those of the prophets who are supposed to refer more particularly to +the Incarnation, properly attend on the Virgin and Child; but in the +ancient altar-pieces, they are not placed within the same frame, nor +are they grouped immediately round her throne, but form the outer +accessories, or are treated separately as symbolical. + +First, MOSES, because he beheld the burning bush, "which burned and +was not consumed." He is generally in the act of removing his sandals. + +AARON, because his rod blossomed miraculously. + +GIDEON, on whose fleece descended the dew of heaven, while all was +dry around. + +DANIEL, who beheld the stone which was cut out without hands, and +became a great mountain, filling the earth. (ch. ii. 45.) + +DAVID, as prophet and ancestor. "Listen, O daughter, and incline thine +ear." + +ISAIAH, "Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son." + +EZEKIEL, "This gate shall be shut." (ch. xliv. 2.) + +Certain of these personages, Moses, Aaron, Gideon, Daniel, Ezekiel, +are not merely accessories and attendant figures, but in a manner +attributes, as expressing the character of the Virgin. Thus in many +instances, we find the prophetical personages altogether omitted, and +we have simply the attribute figuring the prophecy itself, the burning +bush, the rod, the dewy fleece, &c. + +The Sibyls are sometimes introduced alternately with the Prophets. In +general, if there be only two, they are the Tiburtina, who showed the +vision to Augustus, and the Cumean Sibyl who foretold the birth of our +Saviour. The Sibyls were much the fashion in the classic times of the +sixteenth century; Michael Angelo and Raphael have left us consummate +examples. + +But I must repeat that the full consideration of the Prophets and +Sibyls as accessories belongs to another department of sacred art, and +they will find their place there. + +The Evangelists frequently, and sometimes one or more of the +Twelve Apostles, appear as accessories which assist the theological +conception. When other figures are introduced, they are generally +either the protecting saints of the country or locality, or the saints +of the Religious Order to whom the edifice belongs: or, where the +picture or window is an _ex-voto_, we find the patron saints of the +confraternity, or of the donor or votary who has dedicated it. + +Angels seated at the feet of the Madonna and playing on musical +instruments, are most lovely and appropriate accessories, for the +choral angels are always around her in heaven, and on earth she is +the especial patroness of music and minstrelsy.[1] Her delegate +Cecilia patronized _sacred_ music; but _all_ music and musicians, +all minstrels, and all who plied the "gaye science," were under the +protection of Mary. When the angels are singing from their music +books, and others are accompanying them with lutes and viols, the +song is not always supposed to be the same. In a Nativity they sing +the "Gloria in excelsis Deo;" in a Coronation, the "Regina Coeli;" +in an enthroned Madonna with votaries, the "Salve Regina, Mater +Misericordiæ!" in a pastoral Madonna and Child it may be the "Alma +Mater Redemptoris." + +[Footnote 1: The picture by Lo Spagna, lately added to our National +Gallery, is a beautiful example.] + + * * * * * + +In all the most ancient devotional effigies (those in the catacombs +and the old mosaics), the Virgin appears as a majestic woman of mature +age. In those subjects taken from her history which precede her return +from Egypt, and in the Holy Families, she should appear as a young +maiden from fifteen to seventeen years old. + +In the subjects taken from her history which follow the baptism of our +Lord, she should appear as a matron between forty and fifty, but still +of a sweet and gracious aspect. When Michael Angelo was reproached +with representing his Mater Dolorosa much too young, he replied that +the perfect virtue and serenity of the character of Mary would have +preserved her beauty and youthful appearance long beyond the usual +period.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The group in St. Peter's, Rome.] + +Because some of the Greek pictures and carved images had become black +through extreme age, it was argued by certain devout writers, that the +Virgin herself must have been of a very dark complexion; and in favour +of this idea they quoted this text from the Canticles, "I am black, +but comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem." But others say that her +complexion had become black only during her sojourn in Egypt. At all +events, though the blackness of these antique images was supposed to +enhance their sanctity, it has never been imitated in the fine arts, +and it is quite contrary to the description of Nicephorus, which is +the most ancient authority, and that which is followed in the Greek +school. + +The proper dress of the Virgin is a close red tunic, with long +sleeves;[1] and over this a blue robe or mantle. In the early +pictures, the colours are pale and delicate. Her head ought to be +veiled. The fathers of the primeval Church, particularly Tertullian, +attach great importance to the decent veil worn by Christian maidens; +and in all the early pictures the Virgin is veiled. The enthroned +Virgin, unveiled, with long tresses falling down on either side, +was an innovation introduced about the end of the fifteenth century; +commencing, I think, with the Milanese, and thence adopted in the +German schools and those of Northern Italy. The German Madonnas of +Albert Durer's time have often magnificent and luxuriant hair, curling +in ringlets, or descending to the waist in rich waves, and always +fair. Dark-haired Madonnas appear first in the Spanish and later +Italian schools. + +[Footnote 1: In a famous Pietà by Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio, +the Virgin, standing by the dead form of her Son, has the right arm +apparently bare; in the repetition of the subject it is clothed with +a full sleeve, the impropriety being corrected. The first is, however, +the most perfect and most precious as a work of art.--_Bartsch_, xiv. +34, 35.] + +In the historical pictures, her dress is very simple; but in those +devotional figures which represent her as queen of heaven, she wears a +splendid crown, sometimes of jewels interwoven with lilies and roses. +The crown is often the sovereign crown of the country in which the +picture is placed: thus, in the Papal States, she often wears the +triple tiara: in Austria, the imperial diadem. Her blue tunic is +richly embroidered with gold and gems, or lined with ermine, or stuff +of various colours, in accordance with a text of Scripture: "The +King's daughter is all glorious within; her clothing is of wrought +gold. She shall be brought unto the King in a vesture of needlework." +(Ps. xlv. 13.) In the Immaculate Conception, and in the Assumption, +her tunic should be plain white, or white spangled with golden stars. +In the subjects relating to the Passion, and after the Crucifixion, +the dress of the Virgin should be violet or gray. These proprieties, +however, are not always attended to. + +In the early pictures which represent her as nursing the divine Infant +(the subject called the _Vergine Lattante_), the utmost care is taken +to veil the bust as much as possible. In the Spanish school the most +vigilant censorship was exercised over all sacred pictures, and, with +regard to the figures of the Virgin, the utmost decorum was required. +"What," says Pacheco, "can be more foreign to the respect which we owe +to our Lady the Virgin, than to paint her sitting down with one of her +knees placed over the other, and often with her sacred feet uncovered +and naked? Let thanks be given to the Holy Inquisition, which commands +that this liberty should be corrected." For this reason, perhaps, we +seldom see the feet of the Virgin in Spanish pictures.[1] Carducho +speaks more particularly on the impropriety of painting the Virgin +unshod, "since it is manifest that, our Lady was in the habit of +wearing shoes, as is proved by the much venerated relic of one of them +from her divine feet at Burgos." + +[Footnote 1: Or in any of the old pictures till the seventeenth +century "Tandis que Dieu est toujours montré pieds nus, lui qui est +descendu à terre et a pris notre humanité, Marie au contraire est +constamment représentée les pieds perdus dans les plis trainants, +nombreux et légers de sa robe virginale; elle, qui est elevée au +dessus de la terre et rapprochée de Dieu par sa pureté. Dieu montre +par ses pieds nus qu'il a pris le corps de l'homme; Marie fait +comprendre en les cachant qu'elle participe de la spiritualité de +Dieu."] + +The Child in her arms is always, in the Greek and early pictures, +clothed in a little tunic, generally white. In the fifteenth century +he first appears partly, and then wholly, undraped. Joseph, as the +earthly _sposo_, wears the saffron-coloured mantle over a gray tunic. +In the later schools of art these significant colours are often +varied, and sometimes wholly dispensed with. + + + + +III. DEVOTIONAL AND HISTORICAL REPRESENTATIONS. + + +In this volume, as in the former ones, I have adhered to the +distinction between the devotional and the historical representations. + +I class as devotional, all those which express a dogma merely; all the +enthroned Madonnas, alone or surrounded by significant accessories +or attendant saints; all the Mystical Coronations and Immaculate +Conceptions; all the Holy Families with saints, and those completely +ideal and votive groups, in which the appeal is made to the faith and +piety of the observer. I shall give the characteristic details, in +particular instances, further on. + +The altar-pieces in a Roman Catholic church are always either strictly +devotional objects, or it may be, historical subjects (such as the +Nativity) treated in a devotional sense. They are sometimes in several +pieces or compartments. A Diptych is an altar-piece composed of two +divisions or leaves which are united by hinges, and close like a book. +Portable altar-pieces of a small size are generally in this form; and +among the most valuable and curious remains of early religious art are +the Greek and Byzantine Diptychs, sometimes painted, sometimes carved +in ivory[1]. A Triptych is an altar-piece in three parts; the two +outer divisions or wings often closing as shutters over the central +compartment. + +[Footnote 1: Among the "Casts from Ancient Ivory Carvings", +published by the Arundel Society, will be found some interesting and +illustrative examples, particularly Class III. Diptych _b_, Class VII +Diptych _c_ and Triptych _f_, Class IX. Triptych _k_.] + +On the outside of the shutters or doors the Annunciation was +generally painted, as the mystery which opened the gates of salvation; +occasionally, also, the portraits of the votaries or donors. + +Complete examples of devotional representation occur in the complex +and elaborate altar-pieces and windows of stained glass, which often +comprehend a very significant scheme of theology.[1]. I give here +plans of two of these old altar-pieces, which will assist the reader +in elucidating the meaning of others. + +[Footnote 1: Still more important examples occur in the porches and +exterior decoration of the old cathedrals, French and English which +have escaped mutilation. These will be found explained at length in +the Fourth Series of Sacred and Legendary Art.] + +The first is the altar-piece in the Rinuccini Chapel in the church +of the Santa Croco of Florence. It is necessary to premise that +the chapel was founded in honour of the Virgin and Mary Magdalene; +while the church is dedicated to the Holy Cross, and belongs to the +Franciscans. + +[Illustration: Altar-piece] + +The compartments are separated by wood-work most richly carved +and gilt in the Gothic style, with twisted columns, pinnacles, and +scrolls. The subjects are thus distributed. + +A. The Virgin and Child enthroned. She has the sun on her breast, the +moon under her feet, the twelve stars over her head, and is attended +by angels bearing the attributes of the cardinal virtues. B. St. +John the Baptist. C. St. Francis. D. St. John Evangelist. E. Mary +Magdalene. 1. The Crucifixion, with the Virgin and St. John. 2, 3, 4, +5. The four Evangelists with their books: half length. 6, 7. St. Peter +and St. Paul: half length. 8, 9, 10, 11. St. Thomas, St. Philip, St. +James, and St. Andrew: half length. PP. The Predella. 12. The Nativity +and Adoration of Magi. 13. St. Francis receives the Stigmata. 14. +Baptism of Christ. 15. The Vision of St. John in Patmos. 16. Mary +Magdalene borne up by angels. Between the altar-piece and the predella +runs the inscription in Gothic letters, AVE DELICISSIMIS VIRGO MARIA, +SUCCURRE NOBIS MATER PIA. MCCCLXXVIII. + +The second example is sketched from an altar-piece painted for the +suppressed convent of Santa Chiara, at Venice. It is six feet high, +and eight feet wide, and the ornamental caning in which the subjects +are enclosed particularly splendid and elaborate. + +[Illustration: Altar-piece] + +A. The Coronation of the Virgin, treated as a religious mystery, with +choral angels. B. The Nativity of our Lord. C. The Baptism. D. The +Last Supper. E. The Betrayal of Christ. F. The Procession to Calvary, +in which the Virgin is rudely pushed aside by the soldiers. G. The +Crucifixion, as an event: John sustains the Virgin at the foot of the +cross. H. The Resurrection and the _Noli me tangere_. I. Ascension. +1. Half-figure of Christ, with the hand extended in benediction; in +the other hand the Gospel. 2. David. 3. Isaiah. 4, 5, 6, 7. The +four Evangelists standing. 8. 9, 11, 12. Scenes from the Life of St. +Francis and St. Clara. 10. The Descent of the Holy Ghost. 13. The Last +Judgment. + +It is to be regretted that so many of these altar-pieces have been +broken up, and the detached parts sold as separate pictures: so that +we may find one compartment of an altar in a church at Rome, and +another hanging in a drawing-room in London; the upper part at Ghent, +the lower half at Paris; one wing at Berlin, another at Florence. But +where they exist as a whole, how solemn, significant, and instructive +the arrangement! It may be read as we read a poem. Compare these with +the groups round the enthroned Virgin in the later altar-pieces, +where the saints elbow each other in attitudes, where mortal men sit +with unseemly familiarity close to personages recognized as divine. +As I have remarked further on, it is one of the most interesting +speculations connected with the study of art, to trace this decline +from reverence to irreverence, from the most rigid formula to the most +fantastic caprice. The gradual disappearance of the personages of the +Old Testament, the increasing importance given to the family of the +Blessed Virgin, the multiplication of legendary subjects, and all the +variety of adventitious, unmeaning, or merely ornamental accessories, +strike us just in proportion as a learned theology replaced the +unreflecting, undoubting piety of an earlier age. + + * * * * * + +The historical subjects comprise the events from the Life of the +Virgin, when treated in a dramatic form; and all those groups which +exhibit her in her merely domestic relations, occupied by cares for +her divine Child, and surrounded by her parents and kindred, subjects +which assume a pastoral and poetical rather than an historical form. + +All these may be divided into Scriptural and Legendary +representations. The Scriptural scenes in which the Virgin Mary is a +chief or important personage, are the Annunciation, the Visitation, +the Nativity, the Purification, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight +into Egypt, the Marriage at Cana, the Procession to Calvary, the +Crucifixion (as related by St. John), and the Descent of the Holy +Ghost. The Traditional and Legendary scenes are those taken from +the apocryphal Scriptures, some of which have existed from the third +century. The Legend of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin, +with the account of her early life, and her Marriage with Joseph, +down to the Massacre of the Innocents, are taken from the Gospel of +Mary and the Protevangelion. The scenes of the Flight into Egypt, +the Repose on the Journey, and the Sojourn of the Holy Family at +Hieropolis or Matarea, are taken from the Gospel of Infancy. The +various scenes attending the Death and Assumption of the Virgin are +derived from a Greek legendary poem, once attributed to St. John the +Evangelist, but the work, as it is supposed, of a certain Greek, named +Meliton, who lived in the ninth century, and who has merely dressed +up in a more fanciful form ancient traditions of the Church. Many +of these historical scenes have been treated in a devotional style, +expressing not the action, but the event, taken in the light of a +religious mystery; a distinction which I have fully explained in the +following pages, where I have given in detail the legends on which +these scenes are founded, and the religious significance conveyed by +the treatment. + +A complete series of the History of the Virgin begins with the +rejection of her father Joachim from the temple, and ends with the +assumption and coronation, including most of the events in the History +of our Lord (as for example, the series painted by Giotto, in the +chapel of the Arena, at Padua); but there are many instances in which +certain important evens relating to the Virgin only, as the principal +person, are treated as a devotional series; and such are generally +found in the chapels and oratories especially dedicated to her. A +beautiful instance is that of the Death of the Virgin, treated in +a succession of scenes, as an event apart, and painted by Taddeo +Barrolo, in the Chapel of the Palazzo Publico, at Siena. This small +chapel was dedicated to the Virgin soon after the terrible plague of +1848 had ceased, as it was believed, by her intercession; so that +this municipal chapel was at once an expression of thanksgiving, and +a memorial of death, of suffering, of bereavement, and of hope in +the resurrection. The frescoes cover one wall of the chapel, and are +arranged in four scenes. + +1. Mary is reclining in her last sickness, and around her are the +Apostles, who, according to the beautiful legend, were _miraculously_ +assembled to witness her departure. To express this, one of them is +floating in as if borne on the air. St. John kneels at her feet, and +she takes, with an expression exquisitely tender and maternal, his two +hands in hers. This action is peculiar to the Siena school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: On each side of the principal door of the Cathedral at +Siena, which is dedicated to "Beata Virgine Assunta," and just within +the entrance, is a magnificent pilaster, of white marble, completely +covered from the base to the capital with the most luxuriant carving, +arabesques, foliage, &c., in an admirable and finished style. On the +bases of these two pilasters are subjects from the Life of the Virgin, +three on each side, and arranged, each subject on one side having its +pendant on the other. + +1. The meeting of Joachim and Anna. 2. The Nativity of Mary. 3. Her +sickness and last farewell to the Apostles; bending towards St. John, +she takes his hands in hers with the same tender expression as in +the fresco by Taddeo Bartola. 4. She lies dead on her couch. 5. The +Assumption. 6. The Coronation. + +The figures are about a foot in height, delicately carved, full of +that sentiment which is especially Sienese, and treated with a truly +sculptural simplicity.] + +2. She lies extended on her couch, surrounded by the weeping +Apostles, and Christ behind receives the parting soul,--the usual +representation, but treated with the utmost sentiment. + +3. She is borne to the grave by the Apostles; in the background, the +walls of the city of Jerusalem. Here the Greek legend of St. Michael +protecting her remains from the sacrilegious Jew is omitted, and a +peculiar sentiment of solemnity pervades the whole scene. + +4. The resurrection of the Virgin, when she rises from the tomb +sustained by hovering angels, and is received by Christ. + +When I first saw these beautiful frescoes, in 1847, they were in a +very ruined state; they have since been restored in a very good style, +and with a reverent attention to the details and expression. + +In general, however, the cycle commences either with the legend of +Joachim and Anna, or with the Nativity of the Virgin, and ends with +the assumption and coronation. A most interesting early example is the +series painted in fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, in the Baroncelli Chapel +at Florence. The subjects are arranged on two walls. The first on the +right hand, and the second, opposite to us as we enter. + +1. Joachim is rejected from the Temple. + +2. He is consoled by the Angel. + +3. The meeting of Joachim and Anna. + +4. The Birth of the Virgin. + +5. The Presentation of the Virgin. She is here a child of about five +years old; and having ascended five steps (of the fifteen) she turns +as if to bid farewell to her parents and companions, who stand below; +while on the summit the High Priest, Anna the prophetess, and the +maidens of the Temple come forward to receive her. + +6. The Marriage to Joseph, and the rage and disappointment of the +other suitors. + +The second wall is divided by a large window of the richest stained +glass, on each side of which the subjects are arranged. + +7. The Annunciation. This is peculiar. Mary, not throned or standing, +but seated on the ground, with her hands clasped, and an expression +beautiful for devotion and humility, looks upwards to the descending +angel. + +8. The Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth. + +9. The Annunciation to the Shepherds. + +10. The Nativity. + +11. The Wise Men behold the Star in the Form of a Child. + +12. They approach to Worship. Under the window is the altar, no longer +used as such; and behind it a small but beautiful triptych of the +Coronation of the Virgin, by Giotto, containing at least a hundred +heads of saints, angels, &c.; and on the wall opposite is the large +fresco of the Assumption, by Mainardi, in which St. Thomas receives +the girdle, the other Apostles being omitted. This is of much later +date, being painted about 1495. + +The series of five subjects in the Rinuccini Chapel (in the sacristy +of the same church) has been generally attributed to Taddeo Gaddi, +but I agree with those who gave it to a different painter of the same +period. + +The subjects are thus arranged:--1. The Rejection of Joachim, which +fills the whole arch at the top, and is rather peculiarly treated. +On the right of the altar advances a company of grave-looking Elders, +each with his offering. On the left, a procession of the matrons and +widows "who had been fruitful in Israel," each with her lamb. In the +centre, Joachim, with his lamb in his arms and an affrighted look, +is hurrying down the steps. 2. The Lamentation of Joachim on the +Mountain, and the Meeting of Joachim and Anna. 3. The Birth of the +Virgin. 4. The Presentation in the Temple. 5. The Sposalizio of the +Virgin, with which the series concludes; every event referring to her +divine Son, even the Annunciation, being omitted. On comparing these +frescoes with those in the neighbouring chapel of the Baroncelli, the +difference in _feeling_ will be immediately felt; but they are very +_naïve_ and elegant. + +About a hundred years later than these two examples we have the +celebrated series painted by Ghirlandajo, in the choir of S. Maria +Novella at Florence. There are three walls. On the principal wall, +facing us as we enter, is the window; and around it the Annunciation +(as a mystery), then the principal saints of the Order to whom the +church belongs,--St. Dominic and St. Peter Martyr, and the protecting +saints of Florence. + +On the left hand (i.e. the right as we face the high altar) is the +History of the Virgin; on the opposite side, the History of St. John +the Baptist. The various cycles relating to St. John as patron of +Florence will be fully treated in the last volume of Legendary Art; at +present I shall confine myself to the beautiful set of subjects which +relate the history of the Virgin, and which the engravings of Lasinio +(see the "Ancient Florentine Masters") have rendered well known to +the lovers of art. They cover the whole wall and are thus arranged, +beginning from the lowest on the left hand. + +1. Joachim is driven from the Temple. + +2. The Birth of the Virgin. + +3. The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple. + +4. The Marriage of Joseph and Mary. + +5. The Adoration of the Magi (this is very much ruined). + +6. The Massacre of the Innocents. (This also is much ruined.) Vasari +says it was the finest of all. It is very unusual to make this +terrible and pathetic scene part of the life of the Virgin. + +7. In the highest and largest compartment, the Death and Assumption of +the Virgin. + +Nearly contemporary with this fine series is that by Pinturicchio in +the Church of S. Maria del Popolo, at Rome (in the third chapel on the +right). It is comprised in five lunettes round the ceiling, beginning +with the Birth of the Virgin, and is remarkable for its elegance. + +About forty years after this series was completed the people of Siena, +who had always bees remarkable for their devotion to the Virgin, +dedicated to Her honour the beautiful little chapel called the Oratory +of San Bernardino (v. Legends of the Monastic Orders), near the church +of San Francesco, and belonging to the same Order, the Franciscans. +This chapel is an exact parallelogram and the frescoes which cover +the four walls are thus arranged above the wainscot, which rises about +eight feet from the ground. + +1. Opposite the door as we enter, the Birth of the Virgin. The usual +visitor to St. Anna is here a grand female figure, in voluminous +drapery. The delight and exultation of those who minister to the +new-born infant are expressed with the most graceful _naïveté_. This +beautiful composition should be compared with those of Ghirlandajo +and Andrea del Sarto in the Annunziata at Florence;[1] it yields to +neither as a conception and is wholly different. It is the work of a +Sienese painter little known--Girolamo del Pacchio. + +[Footnote 1: This series, painted by Andrea and his scholars and +companions, Franciabigio and Pontormo, is very remarkable as a work of +art, but presents nothing new in regard to the choice and treatment of +the subjects.] + +2. The Presentation in the Temple, by G.A. Razzi. The principal scene +is placed in the background, and the little Madonna, as she ascends +the steps, is received by the High Priest and Anna the prophetess. +Her father and mother and groups of spectators fill the foreground; +here, too, is a very noble female figure on the right; but the whole +composition is mannered, and wants repose and religious feeling. + +3. The Sposalizio, by Beccafumi. The ceremony takes place after the +manner of the Jews, outside the Temple. In a mannered, artificial +style. + +4, 5. On one side of the altar, the Angel Gabriel floating in--very +majestic and angelic; on the other side the Virgin Annunziata, with +that attitude and expression so characteristic of the Siena School, +as if shrinking from the apparition. These also are by Girolamo del +Pacchio, and extremely fine. + +6. The enthroned Virgin and Child, by Beccafumi. The Virgin is very +fine and majestic; around her throne stand and kneel the guardian +saints of Siena and the Franciscan Order; St. Francis, St. Antony of +Padua, St. Bernardino, St. Catherine of Siena, St. Ansano, St. John +B., St. Louis. (St. Catherine, as patroness of Siena, takes here the +place usually given to St. Clara in the Franciscan pictures.) + +7. The Visitation. Very fine and rather peculiar; for here Elizabeth +bends over Mary as welcoming her, while the other inclines her head as +accepting hospitality. By Razzi. + +8. The Death of the Virgin. Fourteen figures, among which are four +females lamenting, and St. John bearing the palm. The attitude and +expression of Mary, composed in death, are very fine; and Christ, +instead of standing, as usual, by the couch, with her parting soul in +his arms, comes rushing down from above with arms outspread to receive +it. + +9. The Assumption. Mary, attired all in white, rises majestically. +The tomb is seen beneath, out of which grow two tall lilies amid white +roses; the Apostles surround it, and St. Thomas receives the girdle. +This is one of the finest works of Razzi, and one of the purest in +point of sentiment. + +10. The Coronation, covering the whole wall which faces the altar, is +by Razzi; it is very peculiar and characteristic. The Virgin, all in +white, and extremely fine, bending gracefully, receives her crown; the +other figures have that vulgarity of expression which belonged to the +artist, and is often so oddly mingled with the sentiment and grandeur +of his school and time. On the right of the principal group stands +St. John B.; on the left, Adam and Eve; and behind the Virgin, her +mother, St. Anna, which is quite peculiar, and the only instance I can +remember. + + * * * * * + +It appears therefore that the Life of the Virgin Mary, whether treated +as a devotional or historical series, forms a kind of pictured drama +in successive scenes; sometimes comprising only six or eight of the +principal events of her individual life, as her birth, dedication, +marriage, death, and assumption: sometimes extending to forty or fifty +subjects, and combining her history with that of her divine Son. I +may now direct the attention of the reader to a few other instances +remarkable for their beauty and celebrity. + +Giotto, 1320. In the chapel at Padua styled _la Capella dell' Arena_. +One of the finest and most complete examples extant, combining the +Life of the Virgin with that of her Son. This series is of the highest +value, a number of scenes and situations suggested by the Scriptures +being here either expressed for the first time, or in a form unknown +in the Greek school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Kugler's Handbook, p. 129. He observes, that "the +introduction of the maid-servant spinning, in the story of St. Anna, +oversteps the limits of the higher ecclesiastical style." For an +explanation I must refer to the story as I have given it at p 249. +See, for the distribution of the subjects in this chapel, Lord +Lindsay's "Christian Art," vol. ii. A set of the subjects has since +been published by the Arundel Society.] + +Angiolo Gaddi, 1380. The series in the cathedral at Prato. These +comprise the history of the Holy Girdle. + +Andrea Orcagna, 1373. The beautiful series of bas-reliefs on the +shrine in Or-San-Michele, at Florence. + +Nicolò da Modena, 1450. Perhaps the earliest engraved example: +very remarkable for the elegance of the _motifs_ and the imperfect +execution, engraving on copper being then a new art. + +Albert Durer. The beautiful and well-known set of twenty-five +wood-cuts, published in 1510. A perfect example of the German +treatment. + +Bernardino Luini, 1515. A series of frescoes of the highest beauty, +painted for the monastery Della Pace. Unhappily we have only the +fragments which are preserved in the Brera. + +The series of bas-reliefs on the outer shrine of the Casa di Loretto, +by Sansovino, and others of the greatest sculptors of the beginning of +the sixteenth century. + +The series of bas-reliefs round the choir at Milan: seventeen +subjects. + + * * * * * + +We often find the Seven Joys and the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin +treated as a series. + +The Seven Joys are, the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity, +the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, Christ +found by his Mother, the Assumption and Coronation. + +The Seven Sorrows are, the Prophecy of Simeon, the Flight into Egypt, +Christ lost by his Mother, the Betrayal of Christ, the Crucifixion +(with St. John and the Virgin only present), the Deposition from the +Cross, the Ascension when the Virgin is left on earth. + +The Seven Joys and Sorrows are frequently found in altar-pieces and +religions prints, arranged in separate compartments, round the Madonna +in the centre. Or they are combined in various groups into one large +composition, as in a famous picture by Hans Hemling, wonderful for the +poetry, expression, and finished execution.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Altogether, on a careful consideration of this picture, +I do not consider the title by which it is generally known as +appropriate. It contains man groups which would not enter into the +mystic joys or sorrows; for instance, the Massacre of the Innocents, +Christ at Emmaus, the _Noli me tangere_, and others.] + +Another cycle of subjects consists of the fifteen Mysteries of the +Rosary. + +The five Joyful Mysteries, are the Annunciation, the Visitation, the +Nativity, the Purification, and Christ found in the Temple. + +The five Dolorous or Sorrowful Mysteries are, our Lord in the +Garden of Olives, the Flagellation, Christ crowned with Thorns, the +Procession to Calvary, the Crucifixion. + +The five Glorious Mysteries are, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the +Descent of the Holy Ghost, the Assumption, the Coronation. + +A series of subjects thus arranged cannot be called strictly +historical, but partakes of the mystical and devotional character. +The purpose being to excite devout meditation, requires a particular +sentiment, frequently distinguished from the merely dramatic and +historical treatment in being accompanied by saints, votaries, +and circumstances purely ideal; as where the Wise Men bring their +offerings, while St. Luke sits in a corner painting the portrait +of the Virgin, and St. Dominick kneels in adoration of the Mystery +(Mabuse, Munich Gal.);--and in a hundred other examples. + + + + +IV. TITLES OF THE VIRGIN MARY. + + +Of the various titles given to the Virgin Mary, and thence to certain +effigies and pictures of her, some appear to me very touching, as +expressive of the wants, the aspirations, the infirmities and sorrows, +which are common to poor suffering humanity, or of those divine +attributes from which they hoped to find aid and consolation. Thus we +have-- + +Santa Maria "del buon Consilio." Our Lady of good Counsel. + +S.M. "del Soccorso." Our Lady of Succour. Our Lady of the Forsaken. + +S.M. "del buon Core." Our Lady of good Heart. + +S.M. "della Grazia." Our Lady of Grace. + +S.M. "di Misericordia." Our Lady of Mercy. + +S.M. "Auxilium Afflictorum." Help of the Afflicted. + +S.M. "Refugium Peccatorum." Refuge of Sinners. + +S.M. "del Pianto," "del Dolore." Our Lady of Lamentation, or Sorrow. + +S.M. "Consolatrice," "della Consolazione," or "del Conforte." Our Lady +of Consolation. + +S.M. "della Speranza." Our Lady of Hope. + +Under these and similar titles she is invoked by the afflicted, and +often represented with her ample robe outspread and upheld by angels, +with votaries and suppliants congregated beneath its folds. In Spain, +_Nuestra Señora de la Merced_ is the patroness of the Order of Mercy; +and in this character she often holds in her hand small tablets +bearing the badge of the Order. (Legends of the Monastic Orders, 2d +edit.) + +S.M. "della Liberta," or "Liberatrice," Our Lady of Liberty; and S.M. +"della Catena," Our Lady of Fetters. In this character she is invoked +by prisoners and captives. + +S.M. "del Parto," Our Lady of Good Delivery, invoked by women in +travail.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Dante alludes to her in this character:-- + + "E per ventura udi 'Dolce Maria!' + Dinanzi a noi chiamar cosi nel pianto + Come fa donna che 'n partorir sia."--_Purg._ c. 20.] + +S.M. "del Popolo." Our Lady of the People. + +S.M. "della Vittoria." Our Lady of Victory. + +S.M. "della Pace." Our Lady of Peace. + +S.M. "della Sapienza," Our Lady of Wisdom; and S.M. "della +Perseveranza," Our Lady of Perseverance. (Sometimes placed in +colleges, with a book in her hand, as patroness of students.) + +S.M. "della Salute." Our Lady of Health or Salvation. Under this title +pictures and churches have been dedicated after the cessation of a +plague, or any other public calamity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: There is also somewhere in France a chapel dedicated to +_Notre Dame de la Haine_.] + +Other titles are derived from particular circumstances and +accessories, as-- + +S.M. "del Presepio," Our Lady of the Cradle; generally a Nativity, or +when she is adoring her Child. + +S.M. "della Scodella"--with the cup or porringer, where she is taking +water from a fountain; generally a Riposo. + +S.M. "dell' Libro," where she holds the Book of Wisdom. + +S.M. "della Cintola," Our Lady of the Girdle, where she is either +giving the Girdle to St. Thomas, or where the Child holds it in his +hand. + +S.M. "della Lettera." Our Lady of the Letter. This is the title given +to Our Lady as protectress of the city of Messina. According to the +Sicilian legend, she honoured the people of Messina by writing a +letter to them, dated from Jerusalem, "in the year of her Son, 42." In +the effigies of the "Madonna della Lettera," she holds this letter in +her hand. + +S.M. "della Rosa." Our Lady of the Rose. A title given to several +pictures, in which the rose, which is consecrated to her, is placed +either in her hand, or in that of the Child. + +S.M. "della Stella." Our Lady of the Star. She wears the star as one +of her attributes embroidered on her mantle. + +S.M. "del Fiore." Our Lady of the Flower. She has this title +especially as protectress of Florence. + +S.M. "della Spina." She holds in her hand the crown of thorns, and +under this title is the protectress of Pisa. + +S.M. "del Rosario." Our Lady of the Rosary, with the mystic string of +beads. I do not remember any instance of the Rosary placed in the hand +of the Virgin or the Child till after the battle of Lepanto (1571), +and the institution of the Festival of the Rosary, as an act of +thanksgiving. After this time pictures of the Madonna "del Rosario" +abound, and may generally be found in the Dominican churches. There is +a famous example by Guido in the Bologna Gallery, and a very beautiful +one by Murillo in the Dulwich Gallery. + +S.M. "del Carmine." Our Lady of Mount Carmel. She is protectress of +the Order of the Carmelites, and is often represented holding in her +hand small tablets, on which is the effigy of herself with the Child. + +S.M. "de Belem." Our Lady of Bethlehem. Under this title she is the +patroness of the Jeronymites, principally in Spain and Portugal. + +S.M. "della Neve." Our Lady of the Snow. In Spain, S. Maria la Blanca. +To this legend of the snow the magnificent church of S.M. Maggiore at +Rome is said to owe its origin. A certain Roman patrician, whose name +was John (Giovanni Patricie), being childless, prayed of the Virgin to +direct him how best to bestow his worldly wealth. She appeared to him +in a dream on the night of the fifth of August, 352, and commanded him +to build a church in her honour, on a spot where snow would be found +the next morning. The same vision having appeared to his wife and the +reigning pope, Liberius, they repaired in procession the next morning +to the summit of Mount Esquiline, where, notwithstanding the heat of +the weather, a large patch of ground was miraculously covered with +snow, and on it Liberius traced out with his crosier the plan of the +church. This story has been often represented in art, and is easily +recognized; but it is curious that the two most beautiful pictures +consecrated to the honour of the Madonna della Neve are Spanish and +not Roman, and were painted by Murillo about the time that Philip +IV. of Spain sent rich offerings to the church of S.M. Maggiore, thus +giving a kind of popularity to the legend. The picture represents +the patrician John and his wife asleep, and the Vision of the Virgin +(one of the loveliest ever painted by Murillo) breaking upon them in +splendour through the darkness of the night; while in the dim distance +is seen the Esquiline (or what is meant for it) covered with snow. In +the second picture, John and his wife are kneeling before the pope, +"a grand old ecclesiastic, like one of Titian's pontiffs." These +pictures, after being carried off by the French from the little church +of S.M. la Blanca at Seville, are now in the royal gallery at Madrid. + +S. Maria "di Loretto." Our Lady of Loretto. The origin of this title +is the famous legend of the Santa Casa, the house at Nazareth, which +was the birthplace of the Virgin, and the scene of the Annunciation. +During the incursions of the Saracens, the Santa Casa being threatened +with profanation, if not destruction, was taken up by the angels +and conveyed over land and sea till it was set down on the coast of +Dalmatia; but not being safe there, the angels again took it up, and, +bearing it over the Adriatic, set it down in a grove near Loretto. But +certain wicked brigands having disturbed its sacred quietude by strife +and murder, the house again changed its place, and was at length set +down on the spot where it now stands. The date of this miracle is +placed in 1295. + +The Madonna di Loretto is usually represented as seated with the +divine Child on the roof of a house, which is sustained at the corners +by four angels, and thus borne over sea and land. From the celebrity +of Loretto as a place of pilgrimage this representation became +popular, and is often found in chapels dedicated to our Lady of +Loretto. Another effigy of our Lady of Loretto is merely a copy of +a very old Greek "Virgin and Child," which is enshrined in the Santa +Casa. + +S.M. "del Pillar," Our Lady of the Pillar, is protectress of +Saragossa. According to the Legend, she descended from heaven standing +on an alabaster pillar, and thus appeared to St. James (Santiago) +when he was preaching the gospel in Spain. The miraculous pillar +is preserved in the cathedral of Saragossa, and the legend appears +frequently in Spanish art. Also in a very interior picture by Nicolo +Poussin, now in the Louvre. + + * * * * * + +Some celebrated pictures are individually distinguished by titles +derived from some particular object in the composition, as Raphael's +_Madonna de Impannata_, so called from the window in the back +ground being partly shaded with a piece of linen (in the Pitti +Pal., Florence); Correggio's _Vierge au Panier_, so called from the +work-basket which stands beside her (in our Nat Gal.); Murillo's +_Virgen de la Servilleta_, the Virgin of the Napkin, in allusion to +the dinner napkin on which it was painted.[1] Others are denominated +from certain localities, as the _Madonna di Foligno_ (now in the +Vatican); others from the names of families to whom they have +belonged, as _La Madonna della Famiglia Staffa_, at Perugia. + +[Footnote 1: There is a beautiful engraving in Stirling's "Annals of +the Artists of Spain."] + + * * * * * + +Those visions and miracles with which the Virgin Mary favoured many +of the saints, as St. Luke (who was her secretary and painter), St. +Catherine, St. Francis, St. Herman, and others, have already been +related in the former volumes, and need not be repeated here. + +With regard to the churches dedicated to the Virgin, I shall not +attempt to enumerate even the most remarkable, as almost every town +in Christian Europe contains one or more bearing her name. The most +ancient of which tradition speaks, was a chapel beyond the Tiber, at +Rome, which is said to have been founded in 217, on the site where S. +Maria _in Trastevere_ now stands. But there are one or two which carry +their pretensions much higher; for the cathedral at Toledo and the +cathedral at Chartres both claim the honour of having been dedicated +to the Virgin while she was yet alive.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In England we have 2,120 churches dedicated in her +honour; and one of the largest and most important of the London +parishes bears her name--"St. Marie-la-bonne"] + + * * * * * + +Brief and inadequate as are these introductory notices, they will, I +hope, facilitate the comprehension of the critical details into which +it has been necessary to enter in the following pages, and lend some +new interest to the subjects described. I have heard the artistic +treatment of the Madonna styled a monotonous theme; and to those who +see only the perpetual iteration of the same groups on the walls of +churches and galleries, varied as they may suppose only by the fancy +of the painter, it may seem so. But beyond the visible forms, there +lies much that is suggestive to a thinking mind--to the lover of Art +a higher significance, a deeper beauty, a more various interest, than +could at first be imagined. + +In fact, the greatest mistakes in point of _taste_ arise in general +from not knowing what we ought to demand of the artist, not only in +regard to the subject expressed, but with reference to the times in +which he lived, and his own individuality. An axiom which I have heard +confidently set forth, that a picture is worth nothing unless "he who +runs may read," has inundated the world with frivolous and pedantic +criticism. A picture or any other work of Art, is worth nothing except +in so far as it has emanated from mind, and is addressed to mind. It +should, indeed, be _read_ like a book. Pictures, as it has been well +said, are the books of the unlettered, but then we must at least +understand the language in which they are written. And further,--if, +in the old times, it was a species of idolatry to regard these +beautiful representations as endued with a specific sanctity and +power; so, in these days, it is a sort of atheism to look upon them +reckless of their significance, regardless of the influences through +which they were produced, without acknowledgment of the mind which +called them into being, without reference to the intention of the +artist in his own creation. + + * * * * * + +SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +I. + +In the first edition of this work, only a passing allusion was made to +those female effigies, by some styled "_la donna orante_" (the Praying +Woman) and by others supposed to represent Mary the Mother of our +Lord, of which so many examples exist in the Catacombs and in the +sculptured groups on the ancient Christian sarcophagi. I know it has +long been a disputed, or at least an unsettled and doubtful point, as +to whether certain female figures existing on the earliest Christian +monuments were or were not intended to represent the Virgin Mary. +The Protestants, on the one hand, as if still inspired by that +superstition against superstition which led to the violent and vulgar +destruction of so many beautiful works of art, and the Catholics on +the other, jealous to maintain the authenticity of these figures as a +testimony to the ancient worship of the Virgin, both appear to me to +have taken an exaggerated and prejudiced view of a subject which ought +to be considered dispassionately on purely antiquarian and critical +grounds. Having had the opportunity, during a late residence in +Italy, of reconsidering and comparing a great number of these antique +representations, and having heard the opinions of antiquarians, +theologians, and artists, who had given their attention to the +subject, and who occasionally differed from each other as to the +weight of evidence, I have arrived at the conviction, that some of +these effigies represent the Virgin Mary, and others do not. I confess +I do not believe in any authentic representation of the Virgin holding +the Divine Child older than the sixth century, except when introduced +into the groups of the Nativity and the Worship of the Magi. Previous +to the Nestorian controversy, these maternal effigies, as objects of +devotion, were, I still believe, unknown, but I cannot understand +why there should exist among Protestants, so strong a disposition to +discredit every representation of Mary the Mother of our Lord to which +a high antiquity had been assigned by the Roman Catholics. We know +that as early as the second century, not only symbolical figures of +our Lord, but figures of certain personages of holy life, as St. Peter +and St. Paul, Agnes the Roman, and Euphemia the Greek, martyr, did +certainly exist. The critical and historical testimony I have given +elsewhere. (Sacred and Legendary Art.) Why therefore should there not +have existed effigies of the Mother of Christ, of the "Woman highly +blessed," the subject of so many prophecies, and naturally the object +of a tender and just veneration among the early Christians? It seams +to me that nothing could be more likely, and that such representations +ought to have a deep interest for all Christians, no matter of what +denomination--for _all_, in truth, who believe that the Saviour of +the world had a good Mother, His only earthly parent, who brought Him +forth, nurtured and loved Him. That it should be considered a point +of faith with Protestants to treat such memorials with incredulity +and even derision, appears to me most inconsistent and unaccountable, +though I confess that between these simple primitive memorials and the +sumptuous tasteless column and image recently erected at Rome there is +a very wide margin of disputable ground, of which I shall say no more +in this place. But to return to the antique conception of the "Donna +orante" or so-called Virgin Mother, I will mention here only the moat +remarkable examples; for to enter fully into the subject would occupy +a volume in itself. + +There is a figure often met with in the Catacombs and on the +sarcophagi of a majestic woman standing with outspread arms (the +ancient attitude of prayer), or holding a book or scroll in her hand. +When this figure stands alone and unaccompanied by any attribute, I +think the signification doubtful: but in the Catacomb of St. Ciriaco +there is a painted figure of a woman, with arms outspread and +sustained on each aide by figures, evidently St. Peter and St. Paul; +on the sarcophagi the same figure frequently occurs; and there are +other examples certainly not later than the third and fourth century. +That these represent Mary the Mother of Christ I have not the least +doubt; I think it has been fully demonstrated that no other Christian +woman could have been so represented, considering the manners and +habits of the Christian community at that period. Then the attitude +and type are precisely similar to those of the ancient Byzantine +Madonnas and the Italian mosaics of Eastern workmanship, proving, as +I think, that there existed a common traditional original for this +figure, the idea of which has been preserved and transmitted in these +early copies. + +Further:--there exist in the Roman museums many fragments of ancient +glass found in the Christian tombs, on which are rudely pictured in +colours figures exactly similar, and having the name MARIA inscribed +above them. On one of these fragments I found the same female figure +between two male figures, with the names inscribed over them, MARIA. +PETRVS. PAVLVS., generally in the rudest and most imperfect style, as +if issuing from some coarse manufacture; but showing that they have +had a common origin with those far superior figures in the Catacombs +and on the sarcophagi, while the inscribed names leave no doubt as to +the significance. + +On the other hand, there are similar fragments of coarse glass found +in the Catacombs--either lamps or small vases, bearing the same female +in the attitude of prayer, and superscribed in rude letters, DULCIS +ANIMA PIE ZESES VIVAS. (ZESES instead of JESUS.) Such may, possibly, +represent, not the Virgin Mary, but the Christian matron or martyr +buried in the tomb; at least, I consider them as doubtful. + +The Cavaliere Rossi, whose celebrity as an antiquarian is not merely +Italian, but European, and whose impartiality can hardly be doubted, +told me that a Christian sarcophagus had lately been discovered at +Saint-Maxime, in the south of France, on which there is the same group +of the female figure praying, and over it the name MARIA. + +I ought to add, that on one of these sarcophagi, bearing the oft +repeated subject of the good Shepherd feeding His sheep, I found, as +the companion group, a female figure in the act of feeding birds which +are fluttering to her feet. It is not doubted that the good Shepherd +is the symbol of the beneficent Christ; whether the female figure +represent the Virgin-mother, or is to be regarded merely as a general +symbol of female beneficence, placed on a par with that of Christ +(in His human character), I will not pretend to decide. It is equally +touching and beautiful in either significance. + +Three examples of these figures occur to me. + +The first is from a Christian sarcophagus of early date, and in a good +style of art, probably of the third century--it is a noble figure, +in the attitude of prayer, and separated from the other groups by a +palm-tree on each side--at her feet is a bird (perhaps a dove, the +ancient symbol of the released soul), and scrolls which represent +the gospel. I regard this figure as doubtful; it may possibly be the +effigy of a Christian matron, who was interred in the sarcophagus. + +The second example is also from a sarcophagus. It is a figure holding +a scroll of the gospel, and standing between St. Peter and St. +Paul; on each side (in the original) there are groups expressing the +beneficent miracles of our Lord. This figure, I believe, represents +the Virgin Mary. + +In the third example, the conspicuous female figure is combined with +the series of groups on each side. She stands with hands outspread, in +the attitude of prayer, between the two apostles, who seem to sustain +her arms. On one side is the miracle of the water changed into wine; +on the other side, Christ healing the woman who touched His garment; +both of perpetual recurrence in these sculptures. Of these groups of +the miracles and actions of Christ on the early Christian sarcophagi, +I shall give a full account in the "History of our Lord, as +illustrated in the fine arts;" at present I confine myself to the +female figure which takes this conspicuous place, while other female +figures are prostrate, or of a diminutive size, to express their +humility or inferiority; and I have no doubt that thus situated it +is intended to represent the woman who was highly honoured as well as +highly blessed--the Mother of our Saviour. + +I have come therefore to the conclusion, that while many of these +figures have a certain significance, others are uncertain. Where +the figure is isolated, or placed within a frame or border, like the +memorial busts and effigies on the Pagan sarcophagi, I think it may +be regarded as probably commemorating the Christian martyr or matron +entombed in the sarcophagus; but when there is no division, where the +figure forms part of a continuous series of groups, expressing the +character and miracles of Christ, I believe that it represents His +mother. + + +II. + +The BORGHESE CHAPEL, in the church, of St. Maria Maggiore at Rome, was +dedicated to the honour of the Virgin Mary by Paul V. (Borghese), in +1611--the same Pope who in 1615 promulgated the famous Bull relative +to the Immaculate Conception. The scheme of decoration in this +gorgeous chapel is very remarkable, as testifying to the development +which the theological idea of the Virgin, as the Sposa or personified +Church, had attained at this period, and because it is not, as in +other examples, either historical or devotional, but purely doctrinal. + +As we enter, the profusion of ornament, the splendour of colour, +marbles, gilding, from the pavement under our feet to the summit of +the lofty dome, are really dazzling. First, and elevated above all, +we have the "Madonna della Concezione," Our Lady of the Immaculate +Conception, in a glory of light, sustained and surrounded by angels, +having the crescent under her feet, according to the approved +treatment. Beneath, round the dome, we read in conspicuous letters +the text from the Revelations:--SIGNUM. MAGNUM. APPARAVlT. IN COELO. +MULIER. AMICTA. SOLE. ET. LUNA. SUB. PEDIBUS. EJUS. ET. IN CAPITE. +EJUS, CORONA. STELLARUM. DUODECIM. (Rev. xii. 1.) Lower down is a +second inscription, expressing the dedication. MARIÆ. CHRISTI. MATRI. +SEMPER. VIRGINI. PAULUS. QUINTUS.P.M. The decorations beneath the +cornice consist of eighteen large frescoes, and six statues in marble, +above life size. Beginning with the frescoes, we have the subjects +arranged in the following order:-- + +1. The four great prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, +in their usual place in the four pendentives of the dome. (v. The +Introduction.) + +2. Two large frescoes. In the first, the Vision of St. Gregory +Thaumaturgus,[1] and Heretics bitten by Serpents. In the second, St. +John Damascene and St. Ildefonso miraculously rewarded for defending +the Majesty of the Virgin. (Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +[Footnote 1: St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop of Pontus in the third +century, was favoured by a vision of the Trinity, which enabled him to +confute and utterly subdue the Sabellian heretics--the Unitarians of +his time.] + +3. A large fresco, representing the four Doctors of the Church who had +especially written in honour of the Virgin: viz. Ireneus and Cyprian, +Ignatius and Theophilus, grouped two and two. + +4. St. Luke, who painted the Virgin, and whose gospel contains the +best account of her. + +5. As spiritual conquerors in the name of the Virgin, St. Dominic and +St. Francis, each attended by two companions of his Order. + +6. As military conquerors in the name of the Virgin, the Emperor +Heraclius, and Narses, the general against the Arians. + +7. A group of three female figures, representing the three famous +saintly princesses who in marriage preserved their virginity, +Pulcheria, Edeltruda (our famous queen Ethelreda), and Cunegunda. (For +the legends of Cunegunda and Ethelreda, see Legends of the Monastic +Orders.) + +8. A group of three learned Bishops, who had especially defended the +immaculate purity of the Virgin, St. Cyril, St. Anselm, and St. Denis +(?). + +9. The miserable ends of those who were opposed to the honour of the +Virgin. 1. The death of Julian the Apostate, very oddly represented; +he lies on an altar, transfixed by an arrow, as a victim; St. +Mercurius in the air. (For this legend see Sacred and Legendary Art.) +2. The death of Leo IV., who destroyed the effigies of the Virgin. 3. +The death of Constantine IV., also a famous iconoclast. + +The statues which are placed in niches are-- + +1, 2. St. Joseph, as the nominal husband, and St. John the Evangelist, +as the nominal son of the Virgin; the latter, also, as prophet and +poet, with reference to the passage in the Revelation, c. xii. 1. + +3, 4. Aaron, as priestly ancestor (because his wand blossomed), and +David, as kingly ancestor of the Virgin. + +5, 6. St. Dionysius the Areopagite, who was present at the death of +the Virgin, and St. Bernard, who composed the famous "Salve Regina" in +her honour. + +Such is this grand systematic scheme of decoration, which, to those +who regard it cursorily, is merely a sumptuous confusion of colours +and forms, or at best, "a fine example of the Guido school and +Bernino." It is altogether a very complete and magnificent specimen +of the prevalent style of art, and a very comprehensive and suggestive +expression of the prevalent tendency of thought, in the Roman +Catholic Church from the beginning of the seventeenth century. In no +description of this chapel have I ever seen the names and subjects +accurately given: the style of art belongs to the _decadence_, and the +taste being worse than, questionable, the pervading _doctrinal_ idea +has been neglected, or never understood. + + +III. + +Those pictures which represent the Virgin Mary kneeling before the +celestial throne, while the PADRE ETERNO or the MESSIAH extends his +hand or his sceptre towards her, are generally misunderstood. They +do not represent, the Assumption, nor yet the reception of Mary in +Heaven, as is usually supposed; but the election or predestination of +Mary as the immaculate vehicle or tabernacle of human redemption--the +earthly parent of the divine Saviour. I have described such a picture +by Dosso Dossi, and another by Cottignola. A third example may be +cited in a yet more beautiful and celebrated picture by Francia, now +in the Church at San Frediano at Lucca. Above, in the glory of Heaven, +the Virgin kneels before the throne of the Creator; she is clad in +regal attire of purple and crimson and gold; and she bends her fair +crowned head, and folds her hands upon her bosom with an expression +of meek yet dignified resignation--"_Behold the handmaid of the +Lord!_"--accepting, as woman, that highest glory, as mother, that +extremest grief, to which the Divine will, as spoken by the prophets +of old, had called her. Below, on the earth and to the right hand, +stand David and Solomon, as prophets and kingly ancestors: on the left +hand, St. Augustine and St. Anselm in their episcopal robes. (I have +mentioned, with regard to the office in honour of the Immaculate +Conception, that the idea is said to have originated in England. I +should also have added, that Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, was +its strenuous advocate.) Each of these personages holds a scroll. On +that of David the reference is to the 4th and 5th verses of Psalm +xxvii.--"_In the secret of his tabernacle he shall hide me_." On +that of Solomon is the text from his Song, ch. iv. 7. On that of St. +Augustine, a quotation, I presume, from his works, but difficult +to make out; it seems to be, "_In coelo qualis est Pater, talis est +Films; qualis est Filius, talis est Mater_." On that of St. Anselm the +same inscription which is on the picture of Cottignola quoted before, +"_non puto vere esse_." &c., which is, I suppose, taken from his +works. In the centre, St. Anthony of Padua kneels beside the sepulchre +full of lilies and roses; showing the picture to have been painted +for, or under the influence of, the Franciscan Order; and, like other +pictures of the same class, "an attempt to express in a visible form +the idea or promise of the redemption of the human race, as existing +in the Sovereign Eternal Mind before the beginning of the world." This +altar-piece has no date, but appears to have been painted about the +same time as the picture in our National Gallery (No. 179.), which +came from the same church. As a work of art it is most wonderfully +beautiful. The editors of the last excellent edition of Vasari speak +of it with just enthusiasm as "_Opera veramente stupenda in ogni +parte_!" The predella beneath, painted in chiaro-oscuro, is also of +exquisite beauty; and let us hope that we shall never see it separated +from the great subject, like a page or a paragraph torn out of a book +by ignorant and childish collectors. + + +IV. + +Although the Nativity of the Virgin Mary is one of the great festivals +of the Roman Catholic Church, I have seldom seen it treated as +a separate subject and an altar-piece. There is, however, a very +remarkable example in the Belle Arti at Siena. It is a triptych +enclosed in a framework elaborately carved and gilt, in the +Gothic style. In the centre compartment, St. Anna lies on a rich +couch covered with crimson drapery; a graceful female presents an +embroidered napkin, others enter, bringing refreshments, as usual. +In front, three attendants minister to the Infant: one of them is in +an attitude of admiration; on the right, Joachim seated, with white +hair and beard, receives the congratulations of a young man who seems +to envy his paternity. In the compartment on the right stand St. +James Major and St. Catherine; on the left, St. Bartholomew and St. +Elizabeth of Hungary (?). This picture is in the hard primitive style +of the fourteenth century, by an unknown painter, who must have lived, +before Giovanni di Paolo, but vividly coloured, exquisitely finished, +and full of sentiment and dramatic feeling. + + + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART I. + +THE VIRGIN WITHOUT THE CHILD. + +1. LA VERGINE GLORIOSA. 2. L'INCORONATA. +3. LA MADONNA DI MISERICORDIA. 4. LA MADRE +DOLOROSA. 5. LA CONCEZIONE. + +THE VIRGIN MARY. + +_Lat._ 1. Virgo Gloriosa. 2. Virgo Sponsa Dei. 3. Virgo Potens 4. +Virgo Veneranda. 5. Virgo Prædicanda. 6. Virgo Clemens. 7. Virgo +Sapientissima. 8. Sancta Virgo Virginum. _Ital._ La Vergine Gloriosa. +La Gran Vergine delle Vergini. _Fr._ La Grande Vierge. + +There are representations of the Virgin, and among them some of the +earliest in existence, which place her before us as an object of +religious veneration, but in which the predominant idea is not that +of her maternity. No doubt it was as the mother of the Saviour Christ +that she was originally venerated; but in the most ancient monuments +of the Christian faith, the sarcophagi, the rude paintings in the +catacombs, and the mosaics executed before the seventh century, +she appears simply as a veiled female figure, not in any respect +characterized. She stands, in a subordinate position, on one side of +Christ; St. Peter or St. John the Baptist on the other. + +When the worship of the Virgin came to us from the East, with it came +the Greek type--and for ages we had no other--the Greek classical +type, with something of the Oriental or Egyptian character. When thus +she stands before us without her Son, and the apostles or saints on +each side taking the subordinate position, then we are to regard her +not only as the mother of Christ, but as the second Eve, the mother of +all suffering humanity; THE WOMAN of the primeval prophecy whose issue +was to bruise the head of the Serpent; the Virgin predestined from +the beginning of the world who was to bring forth the Redeemer of the +world; the mystical Spouse of the Canticles; the glorified Bride of +a celestial Bridegroom; the received Type of the Church of Christ, +afflicted on earth, triumphant and crowned in heaven; the most +glorious, most pure, most pious, most clement, most sacred Queen and +Mother, Virgin of Virgins. + +The form under which we find this grand and mysterious idea of +glorified womanhood originally embodied, is wonderfully majestic +and simple. A female figure of colossal dimensions, far exceeding +in proportion all the attendant personages and accessories, stands +immediately beneath some figure or emblem representing almighty power: +either it is the omnipotent hand stretched out above her, holding the +crown of immortality; or it is the mystic dove which hovers over her; +or it is the half-form of Christ, in the act of benediction. + +She stands with arms raised and extended wide, the ancient attitude of +prayer; or with hands merely stretched forth, expressing admiration, +humility, and devout love. She is attired in an ample tunic of +blue or white, with a white veil over her head, thrown a little +back, and displaying an oval face with regular features, mild, +dignified--sometimes, in the figures of the ruder ages, rather stern +and melancholy, from the inability of the artist to express beauty; +but when least beautiful, and most formal and motionless, always +retaining something of the original conception, and often expressibly +striking and majestic. + +The earliest figure of this character to which I can refer is the +mosaic in the oratory of San Venanzio, in the Lateran, the work of +Greek artists under the popes John IV. and Theodorus, both Greeks by +birth, and who presided over the Church from 640 to 649. In the vault +of the tribune, over the altar, we have first, at the summit, a figure +of Christ half-length, with his hand extended in benediction; on each +side, a worshipping angel; below, in the centre, the figure of the +Virgin according to the ancient type, standing with extended arms, in +a violet or rather dark-blue tunic and white veil, with a small cross +pendant on her bosom. On her right hand stands St. Paul, on her left +St. Peter; beyond St. Peter and St. Paul, St. John the Baptist holding +a cross, and St. John the Evangelist holding a book; and beyond these +again, St. Domino and St. Venantius, two martyred saints, who perished +in Dalmatia, and whose relics were brought out of that country by the +founder of the chapel, John IV., himself a Dalmatian by birth. At the +extremities of this group, or rather line of figures, stand the two +popes, John IV. and Theodorus, under whom the chapel was founded and +dedicated. Although this ancient mosaic has been many times restored, +the original composition remains. + +Similar, but of later date, is the effigy of the Virgin over the altar +of the archiepiscopal chapel at Ravenna. This mosaic, with others of +Greek work, was brought from the old tribune of the cathedral, when +it was altered and repaired, and the ancient decorations removed or +destroyed. + +Another instance, also, at Ravenna, is the basso-relievo in +Greek marble, and evidently of Greek workmanship, which is said +to have existed from the earliest ages, in the church of S. +Maria-in-Porto-Fuori, and is now preserved in the S. Maria-in-Porto, +where I saw it in 1847. It is probably as old as the sixth or seventh +century. + +In St. Mark's at Venice, in the grand old basilica at Torcello, in +San Donate at Murano, at Monreale, near Palermo, and in most of the +old churches in the East of Europe, we find similar figures, either +Byzantine in origin, or in imitation of the Byzantine style. + +But about the middle of the thirteenth century, and contemporary with +Cimabue, we find the first indication of a departure, even in the +mosaics, from the lifeless, formal type of Byzantine art. The earliest +example of a more animated treatment is, perhaps, the figure in the +apsis of St. John Lateran. (Rome.) In the centre is an immense cross, +emblem of salvation; the four rivers of Paradise (the four Gospels) +flow from its base; and the faithful, figured by the hart and the +sheep, drink from these streams. Below the cross is represented, of +a small size, the New Jerusalem guarded by an archangel. On the right +stands the Virgin, of colossal dimensions. She places one hand on the +head of a diminutive kneeling figure, Pope Nicholas IV.,[1] by whom +the mosaic was dedicated about 1290; the other hand, stretched forth, +seems to recommend the votary to the mercy of Christ. + +[Footnote 1: For a minute reduction of the whole composition, see +Kugler's Handbook, p. 113.] + +Full-length effigies of the Virgin seated on a throne, or glorified as +queen of heaven, or queen of angels, without her divine Infant in her +arms, are exceedingly rare in every age; now and then to be met with +in the early pictures and illuminations, but never, that I know of, +in the later schools of art. A signal example is the fine enthroned +Madonna in the Campo Santo, who receives St. Ranieri when presented +by St. Peter and St. Paul. + +On the Dalmatica (or Deacon's robe) preserved in the sacristy of +St. Peter's at Rome (which Lord Lindsay well describes as a perfect +example of the highest style of Byzantine art) (Christian Art, i. +136), the embroidery on the front represents Christ in a golden circle +or glory, robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his +eyes looking into yours. He sits on the rainbow; his left hand holds +an open book, inscribed, "Come, ye blessed of my Father!" while +the right is raised in benediction. The Virgin stands on the right +entirely _within_ the glory; "she is sweet in feature and graceful +in attitude, in her long white robe." The Baptist stands on the left +_outside_ the glory. + +In pictures representing the glory of heaven, Paradise, or the Last +Judgment, we have this idea constantly repeated--of the Virgin on the +right hand of her Son, but not on the same throne with him, unless it +be a "Coronation," which is a subject apart. + +In the great altar-piece of the brothers Van Eyck, the upper part +contains three compartments;[1] in the centre is Christ, wearing the +triple tiara, and carrying the globe, as King, as Priest, as Judge--on +each side, as usual, but in separate compartments, the Virgin and St. +John the Baptist. The Virgin, a noble queenly figure, full of serene +dignity and grace, is seated on a throne, and wears a superb crown, +formed of lilies, roses, and gems, over her long fair hair. She +is reading intently in a book--The Book of Wisdom. She is here the +_Sponsa Dei_, and the _Virgo Sapientissima_, the most wise Virgin. +This is the only example I can recollect of the Virgin seated on the +right hand of her Son in glory, and _holding a book_. In every other +instance she is standing or seated with her hands joined or crossed +over her bosom, and her eyes turned towards him. + +[Footnote 1: It is well known that the different parts of this great +work have been dispersed. The three compartments mentioned here are at +Berlin.] + +Among innumerable examples, I will cite only one, perhaps the most +celebrated of all, and familiar, it may be presumed, to most of my +readers, though perhaps they may not have regarded it with reference +to the character and position given to the Virgin. It is one of the +four great frescoes of the Camera della Segnatura, in the Vatican, +exhibiting the four highest objects of mental culture--Theology, +Poetry, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence. In the first of these, +commonly, but erroneously, called _La Disputa dell' Sacramento_, +Raphael has combined into one great scene the whole system of +theology, as set forth by the Catholic Church; it is a sort of +concordance between heaven and earth--between the celestial and +terrestrial witnesses of the truth. The central group above shows us +the Redeemer of the world, seated with extended arms, having on the +right the Virgin in her usual place, and on the left, also in his +accustomed place, St. John the Baptist; both seated, and nearly on +a level with Christ. The Baptist is here in his character of the +Precursor "sent to bear witness to the light, that through him all +men might believe." (John i. 7.) The Virgin is exhibited, not merely +as the Mother, the Sposa, the Church, but as HEAVENLY WISDOM, for in +this character the Catholic Church has applied to her the magnificent +passage in Proverbs: "The Lord possessed me in the beginning of His +way, before His works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the +beginning, or ever the earth was." "Then I was by Him as one brought +up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing alway before Him." +(Prov. viii, 12-36, and Eccles. xxiv. 15, 16.) + +Nothing can be more beautiful than the serene grace and the mingled +majesty and humility in the figure of the Virgin, and in her +countenance, as she looks up adoring to the Fountain of _all_ light, +_all_ wisdom, and _all_ goodness. Above the principal group, is the +emblematical image of the FATHER; below is the holy Dove, in the act +of descending to the earth.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a detailed description of this fresco, see +Passavant's Raphael, i. 140, and Kugler's Handbook, 2d edit., where a +minute and beautiful reduction of the whole composition will give and +idea of the general design.] + +The Virgin alone, separate from her Son, standing or enthroned before +us, simply as the _Virgine Dea_ or _Regina Coeli_, is rarely met with +in modern art, either in sculpture or painting. I will give, however, +one signal example. + +In an altar-piece painted by Cosimo Rosselli, for the Serviti at +Florence, she stands alone, and in a majestic attitude, on a raised +pedestal. She holds a book, and looks upward, to the Holy Dove, +hovering over her head; she is here again the _Virgo Sapientiæ_. +(Fl. Gal.) On one side is St. John the Evangelist and St. Antonino of +Florence (see Legends of the Monastic Orders); on the other, St. Peter +and St. Philip Benozzi; in front kneel St. Margaret and St. Catherine: +all appear to contemplate with rapturous devotion the vision of the +Madonna. The heads and attitudes in this picture have that character +of elegance which distinguished the Florentine school at this period, +without any of those extravagances and peculiarities into which Piero +often fell; for the man had evidently a touch of madness, and was as +eccentric in his works as in his life and conversation. The order +of the Serviti, for whom he painted this picture, was instituted +in honour of the Virgin, and for her particular service, which will +account for the unusual treatment. + + * * * * * + +The numerous--often most beautiful--heads and half-length figures +which represent the Virgin alone, looking up with a devout or tender +expression, or with the head declined, and the hands joined in prayer, +or crossed over the bosom with virginal humility and modesty, belong +to this class of representations. In the ancient heads, most of which +are imitations of the old Greek effigies ascribed to St. Luke, there +is often great simplicity and beauty. When she wears the crown over +her veil, or bears a sceptre in her hand, she figures as the queen of +heaven (_Regina Coeli_). When such effigies are attended by adoring +angels, she is the queen of angels (_Regina Angelorum_). When she is +weeping or holding the crown of thorns, she is Our Lady of Sorrow, the +_Mater Dolorosa_. When she is merely veiled, with folded hands, and +in her features all the beauty, maiden purity, and sweetness which the +artist could render, she is simply the Blessed Virgin, the Madonna, +the _Santa Maria Vergine_. Such heads are very rare in the earlier +schools of art, which seldom represented the Virgin without her +Child, but became favourite studies of the later painters, and +were multiplied and varied to infinitude from the beginning of the +seventeenth century. From these every trace of the mystical and solemn +conception of antiquity gradually disappeared; till, for the majestic +ideal of womanhood, we have merely inane prettiness, or rustic, or +even meretricious grace, the borrowed charms of some earthly model. + + + + +L'INCORONATA. + + +The Coronation of the Virgin. _Lat._ Coronatio Beatæ Mariæ Virginis. +_Ital._ Maria coronata dal divin suo Figlio. _Fr._ Le Couronnement de +la Sainte Vierge. _Ger._ Die Krönung Mariä. + +The usual type of the Church triumphant is the CORONATION OF THE +VIRGIN properly so called, Christ in the act of crowning his Mother; +one of the most popular, significant, and beautiful subjects in the +whole range of mediæval art. + +When in a series of subjects from the life of the Virgin, so often +met with in religious prints and in the Roman Catholic churches, we +find her death and her assumption followed by her coronation; when +the bier or sarcophagus and the twelve apostles appear below, while +heaven opens upon us above; then the representation assumes a kind +of dramatic character: it is the last and most glorious event of her +history. The Mother, dying on earth, is received into glory by her Son +who had gone before her, and who thus celebrates the consummation of +his victory and hers. + +But when the scene is treated apart as a single subject; when, instead +of the apostles gazing up to heaven, or looking with amazement into +the tomb from which she had risen, we find the lower part of the +composition occupied by votaries, patron saints, or choral angels; +then the subject must be regarded as absolutely devotional and +typical. It is not a scene or an action; it is a great mystery. It +is consecrated to the honour of the Virgin as a type of the spiritual +Church. The Espoused is received into glory and crowned with the crown +of everlasting life, exalted above angels, spirits, and men. In this +sense we must understand the subject when we find it in ecclesiastical +sculpture, over the doors of places of worship, in the decorative +carving of church utensils, in stained glass. In many of the Italian +churches there is a chapel especially dedicated to the Virgin in this +character, called _la Capella dell' Incoronata_; and both in Germany +and Italy it is a frequent subject as an altar-piece. + +In all the most ancient examples, it is Christ only who places the +crown on the head of his Mother, seated on the same throne, and placed +at his right hand. Sometimes we have the two figures only; sometimes +the _Padre Eterno_ looks down, and the Holy Spirit in the form of the +dove hovers above or between them. In some later examples the Virgin +is seated between the Father and the Son, both in human form: they +place the crown on her head each holding it with one hand, the Holy +Spirit hovering above. In other representations the Virgin _kneels_ at +the feet of Christ; and he places the crown on her head, while two or +more rejoicing and adoring angels make heavenly music, or all Paradise +opens to the view; and there are examples where not only the choir +of attendant angels, but a vast assembly of patriarchs, saints, +martyrs, fathers of the Church--the whole company of the blessed +spirits--assist at this great ceremony. + +I will now give some celebrated examples of the various styles of +treatment. + +There is a group in mosaic, which I believe to be singular in its +kind, where the Virgin is enthroned, with Christ. She is seated at his +right hand, at the same elevation, and altogether as his equal. His +right arm embraces her, and his hand rests on her shoulder. She wears +a gorgeous crown, which her Son has placed on her brow Christ has only +the cruciform nimbus; in his left hand is an open book, on which is +inscribed, "_Veni, Electa mea_" &c. "Come, my chosen one, and I will +place thee upon my throne." The Virgin holds a tablet, on which are +the words "His right hand should be under my head, and his left hand +should embrace me." (Cant. viii. 3.) The omnipotent Hand is stretched +forth in benediction above. Here the Virgin is the type of the Church +triumphant and glorified, having overcome the world; and the solemn +significance of the whole representation is to be found in the Book of +Revelations: "To him that overcometh will I grant _to sit with me in +my throne_, even as I also overcame and am set down with my Father in +his throne." (Rev. iii. 21.) + +This mosaic, in which, be it observed, the Virgin is enthroned with +Christ, and _embraced_, not crowned, by him, is, I believe, unique +either as a picture or a church decoration. It is not older than +the twelfth century, is very ill executed, but is curious from the +peculiarity of the treatment. (Rome. S. Maria in Trastevere.) + + * * * * * + +In the mosaic in the tribune of S. Maria-Maggiore at Rome, perhaps +the earliest example extant of the Coronation, properly so called, the +subject is treated with a grand and solemn simplicity. Christ and the +Virgin, colossal figures, are seated on the same regal throne within +a circular glory. The background is blue studded with golden stars. +He places the crown on her head with his right hand; in the left he +holds an open book, with the usual text, "_Veni, Electa mea, et ponam +te in thronum meum_," &c. She bends slightly forward, and her hands +are lifted in adoration. Above and around the circular glory the +emblematical vine twines in arabesque form; among the branches and +leaves sit peacocks and other birds; the peacock being the old emblem +of immortality, as birds in general are emblems of spirituality. On +each side of the glory are nine adoring angels, representing the nine +choirs of the heavenly hierarchy; beyond these on the right stand St. +Peter, St. Paul, St. Francis; on the left, St. John the Baptist, St. +John the Evangelist, and St. Antony of Padua; all these figures being +very small in proportion to those of Christ and the Virgin. Smaller +still, and quite diminutive in comparison, are the kneeling figures of +Pope Nicholas IV. and Cardinal Giacomo Colonna, under whose auspices +the mosaic was executed by Jacopo della Turrita, a Franciscan friar, +about 1288. In front flows the river Jordan, symbol of baptism and +regeneration; on its shore stands the hart, the emblem of religions +aspiration. Underneath the central group is the inscription,-- + + MARIA VIRGO ASSUMPTA AD ETHERIUM THALAMUM + IN QUO REX REGUM STELLATO SEDET SOLIO. + +The whole of this vast and poetical composition is admirably executed, +and it is the more curious as being, perhaps, one of the earliest +examples of the glorification of St. Francis and St. Antony of Padua +(Monastic Orders), who were canonized about thirty or forty years +before. + +The mosaic, by Gaddo Gaddi (Florence, A.D. 1330), over the great door +in the cathedral at Florence, is somewhat different. Christ, while +placing the crown on the head of his Mother with his _left_ hand, +blesses her with his right hand, and he appears to have laid aside +his own crown, which lies near him. The attitude of the Virgin is also +peculiar.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the same cathedral (which is dedicated to the Virgin +Mary) the circular window of the choir opposite to the mosaic exhibits +the Coronation. The design, by Donatello, is eminently fine and +classical.] + +In a small altar-piece by Giotto (Florence, S. Croce), Christ and the +Virgin are seated together on a throne. He places the jewelled crown +on her head with _both_ hands, while she bends forward with her hands +crossed in her lap, and the softest expression in her beautiful face, +as if she as meekly resigned herself to this honour, as heretofore to +the angelic salutation which pronounced her "Blessed:" angels kneel +before the throne with censers and offerings. In another, by Giotto, +Christ wearing a coronet of gems is seated on a throne: the Virgin +_kneels_ before him with hands joined: twenty angels with musical +instruments attend around. In a "Coronation," by Piero Laurati, +the figures of Christ and the Virgin, seated together, resemble in +sentiment and expression those of Giotto. The angels are arranged in +a glory around, and the treatment is wholly typical. + +One of the most beautiful and celebrated of the pictures of Angelico +da Fiesole is the "Coronation" now in the Louvre; formerly it stood +over the high altar of the Church of St. Dominick at Fiesole, where +Angelico had been nurtured, and made his profession as monk. The +composition is conceived as a grand regal ceremony, but the beings who +figure in it are touched with a truly celestial grace. The Redeemer, +crowned himself, and wearing the ermine mantle of an earthly monarch, +is seated on a magnificent throne, under a Gothic canopy, to which +there is an ascent of nine steps. He holds the crown, which he is in +the act of placing, with both hands, on the head of the Virgin, who +kneels before him, with features of the softest and most delicate +beauty, and an expression of divine humility. Her face, seen in +profile, is partly shaded by a long transparent veil, flowing over +her ample robe of a delicate crimson, beneath which is a blue tunic. +On each side a choir of lovely angels, clothed from head to foot in +spangled tunics of azure and rose-colour, with shining wings, make +celestial music, while they gaze with looks of joy and adoration +towards the principal group. Lower down on the right of the throne +are eighteen, and on the left twenty-two, of the principal patriarchs, +apostles, saints, and martyrs, among whom the worthies of Angelico's +own community, St. Dominick and St. Peter Martyr, are of course +conspicuous. At the foot of the throne kneel on one side St. +Augustine, St. Benedict, St. Charlemagne, the royal saint; St. +Nicholas; and St. Thomas Aquinas holding a pen (the great literary +saint of the Dominican order, and author of the Office of the Virgin); +on the left we have a group of virgins, St. Agnes, St. Catherine with +her wheel, St. Catherine of Siena, her habit spangled with stars; +St. Cecilia crowned with her roses, and Mary Magdalene, with her +long golden hair.[1] Beneath this great composition runs a border or +predella, in seven compartments, containing in the centre a Pietà , and +on each side three small subjects from the history of St. Dominick, +to whom the church, whence it was taken, is dedicated. The spiritual +beauty of the heads, the delicate tints of the colouring, an ineffable +charm of mingled brightness and repose shed over the whole, give to +this lovely picture an effect like that of a church hymn, sung at +some high festival by voices tuned in harmony--"blest voices, uttering +joy!" + +[Footnote 1: See "Legends of the Monastic Orders," and "Sacred and +Legendary Art," for an account of all these personages.] + +In strong contrast with the graceful Italian conception, is the German +"Coronation," now in the Wallerstein collection. (Kensington Pal.) +It is supposed to have been painted for Philip the Good, Duke of +Burgundy, either by Hans Hemling, or a painter not inferior to him. +Here the Virgin is crowned by the Trinity. She kneels, with an air of +majestic humility, and hands meekly folded on her bosom, attired in +simple blue drapery, before a semicircular throne, on which are seated +the Father and the Son, between them, with outspread wings, touching +their mouths, the Holy Dove. The Father a venerable figure, wears the +triple tiara, and holds the sceptre; Christ, with an expression of +suffering, holds in his left hand a crystal cross; and they sustain +between them a crown which they are about to place on the head of the +Virgin. Their golden throne is adorned with gems, and over it is a +glory of seraphim, with hair, faces, and plumage, all of a glowing +red. The lower part of this picture and the compartments on each side +are filled with a vast assemblage of saints, and martyrs, and holy +confessors: conspicuous among them we find the saints most popular +in Flanders and Burgundy--St. Adrian, St. George, St. Sebastian, St. +Maurice, clad in coats of mail and crowned with laurel, with other +kingly and warlike personages; St. Philip, the patron of Philip the +Good; St. Andrew, in whose honour he instituted the order of the +Golden Fleece: and a figure in a blue mantle with a ducal crown, one +of the three kings of Cologne, is supposed to represent Duke Philip +himself. It is, impossible by any description to do justice to this +wonderful picture, as remarkable for its elaborate workmanship, the +mysticism of the conception, the quaint elegance of the details, +and portrait-like reality of the faces, as that of Angelico for its +spiritual, tender, imaginative grace. + +There is a "Coronation" by Vivarini (Acad. Venice), which may be +said to comprise in itself a whole system of theology. It is one +vast composition, not divided by compartments. In the centre is a +magnificent carved throne sustained by six pillars, which stand on +a lofty richly ornamented pedestal. On the throne are seated Christ +and the Virgin; he is crowned, and places with both hands a crown on +her head. Between them hovers the celestial Dove, and above them is +seen the Heavenly Father in likeness of "the Ancient of Days," who +paternally lays a hand on the shoulder of each. Around his head and +over the throne, are the nine choirs of angels, in separate groups. +First and nearest, hover the glowing seraphim and cherubim, winged, +but otherwise formless. Above these, the Thrones, holding the globe +of sovereignty; to the right, the Dominations, Virtues, and Powers; to +the left, the Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels. Below these, on each +side of the throne, the prophets and patriarchs of the Old Testament, +holding each a scroll. Below these the apostles on twelve thrones, six +on each side, each holding the Gospel. Below these, on each side, the +saints and martyrs. Below these, again, the virgins and holy women. +Under the throne, in the space formed by the pillars, is seen a +group of beautiful children (not angels), representing, I think, the +martyred Innocents. They bear the instruments of Christ's passion--the +cross, nails, spear, crown of thorns, &c. On the step below the +pedestal, and immediately in front, are seated the Evangelists and +doctors of the Church; on the right St. Matthew and St. Luke, and +behind them St. Ambrose and St. Augustine; on the left St. Mark and +St. John, and behind them St. Jerome and St. Gregory. (See "Sacred and +Legendary Art") Every part of this curious picture is painted with the +utmost care and delicacy: the children are exquisite, and the heads, +of which there are at least seventy without counting the angels, are +finished like miniatures. + +This simple, and altogether typical representation of the Virgin +crowned by the Trinity in human form, is in a French carving of the +fifteenth century, and though ill drawn, there is considerable naïveté +in the treatment. The Eternal Father wears, as is usual, the triple +tiara, the Son has the cross and the crown of thorns, and the Holy +Ghost is distinguished by the dove on his hand. All three sustain the +crown over the head of the kneeling Virgin, whose train is supported +by two angels. + +In a bas-relief over a door of the cathedral at Treves, the subject is +very simply treated; both Christ and the Virgin are standing, which +is unusual, and behind each is an angel, also standing and holding a +crown. + +Where not more than five or six saints are introduced as attendants +and accessories, they are usually the patron saints of the locality or +community, which may be readily distinguished. Thus, + +1. In a "Coronation" by Sandro Botticelli, we find below, St. John the +Evangelist, St. Augustine, St. John Gualberto, St. Bernardo Cardinale. +It was painted for the Vallombrosian monks. (Fl. Gal.) + +2. In a very fine example by Ghirlandajo, St. Dominick and St. Peter +Martyr are conspicuous: painted, of course, for the Dominicans. +(Paris, Louvre.) + +3. In another, by Pinturicchio, St. Francis is a principal figure, +with St. Bonaventura and St. Louis of Toulouse; painted for the +Franciscans, or at least for a Franciscan pope, Sixtus IV. (Rome, +Vatican.) + +4. In another, by Guido, the treatment differs from the early style. +The coronation above is small and seen as a vision; the saints below, +St. Bernard and St. Catherine, are life-size. It was painted for a +community of Bernardines, the monks of Monte Oliveto. (Bologna, Gal.) + +5. In a beautiful little altar-piece by Lorenzo di Credi[1], the +Virgin is kneeling above, while Christ, seated, places the crown on +her head. A glory of red seraphim surround the two figures. Below are +the famous patron saints of Central Italy, St. Nicholas of Bari and +St. Julian of Rimini, St. Barbara and St. Christina. The St. Francis +and St. Antony, in the predella, show it to have been painted for a +Franciscan church or chapel, probably for the same church at Cestello +for which Lorenzo painted the St. Julian and St. Nicholas now in the +Louvre. + +[Footnote 1: Once in the collection of Mr. Rogers; _v_. "Sacred and +Legendary Art."] + +The "Coronation of the Virgin" by Annibale Carracci is in a spirit +altogether different, magnificently studied.[1] On high, upon a lofty +throne which extends across the whole picture from side to side, the +Virgin, a noble majestic creature, in the true Carracci style, is +seated in the midst as the principal figure, her hands folded on her +bosom. On the right hand sits the Father, on the left the Son; they +hold a heavenly crown surmounted by stars above her head. The locality +is the Empyreum. The audience consists of angels only, who circle +within circle, filling the whole space, and melting into an abyss of +light, chant hymns of rejoicing and touch celestial instruments of +music. This picture shows how deeply Annibale Carracci had studied +Correggio, in the magical chiaro-oscuro, and the lofty but somewhat +mannered grace of the figures. + +[Footnote 1: This was also in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +One of the latest examples I can point to is also one of the most +simple and grand in conception. (Madrid Gal.) It is that by Velasquez, +the finest perhaps of the very few devotional subjects painted by +him. We have here the three figures only, as large as life, filling +the region of glory, without angels, witnesses, or accessories of any +kind, except the small cherubim beneath; and the symmetrical treatment +gives to the whole a sort of sublime effect. But the heads have the +air of portraits: Christ has a dark, earnest, altogether Spanish +physiognomy; the Virgin has dark hair; and the _Padre Eterno_, with +a long beard, has a bald head,--a gross fault in taste and propriety; +because, though the loose beard and flowing white hair may serve to +typify the "Ancient of Days," baldness expresses not merely age, but +the infirmity of age. + +Rubens, also, painted a "Coronation" with all his own lavish +magnificence of style for the Jesuits at Brussels. After the time +of Velasquez and Rubens, the "Immaculate Conception" superseded the +"Coronation." + + * * * * * + +To enter further into the endless variations of this charming and +complex subject would lead us through all the schools of art from +Giotto to Guido. I have said enough to render it intelligible +and interesting, and must content myself with one or two closing +_memoranda_. + +1. The dress of the Virgin in a "Coronation" is generally splendid, +too like the coronation robes of an earthly queen,--it is a "raiment +of needlework,"--"a vesture of gold wrought about with divers +colours"--generally blue, crimson, and white, adorned with gold, gems, +and even ermine. In the "Coronation" by Filippo Lippi, at Spoleto, she +wears a white robe embroidered with golden suns. In a beautiful little +"Coronation" in the Wallerstein collection (Kensington Pal.) she wears +a white robe embroidered with suns and moons, the former red with +golden rays, the latter blue with coloured rays,--perhaps in allusion +to the text so often applied in reference to her, "a woman clothed +with the _sun_," &c. (Rev. xii. 1, or Cant. vi. 10.) + +2. In the set of cartoons for the tapestries of the Sistine Chapel +(Kugler's Handbook, ii. 394), as originally prepared by Raphael, +we have the foundation, the heaven-bestowed powers, the trials and +sufferings of the early Church, exhibited in the calling of St. Peter, +the conversion of St. Paul, the acts and miracles of the apostles, the +martyrdom of St. Stephen; and the series closed with the Coronation +of the Virgin, placed over the altar, as typical of the final triumph +of the Church, the completion and fulfilment of all the promises made +to man, set forth in the exaltation and union of the mortal with the +immortal, when the human Mother and her divine Son are reunited and +seated on the same throne. Raphael placed on one side of the celestial +group, St. John the Baptist, representing sanctification through the +rite of baptism; and on the other, St. Jerome, the general symbol of +sanctification through faith and repentance. The cartoon of this grand +symbolical composition, in which all the figures were colossal, is +unhappily lost; the tapestry is missing from the Vatican collection; +two old engravings, however, exist, from which some idea may be formed +of the original group. (Passavant's Rafael, ii. 258.) + +3. It will be interesting to remember that the earliest existing +impression taken from an engraved metal plate, is a "Coronation of the +Virgin." Maso Finiguerra, a skilful goldsmith and worker in niello, +living at Florence in 1434, was employed to execute a pix (the small +casket in which the consecrated wafer of the sacrament is deposited), +and he decorated it with a representation of the Coronation in +presence of saints and angels, in all about thirty figures, minutely +and exquisitely engraved on the silver face. Whether Finiguerra was +the first worker in niello to whom it occurred to fill up the lines +cut in the silver with a black fluid, and then by laying on it a piece +of damp paper, and forcibly rubbing it, take off the fac-simile of his +design and try its effect before the final process,--this we can not +ascertain; we only know that the impression of his "Coronation" is +the earliest specimen known to exist, and gave rise to the practice +of cutting designs on plates of copper (instead of silver), for the +purpose of multiplying impressions of them. The pix finished by Maso +in 1452 is now in the Florence Gallery in the "Salle des Bronzes." The +invaluable print, first of its species, exists in the National Library +at Paris. There is a very exact fac-simile of it in Otley's "History +of Engraving," Christ and the Virgin are here seated together on +a lofty architectural throne: her hands are crossed on her bosom, +and she bends her meek veiled head to receive the crown, which her +Son, who wears a triple tiara, places on her brow. The saints most +conspicuous are St. John the Baptist, patron of Florence and of the +church for which the pix was executed, and a female saint, I believe +St. Reparata, both standing; kneeling in front are St. Cosmo and St. +Damian, the patrons of the Medici family, then paramount at Florence. +(Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +4. In an illuminated "Office of the Virgin," I found a version of +this subject which must be rare, and probably confined to miniatures. +Christ is seated on a throne and the Virgin kneels before him; he +bends forwards, and tenderly takes her clasped hands in both his own. +An empty throne is at the right hand of Christ, over which hovers +an angel bearing a crown. This is the moment which _precedes_ +the Coronation, as the group already described in the S. +Maria-in-Trastevere exhibits the moment which _follows_ the +Coronation. + +5. Finally, we must bear in mind that those effigies in which the +Madonna is holding her Child, while angels place a crown upon her +head, do not represent THE CORONATION properly so called, but merely +the Virgin honoured as Mother of Christ and Queen of Heaven (_Mater +Christi, Regina Coeli_); and that those representations of the +Coronation which conclude a series of the life of the Virgin, and +surmount her death-bed or her tomb, are historical and dramatic rather +than devotional and typical. Of this historical treatment there are +beautiful examples from Cimabue down to Raphael, which will be noticed +hereafter in their proper place. + + + + +THE VIRGIN OF MERCY. + + +Our Lady of Succour. _Ital._ La Madonna di Misericordia. _Fr._ Nôtre +Dame de Miséricorde. _Ger._ Maria Mutter des Erbarmens. _Sp._ Nuestra +Señora de Grazia. + +When once the Virgin had been exalted and glorified in the celestial +paradise, the next and the most natural result was, that she should be +regarded as being in heaven the most powerful of intercessors, and on +earth a most benign and ever-present protectress. In the mediæval idea +of Christ, there was often something stern; the Lamb of God who died +for the sins of the world, is also the inexorable Judge of the quick +and the dead. When he shows his wounds, it is as if a vindictive +feeling was supposed to exist; as if he were called upon to remember +in judgment the agonies and the degradation to which he had been +exposed below for the sake of wicked ungrateful men. In a Greek "Day +of Judgment," cited by Didron, Moses holds up a scroll, on which is +written, "Behold Him whom ye crucified," while the Jews are dragged +into everlasting fire. Everywhere is the sentiment of vengeance; +Christ himself is less a judge than an avenger. Not so the Virgin; +she is represented as all mercy, sympathy, and benignity. In some of +the old pictures of the Day of Judgment, she is seated by the side +of Christ, on an equality with him, and often in an attitude of +deprecation, as if adjuring him, to relent: or her eyes are turned on +the redeemed souls, and she looks away from the condemned as if unable +to endure the sight of their doom. In other pictures she is lower than +Christ, but always on his right hand, and generally seated; while St. +John the Baptist, who is usually placed opposite to her on the left +of Christ, invariably stands or kneels. Instead of the Baptist, it is +sometimes, but rarely, John the Evangelist, who is the pendant of the +Virgin. + +In the Greek representations of the Last Judgment, a river of fire +flows from under the throne of Christ to devour and burn up the +wicked.[1] In western art the idea is less formidable,--Christ is +not at once judge and executioner; but the sentiment is always +sufficiently terrible; "the angels and all the powers of heaven +tremble before him." In the midst of these terrors, the Virgin, +whether kneeling, or seated, or standing, always appears as a gentle +mediator, a, supplicant for mercy. In the "Day of Judgment," as +represented in the "Hortus Deliciarum," [2] we read inscribed under +her figure the words "_Maria, Filio suo pro Ecclesia supplicat_." +In a very fine picture by Martin Schoen (Schleissheim Gal.), it is +the Father, who, with a sword and three javelins in his hand, sits +as the avenging judge; near him Christ; while the Virgin stands in +the foreground, looking up to her Son with an expression of tender +supplication, and interceding, as it appears, for the sinners kneeling +round her, and whose imploring looks are directed to _her_. In the +well-known fresco by Andrea Ortagna (Pisa, Campo Santo), Christ and +the Virgin sit throned above, each in a separate aureole, but equally +glorified. Christ, pointing with one hand to the wound in his side, +raises the other in a threatening attitude, and his attention is +directed to the wicked, whom he hurls into perdition. The Virgin, +with one hand pressed to her bosom, looks to him with an air of +supplication. Both figures are regally attired, and wear radiant +crowns; and the twelve apostles attend them, seated on each side. + +[Footnote 1: Didron, "Iconographie Chrétienne;" and in the mosaic of +the Last Judgment, executed by Byzantine artists, in the cathedral at +Torcello.] + +[Footnote 2: A celebrated illuminated MS. (date about 1159 to 1175), +preserved in the Library at Strasburg.] + + * * * * * + +In the centre group of Michael Angelo's "Last Judgment," we have the +same leading _motif_, but treated in a very different feeling. Christ +stands before us in figure and mien like a half-naked athlete; his +left hand rejects, his right hand threatens, and his whole attitude +is as utterly devoid of dignity as of grace. I have often wondered +as I have looked at this grand and celebrated work, what could be +Michael Angelo's idea of Christ. He who was so good, so religious, +so pure-minded, and so high-minded, was deficient in humility and +sympathy; if his morals escaped, his imagination was corrupted by the +profane and pagan influences of his time. His conception of Christ is +here most unchristian, and his conception of the Virgin is not much +better. She is grand in form, but the expression is too passive. +She looks down and seems to shrink; but the significance of the +attitude,--the hand pressed to the maternal bosom,--given to her by +the old painters, is lost. + +In a "Last Judgment" by Rubens, painted for the Jesuits of Brussels +(Brussels; Musée), the Virgin extends her robe over the world, as if +to shield mankind from the wrath of her Son; pointing, at the same +time, significantly to her bosom, whence He derived his earthly life. +The daring bad taste, and the dramatic power of this representation, +are characteristic alike of the painter, the time, and the community +for which the picture was painted. + + * * * * * + +More beautiful and more acceptable to our feelings are those graceful +representations of the Virgin as dispenser of mercy on earth; as +protectress and patroness either of all Christendom, or of some +particular locality, country, or community. In such pictures she +stands with outstretched arms, crowned with a diadem, or in some +instances simply veiled, her ample robe, extended on each side, is +held up by angels, while under its protecting folds are gathered +worshippers and votaries of all ranks and ages--men, women, +children,--kings, nobles, ecclesiastics,--the poor, the lame, the +sick. Or if the picture be less universal in its significance, +dedicated perhaps by some religious order or charitable brotherhood, +we see beneath her robe an assemblage of monks and nuns, or a troop of +young orphans or redeemed prisoners. Such a representation is styled a +_Misericordia_. + +In a picture by Fra Filippo Lippi (Berlin Gal.), the Madonna of Mercy +extends her protecting mantle over thirty-five kneeling figures, +the faces like portraits, none elevated or beautiful, but the whole +picture as an example of the subject most striking. + +A very beautiful and singular representation of the Virgin of Mercy +without the Child, I found in the collection of Herr v. Quandt, of +Dresden. She stands with hands folded over her bosom, and wrapped in +ample white drapery, without ornament of any kind; over her head, a +veil of transparent gauze of a brown colour, such as, from various +portraits of the time, appears to have been then a fashion. The +expression of the face is tender and contemplative, almost sad; and +the whole figure, which is life-size, is inexpressibly refined and +dignified. The following inscription is on the dark background to the +right of the Virgin:-- + + IMAGO + BEATÆ MARIÆ VIRGINIS + QUÆ + MENS. AUGUST. MDXXXIII. + APPARUIT + MIRACULOR. OPERATIONE + CONCURSU POP. + CELEBERRIM. + +This beautiful picture was brought from Brescia to Vienna by a +picture-dealer, and purchased by Herr v. Quandt. It was painted by +Moretto of Brescia, of whom Lanzi truly says that his sacred subjects +express _la compunzione, la pietà , la carità istessa_; and this +picture is an instance. But by whom dedicated, for what especial +mercy, or in what church, I could not ascertain.[1] + +[Footnote 1: I possess a charming drawing of the head by Fraulein +Louise Seidler of Weimar, whose feeling for early religious art is +shown in her own works, as well as in the beautiful copies she has +made of others.] + + * * * * * + +It is seldom that the Madonna di Misericordia appears without the +Child in her arms; her maternity is supposed to be one element in her +sympathy with suffering humanity. I will add, however, to the examples +already given, one very celebrated instance. + +The picture entitled the "Misericordia di Lucca" is famous in the +history of art. (Lucca. S. Romano.) It is the most important work +of Fra Bartolomeo, and is dated 1515, two years before his death. +The Virgin, a grand and beautiful figure, stands alone on a raised +platform, with her arms extended, and looking up to heaven. The ample +folds of her robe are held open by two angels. Beneath and round her +feet are various groups in attitudes of supplication, who look up to +her, as she looks up to heaven. On one side the donor of the picture +is presented by St. Dominick. Above, in a glory, is the figure of +Christ surrounded by angels, and seeming to bend towards his mother. +The expression in the heads, the dignified beneficence of the Virgin, +the dramatic feeling in the groups, particularly the women and +children, justify the fame of this picture as one of the greatest of +the productions of mind.[1] + +[Footnote 1: According to the account in Murray's "Handbook," +this picture was dedicated by the noble family of Montecanini, and +represents the Virgin interceding for the Lucchesi during the wars +with Florence. But I confess I am doubtful of this interpretation, and +rather think it refers to the pestilence, which, about 1512, desolated +the whole of the north of Italy. Wilkie, who saw this picture in 1825, +speaks of the workmanship with the enthusiasm of a workman.] + + * * * * * + +There is yet another version of this subject, which deserves notice +from the fantastic grace of the conception. As in early Christian Art, +our Saviour was frequently portrayed as the Good Shepherd, so, among +the later Spanish fancies, we find his Mother represented as the +Divine Shepherdess. In a picture painted by Alonzo Miguel de Tobar +(Madrid Gal. 226), about the beginning of the eighteenth century, +we find the Virgin Mary seated under a tree, in guise of an Arcadian +pastorella, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, encircled by a glory, a crook +in her hand, while she feeds her flock with the mystical roses. The +beauty of expression in the head of the Virgin is such as almost to +redeem the quaintness of the religious conceit; the whole picture is +described as worthy of Murillo. It was painted for a Franciscan church +at Madrid, and the idea became so popular, that we find it multiplied +and varied in French and German prints of the last century; the +original picture remains unequalled for its pensive poetical grace; +but it must be allowed that the idea, which at first view strikes from +its singularity, is worse than questionable in point of taste, and +will hardly bear repetition. + +There are some ex-voto pictures of the Madonna of Mercy, which record +individual acts of gratitude. One, for instance, by Nicolò Alunno +(Rome, Pal. Colonna), in which the Virgin, a benign and dignified +creature, stretches forth her sceptre from above, and rebukes the ugly +fiend of Sin, about to seize a boy. The mother kneels on one side, +with eyes uplifted, in faith and trembling supplication. The same idea +I have seen repeated in a picture by Lanfranco. + + * * * * * + +The innumerable votive pictures which represent the Madonna di +Misericordia with the Child in her arms, I shall notice hereafter. +They are in Catholic countries the usual ornaments of charitable +Institutions and convents of the Order of Mercy; and have, as I cannot +but think, a very touching significance. + + + + +THE MATER DOLOROSA. + + +_Ital._ La Madre di Dolore. L' Addolorata. _Fr._ Nôtre Dame da Pitié. +La Vierge de Douleur. _Sp_. Nuestra Señora de Dolores _Ger._ Die +Schmerzhafte Mutter. + +One of the most important of these devotional subjects proper to the +Madonna is the "Mourning Mother," the _Mater Dolorosa_, in which her +character is that of the mother of the crucified Redeemer; the mother +of the atoning Sacrifice; the queen of martyrs; the woman whose bosom +was pierced with a sharp sword; through whose sorrow the world was +saved, whose anguish was our joy, and to whom the Roman Catholic +Christians address their prayers as consoler of the afflicted, because +she had herself tasted of the bitterest of all earthly sorrow, the +pang of the agonized mother for the loss of her child. + +In this character we have three distinct representations of the +Madonna. + +MATER DOLOROSA. In the first she appears alone, a seated or standing +figure, often the head or half length only; the hands clasped, the +head bowed in sorrow, tears streaming from the heavy eyes, and the +whole expression intensely mournful. The features are properly +those of a woman in middle age; but in later times the sentiment of +beauty predominated over that of the mother's agony; and I have seen +the sublime Mater Dolorosa transformed into a merely beautiful and +youthful maiden, with such an air of sentimental grief as might serve +for the loss of a sparrow. + +Not so with the older heads; even those of the Carracci and the +Spanish school have often a wonderful depth of feeling. + +It is common in such representations to represent the Virgin with a +sword in her bosom, and even with _seven_ swords in allusion to +the _seven_ sorrows. This very material and palpable version of the +allegorical prophecy (Luke ii, 35) has been found extremely effective +as an appeal to the popular feelings, so that there are few Roman +Catholic churches without such a painful and literal interpretation +of the text. It occurs perpetually in prints, and there is a fine +example after Vandyck; sometimes the swords are placed round her head; +but there is no instance of such a figure from the best period of +religious art, and it must be considered as anything but artistic: in +this case, the more materialized and the more matter of fact, the more +_unreal_. + + * * * * * + +STABAT MATER. A second representation of the _Madre di Dolore_ is that +figure of the Virgin which, from the very earliest times, was placed +on the right of the Crucifix, St. John the Evangelist being invariably +on the left. I am speaking here of the _crucifix_ as a wholly ideal +and mystical emblem of our faith in a crucified Saviour; not of +the _crucifixion_ as an event, in which the Virgin is an actor and +spectator, and is usually fainting in the arms of her attendants. In +the ideal subject she is merely an ideal figure, at once the mother +of Christ, and the personified Church. This, I think, is evident from +those very ancient carvings, and examples in stained glass, in which +the Virgin, as the Church, stands on one side of the cross, trampling +on a female figure which personifies Judaism or the synagogue. Even +when the allegory is less palpable, we feel that the treatment is +wholly religious and poetical. + +The usual attitude of the _Mater Dolorosa_ by the crucifix is that of +intense but resigned sorrow; the hands clasped, the head declined and +shaded by a veil, the figure closely wrapped in a dark blue or violet +mantle. In some instances a more generally religious and ideal cast is +given to the figure; she stands with outspread arms, and looking up; +not weeping, but in her still beautiful face a mingled expression of +faith and anguish. This is the true conception of the sublime hymn, + + "Stabat Mater Dolorosa + Juxta crucem lachrymosa + Dum pendebat filius." + +LA PIETÀ. The third, and it is the most important and most beautiful +of all as far as the Virgin is concerned, is the group called the +PIETÀ, which, when strictly devotional, consists only of the Virgin +with her dead Son in her arms, or on her lap, or lying at her feet; +in some instances with lamenting angels, but no other personages. +This group has been varied in a thousand ways; no doubt the two most +perfect conceptions are those of Michael Angelo and Raphael; the first +excelling in sublimity, the latter in pathos. The celebrated marble +group by Michael Angelo stands in the Vatican in a chapel to the +right as we enter. The Virgin is seated; the dead Saviour lies across +the knees of his mother; she looks down on him in mingled sorrow +and resignation, but the majestic resignation predominates. The +composition of Raphael exists only as a print; but the flimsy paper, +consecrated through its unspeakable beauty, is likely to be as lasting +as the marble. It represents the Virgin, standing with outstretched +arms, and looking up with an appealing agonized expression towards +heaven; before her, on the earth, lies extended the form of the +Saviour. In tenderness, dignity, simplicity, and tragic pathos, +nothing can exceed this production; the head of the Virgin in +particular is regarded as a masterpiece, so far exceeding in delicacy +of execution every other work of Marc Antonio, that some have thought +that Raphael himself took the burin from his hand, and touched himself +that face of quiet woe. + +Another example of wonderful beauty is the Pietà by Francia, in +our National Gallery. The form of Christ lies extended before his +mother; a lamenting angel sustains the head, another is at the feet: +the Virgin, with eyes red and heavy with weeping, looks out of the +picture. There needs no visible sword in her bosom to tell what +anguish has pierced that maternal heart. + +There is another Pietà , by Michael Angelo, quite a different +conception. The Virgin sits at the foot of the cross; before her, and +half-sustained by her knees, lies the form of the dead Saviour, seen +in front; his arms are held up by two angels (unwinged, as is usual +with Michael Angelo). The Virgin looks up to heaven with an appealing +expression; and in one engraving of this composition the cross is +inscribed with the words, "Tu non pensi quanta sangue costa." There is +no painting by Michael Angelo himself, but many copies and engravings +of the drawing. A beautiful small copy, by Marcello Venusti, is in the +Queen's Gallery. + +There is yet another version of the Pietà , quite mystical and +devotional in its significance,--but, to my feeling, more painful and +material than poetical. It is variously treated; for example:--1. +The dead Redeemer is seen half-length within the tomb; his hands are +extended to show his wounds; his eyes are closed, his head declined, +his bleeding brow encircled by thorns. On one side is the Virgin, on +the other St. John the Evangelist, in attitudes of profound grief +and commiseration. 2. The dead form, half emerging from the tomb, is +sustained in the arms of the Mater Dolorosa. St. John the Evangelist +on the other side. There are sometimes angels. + +The Pietà thus conceived as a purely religious and ideal impersonation +of the atoning Sacrifice, is commonly placed over the altar of +the sacrament, and in many altar-pieces it forms the centre of the +predella, just in front where the mass is celebrated, or on the door +of the tabernacle, where the Host is deposited. + +When, with the Mater Dolorosa and St. John, Mary Magdalene is +introduced with her dishevelled hair, the group ceases to be properly +a Pietà , and becomes a representation rather than a symbol. + + * * * * * + +There are also examples of a yet more complex but still perfectly +ideal and devotional treatment, in which the Mourning Mother is +attended by saints. + +A most celebrated instance of this treatment is the Pietà by Guido. +(Bologna Gal.) In the upper part of the composition, the figure of the +dead Redeemer lies extended on a white shroud; behind him stands the +Virgin-mother, with her eyes raised to heaven, and sad appealing face, +touched with so divine a sorrow--so much of dignity in the midst of +infinite anguish, that I know nothing finer in its way. Her hands +are resignedly folded in each other, not raised, not clasped, but +languidly drooping. An angel stands at the feet of Christ looking on +with a tender adoring commiseration; another, at his head, turns away +weeping. A kind of curtain divides this group from the lower part +of the picture, where, assembled on a platform, stand or kneel the +guardian saints of Bologna: in the centre, the benevolent St. Charles +Borromeo, who just about that time had been canonized and added to +the list of the patrons of Bologna by a decree of the senate; on the +right, St. Dominick and St. Petronius; on the left, St. Proculus +and St. Francis. These sainted personages look up as if adjuring the +Virgin, even by her own deep anguish, to intercede for the city; she +is here at once our Lady of Pity, of Succour, and of Sorrow. This +wonderful picture was dedicated, as an act of penance and piety, by +the magistrates of Bologna, in 1616, and placed in their chapel in the +church of the "Mendicanti," otherwise S. Maria-della-Pietà . It hung +there for two centuries, for the consolation of the afflicted; it +is now placed in the Academy of Bologna for the admiration of +connoisseurs. + + + + +OUR LADY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. + + +_Ital._ La Madonna Purissima. _Lat._ Regina sine labe originali +concepta. _Spa._ Nuestra Señora sin peccado concepida. La Concepcion. +_Fr._ La Conception de la Vierge Marie. _Ger._ Das Geheimniss der +unbefleckten Empfängniss Mariä. Dec. 8. + +The last and the latest subject in which the Virgin appears alone +without the Child, is that entitled the "Immaculate Conception of the +Blessed Virgin;" and sometimes merely "THE CONCEPTION." There is no +instance of its treatment in the earlier schools of art; but as one of +the most popular subjects of the Italian and Spanish painters of the +seventeenth century, and one very frequently misunderstood, it is +necessary to go into the history of its origin. + +In the early ages of Christianity, it was usual to celebrate, as +festivals of the Church, the Conception of Jesus Christ, and the +Conception of his kinsman and precursor John the Baptist; the latter +as miraculous, the former as being at once divine and miraculous. In +the eleventh century it was proposed to celebrate the Conception of +the Virgin Mother of the Redeemer. + +From the time that the heresy of Nestorius had been condemned, and +that the dignity of the Virgin as mother of the _Divinity_ had become +a point of doctrine, it was not enough to advocate her excelling +virtue and stainless purity as a mere human being. It was contended, +that having been predestined from the beginning as the Woman, through +whom the divine nature was made manifest on earth, she must be +presumed to be exempt from all sin, even from that original taint +inherited from Adam. Through the first Eve, we had all died; through +the second Eve, we had all been "made alive." It was argued that +God had never suffered his earthly temple to be profaned; had even +promulgated in person severe ordinances to preserve its sanctuary +inviolate. How much more to him was that temple, that _tabernacle_ +built by no human hands, in which he had condescended to dwell. +Nothing was impossible to God; it lay, therefore, in his power to +cause his Mother to come absolutely pure and immaculate into the +world: being in his power, could any earnest worshipper of the Virgin +doubt for a moment that for one so favoured it would not be done? Such +was the reasoning of our forefathers; and the premises granted, who +shall call it illogical or irreverent? + +For three or four centuries, from the seventh to the eleventh, these +ideas had been gaining ground. St. Ildefonso of Seville distinguished +himself by his writings on this subject; and how the Virgin +recompensed his zeal, Murillo has shown us, and I have related in +the life of that saint. (Legends of the Monastic Orders.) But the +first mention of a festival, or solemn celebration of the Mystery of +the Immaculate Conception, may be traced to an English monk of the +eleventh century, whose name is not recorded, (v. Baillet, vol. xii.) +When, however, it was proposed to give the papal sanction to this +doctrine as an article of belief, and to institute a church office for +the purpose of celebrating the Conception of Mary, there arose strong +opposition. What is singular, St. Bernard, so celebrated for his +enthusiastic devotion to the Virgin, was most strenuous and eloquent +in his disapprobation. He pronounced no judgment against those who +received the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, he rather leaned +towards it; but he opposed the institution of the festival as an +innovation not countenanced by the early fathers of the Church. After +the death of St. Bernard, for about a hundred years, the dispute +slept; but the doctrine gained ground. The thirteenth century, so +remarkable for the manifestation of religious enthusiasm in all its +forms, beheld the revival of this celebrated controversy. A certain +Franciscan friar, Duns Scotus (John Scott of Dunse), entered the lists +as champion for the Virgin. He was opposed by the Dominicans and their +celebrated polemic Thomas Aquinas, who, like St. Bernard, was known +for his enthusiastic reverence for the Virgin; but, like him, and on +the same grounds, objected to the introduction of new forms. Thus the +theological schools were divided. + +During the next two hundred years the belief became more and more +general, the doctrine more and more popular; still the Church, while +it tolerated both, refused to ratify either. All this time we find +no particular representation of the favourite dogma in art, for until +ratified by the authority of the Church, it could not properly enter +into ecclesiastical decoration. We find, however, that the growing +belief in the pure Conception and miraculous sanctification of +the Virgin multiplied the representations of her coronation and +glorification, as the only permitted expression of the popular +enthusiasm on this point. For the powerful Order of the Franciscans, +who were at this time and for a century afterwards the most ardent +champions of the Immaculate Conception, were painted most of the +pictures of the Coronation produced during the fourteenth century. + +The first papal decree touching the "Immaculate Conception" as an +article of faith, was promulgated in the reign of Sixtus IV., who +had been a Franciscan friar, and he took the earliest opportunity of +giving the solemn sanction of the Church to what had ever been the +favourite dogma of his Order; but the celebration of the festival, +never actually forbidden, had by this time become so usual, that +the papal ordinance merely sanctioned without however rendering it +obligatory. An office was composed for the festival, and in 1496 +the Sorbonne declared in favour of it Still it remained a point of +dispute; still there were dissentient voices, principally among the +Dominican theologians; and from 1500 to 1600 we find this controversy +occupying the pens of the ecclesiastics, and exciting the interest and +the imagination of the people. In Spain the "Immaculate Conception +of the Virgin," owing perhaps to the popularity and power of the +Franciscans in that country, had long been "the darling dogma of the +Spanish Church." Villegas, in the "Flos Sanctorum," while admitting +the modern origin of the opinion, and the silence of the Church, +contended that, had this great fact been made manifest earlier and +in less enlightened times, it might possibly have led to the error of +worshipping the Virgin as an actual goddess. (Stirling's Artists of +Spain, p. 905.) To those who are conversant with Spanish theology +and art, it may seem that the distinction drawn in theory is not very +definite or perceptible in practice. + +At length, in July, 1615, Paul V. formally instituted the office +commemorating the Immaculate Conception, and in 1617 issued a bull +forbidding any one to teach or preach a contrary opinion. "On the +publication of this bull, Seville flew into a frenzy of religious +joy." The archbishop performed a solemn service in the Cathedral. +Cannon roared, and bull fights, tournaments, and banquets celebrated +this triumph of the votaries of the Virgin. Spain and its dependencies +were solemnly placed under the protection of the "Immaculate +Conception," thus personifying an abstract idea; and to this day, a +Spaniard salutes his neighbour with the angelic "Ave Maria purissima!" +and he responds "Sin peccado concepida!"[1] + +[Footnote 1: In our own days we have seen this curious controversy +revived. One of the latest, if not the last, writer on the subject was +Cardinal Lambruschini; and the last papal ordinance was promulgated by +Pio Mono, and dated from Gaeta, 1849.] + + * * * * * + +I cannot find the date of the earliest picture of the Immaculate +Conception; but the first writer on the art who makes allusion to the +subject, and lays down specific rules from ecclesiastical authority +for its proper treatment, is the Spaniard Pacheco, who must have been +about forty years of age when the bull was published at Seville in +1618. It is soon after this time that we first hear of pictures of the +Immaculate Conception. Pacheco subsequently became a familiar of the +Inquisition, and wielded the authority of the holy office as inspector +of sacred pictures; and in his "Arte de la Pintura," published in +1649, he laid down those rules for the representation which had been +generally, though not always, exactly followed. + +It is evident that the idea is taken from the woman in the Apocalypse, +"clothed with the sun, having the moon under her feet, and on her head +a crown of twelve stars." The Virgin is to be portrayed in the first +spring and bloom of youth as a maiden of about twelve or thirteen +years of age; with "grave sweet eyes;" her hair golden; her features +"with all the beauty painting can express;" her hands are to be folded +on her bosom or joined in prayer. The sun is to be expressed by a +flood of light around her. The moon under her feet is to have the +horns pointing downwards, because illuminated from above, and the +twelve stars are to form a crown over her head. The robe must be +of spotless white; the mantle or scarf blue. Round her are to hover +cherubim bearing roses, palms, and lilies; the head of the bruised and +vanquished dragon is to be under her feet. She ought to have the cord +of St. Francis as a girdle, because in this guise she appeared to +Beatriz de Silva, a noble Franciscan nun, who was favoured by a +celestial vision of the Madonna in her beatitude. Perhaps the good +services of the Franciscans as champions of the Immaculate Conception +procured them the honour of being thus commemorated. + +All these accessories are not absolutely and rigidly required; +and Murillo, who is entitled _par excellence_ the painter of the +Conception, sometimes departed from the letter of the law without +being considered as less orthodox. With him the crescent moon, is +sometimes the full moon, or when a crescent the horns point upwards +instead of downwards. He usually omits the starry crown, and, in spite +of his predilection for the Capuchin Order, the cord of St. Francis +is in most instances dispensed with. He is exact with regard to the +colours of the drapery, but not always in the colour of the hair. On +the other hand, the beauty and expression of the face and attitude, +the mingled loveliness, dignity, and purity, are given with exquisite +feeling; and we are never, as in his other representations of the +Madonna, reminded of commonplace homely, often peasant, portraiture; +here all is spotless grace, ethereal delicacy, benignity, refinement, +repose,--the very apotheosis of womanhood. + +I must go back to observe, that previous to the promulgation of +the famous bull of Pope Paul V., the popular ideas concerning the +Immaculate Conception had left their impress on art. Before the +subject had taken an express and authorized form, we find pictures +which, if they do not represent it, relate to it, I remember two which +cannot be otherwise interpreted, and there are probably others. + +The first Is a curious picture of the early Florentine School. (Berlin +Gal.) In the centre is original sin, represented by Eve and the +Serpent; on the right stand St. Ambrose, St. Hilarius, St. Anselm, +and St. Bernard; on the left St. Cyril, Origen, St. Augustine, and St. +Cyprian; and below are inscribed passages from the writings of these +fathers relating to the immaculate Conception of the Virgin: all of +them had given to her in their works the title of Immaculate, most +pure; but they differed as to the period of her sanctification, as to +whether it was in the moment of conception or at the moment of birth. + +The other picture is in the Dresden Gallery, and one of the finest +productions of that extraordinary Ferrarese painter Dosso Dossi. In +the lower part of the picture are the four Latin Fathers, turning over +their great books, or in deep meditation; behind them, the Franciscan +Bernardino of Siena. Above, in a glory of light, the Virgin, clothed, +not in spotless white, but a richly embroidered regal mantle, "wrought +about with divers colours," kneels at the feet of the Almighty, who +extends his hand in benediction. I find no account in the catalogue +whence this picture was taken, but it was evidently painted for the +Franciscans. + + * * * * * + +In 1617, when the Bull of Paul V. was formally expedited, Guido was +attached to the papal court in quality of painter and an especial +favourite with his Holiness. Among the earliest accredited pictures of +the Immaculate Conception, are four of his finest works. + +1. The cupola of the private chapel of the Quirinal represents the +Almighty meditating the great miracle of the Immaculate Conception, +and near him, within the same glory of light, is the Virgin in her +white tunic, and in an attitude of adoration. This was painted about +1610 or 1611, when Pope Paul V. was meditating the promulgation of his +famous ordinance. + +2. The great picture, also painted for Paul V., represents the +doctors of the Church arguing and consulting their great books for the +authorities on the subject of the Conception.[1] Above, the Virgin is +seated in glory, arrayed in spotless white, her hands crossed over her +bosom, and her eyes turned towards the celestial fountain of light. +Below are six doctors, consulting their books; they are not well +characterized, being merely so many ideal heads in a mannered style; +but I believe they represent the four Latin Fathers, with St. John +Damascene and St. Ildefonso, who were especial defenders of the +doctrine. + +[Footnote 1: Petersburg Imp. Gal. There is a fine engraving.] + +3. The next in point of date was painted for the Infanta of Spain, +which I believe to be the same now in the possession of Lord +Ellesmere. The figure of the Virgin, crowned with the twelve stars, +and relieved from a background of golden light, is standing on a +crescent sustained by three cherubs beneath; she seems to float +between heaven and earth; on either side is a seraph, with hands +folded and looks upraised in adoration. The whole painted in his +silvery tone, with such an extreme delicacy and transparency +of effect, that it might be styled "a vision of the Immaculate +Conception." + +4. The fourth was painted for the chapel of the Immaculate Conception, +in the church of San Biagio, at Forli, and is there still. + + * * * * * + +Just as the Italian schools of painting were on the decline, the +Spanish school of art arose in all its glory, and the "Conception" +became, from the popularity of the dogma, not merely an +ecclesiastical, but a popular subject. Not only every church, but +almost every private house, contained the effigy either painted or +carved, or both, of our Lady "_sin peccado concepida_;" and when the +academy of painting was founded at Seville, in 1660, every candidate +for admission had to declare his orthodox belief in _the most pure +Conception of our Lady_. + +The finest Spanish "Conception" before the time of Murillo, is by +Roelas, who died in 1625; it is in the academy at Seville, and is +mentioned by Mr. Ford as "equal to Guido."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Handbook of Spain. A very fine picture of this subject, +by Roelas, was sold out of the Soult Collection.] + +One of the most beautiful and characteristic, as well as earliest, +examples of this subject I have seen, is a picture in the Esterhazy +Gallery at Vienna. The Virgin is in the first bloom of girlhood; she +looks not more than nine or ten years old, with dark hair, Spanish +features, and a charming expression of childlike simplicity and +devotion. She stands amid clouds, with her hands joined, and the +proper white and blue drapery: there are no accessories. This picture +is attributed to an obscure painter, Lazaro Tavarone, of whom I can +learn nothing more than that he was employed in the Escurial about +1590. + +The beautiful small "Conception" by Velasquez, in the possession +of Mr. Frere, is a departure from the rules laid down by Pacheco in +regard to costume; therefore, as I presume, painted before he entered +the studio of the artist-inquisitor, whose son-in-law he became before +he was three and twenty. Here the Virgin is arrayed in a pale violet +robe, with a dark blue mantle. Her hands are joined, and she looks +down. The solemnity and depth of expression in the sweet girlish face +is very striking; the more so, that it is not a beautiful face, and +has the air of a portrait. Her long hair flows over her shoulders. The +figure is relieved against a bright sun, with fleecy clouds around; +and the twelve stars are over her head. She stands on the round moon, +of which the upper half is illumined. Below, on earth, and through +the deep shadow, are seen several of the emblems of the Virgin--the +fountain, the temple, the olive, the cypress, and the garden enclosed +in a treillage of roses.[1] This picture is very remarkable; it is in +the earliest manner of Velasquez, painted in the bold free style of +his first master, Herrara, whose school he quitted when he was about +seventeen or eighteen, just at the period when the Pope's ordinance +was proclaimed at Seville. + +[Footnote 1: v. Introduction: "The Symbols and Attributes of the +Virgin."] + + * * * * * + +Of twenty-five pictures of this subject, painted by Murillo, there are +not two exactly alike; and they are of all sizes, from the colossal +figure called the "Great Conception of Seville," to the exquisite +miniature representation in the possession of Lord Overston, not more +than fifteen inches in height. Lord Lansdowne has also a beautiful +small "Conception," very simply treated. In those which have dark +hair, Murillo is said to have taken his daughter Francisca as a model. +The number of attendant angels varies from one or two, to thirty. They +bear the palm, the olive, the rose, the lily, the mirror; sometimes +a sceptre and crown. I remember but few instances in which he has +introduced the dragon-fiend, an omission which Pacheco is willing to +forgive; "for," as he observes, "no man ever painted the devil with +good-will." + +In the Louvre picture (No. 1124), the Virgin is adored by three +ecclesiastics. In another example, quoted by Mr. Stirling (Artists +of Spain, p. 839), a friar is seen writing at her feet: this figure +probably represents her champion, the friar Duns Scotus. There is +at Hampton Court a picture, by Spagnoletto, of this same Duns Scotus +writing his defence of the Immaculate Conception. Spagnoletto was +painting at Naples, when, in 1618, "the Viceroy solemnly swore, in +presence of the assembled multitude, to defend with his life the +doctrine of the Immaculate Conception;" and this picture, curious +and striking in its way, was painted about the same time. + + * * * * * + +In Italy, the decline of Art in the seventeenth century is nowhere +more apparent, nor more offensive, than in this subject. A finished +example of the most execrable taste is the mosaic in St. Peter's, +after Pietro Bianchi. There exists, somewhere, a picture of the +Conception, by Le Brun, in which the Virgin has no other drapery +than a thin, transparent gauze, and has the air of a Venus Meretrix. +In some old French prints, the Virgin is surrounded by a number of +angels, defending her with shield and buckler against demons who are +taking aim at her with fiery arrows. Such, and even worse, vagaries +and perversities, are to be found in the innumerable pictures of this +favourite subject, which inundated the churches between 1640 and 1720. +Of these I shall say no more. The pictures of Guido and Murillo, and +the carved figures of Alonzo Cano, Montanez, and Hernandez, may +be regarded as authorized effigies of "Our Lady of the most pure +Conception;" in other words, as embodying, in the most attractive, +decorous, and intelligible form, an abstract theological dogma, which +is in itself one of the most curious, and, in its results, one of the +most important of the religions phenomena connected with the artistic +representations of the Virgin.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We often find on pictures and prints of the Immaculate +Conception, certain scriptural texts which the theologians of the +Roman Church have applied to the Blessed Virgin; for instance, from +Ps. xliv. _Omnis gloria ejus filiæ regis ab intus_--"The king's +daughter is all glorious within;" or from the Canticles, iv. 7, _Tota +pulchra es amica mea, et macula non est in te_,--"Thou art all fair, +my love, there is no spot in thee." I have also seen the texts, Ps. +xxii. 10, and Prov. viii. 22, 28, xxxi. 29, thus applied, as well as +other passages from the very poetical office of the Virgin _In Festo +Immaculatæ Conceptionis_.] + +We must be careful to discriminate between the Conception, so +styled by ecclesiastical authority, and that singular and mystical +representation which is sometimes called the "Predestination of Mary," +and sometimes the "Litanies of the Virgin." Collectors and writers +on art must bear in mind, that the former, as a subject, dates only +from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the latter from +the beginning of the sixteenth. Although, as representations, so +very similar, yet the intention and meaning are different. In the +Conception it is the sinless Virgin in her personal character, who +is held up to reverence, as the purest, wisest, holiest, of created +beings. The earlier theme involves a yet more recondite signification. +It is, undoubtedly, to be regarded as an attempt on the part of the +artist to express, in a visible form, the idea or promise of the +redemption of the human race, as existing in the Sovereign Mind before +the beginning of things. They do not personify this idea under the +image of Christ,--for they conceived that, as the second person of the +Trinity, he could not be his own instrument,--but by the image of Mary +surrounded by those attributes which were afterwards introduced into +the pictures of the Conception: or setting her foot, as second Eve, on +the head of the prostrate serpent. Not seldom, in a series of subjects +from the Old Testament, the _pendant_ to Eve holding the apple is Mary +crushing the head of the fiend; and thus the "bane and antidote are +both before us." This is the proper interpretation of those effigies, +so prevalent in every form of art during the sixteenth century, and +which are often, but erroneously, styled the Immaculate Conception. + +The numerous heads of the Virgin which proceeded from the later +schools of Italy and Spain, wherein she appears neither veiled nor +crowned, but very young, and with flowing hair and white vesture, are +intended to embody the popular idea of the _Madonna purissima_, of +"the Virgin most pure, conceived without sin," in an abridged form. +There is one by Murillo, in the collection of Mr. Holford; and another +by Guido, which will give an idea of the treatment. + +Before quitting the subject of the Immaculate Conception. I must +refer to a very curious picture[1] called an Assumption, but certainly +painted at least one hundred years before the Immaculate Conception +was authorized as a Church subject. + +[Footnote 1: Once in the collection of Mr. Solly, and now in the +possession of Mr. Bromley of Wootten.] + +From the year 1496, when Sixtus IV. promulgated his Bull, and the +Sorbonne put forth their famous decree,--at a time when there was +less of faith and religious feeling in Italy than ever before,--this +abstract dogma became a sort of watchword with theological disputants; +not ecclesiastics only, the literati and the reigning powers took +an interest in the controversy, and were arrayed on one side or the +other. The Borgias, for instance, were opposed to it. Just at this +period, the singular picture I allude to was painted by Girolamo da +Cotignola. It is mentioned by Lanzi, but his account of it is not +quite correct. + +Above, in glory, is seen the _Padre Eterno_, surrounded by cherubim +bearing a scroll, on which is inscribed, "_Non enim pro te sed pro +omnibus hec lex constitutura est._"[1] Lower down the Virgin stands +on clouds, with hands joined, and attired in a white tunic embroidered +with gold, a blue mantle lined with red, and, which is quite singular +and unorthodox, _black shoes_. Below, on the earth, and to the +right, stands a bishop without a glory, holding a scroll, on which +is inscribed, "_Non puto verè esse amatorem Virginis qui respuit +celebrare Festum suæ Conceptionis_;" on the left is St. Jerome. In +the centre are three kneeling figures: on one side St. Catherine (or +perhaps Caterina Sforza in the character of St. Catherine, for the +head looks like a portrait); on the other an elderly woman, Ginevra +Tiepolo, widow of Giovanni Sforza, last prince of Pesaro; [2] between +them the little Costanzo Sforza, looking up with a charming devout +expression. [3] Underneath is Inscribed, "JUNIPERA SFOSTIA PATRIA +A MARITO RECEPTA. EXVOTO MCCCCCXII." Giovanni Sforza had been +dispossessed of his dominions by the Borgias, after his divorce from +Lucrezia, and died in 1501. The Borgias ceased to reign in 1512; and +Ginevra, apparently restored to her country, dedicated this picture, +at once a memorial of her gratitude and of her faith. It remained over +the high-altar of the Church of the Serviti, at Pesaro, till acquired +by Mr. Solly, from whom it was purchased by Mr. Bromley. [4] + +[Footnote 1: From the Office of the Blessed Virgin.] + +[Footnote 2: This Giovanni was the first husband of Lucrezia Borgia.] + +[Footnote 3: Lanzi calls this child Costanzo II., prince of Pesaro. +Very interesting memoirs of all the personages here referred to may be +found in Mr. Dennistoun's "Dukes of Urbino."] + +[Footnote 4: Girolamo Marchesi da Cotignola, was a painter of the +Francia school, whose works date from about 1508 to 1550. Those of +his pictures which I have seen are of very unequal merit, and, with +much feeling and expression in the heads, are often mannered and +fantastic as compositions. This agrees with what Vasari says, that his +excellence lay in portraiture, for which reason he was summoned, after +the battle of Ravenna, to paint the portrait of Caston de Foix, as +he lay dead. (See Vasari, _Vita di Bagnacavallo_; and in the English +trans., vol. iii. 331.) The picture above described, which has a sort +of historical interest, is perhaps the same mentioned in Murray's +Handbook (Central Italy, p. 110.) as an _enthroned_ Madonna, dated +1513, and as being in 1843 in its original place over the altar in the +Serviti at Pesaro; if so, it is there no longer.] + + + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART II. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. + +1. LA VERGINE MADRE DI DIO. 2. LA MA DRE AMABILE. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED. + +_Lat._ Sancta Dei Genitrix. Virgo Deipara. _Ital._ La Santissima +Vergine, Madre di Dio. _Fr._ La Sainte Vierge, Mère de Dieu. _Ger._ +Die Heilige Mutter Gottes. + + +The Virgin in her maternal character opens upon us so wide a field +of illustration, that I scarce know where to begin or how to find my +way, amid the crowd of associations which press upon me. A mother +holding her child in her arms is no very complex subject; but like a +very simple air constructed on a few expressive notes, which, when +harmonized, is susceptible of a thousand modulations, and variations, +and accompaniments, while the original _motif_ never loses its power +to speak to the heart; so it is with the MADONNA AND CHILD;--a +subject so consecrated by its antiquity, so hallowed by its profound +significance, so endeared by its associations with the softest and +deepest of our human sympathies, that the mind has never wearied of +its repetition, nor the eye become satiated with its beauty. Those who +refuse to give it the honour due to a religious representation, yet +regard it with a tender half-unwilling homage; and when the glorified +type of what is purest, loftiest, holiest in womanhood, stands before +us, arrayed in all the majesty and beauty that accomplished Art, +inspired by faith and love, could lend her, and bearing her divine +Son, rather enthroned than sustained on her maternal bosom, "we look, +and the heart is in heaven!" and it is difficult, very difficult, to +refrain from an _Ora pro Nobis_. But before we attempt to classify +these lovely and popular effigies, in all their infinite variety, +from the enthroned grandeur of the Queen of Heaven, the SANCTA +DEI GENITRIX, down to the peasant mother, swaddling or suckling +her infant; or to interpret the innumerable shades of significance +conveyed by the attendant accessories, we must endeavour to trace the +representation itself to its origin. + +This is difficult. There exists no proof, I believe, that the effigies +of the Virgin with the infant Christ in her arms, which existed before +the end of the fifth century, were placed before Christian worshippers +as objects of veneration. They appear to have been merely groups +representing a particular incident of the New Testament, namely, +the adoration of the Magi; for I find no other in which the mother +is seated with the infant Christ, and this is an historical subject +of which we shall have to speak hereafter. From the beginning of +the fourth century, that is, from the time of Constantine and the +condemnation of Arius, the popular reverence for the Virgin, the +Mother of Christ, had been gaining ground; and at the same time the +introduction of images and pictures into the places of worship and +into the houses of Christians, as ornaments on glass vessels and even +embroidered on garments and curtains, became more and more diffused, +(v. Neander's Church History.) + +The earliest effigies of the Virgin and Child may be traced +to Alexandria, and to Egyptian influences; and it is as easily +conceivable that the time-consecrated Egyptian myth of Isis and +Horus may have suggested the original type, the outward form and the +arrangement of the maternal group, as that the classical Greek types +of the Orpheus and Apollo should have furnished the early symbols of +the Redeemer as the Good Shepherd; a fact which does not rest upon +supposition, but of which the proofs remain to us in the antique +Christian sculptures and the paintings in the catacombs. + +The most ancient Greek figures of the Virgin and Child have perished; +but, as far as I can learn, there is no evidence that these effigies +were recognized by the Church as sacred before the beginning of the +sixth century. It was the Nestorian schism which first gave to the +group of the Mother bearing her divine Son that religious importance +and significance which it has ever since retained in Catholic +countries. + +The divinity of Christ and his miraculous conception, once established +as articles of belief, naturally imparted to Mary, his mother, a +dignity beyond that of other mothers her Son was God; therefore the +title of MOTHER OF GOD was assigned to her. When or by whom first +brought into use, does not appear; but about the year 400 it became +a popular designation. + +Nestorias, patriarch of Constantinople in 428, had begun by +persecuting the Arians; but while he insisted that in Jesus were +combined two persons and two natures, he insisted that the Virgin Mary +was the mother of Christ considered as _man_, but not the mother of +Christ considered as _God_; and that, consequently, all those who gave +her the title of _Dei Genitrix_, _Deipara_,[1] were in error. There +were many who adopted these opinions, but by a large portion of the +Church they were repudiated with horror, as utterly subverting the +doctrine of the mystery of the Incarnation. Cyril of Alexandria +opposed Nestorius and his followers, and defended with zealous +enthusiasm the claims of the Virgin to all the reverence and +worship due to her; for, as he argued, the two natures being one and +indivisible from the moment of the miraculous conception, it followed +that Mary did indeed bring forth God,--was, in fact, the mother of +God; and, all who took away from her this dignity and title were in +error, and to be condemned as heretics. + +[Footnote 1: The inscription on the Greek and Byzantine pictures is +actually [Greek: MAeR ThU] ([Greek: Mhaetaer Theos]).] + +I hope I shall not be considered irreverent in thus plainly and simply +stating the grounds of this celebrated schism, with reference to its +influence on Art; an influence incalculable, not only at the time, +but ever since that time; of which the manifold results, traced +from century to century down to the present hour, would remain quite +unintelligible, unless we clearly understood the origin and the issue +of the controversy. + +Cyril, who was as enthusiastic and indomitable as Nestorius, and had +the advantage of taking the positive against the negative side of the +question, anathematized the doctrines of his opponent, in a synod held +at Alexandria in 430, to which Pope Celestine II gave the sanction of +his authority. The emperor Theodosius II then called a general council +at Ephesus in 431, before which Nestorius refused to appear, and was +deposed from his dignity of patriarch by the suffrages of 200 bishops. +But this did not put an end to the controversy; the streets of Ephesus +were disturbed by the brawls and the pavement of the cathedral was +literally stained with the blood of the contending parties Theodosius +arrested both the patriarchs; but after the lapse of only a few days, +Cyril triumphed over his adversary: with him triumphed the cause of +the Virgin. Nestorius was deposed and exiled; his writings condemned +to the flames; but still the opinions he had advocated were adopted by +numbers, who were regarded as heretics by those who called themselves +"the Catholic Church." + +The long continuance of this controversy, the obstinacy of the +Nestorians, the passionate zeal of those who held the opposite +doctrines, and their ultimate triumph when the Western Churches of +Rome and Carthage declared in their favour, all tended to multiply and +disseminate far and wide throughout Christendom those images of the +Virgin which exhibited her as Mother of the Godhead. At length the +ecclesiastical authorities, headed by Pope Gregory the Great, stamped +them as orthodox: and as the cross had been the primeval symbol which +distinguished the Christian from the Pagan, so the image of the Virgin +Mother with her Child now became the symbol which distinguished the +Catholic Christian from the Nestorian Dissenter. + +Thus it appears that if the first religious representations of the +Virgin and Child were not a consequence of the Nestorian schism, yet +the consecration of such effigies as the visible form of a theological +dogma to the purposes of worship and ecclesiastical decoration +must date from the Council of Ephesus in 431; and their popularity +and general diffusion throughout the western Churches, from the +pontificate of Gregory in the beginning of the seventh century. + +In the most ancient of these effigies which remain, we have clearly +only a symbol; a half figure, veiled, with hands outspread, and +the half figure of a child placed against her bosom, without any +sentiment, without even the action of sustaining him. Such was the +formal but quite intelligible sign; but it soon became more, it became +a representation. As it was in the East that the cause of the Virgin +first triumphed, we might naturally expect to find the earliest +examples in the old Greek churches; but these must have perished +in the furious onslaught made by the Iconoclasts on all the sacred +images. The controversy between the image-worshippers and the +image-breakers, which distracted the East for more than a century +(that is, from 726 to 840), did not, however, extend to the west of +Europe. We find the primeval Byzantine type, or at least the exact +reproduction of it, in the most ancient western churches, and +preserved to us in the mosaics of Rome, Ravenna, and Capua. These +remains are nearly all of the same date, much later than the single +figures of Christ as Redeemer, and belonging unfortunately to a lower +period and style of art. The true significance of the representation +is not, however, left doubtful; for all the earliest traditions and +inscriptions are in this agreed, that such effigies were intended as +a confession of faith; an acknowledgment of the dignity of the Virgin +Mary, as the "SANCTA DEI GENITRIX;" as a visible refutation of "the +infamous, iniquitous, and sacrilegious doctrines of Nestorius the +Heresiarch."[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Mostrando quod ipsa Deipara esset contra impiam Nestorii +Heresium quam talem esse iste Heresiareo negabat_ Vide Ciampini, and +Munter's "Sinnbilder."] + + * * * * * + +As these ancient mosaic figures of the Virgin, enthroned with her +infant Son, were the precursors and models of all that was afterwards +conceived and executed in art, we must examine them in detail before +proceeding further. + +The mosaic of the cathedral of Capua represents in the highest place +the half figure of Christ in the act of benediction. In one of the +spandrels, to the right, is the prophet Isaiah, bearing a scroll, on +which is inscribed, _Ecce Dominus in fortitudine veniet, et brachium +ejus dominibatur_,--"The Lord God will come with strong hand, and his +arm shall rule for him." (Isaiah, ch. xl. v. 10.) On the left stands +Jeremiah, also with a scroll and the words, _Fortissime, magne, et +patens Dominus exercituum nomen tibi_,--"The great, the mighty God, +the Lord of hosts is his name." (Jeremiah, ch. xxxii. v. 18.) In the +centre of the vault beneath, the Virgin is seated on a rich throne, +a footstool under her feet; she wears a crown over her veil. Christ, +seated on her knee, and clothed, holds a cross in his left hand; the +right is raised is benediction. On one side of the throne stand St. +Peter and St. Stephen; on the other St. Paul and St. Agatha, to whom +the church is dedicated. The Greek monogram of the Virgin is inscribed +below the throne. + +The next in date which remains visible, is the group in the apsis of +S. Maria-della-Navicella (Rome), executed about 820, in the time of +Paschal I, a pontiff who was very remarkable for the zeal with which +he rebuilt and adorned the then half-ruined churches of Rome. The +Virgin, of colossal size, is seated on a throne; her robe and veil +are blue; the infant Christ, in a gold-coloured vest, is seated in her +lap, and raises his hand to bless the worshippers. On each side of the +Virgin is a group of adoring angels; at her feet kneels the diminutive +figure of Pope Paschal. + +In the Santa Maria-Nova (called also, "Santa Francesca," Rome), the +Virgin is seated on a throne wearing a rich crown, as queen of heaven. +The infant Christ stands upon her knee; she has one hand on her bosom +and sustains him with the other. + +On the façade of the portico of the S. Maria-in-Trastevere at Rome, +the Virgin is enthroned, and crowned, and giving her breast to the +Child. This mosaic is of later date than that in the apsis, but is +one of the oldest examples of a representation which was evidently +directed against the heretical doubts of the Nestorians: "How," said +they, pleading before the council of Ephesus, "can we call him God +who is only two or three months old; or suppose the Logos to have +been _suckled_ and to increase in wisdom?" The Virgin in the act +of suckling her Child, is a _motif_ often since repeated when the +original significance was forgotten. + +In the chapel of San Zeno (Rome), the Virgin is enthroned; the Child +is seated on her knee. He holds a scroll, on which are the words +_Ego sum lux mundi_, "I am the light of the world;" the right hand is +raised in benediction. Above is the monogram [Greek: M-R ThU], MARIA +MATER DEI. In the mosaics, from the eighth to the eleventh century, +we find Art at a very low ebb. The background is flat gold, not a blue +heaves with its golden stars, as in the early mosaics of the fifth and +sixth centuries. The figures are ill-proportioned; the faces consist +of lines without any attempt at form or expression. The draperies, +however, have a certain amplitude; "and the character of a few +accessories, for example, the crown on the Virgin's heads instead of +the invariable Byzantine veil, betrays," says Kugler, "a northern and +probably a Frankish influence." The attendant saints, generally St. +Peter and St. Paul, stand, stiff and upright on each side. + +But with all their faults, these grand, formal, significant groups--or +rather not groups, for there was as yet no attempt either at +grouping or variety of action, for that would have been considered +irreverent--but these rows of figures, were the models of the early +Italian painters and mosaic-workers in their large architectural +mosaics and altar-pieces set up in the churches during the revival +of Art, from the period of Cimabue and Andrea Tafi down to the +latter half of the thirteenth century: all partook of this lifeless, +motionless character, and were, at the same time, touched with +the same solemn religious feeling. And long afterwards, when the +arrangement became less formal and conventional, their influence may +still be traced in those noble enthroned Madonnas, which represent +the Virgin as queen of heaven and of angels, either alone, or with +attendant saints, and martyrs, and venerable confessors waiting round +her state. + +The general disposition of the two figures varies but little in the +earliest examples which exist for us in painting, and which are, in +fact, very much alike. The Madonna seated on a throne, wearing a red +tunic and a blue mantle, part of which is drawn as a veil over her +head, holds the infant Christ, clothed in a red or blue tunic. She +looks straight out of the picture with her head a little declined to +one side. Christ has the right hand raised in benediction, and the +other extended. Such were the simple, majestic, and decorous effigies, +the legitimate successors of the old architectural mosaics, and +usually placed over the high altar of a church or chapel. The earliest +examples which have been preserved are for that reason celebrated in +the history of Art. + +The first is the enthroned Virgin of Guido da Siena, who preceded +Cimabue by twenty or thirty years. In this picture, the Byzantine +conception and style of execution are adhered to, yet with a softened +sentiment, a touch of more natural, life-like feeling, particularly +in the head of the Child. The expression in the face of the Virgin +struck me as very gentle and attractive; but it has been, I am afraid, +retouched, so that we cannot be quite sure that we have the original +features. Fortunately Guido has placed a date on his work, MCCXXI., +and also inscribed on it a distich, which shows that he felt, with +some consciousness and self-complacency, his superiority to his +Byzantine models;-- + + "Me Guido de Senis diebus depinxit amoenis + Quem Christus lenis nullis velit angere poenis."[1] + +Next we may refer to the two colossal Madonnas by Cimabue, preserved +at Florence. The first, which was painted for the Vallombrosian monks +of the S. Trinità , is now in the gallery of the academy. It has all +the stiffness and coldness of the Byzantine manner. There are three +adoring angels on each side, disposed one above another, and four +prophets are placed below in separate niches, half figures, holding +in their hands their prophetic scrolls, as in the old mosaic at Capua, +already described. The second is preserved in the Ruccellai chapel, in +the S. Maria Novella, in its original place. In spite of its colossal +size, and formal attitude, and severe style, the face of this Madonna +is very striking, and has been well described as "sweet and unearthly, +reminding you of a sibyl." The infant Christ is also very fine. There +are three angels on each side, who seem to sustain the carved chair or +throne on which the Madonna is seated; and the prophets, instead, of +being below, are painted in small circular medallions down each side +of the frame. The throne and the background are covered with gold. +Vasari gives a very graphic and animated account of the estimation +in which this picture was held when first executed. Its colossal +dimensions, though familiar in the great mosaics, were hitherto +unknown in painting; and not less astonishing appeared the deviation, +though slight, from ugliness and lifelessness into grace and nature. +"And thus," he says, "it happened that this work was an object of +so much admiration to the people of that day, they having never seen +anything better, that it was carried in solemn procession, with the +sound of trumpets and other festal demonstrations, from the house of +Cimabue to the church, he himself being highly rewarded and honoured +for it. It is further reported, and may be read in certain records +of old painters, that, whilst Cimabue was painting this picture, in a +garden near the gate of San Pietro, King Charles the Elder, of Anjou, +passed through Florence, and the authorities of the city, among other +marks of respect, conducted him to see the picture of Cimabue. When +this work was thus shown to the King it had not before been seen +by any one; wherefore all the men and women of Florence hastened in +crowds to admire it, making all possible demonstrations of delight. +The inhabitants of the neighbourhood, rejoicing in this occurrence, +ever afterwards called that place _Borgo Allegri_; and this name +it has ever since retained, although in process of time it became +enclosed within the walls of the city." + +[Footnote 1: The meaning, for it is not easy to translate literally, +is "_Me, hath painted, in pleasant days, Guido of Siena, Upon whose +soul may Christ deign to have mercy!_"] + + * * * * * + +In the strictly devotional representations of the Virgin and Child, +she is invariably seated, till the end of the thirteenth century: and +for the next hundred years the innovation of a standing figure was +confined to sculpture. An early example is the beautiful statue by +Niccolà Pisano, in the Capella della Spina at Pisa; and others will be +found in Cicognara'a work (Storia della Scultura Moderna). The Gothic +cathedrals, of the thirteenth century, also exhibit some most graceful +examples of the Madonna in sculpture, standing on a pedestal, crowned +or veiled, sustaining on her left arm the divine Child, while in +her right she holds a sceptre or perhaps a flower. Such crowned or +sceptred effigies of the Virgin were placed on the central pillar +which usually divided the great door of a church into two equal parts; +in reference to the text, "I am the DOOR; by me if any man enter in, +he shall be saved." In Roman Catholic countries we find such effigies +set up at the corners of streets, over the doors of houses, and the +gates of gardens, sometimes rude and coarse, sometimes exceedingly +graceful, according to the period of art and skill of the local +artist. Here the Virgin appears in her character of Protectress--our +Lady of Grace, or our Lady of Succour. + + * * * * * + +In pictures, we rarely find the Virgin standing, before the end of +the fourteenth century. An almost singular example is to be found +in an old Greek Madonna, venerated as miraculous, in the Cathedral +of Orvieto, under the title of _La Madonna di San Brizio_, and to +which is attributed a fabulous antiquity. I may be mistaken, but my +impression, on seeing it, was, that it could not be older than the end +of the thirteenth century. The crowns worn by the Virgin and Christ +are even more modern, and out of character with the rest of the +painting. In Italy the pupils of Giotto first began to represent +the Virgin standing on a raised dais. There is an example by Puccio +Capanna, engraved in d'Agincourt's work; but such figures are very +uncommon. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries they occur more +frequently in the northern than in the Italian schools. + +In the simple enthroned Madonna, variations of attitude and sentiment +were gradually introduced. The Virgin, instead of supporting her +Son with both hands, embraces him with one hand, and with the other +points to him; or raises her right hand to bless the worshipper. Then +the Child caresses his mother,--a charming and natural idea, but a +deviation from the solemnity of the purely religious significance; +better imagined, however, to convey the relation between the mother +and child, than the Virgin suckling her infant, to which I have +already alluded in its early religious, or rather controversial +meaning. It is not often that the enthroned Virgin is thus occupied. +Mr. Rogers had in his collection an exquisite example where the +Virgin, seated in state on a magnificent throne under a Gothic canopy +and crowned as queen of heaven, offers her breast to the divine Infant +Then the Mother adores her Child. This is properly the _Madre Pia_ +afterwards so beautifully varied. He lies extended on her knee, and +she looks down upon him with hands folded in prayer: or she places +her hand under his foot, an attitude which originally implied her +acknowledgment of his sovereignty and superiority, but was continued +as a natural _motif_ when the figurative and religious meaning was no +longer considered. Sometimes the Child looks up in his mother's face +with his finger on his lip, expressing the _Verbum sum_, "I am the +Word." Sometimes the Child, bending forwards from his mother's knee, +looks down benignly on the worshippers, who are _supposed_ to be +kneeling at the foot of the altar. Sometimes, but very rarely he +sleeps; never in the earliest examples; for to exhibit the young +Redeemer asleep, where he is an object of worship, was then a species +of solecism. + +When the enthroned Virgin is represented holding a book, or reading, +while the infant Christ, perhaps, lays his hand upon it--a variation +in the first simple treatment not earlier than the end of the +fourteenth century, and very significant--she is then the _Virgo +Sapientissima_, the most Wise Virgin; or the Mother of Wisdom, _Mater +Sapientiæ_; and the book she holds is the Book of Wisdom.[1] This is +the proper interpretation, where the Virgin is seated on her throne. +In a most beautiful picture by Granacci (Berlin Gal.), she is thus +enthroned, and reading intently; while John the Baptist and St. +Michael stand on each side. + +[Footnote 1: L'Abbé Crosnier, "Iconographie Chrétienne;" but the book +as an attribute had another meaning, for which, see the Introduction.] + + * * * * * + +With regard to costume, the colours in which the enthroned +Virgin-Mother was arrayed scarcely ever varied from the established +rule: her tunic was to be red, her mantle blue; red, the colour of +love, and religious aspiration; blue, the colour of constancy and +heavenly purity. In the pictures of the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, and down to the early part of the fifteenth, these colours +are of a soft and delicate tint,--rose and pale azure; but afterwards, +when powerful effects of colour became a study, we have the intense +crimson, and the dark blue verging on purple. Sometimes the blue +mantle is brought over her head, sometimes she wears a white veil, in +other instances the queenly crown. Sometimes (but very rarely when she +is throned as the _Regina Coeli_) she has no covering or ornament on +her head; and her fair hair parted on her brow, flows down on either +side in long luxuriant tresses. + +In the Venetian and German pictures, she is often most gorgeously +arrayed; her crown studded with jewels, her robe covered with +embroidery, or bordered with gold and pearls. The ornamental parts of +her dress and throne were sometimes, to increase the magnificence of +the effect, raised in relief and gilt. To the early German painters, +we might too often apply the sarcasm of Apelles, who said of his +rival, that, "not being able to make Venus _beautiful_ he had made +her _fine_;" but some of the Venetian Madonnas are lovely as well as +splendid. Gold was often used, and in great profusion, in some of the +Lombard pictures even of a late date; for instance, by Carlo Crivelli: +before the middle of the sixteenth century, this was considered +barbaric. The best Italian painters gave the Virgin ample, well +disposed drapery, but dispensed with ornament. The star embroidered on +her shoulder, so often retained when all other ornament was banished, +expresses her title "Stella Maris." I have seen some old pictures, in +which she wears a ring on the third finger. This expresses her dignity +as the _Sposa_ as well as the Mother. + +With regard to the divine Infant, he is, in the early pictures, +invariably draped, and it is not till the beginning of the fifteenth +century that we find him first partially and then wholly undraped. +In the old representations, he wears a long tunic with full sleeves, +fastened with a girdle. It is sometimes of gold stuff embroidered, +sometimes white, crimson, or blue. This almost regal robe was +afterwards exchanged for a little semi-transparent shirt without +sleeves. In pictures of the throned Madonna painted expressly for +nunneries, the Child is, I believe, always clothed, or the Mother +partly infolds him in her own drapery. In the Umbrian pictures of the +fifteenth century, the Infant often wears a coral necklace, then and +now worn by children in that district, as a charm against the evil +eye. In the Venetian pictures he has sometimes a coronal of pearls. In +the carved and painted images set up in churches, he wears, like his +mother, a rich crown over a curled wig, and is hung round with jewels; +but such images must be considered as out of the pale of legitimate +art. + + * * * * * + +Of the various objects placed in the hand of the Child as emblems I +have already spoken, and of their sacred significance as such,--the +globe, the book, the bird, the flower, &c. In the works of the +ignorant secular artists of later times, these symbols of power, or +divinity, or wisdom, became mere playthings; and when they had become +familiar, and required by custom, and the old sacred associations +utterly forgotten, we find them most profanely applied and misused. +To give one example:--the bird was originally placed in the hand of +Christ as the emblem of the soul, or of the spiritual as opposed to +the earthly nature; in a picture by Baroccio, he holds it up before +a cat, to be frightened and tormented.[1] But to proceed. + +[Footnote 1: In the "History of Our Lord, as illustrated in the +Fine Arts," the devotional and characteristic effigies of the infant +Christ, and the accompanying attributes, will be treated at length.] + +The throne on which the Virgin is seated, is, in very early pictures, +merely an embroidered cushion on a sort of stool, or a carved Gothic +chair, such as we see in the thrones and stalls of cathedrals. It +is afterwards converted into a rich architectural throne, most +elaborately adorned, according to the taste and skill of the artist. +Sometimes, as in the early Venetian pictures, it is hung with garlands +of fruits and flowers, most fancifully disposed. Sometimes the +arabesque ornaments are raised in relief and gilt. Sometimes the +throne is curiously painted to imitate various marbles, and adorned +with medallions and bas-reliefs from those subjects of the Old +Testament which have a reference to the character of the Virgin and +the mission of her divine Child; the commonest of all being the Fall, +which rendered a Redeemer necessary. Moses striking the rock (the +waters of life)--the elevation of the brazen serpent--the gathering +of the manna--or Moses holding the broken tablets of the old law,--all +types of redemption, are often thus introduced as ornaments. In the +sixteenth century, when the purely religious sentiment had declined, +and a classical and profane taste had infected every department of +art and literature, we find the throne of the Virgin adorned with +classical ornaments and bas-reliefs from the antique remains; as, for +instance, the hunt of Theseus and Hippolyta. We must then suppose +her throned on the ruins of paganism, an idea suggested by the old +legends, which represent the temples and statues of the heathen gods +as falling into ruin on the approach of the Virgin and her Child; and +a more picturesque application of this idea afterwards became common +in other subjects. In Garofalo's picture the throne is adorned with +Sphinxes--_à l'antique_. Andrea del Sarto has placed harpies at the +corner of the pedestal of the throne, in his famous Madonna di San +Francesco (Florence Gal.),--a gross fault in that otherwise grand +and faultless picture; one of those desecrations of a religious +theme which Andrea, as devoid of religious feeling as he was weak and +dishonest, was in the habit of committing. + +But whatever the material or style of the throne, whether simple or +gorgeous, it is supposed to be a heavenly throne. It is not of the +earth, nor on the earth; and at first it was alone and unapproachable. +The Virgin-mother, thus seated in her majesty, apart from all human +beings, and in communion only with the Infant Godhead on her knee, or +the living worshippers who come to lay down their cares and sorrows +at the foot of her throne and breathe a devout "Salve Regina!"--is, +through its very simplicity and concentrated interest, a sublime +conception. The effect of these figures, in their divine quietude and +loveliness, can never be appreciated when hung in a gallery or room +with other pictures, for admiration, or criticism, or comparison. I +remember well suddenly discovering such a Madonna, in a retired chapel +in S. Francesco della Vigna at Venice,--a picture I had never heard +of, by a painter then quite unknown to me, Fra Antonio da Negroponte, +a Franciscan friar who lived in the fifteenth century. The calm +dignity of the attitude, the sweetness, the adoring love in the face +of the queenly mother as with folded hands she looked down on the +divine Infant reclining on her knee, so struck upon my heart, that I +remained for minutes quite motionless. In this picture, nothing can +exceed the gorgeous splendor of the Virgin's throne and apparel: +she wears a jewelled crown; the Child a coronal of pearls; while the +background is composed entirely of the mystical roses twined in a sort +of _treillage_. + +I remember, too, a picture by Carlo Crivelli, in which the Virgin is +seated on a throne, adorned, in the artist's usual style, with rich +festoons of fruit and flowers. She is most sumptuously crowned and +apparelled; and the beautiful Child on her knee, grasping her hand as +if to support himself, with the most _naïve_ and graceful action bends +forward and looks dawn benignly on the worshippers _supposed_ to be +kneeling below. + +When human personages were admitted within the same compartment, the +throne was generally raised by several steps, or placed on a lofty +pedestal, and till the middle of the fifteenth century it was always +in the centre of the composition fronting the spectator. It was a +Venetian innovation to place the throne at one side of the picture, +and show the Virgin in profile or in the act of turning round. +This more scenic disposition became afterwards, in the passion for +variety and effect, too palpably artificial, and at length forced and +theatrical. + +The Italians distinguish between the _Madonna in Trono_ and the +_Madonna in Gloria_. When human beings, however sainted and exalted +were admitted within the margin of the picture, the divine dignity +of the Virgin as _Madre di Dio_, was often expressed by elevating her +wholly above the earth, and placing her "in regions mild of calm and +serene air," with the crescent or the rainbow under her feet. This is +styled a "Madonna in Gloria." It is, in fact, a return to the antique +conception of the enthroned Redeemer, seated on a rainbow, sustained +by the "curled clouds," and encircled by a glory of cherubim. The +aureole of light, within which the glorified Madonna and her Child +when in a standing position are often placed, is of an oblong form, +called from its shape the _mandorla_, "the almond;"[1] but in general +she is seated above in a sort of ethereal exaltation, while the +attendant saints stand on the earth below. This beautiful arrangement, +though often very sublimely treated, has not the simple austere +dignity of the throne of state, and when the Virgin and Child, as in +the works of the late Spanish and Flemish painters, are formed out of +earth's most coarse and commonplace materials, the aërial throne of +floating fantastic clouds suggests a disagreeable discord, a fear lest +the occupants of heaven should fall on the heads of their worshippers +below. Not so the Virgins of the old Italians; for they look so +divinely ethereal that they seem uplifted by their own spirituality: +not even the air-borne clouds are needed to sustain them. They have no +touch of earth or earth's material beyond the human form; their proper +place is the seventh heaven; and there they repose, a presence and a +power--a personification of infinite mercy sublimated by innocence and +purity; and thence they look down on their worshippers and attendants, +while these gaze upwards "with looks commercing with the skies." + +[Footnote 1: Or the "Vescica Pisces," by Lord Lindsay and others.] + + * * * * * + +And now of these angelic and sainted accessories, however placed, we +must speak at length; for much of the sentiment and majesty of the +Madonna effigies depend on the proper treatment of the attendant +figures, and on the meaning they convey to the observer. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin is entitled, by authority of the Church, queen of angels, +of prophets, of apostles, of martyrs, of virgins, and of confessors; +and from among these her attendants are selected. + +ANGELS were first admitted, waiting Immediately round her chair +of state. A signal instance is the group of the enthroned Madonna, +attended by the four archangels, as we find it in the very ancient +mosaic in Sant-Apollinare-Novo, at Ravenna. As the belief in the +superior power and sanctity of the Blessed Virgin grew and spread, +the angels no longer attended her as princes of the heavenly host, +guardians, or councillors; they became, in the early pictures, +adoring angels, sustaining her throne on each side, or holding up +the embroidered curtain which forms the background. In the Madonna by +Cimabue, which, if it be not the earliest after the revival of art, +was one of the first in which the Byzantine manner was softened and +Italianized, we have six grand, solemn-looking angels, three on each +side of the throne, arranged perpendicularly one above another. +The Virgin herself is of colossal proportions, far exceeding them +in size, and looking out of her frame, "large as a goddess of the +antique world." In the other Madonna in the gallery of the academy, +we have the same arrangement of the angels. Giotto diversified this +arrangement. He placed the angels kneeling at the foot of the throne, +making music, and waiting on their divine Mistress as her celestial +choristers,--a service the more fitting because she was not only queen +of angels, but patroness of music and minstrelsy, in which character +she has St. Cecilia as her deputy and delegate. This accompaniment +of the choral angels was one of the earliest of the accessories, and +continued down to the latest times. They are most particularly lovely +in the pictures of the fifteenth century. They kneel and strike their +golden lutes, or stand and sound their silver clarions, or sit like +beautiful winged children on the steps of the throne, and pipe and +sing as if their spirits were overflowing with harmony as well as love +and adoration.[1] In a curious picture of the enthroned Madonna and +Child (Berlin Gal.), by Gentil Fabriano, a tree rises on each side +of the throne, on which little red seraphim are perched like birds, +singing and playing on musical instruments. In later times, they play +and sing for the solace of the divine Infant, not merely adoring, but +ministering: but these angels ministrant belong to another class of +pictures. Adoration, not service, was required by the divine Child +and his mother, when they were represented simply in their +divine character, and placed far beyond earthly wants and earthly +associations. + +[Footnote 1: As in the picture by Lo Spagna in our National Gallery, +No. 282.] + +There are examples where the angels in attendance bear, not harps +or lutes, but the attributes of the Cardinal Virtues, as in an +altar-piece by Taddeo Gaddi at Florence. (Santa Croce, Rinuccini +Chapel.) + +The patriarchs, prophets, and sibyls, all the personages, in fact, who +lived under the old law, when forming, in a picture or altar-piece, +part, of the _cortège_ of the throned Virgin, as types, or prophets, +or harbingers of the Incarnation, are on the _outside_ of that sacred +compartment wherein she is seated with her Child. This was the case +with _all_ the human personages down to the end of the thirteenth +century; and after that time, I find the characters of the Old +Testament still excluded from the groups immediately round her throne. +Their place was elsewhere allotted, at a more respectful distance. The +only exceptions I can remember, are King David and the patriarch +Job; and these only in late pictures, where David does not appear as +prophet, but as the ancestor of the Redeemer; and Job, only at Venice, +where he is a patron saint. + +The four evangelists and the twelve apostles are, in their collective +character in relation to the Virgin, treated like the prophets, +and placed around the altar-piece. Where we find one or more of the +evangelists introduced into the group of attendant "Sanctities" on +each side of her throne, it is not in their character of evangelists, +but rather as patron saints. Thus St. Mark appears constantly in the +Venetian pictures; but it is as the patron and protector of Venice. +St. John the Evangelist, a favourite attendant on the Virgin, is near +her in virtue of his peculiar relation to her and to Christ; and he is +also a popular patron saint. St. Luke and St. Matthew, unless they be +patrons of the particular locality, or of the votary who presents +the picture, never appear. It is the same with the apostles in their +collective character as such; we find them constantly, as statues, +ranged on each side of the Virgin, or as separate figures. Thus they +stand over the screen of St. Mark's, at Venice, and also on the carved +frames of the altar-pieces; but either from their number, or some +other cause, they are seldom grouped round the enthroned Virgin. + + * * * * * + +It is ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST who, next to the angels, seems to have +been the first admitted to a propinquity with the divine persons. In +Greek art, he is himself an angel, a messenger, and often represented +with wings. He was especially venerated in the Greek Church in +his character of precursor of the Redeemer, and, as such, almost +indispensable in every sacred group; and it is, perhaps, to the +early influence of Greek art on the selection and arrangement of the +accessory personages, that we owe the preëminence of John the Baptist. +One of the most graceful, and appropriate, and familiar of all the +accessory figures grouped with the Virgin and Child, is that of the +young St. John (called in Italian _San Giovannino_, and in Spanish +_San Juanito_.) When first introduced, we find him taking the place +of the singing or piping angels in front of the throne. He generally +stands, "clad in his raiment of camel's hair, having a girdle round +his loins," and in his hand a reed cross, round which is bound a +scroll with the words "_Ecce Agnus Dei_" ("Behold the Lamb of God"), +while with his finger he points up to the enthroned group above him, +expressing the text from St. Luke (c. ii.), "And thou, CHILD shalt +be called the Prophet of the Highest," as in Francia's picture in our +National Gallery. Sometimes he bears a lamb in his arms, the _Ecce +Agnus Dei_ in form instead of words. + +The introduction of the young St. John becomes more and more usual +from the beginning of the sixteenth century. In later pictures, a +touch of the dramatic is thrown into the arrangement: instead of being +at the foot of the throne, he is placed beside it; as where the Virgin +is throned on a lofty pedestal, and she lays one hand on the head of +the little St. John, while with the other she strains her Child to her +bosom; or where the infant Christ and St. John, standing at her knee, +embrace each other--a graceful incident in a Holy Family, but in the +enthroned Madonna it impairs the religious conception; it places St. +John too much on a level with the Saviour, who is here in that divine +character to which St. John bore witness, but which he did not share. +It is very unusual to see John the Baptist in his childish character +glorified in heaven among the celestial beings: I remember but one +instance, in a beautiful picture by Bonifazio. (Acad. Venice.) The +Virgin is seated in glory, with her Infant on her knee, and encircled +by cherubim; on one side an angel approaches with a basket of flowers +on his head, and she is in act to take these flowers and scatter +them on the saints below,--a new and graceful _motif_: on the other +side sits John the Baptist as a boy about twelve years of age. The +attendant saints below are St. Peter, St. Andrew, St. Thomas holding +the girdle,[1] St. Francis, and St. Clara, all looking up with +ecstatic devotion, except St. Clara, who looks down with a charming +modesty. + +[Footnote 1: St. Thomas is called in the catalogue, James, king of +Arragon.] + + * * * * * + +In early pictures, ST. ANNA, the mother of the Virgin, is very seldom +introduced, because in such sublime and mystical representations of +the _Vergine Dea_, whatever connected her with realities, or with her +earthly genealogy, is suppressed. But from the middle of the fifteenth +century, St. Anna became, from the current legends of the history +of the Virgin, an important saint, and when introduced into the +devotional groups, which, however, is seldom, it seems to have +embarrassed the painters how to dispose of her. She could not well be +placed below her daughter; she could not be placed above her. It is a +curious proof of the predominance of the feminine element throughout +these representations, that while ST. JOACHIM the father and ST. +JOSEPH the husband of the Virgin, are either omitted altogether, or +are admitted only in a subordinate and inferior position, St. Anna, +when she does appear, is on an equality with her daughter. There is +a beautiful example, and apt for illustration, in the picture by +Francia, in our National Gallery, where St. Anna and the Virgin are +seated together on the same throne, and the former presents the apple +to her divine Grandson. I remember, too, a most graceful instance +where St. Anna stands behind and a little above the throne, with her +hands placed affectionately on the shoulders of the Virgin, and raises +her eyes to heaven as if in thanksgiving to God, who through her had +brought salvation into the world. Where the Virgin is seated on the +knees of St. Anna, it is a still later innovation. There is such a +group in a picture in the Louvre, after a famous cartoon by Leonardo +da Vinci, which, in spite of its celebrity, has always appeared to me +very fantastic and irreverent in treatment. There is also a fine print +by Carraglio, in which the Virgin and Child are sustained on the +knees of St. Anna: under her feet lies the dragon. St. Roch and St. +Sebastian on each side, and the dead dragon, show that this is a +votive subject, an expression of thanksgiving after the cessation of +a plague. The Germans, who were fond of this group, imparted, even to +the most religious treatment, a domestic sentiment. + +The earliest instance I can point to of the enthroned Virgin attended +by both her parents, is by Vivarini (Acad. Venice): St. Anna is on the +right of the throne; St. Joachim, in the act of reverently removing +his cap, stands on the left; more in front is a group of Franciscan +saints. + +The introduction of St. Anna into a Holy Family, as part of the +domestic group, is very appropriate and graceful; but this of course +admits, and indeed requires, a wholly different sentiment. The same +remark applies to St. Joseph, who, in the earlier representations +of the enthroned Virgin, is carefully excluded; he appears, I think, +first in the Venetian pictures. There is an example in a splendid +composition by Paul Veronese. (Acad. Venice.) The Virgin, on a lofty +throne, holds the Child; both look down on the worshippers; St. +Joseph is partly seen behind leaning on his crutch. Round the throne +stand St. John the Baptist, St. Justina, as patroness of Venice, and +St. George; St. Jerome is on the other side in deep meditation. A +magnificent picture, quite sumptuous in colour and arrangement, and +yet so solemn and so calm![1] + +[Footnote 1: There is another example by Paul Veronese, similar in +character and treatment, in which St. John and St. Joseph are on the +throne with the Virgin and child, and St. Catherine and St. Antony +below.] + +The composition by Michael Angelo, styled a "Holy Family," is, +though singular in treatment, certainly devotional in character, +and an enthroned Virgin. She is seated in the centre, on a raised +architectural seat, holding a book; the infant Christ slumbers,--books +can teach him nothing, and to make him reading is unorthodox. In the +background on one side, St. Joseph leans over a balustrade, as if in +devout contemplation; a young St. John the Baptist leans on the other +side. The grand, mannered, symmetrical treatment is very remarkable +and characteristic. There are many engravings of this celebrated +composition. In one of them, the book held by the Virgin bears on one +side the text in Latin, "_Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is +the fruit of thy womb._" On the opposite page, "_Blessed be God, who +has regarded the low estate of his hand-maiden. For, behold, from +henceforth all generations shall call me blessed._" + +While the young St. John is admitted into' such close companionship +with the enthroned Madonna, his mother Elizabeth, so commonly and +beautifully introduced into the Holy Families, is almost uniformly +excluded. + +Next in order, as accessory figures, appear some one or two or more of +the martyrs, confessors, and virgin patronesses, with their respective +attributes, either placed in separate niches and compartments on each +side, or, when admitted within the sacred precincts where sits the +Queenly Virgin Mother and her divine Son, standing, in the manner +of councillors and officers of state on solemn occasions, round an +earthly sovereign, all reverently calm and still; till gradually this +solemn formality, this isolation of the principal characters, gave way +to some sentiment which placed them in nearer relation to each other, +and to the divine personages. Occasional variations of attitude and +action were introduced--at first, a rare innovation; ere long, a +custom, a fashion. For instance;--the doctors turn over the leaves +of their great books as if seeking for the written testimonies to the +truth of the mysterious Incarnation made visible in the persons of the +Mother and Child; the confessors contemplate the radiant group with +rapture, and seem ready to burst forth in hymns of praise; the martyrs +kneel in adoration; the virgins gracefully offer their victorious +palms: and thus the painters of the best periods of art contrived to +animate their sacred groups without rendering them too dramatic and +too secular. + +Such, then, was the general arrangement of that religious subject +which is technically styled "The Madonna enthroned and attended by +Saints." The selection and the relative position of these angelic and +saintly accessories were not, as I have already observed, matters of +mere taste or caprice; and an attentive observation of the choice and +disposition of the attendant figures will often throw light on the +original significance of such pictures, and the circumstances under +which they wore painted. + +Shall I attempt a rapid classification and interpretation of these +infinitely varied groups? It is a theme which might well occupy +volumes rather than pages, and which requires far more antiquarian +learning and historical research than I can pretend to; still by +giving the result of my own observations in some few instances, it may +be possible so to excite the attention and fancy of the reader, as +to lead him further on the same path than I have myself been able to +venture. + + * * * * * + +We can trace, in a large class of these pictures, a general +religious significance, common to all periods, all localities, all +circumstances; while in another class, the interest is not only +particular and local, but sometimes even personal. + +To the first class belongs the antique and beautiful group of the +Virgin and Child, enthroned between the two great archangels, St. +Michael and St. Gabriel. It is probably the most ancient of these +combinations: we find it in the earliest Greek art, in the carved +ivory diptychs of the eighth and ninth centuries, in the old +Greco-Italian pictures, in the ecclesiastical sculpture and stained +glass of from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. In the most +ancient examples, the two angels are seen standing on each side of +the Madonna, not worshipping, but with their sceptres and attributes, +as princes of the heavenly host, attending on her who is queen of +angels; St. Gabriel as the angel of birth and life, St. Michael as +the angel of Death, that is, in the Christian sense, of deliverance +and immortality. There is an instance of this antique treatment in a +small Greek picture in the Wallerstein collection. (Now at Kensington +Palace.) + +In later pictures, St. Gabriel seldom appears except as the _Angela +Annunziatore_; but St. Michael very frequently. Sometimes, as +conqueror over sin and representative of the Church militant, +he stands with his foot on the dragon with a triumphant air; or, +kneeling, he presents to the infant Christ the scales of eternal +justice, as in a famous picture by Leonardo da Vinci. It is not only +because of his popularity as a patron saint, and of the number of +churches dedicated to him, that he is so frequently introduced into +the Madonna pictures; according to the legend, he was by Divine +appointment the guardian of the Virgin and her Son while they +sojourned on earth. The angel Raphael leading Tobias always expresses +protection, and especially protection to the young. Tobias with his +fish was an early type of baptism. There are many beautiful examples. +In Raphael's "Madonna dell' Pesce" (Madrid Gal.) he is introduced as +the patron saint of the painter, but not without a reference to more +sacred meaning, that of the guardian spirit of all humanity. The +warlike figure of St. Michael, and the benign St. Raphael, are +thus represented as celestial guardians in the beautiful picture by +Perugino now in our National Gallery. (No. 288.) + +There are instances of the three archangels all standing together +below the glorified Virgin: St. Michael in the centre with his foot +on the prostrate fiend; St. Gabriel on the right presents his lily; +and, on the left, the protecting angel presents his human charge, and +points up to the source of salvation. (In an engraving after Giulio +Romano.) + + * * * * * + +The Virgin between St. Peter and St. Paul is also an extremely ancient +and significant group. It appears in the old mosaics. As chiefs of the +apostles and joint founders of the Church, St. Peter and St. Paul are +prominent figures in many groups and combinations, particularly in +the altar-pieces of the Roman churches, and those painted for the +Benedictine communities. + +The Virgin, when supported on each side by St. Peter and St. Paul, +must be understood to represent the personified Church between her +two great founders and defenders; and this relation is expressed, +in a very poetical manner, when St. Peter, kneeling, receives the +allegorical keys from the hand of the infant Saviour. There are some +curious and beautiful instances of this combination of a significant +action with the utmost solemnity of treatment; for example, in +that very extraordinary Franciscan altar-piece, by Carlo Crivelli, +lately purchased by Lord Ward, where St. Peter, having deposited his +papal tiara at the foot of the throne, kneeling receives the great +symbolical keys. And again, in a fine picture by Andrea Meldula, where +the Virgin and Child are enthroned, and the infant Christ delivers +the keys to Peter, who stands, but with a most reverential air; on the +other side of the throne is St. Paul with his book and the sword held +upright. There are also two attendant angels. On the border of the +mantle of the Virgin is inscribed "_Ave Maria gratia plena_."[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the collection of Mr. Bromley, of Wootton. This +picture is otherwise remarkable as the only authenticated work of a +very rare painter. It bears his signature, and the style indicates the +end of the fifteenth century as the probable date.] + +I do not recollect any instance in which the four evangelists as such, +or the twelve apostles in their collective character, wait round the +throne of the Virgin and Child, though one or more of the evangelists +and one or more of the apostles perpetually occur. + +The Virgin between St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, +is also a very significant and beautiful combination, and one very +frequently met with. Though both these saints were as children +contemporary with the child Christ, and so represented in the Holy +Families, in these solemn ideal groups they are always men. The first +St. John expresses regeneration by the rite of baptism the second St. +John, distinguished as _Theologus_, "the Divine," stands with his +sacramental cup, expressing regeneration by faith. The former was the +precursor of the Saviour, the first who proclaimed him to the world as +such; the latter beheld the vision in Patmos, of the Woman in travail +pursued by the dragon, which is interpreted in reference to the +Virgin and her Child. The group thus brought into relation is full +of meaning, and, from the variety and contrast of character, full of +poetical and artistic capabilities. St. John the Baptist is usually +a man about thirty, with wild shaggy hair and meagre form, so draped +that his vest of camel's hair is always visible; he holds his reed +cross. St. John the Evangelist is generally the young and graceful +disciple; but in some instances he is the venerable seer of Patmos, + + "Whose beard descending sweeps his aged breast." + +There is an example in one of the finest pictures by Perugino. The +Virgin is throned above, and surrounded by a glory of seraphim, with +many-coloured wings. The Child stands on her knee. In the landscape +below are St. Michael, St. Catherine, St. Apollonia, and. St. John +the Evangelist as the aged prophet with white flowing beard. (Bologna +Acad.) + + * * * * * + +The Fathers of the Church, as interpreters and defenders of the +mystery of the Incarnation, are very significantly placed near the +throne of the Virgin and Child. In Western art, the Latin doctors, St. +Jerome, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St. Gregory, have of course +the preëminence. (v Sacred and Legend. Art.) + +The effect produced by these aged, venerable, bearded dignitaries, +with their gorgeous robes and mitres and flowing beards, in contrast +with the soft simplicity of the divine Mother and her Infant, is, +in the hands of really great artists, wonderfully fine. There is a +splendid example, by Vivarini (Venice Acad.); the old doctors stand +two on each side of the throne, where, under a canopy upborne by +angels, sits the Virgin, sumptuously crowned and attired, and looking +most serene and goddess-like; while the divine Child, standing on +her knee, extends his little hand in the act of benediction. Of this +picture I have already given a very detailed description. (Sacred and +Legend. Art.) Another example, a grand picture by Moretto, now in the +Museum at Frankfort, I have also described. There is here a touch of +the dramatic sentiment;--the Virgin is tenderly caressing her Child, +while two of the old doctors, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, stand +reverently on each side of her lofty throne; St. Gregory sits on the +step below, reading, and St. Jerome bends over and points to a page in +his book. The Virgin is not sufficiently dignified; she has too much +the air of a portrait; and the action of the Child is, also, though +tender, rather unsuited to the significance of the rest of the group; +but the picture is, on the whole, magnificent. There is another fine +example of the four doctors attending on the Virgin, in the Milan +Gallery.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In a native picture of the Milanese School, dedicated by +Ludovico Sforza _Il Moro_.] + +Sometimes not four, but two only of these Fathers, appear in +combination with other figures, and the choice would depend on the +locality and other circumstances. But, on the whole, we rarely find +a group of personages assembled round the throne of the Virgin which +does not include one or more of these venerable pillars of the Church. +St. Ambrose appears most frequently in the Milanese pictures: St. +Augustine and St. Jerome, as patriarchs of monastic orders, are +very popular: St. Gregory, I think, is more seldom met with than the +others. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin, with St. Jerome and St. Catherine, the patron saints +of theological learning, is a frequent group in all monasteries, +but particularly in the churches and houses of the Jeronimites. A +beautiful example is the Madonna, by Francia. (Borghese Palace. +Rome.) St. Jerome, with Mary Magdalene, also a frequent combination, +expresses theological learning in union with religious penitence and +humility. Correggio's famous picture is an example, where St. Jerome +on one side presents his works in defence of the Church, and his +translation of the Scriptures; while, on the other, Mary Magdalene, +bending down devoutly, kisses the feet of the infant Christ. (Parma.) + +Of all the attendants on the Virgin and Child, the most popular is, +perhaps, St. Catherine; and the "Marriage of St. Catherine," as a +religious mystery, is made to combine with the most solemn and formal +arrangement of the other attendant figures. The enthroned Virgin +presides over the mystical rite. This was, for intelligible reasons, +a favourite subject in nunneries.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a detailed account of the legendary marriage of St. +Catherine and examples of treatment, see Sacred and Legendary Art.] + +In a picture by Garofalo, the Child, bending from his mother's knee, +places a golden crown on the head of St. Catherine as _Sposa_; on each +side stand St. Agnes and St. Jerome. + +In a picture by Carlo Maratti, the nuptials take place in heaven, the +Virgin and Child being throned in clouds. + +If the kneeling _Sposa_ be St. Catherine of Siena, the nun, and not +St. Catherine of Alexandria, or if the two are introduced, then we may +be sure that the picture was painted for a nunnery of the Dominican +order.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Legends of the Monastic Orders. A fine example of +this group "the Spozulizio of St. Catherine of Siena," has lately been +added to our National Gallery; (Lorenzo di San Severino, No. 249.)] + +The great Madonna _in Trono_ by the Dominican Fra Bartolomeo, wherein +the queenly St. Catherine of Alexandria witnesses the mystical +marriage of her sister saint, the nun of Siena, will occur to every +one who has been at Florence; and there is a smaller picture by the +same painter in the Louvre;--a different version of the same subject. +I must content myself with merely referring to these well-known +pictures which have been often engraved, and dwell more in detail +on another, not so well known, and, to my feeling, as preëminently +beautiful and poetical, but in the early Flemish, not the Italian +style--a poem in a language less smooth and sonorous, but still a +_poem_. + +This is the altar-piece painted by Hemmelinck for the charitable +sisterhood of St. John's Hospital at Bruges. The Virgin is seated +under a porch, and her throne decorated with rich tapestry; two +graceful angels hold a crown over her head. On the right, St. +Catherine, superbly arrayed as a princess, kneels at her side, and +the beautiful infant Christ bends forward and places the bridal ring +on her finger. Behind her a charming angel, playing on the organ, +celebrates the espousals with hymns of joy; beyond him stands St. +John the Baptist with his lamb. On the left of the Virgin kneels St. +Barbara, reading intently; behind her an angel with a book; beyond him +stands St. John the Evangelist, youthful, mild, and pensive. Through +the arcades of the porch is seen a landscape background, with +incidents picturesquely treated from the lives of the Baptist and +the Evangelist. Such is the central composition. The two wings +represent--on one side, the beheading of St. John the Baptist; on +the other, St. John the Evangelist, in Patmos, and the vision of the +Apocalypse. In this great work there is a unity and harmony of design +which blends the whole into an impressive poem. The object was to do +honour to the patrons of the hospital, the two St. Johns, and, at +the same time, to express the piety of the Charitable Sisters, who, +like St. Catherine (the type of contemplative studious piety), were +consecrated and espoused to Christ, and, like St. Barbara (the type of +active piety), were dedicated to good works. It is a tradition, that +Hemmelinck painted this altar-piece as a votive offering in gratitude +to the good Sisters, who had taken him in and nursed him when +dangerously wounded: and surely if this tradition be true, never was +charity more magnificently recompensed. + +In a very beautiful picture by Ambrogio Borgognone (Dresden, +collection of M. Grahl) the Virgin is seated on a splendid throne; +on the right kneels St. Catherine of Alexandria, on the left St. +Catherine of Siena: the Virgin holds a hand of each, which she +presents to the divine Child seated on her knee, and to each he +presents a ring. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin and Child between St. Catherine and St. Barbara is one of +the most popular, as well as one of the most beautiful and expressive, +of these combinations; signifying active and contemplative life, +or the two powers between which the social state was divided in the +middle ages, namely, the ecclesiastical and the military, learning and +arms (Sacred and Legend. Art); St. Catherine being the patron of the +first, and St. Barbara of the last. When the original significance had +ceased to be understood or appreciated, the group continued to be a +favourite one, particularly in Germany; and examples are infinite. + +The Virgin between St. Mary Magdalene and St. Barbara, the former as +the type of penance, humility, and meditative piety, the latter as the +type of fortitude and courage, is also very common. When between St. +Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine, the idea suggested is learning, with +penitence and humility; this is a most popular group. So is St. Lucia +with one of these or both: St. Lucia with her _lamp_ or her _eyes_, is +always expressive of _light_, the light of divine wisdom. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin between St. Nicholas and St. George is a very expressive +group; the former as the patron saint of merchants, tradesmen, and +seamen, the popular saint of the bourgeoisie; the latter as the patron +of soldiers, the chosen saint of the aristocracy. These two saints +with St. Catherine are pre-eminent in the Venetian pictures; for all +three, in addition to their poetical significance, were venerated as +especial protectors of Venice. + + * * * * * + +St. George and St. Christopher both stand by the throne of the Virgin +of Succour as protectors and deliverers in danger. The attribute of +St. Christopher is the little Christ on his shoulder; and there are +instances in which Christ appears on the lap of his mother, and also +on the shoulder of the attendant St. Christopher. This blunder, if it +may be so called, has been avoided, very cleverly I should think in +his own opinion, by a painter who makes St. Christopher kneel, while +the Virgin places the little Christ on his shoulders; a _concetto_ +quite inadmissible in a really religious group. + + * * * * * + +In pictures dedicated by charitable communities, we often find +St. Nicholas and St. Leonard as the patron saints of prisoners and +captives. Wherever St. Leonard appears he expresses deliverance +from captivity. St. Omobuono, St. Martin, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, +St. Roch, or other beneficent saints, waiting round the Virgin with +kneeling beggars, or the blind, the lame, the sick, at their feet, +always expressed the Virgin as the mother of mercy, the _Consolatrix +afflictorum_. Such pictures were commonly found in hospitals, and +the chapels and churches of the Order of Mercy, and other charitable +institutions. The examples are numerous. I remember one, a striking +picture, by Bartolomeo Montagna, where the Virgin and Child are +enthroned in the centre as usual. On her right the good St. Omobuono, +dressed as a burgher, in a red gown and fur cap, gives alms to a poor +beggar; on the left, St. Francis presents a celebrated friar of his +Order, Bernardino da Feltri, the first founder of a _mont-de-piété_, +who kneels, holding the emblem of his institution, a little green +mountain with a cross at the top. + + * * * * * + +Besides these saints, who have a _general_ religious character and +significance, we have the national and local saints, whose presence +very often marks the country or school of art which produced the +picture. + +A genuine Florentine Madonna is distinguished by a certain elegance +and stateliness, and well becomes her throne. As patroness of +Florence, in her own right, the Virgin bears the title of Santa Maria +del Fiore, and in this character she holds a flower, generally a rose, +or is in the act of presenting it to the Child. She is often attended +by St. John the Baptist, as patron of Florence; but he is everywhere +a saint of such power and importance as an attendant on the divine +personages, that his appearance in a picture does not stamp it as +Florentine. St. Cosmo and St. Damian are Florentine, as the protectors +of the Medici family; but as patrons of the healing art, they have +a significance which renders them common in the Venetian and other +pictures. It may, however, be determined, that if St. John the +Baptist, St. Cosmo and St. Damian, with St. Laurence (the patron of +Lorenzo the Magnificent), appear together in attendance on the Virgin, +that picture is of the Florentine school. The presence of St. Zenobio, +or of St. Antonino, the patron archbishops of Florence, will set the +matter at rest, for these are exclusively Florentine. In a picture by +Giotto, angels attend on the Virgin bearing vases of lilies in their +hands. (Lilies are at once the emblem of the Virgin and the _device_ +of Florence.) On each side kneel St. John the Baptist and St. +Zenobio.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We now possess in our National Gallery a very interesting +example of a Florentine enthroned Madonna, attended by St. John the +Baptist and St. Zenobio as patrons of Florence.] + +A Siena Madonna would naturally be attended by St. Bernardino and St. +Catherine of Siena; if they seldom appear together, it is because they +belong to different religious orders. + +In the Venetian pictures we find a crowd of guardian saints; first +among them, St. Mark, then St. Catherine, St. George, St. Nicholas, +and St. Justina: wherever these appear together, that picture is +surely from the Venetian school. + +All through Lombardy and Piedmont, St. Ambrose of Milan and St. +Maurice of Savoy are favourite attendants on the Virgin. + + * * * * * + +In Spanish and Flemish art, the usual attendants on the queenly +Madonna are monks and nuns, which brings us to the consideration of +a large and interesting class of pictures, those dedicated by the +various religious orders. When we remember that the institution of +some of the most influential of these communities was coeval with the +revival of art; that for three or four centuries, art in all its forms +had no more powerful or more munificent patrons; that they counted +among their various brotherhoods some of the greatest artists the +world has seen; we can easily imagine how the beatified members of +these orders have become so conspicuous as attendants on the celestial +personages. To those who are accustomed to read the significance of +a work of art, a single glance is often sufficient to decide for what +order it has been executed. + +St. Paul is a favourite saint of the Benedictine communities; and +there are few great pictures painted for them in which he does +not appear. When in companionship with St. Benedict, either in the +original black habit or the white habit of the reformed orders, with +St. Scholastica bearing her dove, with St. Bernard, St. Romualdo, +or other worthies of this venerable community, the interpretation is +easy. + +Here are some examples by Domenico Puligo. The Virgin not seated, but +standing on a lofty pedestal, looks down on her worshippers; the Child +in her arms extends the right hand in benediction; with his left he +points to himself, "I am the Resurrection and the Life." Around are +six saints, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John the Baptist as protector of +Florence, St. Matthew, St. Catherine; and St. Bernard, in his ample +white habit, with his keen intellectual face, is about to write in a +great book, and looking up to the Virgin for inspiration. The picture +was originally painted for the Cistercians.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is now in the S. Maria-Maddalena de' Pazzi at +Florence. Engraved in the "Etruria Pittrice," xxxv.] + +The Virgin and Child enthroned between St. Augustine and his mother +St. Monica, as in a fine picture by Florigerio (Venice Acad.), would +show the picture to be painted for one of the numerous branches of the +Augustine Order. St. Antony the abbot is a favourite saint in pictures +painted for the Augustine hermits. + +In the "Madonna del Baldachino" of Raphael, the beardless saint +who stands in a white habit on one side of the throne is usually +styled St. Bruno; an evident mistake. It is not a Carthusian, but +a Cistercian monk, and I think St. Bernard, the general patron of +monastic learning. The other attendant saints are St. Peter, St. +James, and St. Augustine. The picture was originally painted for the +church of San Spirito at Florence, belonging to the Augustines. + +But St. Augustine is also the patriarch of the Franciscans and +Dominicans, and frequently takes an influential place in their +pictures, as the companion either of St. Francis or of St. Dominick, +as in a picture by Fra Angelico. (Florence Gal.) + +Among the votive Madonnas of the mendicant orders, I will mention a +few conspicuous for beauty and interest, which will serve as a key to +others. + +1. The Virgin and Child enthroned between Antony of Padua and St. +Clara of Assisi, as in a small elegant picture by Pellegrino, must +have been dedicated in a church of the Franciscans. (Sutherland Gal.) + +2. The Virgin blesses St. Francis, who looks up adoring: behind him +St. Antony of Padua; on the other side, John the Baptist as a man, and +St. Catherine. A celebrated but not an agreeable picture, painted by +Correggio for the Franciscan church at Parma. (Dresden Gal.) + +3. The Virgin is seated in glory; on one side St. Francis, on the +other St. Antony of Padua, both placed in heaven, and almost on +an equality with the celestial personages. Around are seven female +figures, representing the seven cardinal virtues, bearing their +respective attributes. Below are seen the worthies of the Franciscan +Order; to the right of the Virgin, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, St. Louis +of France, St. Bonaventura; to the left, St. Ives of Bretagne, St. +Eleazar, and St. Louis of Toulouse.[1] Painted for the Franciscans by +Morone and Paolo Cavazzolo of Verona. This is a picture of wonderful +beauty, and quite poetical in the sentiment and arrangement, and the +mingling of the celestial, the allegorical, and the real personages, +with a certain solemnity and gracefulness quite indescribable. +The virtues, for instance, are not so much allegorical persons as +spiritual appearances, and the whole of the ripper part of the picture +is like a vision. + +[Footnote 1: For these Franciscan saints, v. Legends of the Monastic +Orders.] + +4. The Virgin, standing on the tree of Site, holds the Infant: rays +of glory proceed from them on every side. St. Francis, kneeling at the +foot of the tree, looks up in an ecstasy of devotion, while a snake +with a wounded and bleeding head is crawling away. This strange +picture, painted for the Franciscans, by Carducho, about 1625, is a +representation of an abstract dogma (redemption from original sin), +in the most real, most animated form--all over life, earthly breathing +life--and made me start back: in the mingling of mysticism and +materialism, it is quite Spanish.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Esterhazy Gal., Vienna. Mr. Stirling tells us that the +Franciscan friars of Valladolid possessed two pictures of the Virgin +by Mateo de Cerezo "in one of which she was represented sitting in a +cherry-tree and adored by St. Francis. This unusual throne may perhaps +have been introduced by Cerezo as a symbol of his own devout feelings, +his patronymic being the Castilian word for cherry-tree."--_Stirling's +Artists of Spain_, p. 1033. There are, however, many prints and +pictures of the Virgin and Child seated in a tree. It was one of the +fantastic conceptions of an unhealthy period of religion and art.] + +5. The Virgin and Child enthroned. On the right of the Virgin, St. +John the Baptist and St. Zenobio, the two protectors of Florence. The +latter wears his episcopal cope richly embroidered with figures. On +the left stand St. Peter and St. Dominick, protectors of the company +for whom the picture was painted. In front kneel St. Jerome and St. +Francis. This picture was originally placed in San Marco, a church +belonging to the Dominicans.[1] + +[Footnote 1: I saw and admired this fine and valuable picture in +the Rinuccini Palace at Florence in 1847; it was purchased for our +National Gallery in 1855.] + +6. When the Virgin or the Child holds the Rosary, it is then a +_Madonna del Rosario_, and painted for the Dominicans. The Madonna by +Murillo, in the Dulwich Gallery, is an example. There is an instance +in which the Madonna and Child enthroned are distributing rosaries to +the worshippers, and attended by St. Dominick and St. Peter Martyr, +the two great saints of the Order. (Caravaggio, Belvedere Gal., +Vienna.) + + * * * * * + +7. Very important in pictures is the Madonna as more particularly the +patroness of the Carmelites, under her well-known title of "Our Lady +of Mount Carmel," or _La Madonna del Carmine_. The members of this +Order received from Pope Honorius III. the privilege of styling +themselves the "Family of the Blessed Virgin," and their churches are +all dedicated to her under the title of _S. Maria del Carmine_. She +is generally represented holding the infant Christ, with her robe +outspread, and beneath its folds the Carmelite brethren and their +chief saints.[1] There is an example in a picture by Pordenone which +once belonged to Canova. (Acad. Venice.) The Madonna del Carmine is +also portrayed as distributing to her votaries small tablets on which +is a picture of herself. + +[Footnote 1: v. Legends of the Monastic Orders, "The Carmelites".] + +8. The Virgin, as patroness of the Order of Mercy, also distributes +tablets, but they bear the badge of the Order, and this distinguishes +"Our Lady of Mercy," so popular in Spanish, art, from "Our Lady of +Mount Carmel." (v. Monastic Orders.) + +A large class of these Madonna pictures are votive offerings for +public or private mercies. They present some most interesting +varieties of character and arrangement. + +A votive Mater Misericordiæ, with the Child, in her arms, is often +standing with her wide ample robe extended, and held up on each side +by angels. Kneeling at her feet are the votaries who have consecrated +the picture, generally some community or brotherhood instituted for +charitable purposes, who, as they kneel, present the objects of +their charity--widows, orphans, prisoners, or the sick and infirm. +The Child, in her arms, bends forward, with the hand raised in +benediction. I have already spoken of the Mater Misericordiæ _without_ +the Child. The sentiment is yet more beautiful and complete where +the Mother of Mercy holds the infant Redeemer, the representative and +pledge of God's infinite mercy, in her arms. + +There is a "Virgin of Mercy," by Salvator Rosa, which is singular and +rather poetical in the conception. She is seated in heavenly glory; +the infant Christ, on her knee, bends benignly forward. Tutelary +angels are represented as pleading for mercy, with eager outstretched +arms; other angels, lower down, are liberating the souls of repentant +sinners from torment. The expression in some of the heads, the +contrast between the angelic pitying spirits and the anxious haggard +features of the "_Anime del Purgatorio_" are very fine and animated. +Here the Virgin is the "Refuge of Sinners," _Refugium Peccatorum_. +Such pictures are commonly met with in chapels dedicated to services +for the dead. + + * * * * * + +Another class of votive pictures are especial acts of +thanksgiving:--1st. For victory, as _La Madonna della Vittoria, Notre +Dame des Victoires._ The Virgin, on her throne, is then attended +by one or more of the warrior saints, together with the patron or +patroness of the victors. She is then our Lady of Victory. A very +perfect example of these victorious Madonnas exists in a celebrated +picture by Andrea Mantegna. The Virgin is seated on a lofty throne, +embowered by garlands of fruit, leaves, and flowers, and branches +of coral, fancifully disposed as a sort of canopy over her head. +The Child stands on her knee, and raises his hand in the act of +benediction. On the right of the Virgin appear the warlike saints, St. +Michael and St. Maurice; they recommend to her protection the Marquis +of Mantua, Giovan Francesco Gonzaga, who kneels in complete armour.[1] +On the left stand St. Andrew and St. Longinus, the guardian saints +of Mantua; on the step of the throne, the young St. John the Baptist, +patron of the Marquis; and more in front, a female figure, seen +half-length, which some have supposed to be St. Elizabeth, the mother +of the Baptist, and others, with more reason, the wife of the Marquis, +the accomplished Isabella d'Este.[2] This picture was dedicated in +celebration of the victory gained by Gonzaga over the French, near +Fornone, in 1495.[3] There is something exceedingly grand, and, at +the same time, exceedingly fantastic and poetical, in the whole +arrangement; and besides its beauty and historical importance, it is +the most important work of Andrea Mantegna. Gonzaga, who is the hero +of the picture, was a poet as well as a soldier. Isabella d'Este +shines conspicuously, both for virtue and talent, in the history of +the revival of art during the fifteenth century. She was one of the +first who collected gems, antiques, pictures, and made them available +for the study and improvement of the learned. Altogether, the picture +is most interesting in every point of view. It was carried off by the +French from Milan in 1797; and considering the occasion on which it +was painted, they must have had a special pleasure in placing it in +their Louvre, where it still remains. + +[Footnote 1: "Qui rend grâces du _prétendu_ succès obtenu sur Charles +VIII. à la bataille de Fornone," as the French catalogue expresses +it.] + +[Footnote 2: Both, however, may be right; for St. Elizabeth was +the patron saint of the Marchesana: the head has quite the air of a +portrait, and may be Isabella in likeness of a saint.] + +[Footnote 3: "Si les soldats avaient mieux secondé la bravoure de +leur chef, l'armie de Charles VIII. était perdue sans ressource--Ils +se disperserent pour piller et laissèrent aux Français le temps de +continuer leur route."] + +There is a very curious and much more ancient Madonna of this class +preserved at Siena, and styled the "Madonna del Voto." The Sienese +being at war with Florence, placed their city under the protection of +the Virgin, and made a solemn vow that, if victorious, they would make +over their whole territory to her as a perpetual possession, and hold +it from her as her loyal vassals. After the victory of Arbia, which +placed Florence itself for a time in such imminent danger, a picture +was dedicated by Siena to the Virgin _della Vittoria_. She is +enthroned and crowned, and the infant Christ, standing on her knee, +holds in his hand the deed of gift. + + * * * * * + +2dly. For deliverance from plague and pestilence, those scourges of +the middle ages. In such pictures the Virgin is generally attended by +St. Sebastian, with St. Roch or St. George; sometimes, also, by St. +Cosmo and St. Damian, all of them protectors and healers in time of +sickness and calamity. These intercessors are often accompanied by the +patrons of the church or locality. + +There is a remarkable picture of this class by Matteo di Giovanni +(Siena Acad.), in which the Virgin and Child are throned between St. +Sebastian and St. George, while St. Cosmo and St. Damian, dressed as +physicians, and holding their palms, kneel before the throne. + +In a very famous picture by Titian. (Rome, Vatican), the Virgin and +Child are seated in heavenly glory. She has a smiling and gracious +expression, and the Child holds a garland, while angels scatter +flowers. Below stand St. Sebastian, St. _Nicholas_, St. Catherine, St. +Peter, and St. _Francis_. The picture was an offering to the Virgin, +after the cessation of a pestilence at Venice, and consecrated in a +church of the _Franciscans_ dedicated to St. _Nicholas_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: San Nicolo de' Frari, since destroyed, and the picture +has been transferred to the Vatican.] + +Another celebrated votive picture against pestilence is Correggio's +"Madonna di San Sebastiano." (Dresden Gal.) She is seated in heavenly +glory, with little angels, not so much adoring as sporting and +hovering round her; below are St. Sebastian and St. Roch, the latter +asleep. (There would be an impropriety in exhibiting St. Roch sleeping +but for the reference to the legend, that, while he slept, an angel +healed him, which lends the circumstance a kind of poetical beauty.) +St. Sebastian, bound, looks up on the other side. The introduction of +St. Geminiano, the patron of Modena, shows the picture to have been +painted for that city, which had been desolated by pestilence in 1512. +The date of the picture is 1515. + +We may then take it for granted, that wherever the Virgin and Child +appear attended by St. Sebastian and St. Roch, the picture has been a +votive offering against the plague; and there is something touching in +the number of such memorials which exist in the Italian churches. (v. +Sacred and Legendary Art.) The brotherhoods instituted in most of the +towns of Italy and Germany, for attending the sick and plague-stricken +in times of public calamity, were placed under the protection of +the Virgin of Mercy, St. Sebastian, and St. Roch; and many of these +pictures were dedicated by such communities, or by the municipal +authorities of the city or locality. There is a memorable example in a +picture by Guido, painted, by command of the Senate of Bologna, after +the cessation of the plague, which desolated the city in 1830. (Acad. +Bologna.) The benign Virgin, with her Child, is seated in the skies: +the rainbow, symbol of peace and reconciliation, is under her feet. +The infant Christ, lovely and gracious, raises his right hand in +the act of blessing; in the other he holds a branch of olive: angels +scatter flowers around. Below stand the guardian saints, the "_Santi +Protettori_" of Bologna;--St. Petronius, St. Francis, St. Dominick; +the warrior-martyrs, St. Proculus and St. Florian, in complete armour; +with St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier. Below these is seen, as +if through a dark cloud and diminished, the city of Bologna, where +the dead are borne away in carts and on biers. The upper part of +this famous picture is most charming for the gracious beauty of the +expression, the freshness and delicacy of the colour. The lower part +is less happy, though the head of St. Francis, which is the portrait +of Guido's intimate friend and executor, Saulo Guidotti, can hardly +be exceeded for intense and life-like truth. The other figures are +deficient in expression and the execution hurried, so that on the +whole it is inferior to the votive Pietà already described. Guido, it +is said, had no time to prepare a canvas or cartoons, and painted the +whole on a piece of white silk. It was carried in grand procession, +and solemnly dedicated by the Senate, whence it obtained the title by +which it is celebrated in the history of art, "Il Pallione del Voto." + +3dly. Against inundations, flood, and fire, St. George is the great +protector. This saint and St. Barbara, who is patroness against +thunder and tempest, express deliverance from such calamities, when in +companionship. + +The "Madonna di San Giorgio" of Correggio (Dresden Gal.) is a votive +altar-piece dedicated on the occasion of a great inundation of the +river Secchia. She is seated on her throne, and the Child looks +down on the worshippers and votaries. St. George stands in front +victorious, his foot on the head of the dragon. The introduction of +St. Geminiano tells us that the picture was painted for the city of +Modena; the presence of St. John the Baptist and St. Peter Martyr show +that it was dedicated by the Dominicans, in their church of St. John. +(See Legends of the Monastic Orders.) + + * * * * * + +Not less interesting are those votive Madonnas dedicated by the piety +of families and individuals. In the family altar-pieces, the votary is +often presented on one side by his patron saint, and his wife by her +patron on the other. Not seldom a troop of hopeful sons attend the +father, and a train of gentle, demure-looking daughters kneel behind +the mother. Such memorials of domestic affection and grateful piety +are often very charming; they are pieces of family biography:[1] we +have celebrated examples both in German and Italian art. + +[Footnote 1: Several are engraved, as illustrations, in Litta's great +History of the Italian Families.] + +1. The "Madonna della Famiglia Bentivoglio" was painted by Lorenzo +Costa, for Giovanni II., lord or tyrant of Bologna from 1462 to 1506, +The history of this Giovanni is mixed up in an interesting manner with +the revival of art and letters; he was a great patron of both, and +among the painters in his service were Francesco Francia and Lorenzo +Costa. The latter painted for him his family chapel in the church of +San Giacomo at Bologna; and, while the Bentivogli have long since been +chased from their native territory, their family altar still remains +untouched, unviolated. The Virgin, as usual, is seated on a lofty +throne bearing her divine Child; she is veiled, no hair seen, and +simply draped; she bends forward with mild benignity. To the right of +the throne kneels Giovanni with his four sons; on the left his wife, +attended by six daughters: all are portraits, admirable studies for +character and costume. Behind the daughters, the head of an old woman +is just visible,--according to tradition the old nurse of the family. + +2. Another most interesting family Madonna is that of Ludovico Sforza +il Moro, painted for the church of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan.[1] The +Virgin sits enthroned, richly dressed, with long fair hair hanging +down, and no veil or ornament; two angels hold a crown over her head. +The Child lies extended on her knee. Round her throne are the four +fathers, St. Ambrose, St. Gregory, St. Jerome, and St. Augustine. In +front of the throne kneels Ludovico il Moro, Duke of Milan, in a rich +dress and unarmed; Ambrose, as protector of Milan, lays his hand upon +his shoulder. At his side kneels a boy about five years old. Opposite +to him is the duchess, Beatrice d'Este, also kneeling; and near her +a little baby in swaddling clothes, holding up its tiny hands in +supplication, kneels on a cushion. The age of the children shows the +picture to have been painted about 1496. The fate of Ludovico il +Moro is well known: perhaps the blessed Virgin deemed a traitor and +an assassin unworthy of her protection. He died in the frightful +prison of Loches after twelve years of captivity; and both his sons, +Maximilian and Francesco, were unfortunate. With them the family of +Sforza and the independence of Milan were extinguished together in +1535. + +[Footnote 1: By an unknown painter of the school of Lionardo, and now +in the gallery, of the Brera.] + +3. Another celebrated and most precious picture of this class is the +Virgin of the Meyer family, painted by Holbein for the burgomaster +Jacob Meyer of Basle.[1] According to a family tradition, the youngest +son of the burgomaster was sick even to death, and, through the +merciful intercession of the Virgin, was restored to his parents, who, +in gratitude, dedicated this offering. She stands on a pedestal in a +richly ornamented niche; over her long fair hair, which falls down +her shoulders to her waist, she wears a superb crown; and her robe +of a dark greenish blue is confined by a crimson girdle. In purity, +dignity, humility, and intellectual grace, this exquisite Madonna has +never been surpassed; not even by Raphael; the face, once seen, haunts +the memory. The Child in her arms is generally supposed to be the +infant Christ. I have fancied, as I look on the picture, that it may +be the poor sick child recommended to her mercy, for the face is very +pathetic, the limbs not merely delicate but attenuated, while, on +comparing it with the robust child who stands below, the resemblance +and the contrast are both striking. To the right of the Virgin +kneels the burgomaster Meyer with two of his sons, one of whom holds +the little brother who is restored to health, and seems to present +him to the people. On the left kneel four females--the mother, the +grandmother, and two daughters. All these are portraits, touched +with that homely, vigorous truth, and finished with that consummate +delicacy, which characterized Holbein in his happiest efforts; and, +with their earnest but rather ugly and earthly faces, contrasting with +the divinely compassionate and refined being who looks down on them +with an air so human, so maternal, and yet so unearthly. + +[Footnote 1: Dresden Gal. The engraving by Steinle is justly +celebrated.] + + * * * * * + +Sometimes it is a single votary who kneels before the Madonna. In the +old times he expressed his humility by placing himself in a corner and +making himself so diminutive as to be scarce visible afterwards, the +head of the votary or donor is seen life-size, with hands joined in +prayer, just above the margin at the foot of the throne; care being +taken to remove him from all juxtaposition with the attendant saints. +But, as the religious feeling in art declined, the living votaries +are mingled with the spiritual patrons--the "human mortals" with the +"human immortals,"--with a disregard to time and place, which, if +it be not so lowly in spirit, can be rendered by a great artist +strikingly poetical and significant. + +1. The renowned "Madonna di Foligno," one of Raphael's masterpieces, +is a votive picture of this class. It was dedicated by Sigismund Conti +of Foligno; private secretary to Pope Julius II., and a distinguished +man in other respects, a writer and a patron of learning. It +appears that Sigismund having been in great danger from a meteor +or thunderbolt, vowed an offering to the blessed Virgin, to whom he +attributed his safety, and in fulfilment of his vow consecrated this +precious picture. In the upper part of the composition sits the Virgin +in heavenly glory; by her side the infant Christ, partly sustained +by his mother's veil, which is drawn round his body: both look down +benignly on the votary Sigismund Conti, who, kneeling below, gazes up +with an expression of the most intense gratitude and devotion. It is +a portrait from the life, and certainly one of the finest and most +life-like that exists in painting. Behind him stands St. Jerome, who, +placing his hand upon the head of the votary, seems to present him +to his celestial protectress. On the opposite side John the Baptist, +the meagre wild-looking prophet of the desert, points upward to the +Redeemer. More in front kneels St. Francis, who, while he looks up +to heaven with trusting and imploring love, extends his right hand +towards the worshippers, supposed to be assembled in the church, +recommending them also to the protecting grace of the Virgin. In the +centre of the picture, dividing these two groups, stands a lovely +angel-boy holding in his hand a tablet, one of the most charming +figures of this kind Raphael ever painted; the head, looking up, has +that sublime, yet perfectly childish grace, which strikes us in those +awful angel-boys in the "Madonna di San Sisto." The background is a +landscape, in which appears the city of Foligno at a distance; it is +overshadowed by a storm-cloud, and a meteor is seen falling; but above +these bends a rainbow, pledge of peace and safety. The whole picture +glows throughout with life and beauty, hallowed by that profound +religious sentiment which suggested the offering, and which the +sympathetic artist seems to have caught from the grateful donor. It +was dedicated in the church of the Ara-Coeli at Rome, which belongs +to the Franciscans; hence St. Francis is one of the principal figures. +When I was asked, at Rome, why St. Jerome had been introduced into the +picture, I thought it might be thus accounted for:--The patron saint +of the donor, St. Sigismund, was a king and a warrior, and Conti +might possibly think that it did not accord with his profession, as +an humble ecclesiastic, to introduce him here. The most celebrated +convent of the Jeronimites in Italy is that of St. Sigismund near +Cremona, placed under the special protection of St. Jerome, who +is also in a general sense the patron of all ecclesiastics; hence, +perhaps, he figures here as the protector of Sigismund Conti. The +picture was painted, and placed over the high altar of the Ara-Coeli +in 1511, when Raphael was in his twenty-eighth year. Conti died +in 1512, and in 1565 his grandniece, Suora Anna Conti, obtained +permission to remove it to her convent at Foligno, whence it was +carried off by the French in 1792. Since the restoration of the works +of art in Italy, in 1815, it has been placed among the treasures of +the Vatican. + + * * * * * + +2. Another perfect specimen of a votive picture of this kind, in a +very different style, I saw in the museum at Rouen, attributed there +to Van Eyck. It is, probably, a fine work by a later master of the +school, perhaps Hemmelinck. In the centre, the Virgin is enthroned; +the Child, seated on her knee, holds a bunch of grapes, symbol of +the eucharist. On the right of the Virgin is St. Apollonia; then two +lovely angels in white raiment, with lutes in their hands; and then +a female head, seen looking from behind, evidently a family portrait. +More in front, St. Agnes, splendidly dressed in green and sable, her +lamb at her feet, turns with a questioning air to St. Catherine, +who, in queenly garb of crimson and ermine seems to consult her book. +Behind her another member of the family, a man with a very fine face; +and more in front St. Dorothea, with a charming expression of modesty, +looks down on her basket of roses. On the left of the Virgin is St. +Agatha; then two angels in white with viols; then St. Cecilia; and +near her a female head, another family portrait; next St. Barbara +wearing a beautiful head-dress, in front of which is worked her tower, +framed like an ornamental jewel in gold and pearls; she has a missal +in her lap. St. Lucia next appears; then another female portrait. +All the heads are about one fourth of the size of life. I stood in +admiration before this picture--such miraculous finish in all the +details, such life, such spirit, such delicacy in the heads and hands, +such brilliant colour in the draperies! Of its history I could learn +nothing, nor what family had thus introduced themselves into celestial +companionship. The portraits seemed to me to represent a father, a +mother, and two daughters. + + * * * * * + +I must mention some other instances of votive Madonnas, interesting +either from their beauty or their singularity. + +3. Réné, Duke of Anjou, and King of Sicily and Jerusalem, the father +of our Amazonian queen, Margaret of Anjou, dedicated, in the church +of the Carmelites, at Aix, the capital of his dominions, a votive +picture, which is still to be seen there. It is not only a monument +of his piety, but of his skill; for, according to the tradition of the +country, he painted it himself. The good King Réné was no contemptible +artist; but though he may have suggested the subject, the hand of a +practised and accomplished painter is too apparent for us to suppose +it his own work. + +This altar-piece in a triptychon, and when the doors are closed +it measures twelve feet in height, and seven feet in width. On the +outside of the doors is the Annunciation: to the left, the angel +standing on a pedestal, under a Gothic canopy; to the right, the +Virgin standing with her book, under a similar canopy: both graceful +figures. On opening the doors, the central compartment exhibits the +Virgin and her Child enthroned in a burning bush; the bush which +burned with fire, and was not consumed, being a favourite type of the +immaculate purity of the Virgin. Lower down, in front, Moses appears +surrounded by his flocks, and at the command of an angel is about to +take off his sandals. The angel is most richly dressed, and on the +clasp of his mantle is painted in miniature Adam and Eve tempted +by the serpent. Underneath this compartment, is the inscription, +"_Rubum quem viderat Moyses, incombustum, conservatam agnovimus tuam +laudabilem Virginitatem, Sancta Dei Genitrix[1]_." On the door to +the right of the Virgin kneels King Réné himself before an altar, on +which lies an open book and his kingly crown. He is dressed in a robe +trimmed with ermine, and wears a black velvet cap. Behind him, Mary +Magdalene (the patroness of Provence), St. Antony, and St. Maurice. +On the other door, Jeanne de Laval, the second wife of Réné, kneels +before an open book; she is young and beautiful, and richly attired; +and behind her stand St. John (her patron saint), St. Catherine +(very noble and elegant), and St. Nicholas. I saw this curious and +interesting picture in 1846. It is very well preserved, and painted +with great finish and delicacy in the manner of the early Flemish +school. + +[Footnote 1: For the relation of Moses to the Virgin (as attribute) v. +the Introduction.] + +4. In a beautiful little picture by Van Eyck (Louvre, No. 162. Ecole +Allemande), the Virgin is seated on a throne, holding in her arms the +infant Christ, who has a globe in his left hand, and extends the right +in the act of benediction. The Virgin is attired as a queen, in a +magnificent robe falling in ample folds around her, and trimmed with +jewels; an angel, hovering with outspread wings, holds a crown over +her head. On the left of the picture, a votary, in the dress of a +Flemish burgomaster, kneels before a Prie-Dieu, on which is an open +book, and with clasped hands adores the Mother and her Child. The +locality represents a gallery or portico paved with marble, and +sustained by pillars in a fantastic Moorish style. The whole picture +is quite exquisite for the delicacy of colour and execution. In the +catalogue of the Louvre, this picture, is entitled "St. Joseph adoring +the Infant Christ,"--an obvious mistake, if we consider the style of +the treatment and the customs of the time. + +5. All who have visited the church of the Frari at Venice will +remember--for once seen, they never can forget--the ex-voto +altar-piece which adorns the chapel of the Pesaro family. The +beautiful Virgin is seated on a lofty throne to the right of the +picture, and presses to her bosom the _Dio Bambinetto_, who turns from +her to bless the votary presented by St. Peter. The saint stands on +the steps of the throne, one hand on a book; and behind him kneels one +of the Pesaro family, who was at once bishop of Paphos and commander +of the Pope's galleys: he approaches to consecrate to the Madonna +the standards taken from the Turks, which are borne by St. George, as +patron of Venice. On the other side appear St. Francis and St. Antony +of Padua, as patrons of the church in which the picture is dedicated. +Lower down, kneeling on one side of the throne, is a group of various +members of the Pesaro family, three of whom are habited in crimson +robes, as _Cavalieri di San Marco_; the other, a youth about fifteen, +looks out of the picture, astonishingly _alive_, and yet sufficiently +idealized to harmonize with the rest. This picture is very remarkable +for several reasons. It is a piece of family history, curiously +illustrative of the manners of the time. The Pesaro here commemorated +was an ecclesiastic, but appointed by Alexander VI. to command the +galleys with which he joined the Venetian forces against the Turks in +1503. It is for this reason that St. Peter--as representative here of +the Roman pontiff--introduces him to the Madonna, while St. George, +as patron of Venice, attends him. The picture is a monument of the +victory gained by Pesaro, and the gratitude and pride of his family. +It is also one of the finest works of Titian; one of the earliest +instances in which a really grand religious composition assumes almost +a dramatic and scenic form, yet retains a certain dignity and symmetry +worthy of its solemn destination.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We find in the catalogue of pictures which belonged to +our Charles I. one which represented "a pope preferring a general of +his navy to St. Peter." It is Pope Alexander VI. presenting this very +Pesaro to St. Peter; that is, in plain unpictorial prose, giving him +the appointment of admiral of the galleys of the Roman states. This +interesting picture, after many vicissitudes, is now in the Museum at +Antwerp. (See the _Handbook to the Royal Galleries_, p. 201.)] + +6. I will give one more instance. There is in our National Gallery +a Venetian picture which is striking from its peculiar and +characteristic treatment. On one side, the Virgin with her Infant is +seated on a throne; a cavalier, wearing armour and a turban, who looks +as if he had just returned from the eastern wars, prostrates himself +before her: in the background, a page (said to be the portrait of the +painter) holds the horse of the votary. The figures are life-size, +or nearly so, as well as I can remember, and the sentimental dramatic +treatment is quite Venetian. It is supposed to represent a certain +Duccio Constanzo of Treviso, and was once attributed to Giorgione: it +is certainly of the school of Bellini. (Nat. Gal. Catalogue, 234.) + + * * * * * + +As these enthroned and votive Virgins multiplied, as it became more +and more a fashion to dedicate them as offerings in churches, want +of space, and perhaps, also, regard to expense, suggested the idea of +representing the figures half-length. The Venetians, from early time +the best face painters in the world, appear to have been the first +to cut off the lower part of the figure, leaving the arrangement +otherwise much the same. The Virgin is still a queenly and majestic +creature, sitting there to be adored. A curtain or part of a carved +chair represents her throne. The attendant saints are placed to the +right and to the left; or sometimes the throne occupies one side of +the picture, and the saints are ranged on the other. From the shape +and diminished size of these votive pictures the personages, seen +half-length, are necessarily placed very near to each other, and the +heads nearly on a level with that of the Virgin, who is generally +seen to the knees, while the Child is always full-length. In such +compositions we miss the grandeur of the entire forms, and the +consequent diversity of character and attitude; but sometimes +the beauty and individuality of the heads atone for all other +deficiencies. + + * * * * * + +In the earlier Venetian examples, those of Gian Bellini particularly, +there is a solemn quiet elevation which renders them little inferior, +in religious sentiment, to the most majestic of the enthroned and +enskied Madonnas. + + * * * * * + +There is a sacred group by Bellini, in the possession of Sir Charles +Eastlake, which has always appeared to me a very perfect specimen of +this class of pictures. It is also the earliest I know of. The Virgin, +pensive, sedate, and sweet, like all Bellini's Virgins, is seated in +the centre, and seen in front. The Child, on her knee, blesses with +his right hand, and the Virgin places hers on the head of a votary, +who just appears above the edge of the picture, with hands joined in +prayer; he is a fine young man with an elevated and elegant profile. +On the right are St. John the Baptist pointing to the Saviour, and +St. Catherine; on the left, St. George with his banner, and St. Peter +holding his book. A similar picture, with Mary Magdalene and St. +Jerome on the right, St. Peter and St. Martha on the left, is in the +Leuchtenberg Gallery at Munich. Another of exquisite beauty is in the +Venice Academy, in which the lovely St. Catherine wears a crown of +myrtle. + +Once introduced, these half-length enthroned Madonnas became very +common, spreading from the Venetian states through the north of Italy; +and we find innumerable examples from the best schools of art in +Italy and Germany, from the middle of the fifteenth to the middle of +the sixteenth century. I shall particularize a few of these, which +will be sufficient to guide the attention of the observer; and we +must carefully discriminate between the sentiment proper to these +half-length enthroned Madonnas, and the pastoral or domestic sacred +groups and Holy Families, of which I shall have to treat hereafter. + +Raphael's well-known Madonna _della Seggiola_ and Madonna _della +Candelabra_, are both enthroned Virgins in the grand style, though +seen half-length. In fact, the air of the head ought, in the higher +schools of art, at once to distinguish a Madonna, _in trono_, even +where only the head is visible. + + * * * * * + +In a Milanese picture, the Virgin and Child appear between St. +Laurence and St. John. The mannered and somewhat affected treatment +is contrasted with the quiet, solemn simplicity of a group by Francia, +where the Virgin and Child appear as objects of worship between St. +Dominick and St. Barbara. + +The Child, standing or seated on a table or balustrade in front, +enabled the painter to vary the attitude, to take the infant +Christ out of the arms of the Mother, and to render his figure more +prominent. It was a favourite arrangement with the Venetians; and +there is an instance in a pretty picture in our National Gallery, +attributed to Perugino. + +Sometimes, even where the throne and the attendant saints and angels +show the group to be wholly devotional and exalted, we find the +sentiment varied by a touch of the dramatic,--by the introduction +of an action; but it must be one of a wholly religious significance, +suggestive of a religious feeling, or the subject ceases to be +properly _devotional_ in character. + +There is a picture by Botticelli, before which, in walking up the +corridor of the Florence Gallery, I used, day after day, to make an +involuntary pause of admiration. The Virgin, seated in a chair of +state, but seen only to the knees, sustains her divine Son with one +arm; four angels are in attendance, one of whom presents an inkhorn, +another holds before her an open book, and she is in the act of +writing the Magnificat, "My soul doth magnify the Lord!" The head of +the figure behind the Virgin is the portrait of Lorenzo de' Medici +when a boy. There is absolutely no beauty of feature, either in +the Madonna, or the Child, or the angels, yet every face is full of +dignity and character. + +In a beautiful picture by Titian (Bel. Gal., Vienna. Louvre, No. +458), the Virgin is enthroned on the left, and on the right appear St. +George and St. Laurence as listening, while St. Jerome reads from his +great book. A small copy of this picture is at Windsor. + + * * * * * + +The old German and Flemish painters, in treating the enthroned +Madonna, sometimes introduced accessories which no painter of the +early Italian school would have descended to; and which tinge with a +homely sentiment their most exalted conceptions. Thus, I have seen +a German Madonna seated on a superb throne, and most elaborately +and gorgeously arrayed, pressing her Child to her bosom with a truly +maternal air; while beside her, on a table, is a honeycomb, some +butter, a dish of fruit, and a glass of water. (Bel. Gal., Vienna.) +It is possible that in this case, as in the Virgin suckling her Child, +there may be a religious allusion:--"_Butter and honey shall he eat_," +&c. + + + + +THE MATER AMABILIS. + + +_Ital._ La Madonna col Bambino. La Madonna col celeste suo figlio. +_Fr._ La Vierge et l'enfant Jesus. _Ger._ Maria mit dem Kind. + + +There is yet another treatment of the Madonna and Child, in which the +Virgin no longer retains the lofty goddess-like exaltation given to +her in the old time. She is brought nearer to our sympathies. She +is not seated in a chair of state with the accompaniments of earthly +power; she is not enthroned on clouds, nor glorified and star-crowned +in heaven; she is no longer so exclusively the VERGINE DEA, nor the +VIRGO DEI GENITRIX; but she is still the ALMA MATER REDEMPTORIS, the +young, and lovely, and most pure mother of a divine Christ. She is +not sustained in mid-air by angels; she dwells lowly on earth; but +the angels leave their celestial home to wait upon her. Such effigies, +when conceived in a strictly ideal and devotional sense, I shall +designate as the MATER AMABILIS. + +The first and simplest form of this beautiful and familiar subject, we +find in those innumerable half-length figures of the Madonna, holding +her Child in her arms, painted chiefly for oratories, private or +way-side chapels, and for the studies, libraries, and retired chambers +of the devout, as an excitement to religious feeling, and a memorial +of the mystery of the Incarnation, where large or grander subjects, +or more expensive pictures, would be misplaced. Though unimportant in +comparison with the comprehensive and magnificent church altar-pieces +already described, there is no class of pictures so popular and so +attractive, none on which the character of the time and the painter +is stamped more clearly and intelligibly, than on these simple +representations. + +The Virgin is not here the dispenser of mercy; she is simply the +mother of the Redeemer. She is occupied only by her divine Son. She +caresses him, or she gazes on him fondly. She presents him to the +worshipper. She holds him forth with a pensive joy as the predestined +offering. If the profound religious sentiment of the early masters was +afterwards obliterated by the unbelief and conventionalism of later +art, still this favourite subject could not be so wholly profaned by +degrading sentiments and associations, as the mere portrait heads of +the Virgin alone. No matter what the model for the Madonna, might +have been,--a wife, a mistress, a _contadina_ of Frascati, a Venetian +_Zitella_, a _Madchen_ of Nuremberg, a buxom Flemish _Frau_,--for the +Child was there; the baby innocence in her arms consecrated her into +that "holiest thing alive," a mother. The theme, however inadequately +treated as regarded its religious significance, was sanctified in +itself beyond the reach of a profane thought. Miserable beyond the +reach of hope, dark below despair, that moral atmosphere which the +presence of sinless unconscious infancy cannot for a moment purify +or hallow! + +Among the most ancient and most venerable of the effigies of the +Madonna, we find the old Greek pictures of the _Mater Amabilis_, if +that epithet can be properly applied to the dark-coloured, sad-visaged +Madonnas generally attributed to St. Luke, or transcripts of those +said to be painted by him, which exist in so many churches, and are, +or were, supposed by the people to possess a peculiar sanctity. These +are almost all of oriental origin, or painted to imitate the pictures +brought from the East in the tenth or twelfth century. There are a few +striking and genuine examples of these ancient Greek Madonnas in the +Florentine Gallery, and, nearer at hand, in the Wallerstein collection +at Kensington Palace. They much resemble each other in the general +treatment. + +The infinite variety which painters have given to this most simple +_motif_, the Mother and the Child only, without accessories or +accompaniments of any kind, exceeds all possibility of classification, +either as to attitude or sentiment. Here Raphael shone supreme: +the simplicity, the tenderness, the halo of purity and virginal +dignity, which he threw round the _Mater Amabilis_ have, never been +surpassed--in his best pictures, never equalled. The "Madonna del +Gran-Duca," where the Virgin holds the Child seated on her arm; the +"Madonna Tempi," where she so fondly presses her check to his,--are +perhaps the most remarkable for simplicity. The Madonna of the +Bridgewater Gallery, where the Infant lies on her knees, and the +Mother and Son look into each other's eyes; the little "Madonna +Conestabile," where she holds the book, and the infant Christ, with +a serious yet perfectly childish grace, bends to turn over the +leaf,--are the most remarkable for sentiment. + +Other Madonnas by Raphael, containing three or more figures, do not +belong to this class of pictures. They are not strictly devotional, +but are properly Holy Families, groups and scenes from the domestic +life of the Virgin. + +With regard, to other painters before or since his time, the examples +of the _Mater Amabilis_ so abound la public and private galleries, and +have been so multiplied in prints, that comparison is within the reach +of every observer. I will content myself with noticing a few of the +most remarkable for beauty or characteristic treatment. Two painters, +who eminently excelled in simplicity and purity of sentiment, are Gian +Bellini of Venice, and Bernardino Luini of Milan. Squarcione, though +often fantastic, has painted one or two of these Madonnas, remarkable +for simplicity and dignity, as also his pupil Mantegna; though in +both the style of execution is somewhat hard and cold. In the one by +Fra Bartolomeo, there is such a depth of maternal tenderness in the +expression and attitude, we wonder where the good monk found his +model. In his own heart? in his dreams? A _Mater Amabilis_ by one of +the Caracci or by Vandyck is generally more elegant and dignified than +tender. The Madonna, for instance, by Annibal, has something of the +majestic sentiment of an enthroned Madonna. Murillo excelled in this +subject; although most of his Virgins have a portrait air of common +life, they are redeemed by the expression. In one of these, the +Child, looking out of the picture with extended arms and eyes full +of divinity, seems about to spring forth to fulfil his mission. In +another he folds his little hands, and looks up to Heaven, as if +devoting himself to his appointed suffering, while the Mother looks +down upon him with a tender resignation. (Leuchtenberg Gal.) In a +noble Madonna by Vandyck (Bridgewater Gal.), it is she herself who +devotes him to do his Father's will; and I still remember a picture +of this class, by Carlo Cignani (Belvedere Gal., Vienna), which made +me start, with the intense expression: the Mother presses to her the +Child, who holds a cross in his baby hand; she looks up to heaven with +an appealing look of love and anguish,--almost of reproach. Guido +did not excel so much in children, as in the Virgin alone. Poussin, +Carlo Dolce, Sasso Ferrato, and, in general, all the painters of the +seventeenth century, give us pretty women and pretty children. We may +pass them over. + +A second version of the Mater Amabilis, representing the Virgin +and Child full-length, but without accessories, has been also very +beautifully treated. She is usually seated in a landscape, and +frequently within the mystical enclosure (_Hortus clausus_), which is +sometimes in the German pictures a mere palisade of stakes or boughs. + +Andrea Mantegna, though a fantastic painter, had generally some +meaning in his fancies. There is a fine picture of his in which the +Virgin and Child are seated in a landscape, and in the background is +a stone-quarry, where a number of figures are seen busily at work; +perhaps hewing the stone to build the new temple of which our Saviour +was the corner-stone. (Florence Gal.) In a group by Cristofano Allori, +the Child places a wreath of flowers on the brow of his Mother, +holding in his other hand his own crown of thorns: one of the +_fancies_ of the later schools of art. + +The introduction of the little St. John into the group of the Virgin +and Child lends it a charming significance and variety, and is very +popular; we must, however, discriminate between the familiarity of +the domestic subject and the purely religious treatment. When the +Giovannino adores with folded hands, as acknowledging in Christ a +superior power, or kisses his feet humbly, or points to him exulting, +then it is evident that we have the two Children in their spiritual +character, the Child, Priest and King, and the Child, Prophet. + +In a picture by Lionardo da Vinci (Coll. of the Earl of Suffolk), +the Madonna, serious and beautiful, without either crown or veil, and +adorned only by her long fair hair, is seated on a rock. On one side, +the little Christ, supported in the arms of an angel, raises his hand +in benediction; on the other side, the young St. John, presented by +the Virgin, kneels in adoration. + +Where the Children are merely embracing each other, or sporting at +the feet of the Virgin, or playing with the cross, or with a bird, or +with the lamb, or with flowers, we might call the treatment domestic +or poetical; but where St. John is taking the cross from the hand of +Christ, it is clear, from the perpetual repetition of the theme, that +it is intended to express a religious allegory. It is the mission of +St. John as Baptist and Prophet. He receives the symbol of faith ere +he goes forth to preach and to convert, or as it has been interpreted, +he, in the sense used by our Lord, "takes up the cross of our Lord." +The first is, I think, the meaning when the cross is enwreathed with +the _Ecce Agnus Dei_; the latter, when it is a simple cross. + +In Raphael's "Madonna della Famiglia Alva," (now in the Imp. Gal., St. +Petersburg), and in his Madonna of the Vienna Gallery, Christ gives +the cross to St. John. In a picture of the Lionardo school in the +Louvre we have the same action; and again in a graceful group by +Guido, which, in the engraving, bears this inscription, "_Qui non +accipit crucem suam non est me dignus_." (Matt. x. 38.) This, of +course, fixes the signification. + +Another, and, as I think, a wholly fanciful interpretation, has been +given to this favourite group by Treck and by Monckton Milnes. The +Children contend for the cross. The little St. John begs to have it. + + "Give me the cross, I pray you, dearest Jesus. + O if you knew how much I wish to have it, + You would not hold it in your hand so tightly. + Something has told me, something in my breast here, + Which I am sure is true, that if you keep it, + If you will let no other take it from you, + Terrible things I cannot bear to think of + Must fall upon you. Show me that you love me: + Am I not here to be your little servant, + Follow your steps, and wait upon your wishes?" + +But Christ refuses to yield the terrible plaything, and claims his +privilege to be the elder "in the heritage of pain." + +In a picture by Carlo Maratti, I think this action is evident--Christ +takes the cross, and St. John yields it with reluctance. + +A beautiful version of the Mater Amabilis is the MADRE PIA, where the +Virgin in her divine Infant acknowledges and adores the Godhead. We +must be careful to distinguish this subject from the Nativity, for +it is common, in the scene of the birth of the Saviour at Bethlehem, +to represent the Virgin adoring her new-born Child. The presence of +Joseph--the ruined shed or manger--the ox and ass,--these express the +_event_. But in the MADRE PIA properly so called, the locality, and +the accessories, if any, are purely ideal and poetical, and have +no reference to time or place. The early Florentines, particularly +Lorenzo di Credi, excelled in this charming subject. + +There is a picture by Filippino Lippi, which appears to me eminently +beautiful and poetical. Here the mystical garden is formed of a +balustrade, beyond which is seen a hedge all in a blush with roses. +The Virgin kneels in the midst, and adores her Infant, who has his +finger on his lip (_Verbum sum!_); an angel scatters rose-leaves +over him, while the little St. John also kneels, and four angels, +in attitudes of adoration, complete the group. + +But a more perfect example is the Madonna by Francia in the Munich +Gallery, where the divine Infant lies on the flowery turf; and the +mother, standing before him and looking down on him, seems on the +point of sinking on her knees in a transport of tenderness and +devotion. This, to my feeling, is one of the most perfect pictures in +the world; it leaves nothing to be desired. With all the simplicity of +the treatment it is strictly devotional. The Mother and her Child are +placed within the mystical garden enclosed in a treillage of roses, +alone with each other, and apart from all earthly associations, all +earthly communion. + +The beautiful altar-piece by Perugino in our National Gallery is +properly a Madre Pia; the child seated on a cushion is sustained by an +angel, the mother kneels before him. + +The famous Correggio in the Florentine Gallery is also a Madre Pia. +It is very tender, sweet, and maternal. The Child lying on part of +his mother's blue mantle, so arranged that while she kneels and bends +over him, she cannot change her attitude without disturbing him, is +a _concetto_ admired by critics in sentiment and Art; but it appears +to me very inferior and commonplace in comparison to the Francia at +Munich. + +In a group by Botticelli, angels sustain the Infant, while the mother, +seated, with folded hands, adores him: and in a favourite composition +by Guido he sleeps. + +And, lastly, we have the Mater Amabilis in a more complex, and +picturesque, though still devotional, form. The Virgin, seen at full +length, reclines on a verdant bank, or is seated under a tree. She +is not alone with her Child. Holy personages, admitted to a communion +with her, attend around her, rather sympathizing than adoring. The +love of varied nature, the love of life under all its aspects, became +mingled with the religious conception. Instead of carefully avoiding +whatever may remind us of her earthly relationship, the members of her +family always form a part of her _cortège_. This pastoral and dramatic +treatment began with the Venetian and Paduan schools, and extended to +the early German schools, which were allied to them in feeling, though +contrasted with them in form and execution. + +The perpetual introduction of St. Joseph, St. Elizabeth, and other +relatives of the Virgin (always avoided in a Madonna dell Trono), +would compose what is called a Holy Family, but that the presence +of sainted personages whose existence and history belong to a +wholly different era--St. Catherine, St. George, St. Francis, or +St. Dominick--takes the composition out of the merely domestic and +historical, and lifts it at once into the ideal and devotional line +of art. Such a group cannot well be styled a _Sacra Famiglia_; it is a +_Sacra Conversazione_ treated in the pastoral and lyrical rather than +the lofty epic style. + +In this subject the Venetians, who first introduced it, excel all +other painters. There is no example by Raphael. The German and Flemish +painters who adopted this treatment were often coarse and familiar; +the later Italians became flippant and fantastic. The Venetians alone +knew how to combine the truest feeling for nature with a sort of +Elysian grace. + +I shall give a few examples. + +1. In a picture by Titian (Dresden Gal.), the Virgin is seated on +a green bank enamelled with flowers. She is simply dressed like a +_contadina_, in a crimson tunic, and a white veil half shading her +fair hair. She holds in her arms her lovely Infant, who raises his +little hand in benediction. St. Catherine kneels before him on one +side; on the other, St. Barbara. St. John the Baptist, not as a child, +and the contemporary of our Saviour, but in likeness of an Arcadian +shepherd, kneels with his cross and his lamb--the _Ecce Agnus Dei_, +expressed, not in words, but in form. St. George stands by as a +guardian warrior. And St. Joseph, leaning on his stick behind, +contemplates the group with an air of dignified complacency. + +2. There is another instance also from Titian. In a most luxuriant +landscape thick with embowering trees, and the mountains of Cadore in +the background, the Virgin is seated on a verdant bank; St. Catherine +has thrown herself on her knees, and stretches out her arms to the +divine Child in an ecstasy of adoration, in which there is nothing +unseemly or familiar. At a distance St. John the Baptist approaches +with his Lamb. + +3. In another very similar group, the action of St. Catherine is +rather too familiar,--it is that of an eider sister or a nurse: the +young St. John kneels in worship. + +4. Wonderfully fine is a picture of this class by Palma, now in the +Dresden Gallery. The noble, serious, sumptuous loveliness of the +Virgin; the exquisite Child, so thoughtful, yet so infantine; the +manly beauty of the St. John; the charming humility of the St. +Catherine as she presents her palm, form one of the most perfect +groups in the world. Childhood, motherhood, maidenhood, manhood, +were never, I think, combined in so sweet a spirit of humanity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: When I was at Dresden, in 1860, I found Steinle, so +celebrated for his engravings of the Madonna di San Sisto and the +Holbein Madonna, employed on this picture; and, as far as his +art could go, transferring to his copper all the fervour and the +_morbidezza_ of the original.] + +5. In another picture by Palma, in the same gallery, we have the same +picturesque arrangement of the Virgin and Child, while the _little_ +St. John adores with folded hands, and St. Catherine sits by in tender +contemplation. + +This Arcadian sentiment is carried as far as could well be allowed in +a picture by Titian (Louvre, 459), known as the _Vierge au Lapin_. The +Virgin holds a white rabbit, towards which the infant Christ, in the +arms of St. Catherine, eagerly stretches his hand. In a picture by +Paris Bordone it is carried, I think, too far. The Virgin reclines +under a tree with a book in her hand; opposite to her sits St. Joseph +holding an apple; between them, St. John the Baptist, as a bearded +man, holds in his arms the infant Christ, who caressingly puts one arm +round his neck, and with the other clings to the rough hairy raiment +of his friend. + + * * * * * + +It will be observed, that in these Venetian examples St. Catherine, +the beloved protectress of Venice, is seldom omitted. She is not +here the learned princess who confounded tyrants and converted +philosophers, but a bright-haired, full-formed Venetian maiden, +glowing with love and life, yet touched with a serious grace, +inexpressibly charming. + +St. Dorothea is also a favourite saint in these sacred pastorals. +There is an instance in which she is seated by the Virgin with her +basket of fruits and flowers; and St. Jerome, no longer beating +his breast in penance, but in likeness of a fond old grandfather, +stretches out his arms to the Child. Much finer is a picture now in +the possession of Sir Charles Eastlake. The lovely Virgin is seated +under a tree: on one side appears the angel Raphael, presenting Tobit; +on the other, St. Dorothea, kneeling, holds up her basket of celestial +fruit, gathered for her in paradise.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Sacred and legendary Art, for the beautiful Legend of +St. Dorothea] + +When St. Ursula, with her standard, appears in these Venetian +pastorals, we may suppose the picture to have been painted for the +famous brotherhood (_Scuola di Sant' Orsola_) which bears her name. +Thus, in a charming picture by Palma, she appears before the Virgin, +accompanied by St. Mark a protector of Venice. (Vienna, Belvedere +Gal.) + +Ex-voto pictures in this style are very interesting, and the votary, +without any striking impropriety, makes one of the Arcadian group. +Very appropriate, too, is the marriage of St. Catherine, often treated +in this poetical style. In a picture by Titian, the family of the +Virgin attend the mystical rite, and St. Anna places the hand of St. +Catherine in that of the Child. + +In a group by Signorelli, Christ appears as if teaching St. Catherine; +he dictates, and she, the patroness of "divine philosophy," writes +down his words. + +When the later painters in their great altar-pieces imitated this +idyllic treatment, the graceful Venetian conception became in their +hands heavy, mannered, tasteless,--and sometimes worse. The monastic +saints or mitred dignitaries, introduced into familiar and irreverent +communion with the sacred and ideal personages, in spite of the +grand scenery, strike us as at once prosaic and fantastic "we marvel +how they got there." Parmigiano, when he fled from the sack of Rome +in 1527, painted at Bologna, for the nuns of Santa Margherita, an +altar-piece which has been greatly celebrated. The Madonna, holding +her Child, is seated in a landscape under a tree, and turns her head +to the Bishop St. Petronius, protector of Bologna. St. Margaret, +kneeling and attended by her great dragon, places one hand, with a +free and easy air, on the knee of the Virgin, and with the other seems +to be about to chuck the infant Christ under the chin. In a large +picture by Giacomo Francia, the Virgin, walking in a flowery meadow +with the infant Christ and St. John, and attended by St. Agnes and +Mary Magdalene, meets St. Francis and St. Dominick, also, apparently, +taking a walk. (Berlin Gal. No. 281.) And again;--the Madonna and St. +Elizabeth meet with their children in a landscape, while St. Peter, +St. Paul, and St. Benedict stand behind in attitudes of attention +and admiration. Now, such pictures may be excellently well painted, +greatly praised by connoisseurs, and held in "_somma venerazione_," +but they are offensive as regards the religious feeling, and, are, in +point of taste, mannered, fantastic, and secular. + + * * * * * + + +Here we must end our discourse concerning the Virgin and Child as +a devotional subject. Very easily and delightfully to the writer, +perhaps not painfully to the reader, we might have gone on to the end +of the volume; but my object was not to exhaust the subject, to point +out every interesting variety of treatment, but to lead the lover +of art, wandering through a church or gallery, to new sources of +pleasure; to show him what infinite shades of feeling and character +may still be traced in a subject which, with all its beauty and +attractiveness, might seem to have lost its significant interest, +and become trite from endless repetition; to lead the mind to some +perception of the intention of the artist in his work,--under what +aspect he had himself contemplated and placed before the worshipper +the image of the mother of Christ,--whether crowned and enthroned as +the sovereign lady of Christendom; or exalted as the glorious empress +of heaven and all the spiritual world; or bending benignly over us, +the impersonation of sympathizing womanhood, the emblem of relenting +love, the solace of suffering humanity, the maid and mother, dear and +undefiled-- + + "Created beings all in lowliness + Surpassing, as in height above them all." + +It is time to change the scene,--to contemplate the Virgin, as she +has been exhibited to us in the relations of earthly life, as the mere +woman, acting and suffering, loving, living, dying, fulfilling the +highest destinies in the humblest state, in the meekest spirit. So +we begin her history as the ancient artists have placed it before us, +with that mingled _naïveté_ and reverence, that vivid dramatic power, +which only faith, and love, and genius united, could impart. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART I. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM HER BIRTH TO HER MARRIAGE WITH +JOSEPH. + + 1. THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + 2. THE NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. + 3. THE DEDICATION IN THE TEMPLE. + 4. THE MARRIAGE WITH JOSEPH. + + +THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + +_Ital._ La Leggenda di Sant' Anna Madre della Gloriosa Vergine Maria, +e di San Gioacchino. + + +Of the sources whence are derived the popular legends of the life of +the Virgin Mary, which, mixed up with the few notices in Scripture, +formed one continuous narrative, authorized by the priesthood, and +accepted and believed in by the people, I have spoken at length in the +Introduction. We have now to consider more particularly the scenes and +characters associated with her history; to show how the artists of the +Middle Ages, under the guidance and by the authority of the Church, +treated in detail these favourite themes in ecclesiastical decoration. + +In early art, that is, up to the end of the fifteenth century, Joachim +and Anna, the parents of the Virgin, never appear except in the series +of subjects from her life. In the devotional groups and altar-pieces, +they are omitted. St. Bernard, the great theological authority of +those times, objects to the invocation of any saints who had lived +before the birth of Christ, consequently to their introduction +into ecclesiastical edifices in any other light than as historical +personages. Hence, perhaps, there were scruples relative to the +representations of St. Anna, which, from the thirteenth to the +fifteenth century, placed the artists under certain restrictions. + +Under the name of Anna, the Church has honoured, from remote times, +the memory of the mother of the Virgin. The Hebrew name, signifying +_Grace_, or _the Gracious_, and all the traditions concerning her, +came to us from the East, where she was so early venerated as a +saint, that a church was dedicated to her by the Emperor Justinian, +in 550. Several other churches were subsequently dedicated to her in +Constantinople during the sixth and seventh centuries, and her remains +are said to have been deposited there in 710. In the West, she first +became known in the reign of Charlemagne; and the Greek apocryphal +gospels, or at least stories and extracts from them, began to be +circulated about the same period. From these are derived the historic +scenes and legendary subjects relating to Joachim and Anna which +appear in early art. It was about 1500, in the beginning of the +sixteenth century, that the increasing veneration for the Virgin Mary +gave to her parents, more especially to St. Anna, increased celebrity +as patron saints; and they became, thenceforward, more frequent +characters in the sacred groups. The feast of St. Anna was already +general and popular throughout Europe long before it was rendered +obligatory in 1584.[1] The growing enthusiasm for the doctrine of +the Immaculate Conception gave, of course, additional splendour and +importance to her character. Still, it is only in later times that we +find the effigy of St. Anna separated from that of the Virgin. There +is a curious picture by Cesi (Bologna Gal.), in which St. Anna kneels +before a vision of her daughter before she is born--the Virgin of the +Immaculate Conception. A fine model of a bearded man was now sometimes +converted into a St. Joachim reading or meditating, instead of a +St. Peter or a St. Jerome, as heretofore. In the Munich Gallery are +two fine ancient-looking figures of St. Joachim the father, and St. +Joseph the husband, of the Virgin, standing together; but all these +as separate representations, are very uncommon; and, of those which +exhibit St. Anna devotionally, as enthroned with the Virgin and Child, +I have already spoken. Like St. Elizabeth, she should be an elderly, +but not a _very_ old woman. Joachim, in such pictures, never appears +but as an attendant saint, and then very rarely; always very old, and +sometimes in the dress of a priest, which however, is a mistake on the +part of the artist. + +[Footnote 1: In England we have twenty-eight churches dedicated in the +name of St. Anna.] + + * * * * * + +A complete series of the history of the Blessed Virgin, as imaged +forth by the early artists, always begins with the legend of Joachim +and Anna, which is thus related. + +"There was a man of Nazareth, whose name was Joachim, and he had for +his wife a woman of Bethlehem, whose name was Anna, and both were of +the royal race of David. Their lives were pure and righteous, and they +served the Lord with singleness of heart. And being rich, they divided +their substance into three portions, one for the service of the +temple, one for the poor and the strangers, and the third for their +household. On a certain feast day, Joachim brought double offerings to +the Lord according to his custom, for he said, 'Out of my superfluity +will I give for the whole people, that I may find favour in the sight +of the Lord, and forgiveness for my sins.' And when the children of +Israel brought their gifts, Joachim also brought his; but the high +priest Issachar stood over against him and opposed him, saying, 'It is +not lawful for thee to bring thine offering, seeing that thou hast not +begot issue in Israel.' And Joachim was exceeding sorrowful, and went +down to his house; and he searched through all the registers of the +twelve tribes to discover if he alone had been childless in Israel. +And he found that all the righteous men, and the patriarchs who had +lived before him, had been the fathers of sons and daughters. And he +called to mind his father Abraham, to whom in his old age had been +granted a son, even Isaac. + +"And Joachim was more and more sorrowful; and he would not be seen by +his wife, but avoided her, and went away into the pastures where were +the shepherds and the sheep-cotes. And he built himself a hut, and +fasted forty days and forty nights; for he said 'Until the Lord God +look upon me mercifully, prayer shall be my meat and my drink.' + +"But his wife Anna remained lonely in her house, and mourned with a +twofold sorrow, for her widowhood and for her barrenness. + +"Then drew near the last day of the feast of the Lord; and Judith +her handmaid said to Anna, 'How long wilt thou thus afflict thy soul? +Behold the feast of the Lord is come, and it is not lawful for thee +thus to mourn. Take this silken fillet, which was bestowed on me by +one of high degree whom I formerly served, and bind it round thy head, +for it is not fit that I who am thy handmaid should wear it, but it is +fitting for thee, whose brow is as the brow of a crowned queen.' And +Anna replied, 'Begone! such things are not for me, for the Lord hath +humbled me. As for this fillet, some wicked person hath given it to +thee; and art thou come to make me a partaker in thy sin?' And Judith +her maid answered, 'What evil shall I wish thee since thou wilt not +hearken to my voice? for worse I cannot wish thee than that with which +the Lord hath afflicted thee, seeing that he hath shut up thy womb, +that thou shouldst not be a mother in Israel.' + +"And Anna hearing these words was sorely troubled. And she laid aside +her mourning garments, and she adorned her head, and put on her bridal +attire; and at the ninth hour she went forth into her garden, and +sat down under a laurel tree and prayed earnestly. And looking up to +heaven, she saw within the laurel bush a sparrow's nest; and mourning +within herself she said, 'Alas! and woe is me! who hath begotten me? +who hath brought me forth? that I should be accursed in the sight of +Israel, and scorned and shamed before my people, and cast out of the +temple of the Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? I cannot be +likened to the fowls of heaven, for the fowls of heaven are fruitful +in thy sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to +the unreasoning beasts of the earth, for they are fruitful in thy +sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to these +waters, for they are fruitful in thy sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what +shall I be likened? Not unto the earth, for the earth bringeth forth +her fruit in due season, and praiseth thee, O Lord!' + +"And behold an angel of the Lord stood by her and said, 'Anna, thy +prayer is heard, thou shalt bring forth, and thy child shall be +blessed throughout the whole world.' And Anna said, 'As the Lord +liveth, whatever I shall bring forth, be it a man-child or a maid, +I will present it an offering to the Lord.' And behold another angel +came and said to her, 'See, thy husband Joachim is coming with his +shepherds;' for an angel had spoken to him also, and had comforted him +with promises. And Anna went forth to meet her husband, and Joachim +came from the pasture with his herds, and they met at the golden gate; +and Anna ran and embraced her husband, and hung upon his neck, saying, +'Now know I that the Lord hath blessed me. I who was a widow am no +longer a widow; I who was barren shall become a joyful mother.' + +"And they returned home together. + +"And when her time was come, Anna brought forth a daughter; and she +said, 'This day my soul magnifieth the Lord.' And she laid herself +down in her bed; and she called, the name of her child Mary, which +in the Hebrew is Miriam." + + * * * * * + +With the scenes of this beautiful pastoral begins the life of the +Virgin. + +1. We have first Joachim rejected from the temple. He stands on the +steps before the altar holding a lamb; and the high priest opposite +to him, with arm upraised, appears to refuse his offering. Such is +the usual _motif_; but the incident has been variously treated--in +the earlier and ruder examples, with a ludicrous want of dignity; for +Joachim is almost tumbling down the steps of the temple to avoid the +box on the ear which Issachar the priest is in the act of bestowing in +a most energetic fashion. On the other hand, the group by Taddeo Gaddi +(Florence, Baroncelli Chapel, S. Croce), though so early in date, +has not since been excelled either in the grace or the dramatic +significance of the treatment. Joachim turns away, with his lamb +in his arms, repulsed, but gently, by the priest. To the right are +three personages who bring offerings, one of whom, prostrate on his +knees, yet looks up at Joachim with a sneering expression--a fine +representation of the pharisaical piety of one of the elect, rejoicing +in the humiliation of a brother. On the other side are three persons +who appear to be commenting on the scene. In the more elaborate +composition by Ghirlandajo (Florence, S. Maria Novella), there is +a grand view into the interior of the temple, with arches richly +sculptured. Joachim is thrust forth by one of the attendants, while in +the background the high priest accepts the offering of a more favoured +votary. On each side are groups looking on, who express the contempt +and hatred they feel for one, who, not having children, presumes to +approach the altar. All these, according to the custom of Ghirlandajo, +are portraits of distinguished persons. The first figure on the right +represents the painter Baldovinetti; next to him, with his hand on +his side, Ghirlandajo himself; the third, with long black hair, +is Bastiano Mainardi, who painted the Assumption in the Baroncelli +Chapel, in the Santa Croce; and the fourth, turning his back, is David +Ghirlandajo. These real personages are so managed, that, while they +are not themselves actors, they do not interfere with the main action, +but rather embellish and illustrate it, like the chorus in a Greek +tragedy. Every single figure in this fine fresco is a study for manly +character, dignified attitude, and easy grand drapery. + +In the same scene by Albert Durer,[1] the high priest, standing behind +a table, rejects the offering of the lamb, and his attendant pushes +away the doves. Joachim makes a gesture of despair, and several +persons who bring offerings look at him with disdain or with sympathy. + +[Footnote 1: In the set of wood-cuts of the Life of the Virgin.] + +The same scene by Luini (Milan, Brera) is conceived with much pathetic +as well as dramatic effect. But as I have said enough to reader the +subject easily recognized, we proceed. + + * * * * * + +2. "Joachim herding his sheep on the mountain, and surrounded by his +shepherds, receives the message of the angel." This subject may so +nearly resemble the Annunciation to the Shepherds in St. Luke's Gospel, +that we must be careful to distinguish them, as, indeed, the best of +the old painters have done with great taste and feeling. + +Is the fresco by Taddeo Gaddi (in the Baroncelli Chapel), Joachim +is seated on a rocky mountain, at the base of which his sheep are +feeding, and turns round to listen to the voice of the angel. In the +fresco by Giotto in the Arena at Padua, the treatment is nearly the +same.[1] In the series by Luini, a stream runs down the centre of +the picture: on one side is Joachim listening to the angel, on the +other, Anna is walking in her garden. This incident is omitted by +Ghirlandajo. In Albert Durer's composition, Joachim is seen in the +foreground kneeling, and looking up at an angel, who holds out in +both hands a sort of parchment roll looking like a diploma with seals +appended, and which we may suppose to contain the message from on +high (if it be not rather the emblem of the _sealed book_, so often +introduced, particularly by the German masters). A companion of +Joachim also looks up with amazement, and farther in the distance are +sheep and shepherds. + +[Footnote 1: The subject will be found in the set of wood-cuts +published by the Arundel Society.] + +The Annunciation to St. Anna may be easily mistaken for the +Annunciation to the Virgin Mary;--we must therefore be careful to +discriminate, by an attention to the accessories. Didron observes that +in Western art the annunciation to St. Anna usually takes place in a +chamber. In the East it takes place in a garden, because there "_on +vit feu dans les maisons et beaucoup en plein air_;" but, according +to the legend, the locality ought to be a garden, and under a laurel +tree, which is not always attended to. + +3. The altercation between St. Anna and her maid Judith I have never +met with but once, in the series by Luini, where the disconsolate +figure and expression of St. Anna are given with infinite grace and +sentiment. (Milan, Brera.) + + * * * * * + +4. "The meeting of Joachim and Anna before the golden gate." This is +one of the most important subjects. It has been treated by the very +early artists with much _naïveté_, and in the later examples with +infinite beauty and sentiment; and, which is curious, it has been +idealized into a devotional subject, and treated apart. The action is +in itself extremely simple. The husband and wife affectionately and +joyfully embrace each other. In the background is seen a gate, richly +ornamented. Groups of spectators and attendants are sometimes, not +always, introduced. + +In the composition of Albert Durer nothing can be more homely, hearty, +and conjugal. A burly fat man, who looks on with a sort of wondering +amusement in his face, appears to be a true and animated transcript +from nature, as true as Ghirlandajo's attendant figures--but how +different! what a contrast between the Florentine citizen and the +German burgher! In the simpler composition by Taddeo Gaddi, St. Anna +is attended by three women, among whom the maid Judith is conspicuous, +and behind Joachim is one of his shepherds[1]. + +[Footnote 1: In two compartments of a small altar-piece (which +probably represented in the centre the Nativity of the Virgin), I +found on one side the story of St. Joachim, on the other the story of +St. Anna.--_Collection of Lord Northwick, No. 513, in his Catalogue_.] + +The Franciscans, those enthusiastic defenders of the Immaculate +Conception, were the authors of a fantastic idea, that the birth of +the Virgin was not only _immaculate_, but altogether _miraculous_, and +that she owed her being to the joyful kiss which Joachim gave his wife +when they met at the gate. Of course the Church gave no countenance to +this strange poetical fiction, but it certainly modified some of the +representations; for example, there is a picture by Vittore Carpaccio, +wherein St. Joachim and Anna tenderly embrace. On one side stands +St. Louis of Toulouse as bishop; on the other St. Ursula with her +standard, whose presence turns the incident into a religious mystery. +In another picture, painted by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, we have a still +more singular and altogether mystical treatment. In the centre St. +Joachim and St. Anna embrace; behind St. Joachim stands St. Joseph +with his lily wand and a book; behind St. Anna, the Virgin Mary (thus +represented as existing before she was born[1]), and beyond her St. +Laurence; in the corner is seen the head of the votary, a Servite +monk; above all, the Padre Eterno holds an open book with the _Alpha_ +and _Omega_. This singular picture was dedicated and placed over the +high altar of the Conception in the church of the Servi, who, under +the title of _Serviti di Maria_, were dedicated to the especial +service of the Virgin Mary. (v. Legends of the Monastic Orders.) + +[Footnote 1: Prov. viii 22, 23. These texts are applied to the +Madonna.] + + + + +THE NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. + +_Ital._ La Nascità della B. Vergine. _Fr._ La Naissance de la S. +Vierge. _Ger._ Die Geburt Maria. + + +This is, of course, a very important subject. It is sometimes treated +apart as a separate scene; and a series of pictures dedicated to the +honour of the Virgin, and comprising only a few of the most eventful +scenes in her history, generally begins with her Nativity. The +primitive treatment is Greek, and, though varied in the details and +the sentiment, it has never deviated much from the original _motif_. + +St. Anna reclines on a couch covered with drapery, and a pillow under +her head; two handmaids sustain her; a third fans her, or presents +refreshments; more in front a group of women are busied about the +new-born child. It has been the custom, I know not on what authority, +to introduce neighbours and friends, who come to congratulate the +parents. The whole scene thus treated is sure to come home to the +bosom of the observer. The most important event in the life of a +woman, her most common and yet most awful experience, is here so +treated as to be at once ennobled by its significance and endeared +by its thoroughly domestic character. + +I will give some examples. 1. The first is by an unknown master of the +Greco-Italian school, and referred by d'Agincourt to the thirteenth +century, but it is evidently later, and quite in the style of the +Gaddi. + +2. There is both dignity and simplicity in the fresco by Taddeo +Gaddi. (Florence, Baroncelli Chapel.) St. Anna is sitting up in bed; +an attendant pours water over her hands. In front, two women are +affectionately occupied with the child a lovely infant with a glory +round its head. Three other attendants are at the foot of the bed. + +3. We have next in date, the elegant composition by Ghirlandajo. As +Joachim and Anna were "exceedingly rich," he has surrounded them with +all the luxuries of life. The scene is a chamber richly decorated; a +frieze of angelic boys ornaments the alcove; St. Anna lies on a couch. +Vasari says "certain women are ministering to her." but in Lasinio's +engraving they are not to be found. In front a female attendant pours +water into a vase; two others seated hold the infant. A noble lady, +habited in the elegant Florentine costume of the fifteenth century, +enters with four others--all portraits, and, as is usual with +Ghirlandajo, looking on without taking any part in the action. The +lady in front is traditionally said to be Ginevra Benci, celebrated +for her beauty. + +4. The composition by Albert Durer[1] gives us an exact transcript +of antique German life, quite wonderful for the homely truth of the +delineation, but equally without the simplicity of a scriptural or +the dignity of an historical scene. In an old-fashioned German chamber +lies St. Anna in an old-fashioned canopied bedstead. Two women bring +her a soup and something to drink, while the midwife, tired with her +exertions, leans her head on the bedside and has sank to sleep. A +crowd of women fill up the foreground, one of whom attends to the +new-born child: others, who appear to have watched through the night, +as we may suppose from the nearly extinguished candles, are intent on +good cheer; they congratulate each other; they eat, drink, and repose +themselves. It would be merely a scene of German _commérage_, full +of nature and reality, if an angel hovering above, and swinging a +censer, did not remind us of the sacred importance of the incident +represented. + +[Footnote 1: In the set of wood-cuts of the "Life of the Virgin +Mary."] + +5. In the strongest possible contrast to the homely but animated +conception of Albert Durer, is the grand fresco by Andrea del Sarto, +in the church of the Nunziata at Florence. The incidents are nearly +the same: we have St. Anna reclining in her bed and attended by her +women; the nurses waiting on the lovely new-born child; the visitors +who enter to congratulate; but all, down to the handmaidens who bring +refreshments, are noble and dignified, and draped in that magnificent +taste which distinguished Andrea, Angels scatter flowers from above +and, which is very uncommon, Joachim is seen, after the anxious night +reposing on a couch. Nothing in fresco can exceed the harmony and +brilliancy of the colouring, and the softness of the execution. It +appeared to me a masterpiece as a picture. Like Ghirlandajo, Andrea +has introduced portraits; and in the Florentine lady who stands in the +foreground we recognize the features of his worthless wife Lucrezia, +the original model of so many of his female figures that the ignoble +beauty of her face has become quite familiar. + + + + +THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN. + +_Ital._ La Presentazione, ove nostra Signora piccioletta sale i gradi +del Tempio. _Ger._ Joachim und Anna weihen ihre Tochter Maria im +Tempel. Die Vorstellung der Jungfrau im Tempel. Nov. 21. + + +In the interval between the birth of Mary and her consecration in the +temple, there is no incident which I can remember as being important +or popular as a subject of art. + +It is recorded with what tenderness her mother Anna watched over +her, "how she made of her bedchamber a holy place, allowing nothing +that was common or unclean to enter in;" and called to her "certain +daughters of Israel, pure and gentle," whom she appointed to attend +on her. In some of the early miniature illustrations of the Offices of +the Virgin, St. Anna thus ministers to her child; for instance, in a +beautiful Greek MS. in the Vatican, she is tenderly putting her into +a little bed or cradle and covering her up. (It is engraved in +d'Agincourt.) + +It is not said anywhere that St. Anna instructed her daughter. It has +even been regarded as unorthodox to suppose that the Virgin, enriched +from her birth, and before her birth, with all the gifts of the Holy +Spirit, required instruction from any one. Nevertheless, the subject +of the "Education of the Virgin" has been often represented in later +times. There is a beautiful example by Murillo; while Anna teaches her +child to read, angels hover over them with wreaths of roses. (Madrid +Gal.) Another by Rubens, in which, as it is said, he represented his +young wife, Helena Forman. (Musée, Antwerp.) There is also a picture +in which St. Anna ministers to her daughter, and is intent on braiding +and adorning her long golden hair, while the angels look on with +devout admiration. (Vienna, Lichtenstein Gal.) In all these examples +Mary is represented as a girl of ten or twelve years old. Now, as the +legend expressly relates that she was three years old when she became +an inmate of the temple, such representations must be considered as +incorrect. + + * * * * * + +The narrative thus proceeds:-- + +"And when the child was _three years old_, Joachim said, 'Let us +invite the daughters of Israel, and they shall take each a taper or +a lamp, and attend on her, that the child may not turn back from the +temple of the Lord.' And being come to the temple, they placed her on +the first step, and she ascended alone all the steps to the altar: +and the high priest received her there, kissed her, and blessed her, +saying, 'Mary, the Lord hath magnified thy name to all generations, +and in thee shall be made known the redemption of the children of +Israel.' And being placed before the altar, she danced with her feet, +so that all the house of Israel rejoiced with her, and loved her. Then +her parents returned home, blessing God because the maiden had not +turned back from the temple." + + * * * * * + +Such is the incident, which, in artistic representation, is sometimes +styled the "Dedication," but more generally "THE PRESENTATION OF THE +VIRGIN." + +It is a subject of great importance, not only as a principal incident +in a series of the Life of the Virgin, but because this consecration +of Mary to the service of the temple being taken in a general sense, +it has often been given in a separate form, particularly for the +nunneries. Hence it has happened that we find "The Presentation of the +Virgin" among some of the most precious examples of ancient and modern +art. + +The _motif_ does not vary. The child Mary, sometimes in a blue, but +oftener in a white vesture, with long golden hair, ascends the steps +which lead to the porch of the temple, which steps are always fifteen +in number. She ought to be an infant of three years of age; but in +many pictures she is represented older, veiled, and with a taper in +her hand instead of a lamp, like a young nun; but this is a fault. The +"fifteen steps" rest on a passage in Josephus, who says, "between the +wall which separated the men from the women, and the great porch of +the temple, were fifteen steps;" and these are the steps which Mary +is supposed to ascend. + +1. It is sometimes treated with great simplicity; for instance, in +the bas-relief by Andrea Orcagna, there are only three principal +figures--the Virgin in the centre (too old, however), and Joachim and +Anna stand on each side. (Florence, Or San Michele.) + +2. In the fresco by Taddeo Gaddi we have the same artless grace, the +same dramatic grouping, and the same faults of drawing and perspective +as in the other compartments of the series. (Florence, Baroncelli +Chapel.) + +3. The scene is represented by Ghirlandajo with his usual luxury of +accessories and accompaniments. (Florence, S. Maria Novella.) The +locality is the court of the temple; on the right a magnificent porch; +the Virgin, a young girl of about nine or ten years old, is seen +ascending the steps with a book in her hand; the priest stretches out +his arms to receive her; behind him is another priest; and "the young +virgins who were to be her companions" are advancing joyously to +receive her. (Adducentur Regi Virgines post eam. Ps. xlv.) At the +foot of the steps are St. Anna and St. Joachim, and farther off a +group of women and spectators, who watch the event in attitudes of +thanksgiving and joyful sympathy. Two venerable, grand-looking Jews, +and two beautiful boys fill the foreground; and the figure of the +pilgrim resting on the steps is memorable in art as one of the +earliest examples of an undraped figure, accurately and gracefully +drawn. The whole composition is full of life and character, and that +sort of _elegance_ peculiar to Ghirlandajo. + +4. In the composition of Albert Durer we see the entrance of the +temple on the left, and the child Mary with flowing hair ascending the +steps; behind her stand her parents and other personages, and in front +are venders of provisions, doves, &c., which are brought as offerings. + +5. The scene, as given by Carpaccio, appears to me exceedingly +graceful. The perfectly childish figure of Mary with her light +flowing tresses, the grace with which she kneels on the steps, and the +disposition of the attendant figures, are all beautifully conceived. +Conspicuous in front is a page holding a unicorn, the ancient emblem +of chastity, and often introduced significantly into pictures of the +Virgin. (Venice Academy.) + +6. But the most celebrated example is the Presentation by Titian, +in the academy at Venice, originally painted for the church of the +brotherhood of charity (_Scuola della Carità _), and still to be seen +there--the Carità being now the academy of art. + +In the general arrangement, Titian seems to have been indebted to +Carpaccio; but all that is simple and poetical in the latter becomes +in Titian's version sumptuous and dramatic. Here Mary does not +kneel, but, holding up her light-blue drapery, ascends the steps with +childish grace and alacrity. The number of portrait-heads adds to the +value and interest of the picture. Titian himself is looking up, and +near him stands his friend, Andrea de' Franceschi, grand-chancellor +of Venice,[1] robed as a _Cavaliero di San Marco_. In the fine +bearded head of the priest, who stands behind the high-priest, we may +recognize, I think, the likeness of Cardinal Bembo. In the foreground, +instead of the poetical symbol of the unicorn, we have an old woman +selling eggs and fowls, as in Albert Durer's print, which must have +been well known to Titian. Albert Durer published his Life of the +Virgin in 1520, and Titian painted his picture about 1550. (Venice +Academy.) + +[Footnote 1: "_Amorevolissime del Pittare_," says Ridolfi. It is the +same person whom Titian introduced, with himself, in the picture at +Windsor; there, by a truly unpardonable mistake, called "Titian and +Aretino."] + + * * * * * + +From the life of the Virgin in the temple, we have several beautiful +pictures. As she was to be placed before women as an example of every +virtue, so she was skilled in all feminine accomplishments; she was +as studious, as learned, as wise, as she was industrious, chaste, and +temperate. + +She is seen surrounded by her young companions, the maidens who were +brought up in the temple with her, in a picture by Agnolo Gaddi. +(Florence, Carmine.) She is instructing her companions, in a charming +picture by Luini: here she appears as a girl of seven or eight years +old, seated on a sort of throne, dressed in a simple light-blue tunic, +with long golden hair; while the children around her look up and +listen with devout faces. (Milan, Brera.) + + * * * * * + +Some other scenes of her early life, which, in the Protevangelion, are +placed after her marriage with Joseph, in pictures usually precede it. +Thus, she is chosen by lot to spin the fine purple for the temple, +to weave and embroider it. Didron mentions a fine antique tapestry at +Rheims, in which Mary is seated at her embroidery, while two unicorns +crouching on each side look up in her face. + + * * * * * + +I remember a fine drawing, in which the Virgin is seated at a large +tapestry frame. Behind her are two maidens, one of whom is reading; +the other, holding a distaff, lays her hand on the shoulder of the +Virgin, as if about to speak. The scene represents the interior of the +temple with rich architecture. (Vienna, Col. of Archduke Charles.) + +In a small but very pretty picture by Guido, the Virgin, as a young +girl, sits embroidering a _yellow_ robe. (Lord Ellesmere's Gal.) She +is attended by four angels, one of whom draws aside a curtain It is +also related that among the companions of Mary in the temple was +Anna the prophetess; and that this aged and holy woman, knowing by +inspiration of the Holy Spirit the peculiar grace vouchsafed to Mary, +and her high destiny, beheld her with equal love and veneration; +and, notwithstanding the disparity of age, they become true and dear +friends. + +In an old illumination, the Virgin is seated spinning, with an angel +by her side. (Office of the Virgin, 1408. Oxford, Bodleian.) + + * * * * * + +It is recorded that the angels daily ministered to her, and fed her +with celestial food. Hence in some early specimens of art an angel +brings her a loaf of bread and a pitcher of water,--the _bread of +life_ and the _water of life_ from Paradise. In this subject, as we +find it carved on the stalls of the cathedral of Amiens, Mary holds a +book, and several books are ranged on a shelf in the background: there +is, besides, a clock, such as was in use in the fifteenth century, to +indicate the studious and regular life led by Mary in the temple. + + * * * * * + +St. Evode, patriarch of Antioch, and St. Germanus, assert as +an indubitable tradition of the Greek Church, that Mary had the +privilege--never granted to one of her sex before or since--of +entering the Holy of Holies, and praying before the ark of the +covenant. Hence, in some of the scenes from her early life, the ark is +placed in the background. We must also bear in mind that the ark was +one of the received types of her who bore the Logos within her bosom. + + * * * * * + +In her fourteenth year, Mary was informed by the high priest that it +was proper that she should be married; but she modestly replied that +her parents had dedicated her to the service of the Lord, and that, +therefore, she could not comply. But the high-priest, who had received +a revelation from an angel concerning the destiny of Mary, informed +her thereof, and she with all humility submitted herself to the divine +will. This scene between Mary and the high-priest has been painted by +Luini, and it is the only example with which I am acquainted. + +Pictures of the Virgin in her girlhood, reading intently the Book of +Wisdom, while angels watch over her, are often of great beauty. + + + + +THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN + +_Ital._ Il Sposalizio. _Fr._ Le Mariage de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die +Trauung Mariä. Jan. 23. + + +This, as an artistic subject, is of great consequence, from the beauty +and celebrity of some of the representations, which, however, are +unintelligible without the accompanying legends. And it is worth +remarking, that while the incident is avoided in early Greek art, +it became very popular with the Italian and German painters from the +fourteenth century. + +In the East, the prevalence of the monastic spirit, from the fourth +century, had brought marriage into disrepute; by many of the ascetic +writers of the West it was considered almost in the light of a +necessary evil. This idea, that the primal and most sacred ordinance +of God and nature was incompatible with the sanctity and purity +acceptable to God, was the origin of the singular legends of the +Marriage of the Virgin. One sees very clearly that, if possible, it +would have been denied that Mary had ever been married at all; but, +as the testimony of the Gospel was too direct and absolute to be +set aside, it became necessary, in the narrative, to give to this +distasteful marriage the most recondite motives, and in art, to +surround it with the most poetical and even miraculous accessories. + +But before we enter on the treatment of the subject, it is necessary +to say a few words on the character of Joseph, wonderfully selected to +be the husband and guardian of the consecrated mother of Christ, and +foster-father of the Redeemer; and so often introduced into all the +pictures which refer to the childhood of our Lord. + +From the Gospels we learn nothing of him but that he was of the tribe +of Judah and the lineage of David; that he was a _just_ man; that he +followed the trade of a carpenter, and dwelt in the little city of +Nazareth. We infer from his conduct towards Mary, that he was a mild, +and tender, and pure-hearted, as well as an upright man. Of his age +and personal appearance nothing is said. These are the points on which +the Church has not decided, and on which artists, left to their own +devices, and led by various opinions, have differed considerably. + +The very early painters deemed it right to represent Joseph as very +old, almost decrepit with age, and supported by a crutch. According +to some of the monkish authorities, he was a widower, and eighty-four +years old when he was espoused to Mary. On the other hand, it was +argued, that such a marriage would have been quite contrary to the +custom of the Jews; and that to defend Mary, and to provide for her +celestial Offspring, it was necessary that her husband should be a +man of mature age, but still strong and robust, and able to work +at his trade; and thus, with more propriety and better taste, the +later painters have represented him. In the best Italian and Spanish +pictures of the Holy Family, he is a man of about forty or fifty, +with a mild, benevolent countenance, brown hair, and a short, curled +beard: the crutch, or stick, however, is seldom omitted; it became a +conventional attribute. + +In the German pictures, Joseph is not only old, but appears almost in +a state of dotage, like a lean, wrinkled mendicant, with a bald head, +a white beard, a feeble frame, and a sleepy or stupid countenance. +Then, again, the later Italian painters have erred as much on the +other side; for I have seen pictures in which St. Joseph is not only a +young man not more than thirty, but bears a strong resemblance to the +received heads of our Saviour. + +It is in the sixteenth century that we first find Joseph advanced to +the dignity of a saint in his own right; and in the seventeenth he +became very popular, especially in Spain, where St. Theresa had chosen +him for her patron saint, and had placed her powerful order of the +reformed Carmelites under his protection. Hence the number of pictures +of that time, which represent Joseph, as the foster-father of Christ, +carrying the Infant on his arm and caressing him, while in the other +hand he bears a lily, to express the sanctity and purity of his +relations with the Virgin. + + * * * * * + +The legend of "the Marriage of Joseph and Mary" is thus given in the +Protevangelion and the History of Joseph the Carpenter:-- + + "When Mary was fourteen years old, the priest Zacharias (or + Abiathar, as he is elsewhere called) inquired of the Lord + concerning her, what was right to be done; and an angel came + to him and said, 'Go forth, and call together all the widowers + among the people, and let each bring his rod (or wand) in his + hand, and he to whom the Lord shall show a sign, let him be + the husband of Mary. And Zacharias did as the angel commanded, + and made proclamation accordingly. And Joseph the carpenter, a + righteous man, throwing down his axe, and taking his staff in + his hand, ran out with the rest. When he appeared before the + priest, and presented his rod, lo! a dove issued out of it--a + dove dazzling white as the snow,--and after settling on his + head, flew towards heaven. Then the high priest said to him, + 'Thou art the person chosen to take the Virgin of the Lord, + and to keep her for him.' And Joseph was at first afraid, and + drew back, but afterwards he took her home to his house, and + said to her, 'Behold, I have taken thee from the temple of + the Lord, and now I will leave thee in my house, for I must + go and follow my trade of building. I will return to thee, + and meanwhile the Lord be with thee and watch over thee.' So + Joseph left her, and Mary remained in her house." + +There is nothing said of any marriage ceremony, some have even +affirmed that Mary was only betrothed to Joseph, but for conclusive +reasons it remains an article of faith that she was married to him. + +I must mention here an old tradition cited by St. Jerome, and which +has been used as a text by the painters. The various suitors who +aspired to the honour of marrying the consecrated "Virgin of the +Lord," among whom was the son of the high-priest, deposited their +wands in the temple over night,[1] and next morning the rod of Joseph +was found, like the rod of Aaron, to have budded forth into leaves +and flowers. The other suitors thereupon broke their wands in rage and +despair; and one among them, a youth of noble lineage, whose name was +Agabus, fled to Mount Carmel, and became an anchorite, that is to say, +a Carmelite friar. + +[Footnote 1: The suitors kneeling with their wands before the altar in +the Temple, is one of the series by Giotto in the Arena at Padua.] + +According to the Abbé Orsini, who gives a long description of the +espousals of Mary and Joseph, they returned after the marriage +ceremony to Nazareth, and dwelt in the house of St. Anna. + + * * * * * + +Now, with regard to the representations, we find that many of the +early painters, and particularly the Italians, have carefully attended +to the fact, that, among the Jews, marriage was a civil contract, +not a religious rite. The ceremony takes place in the open air, in a +garden, or in a landscape, or in front of the temple. Mary, as a meek +and beautiful maiden of about fifteen, attended by a train of virgins, +stands on the right; Joseph, behind whom are seen the disappointed +suitors, is on the left. The priest joins their hands, or Joseph is +in the act of placing the ring on the finger of the bride. This is the +traditional arrangement from Giotto down to Raphael. In the series by +Giotto, in the Arena at Padua, we have three scenes from the marriage +legend. 1. St. Joseph and the other suitors present their wands to the +high-priest. 2. They kneel before the altar, on which their wands are +deposited, waiting for the promised miracle. 3. The marriage ceremony. +It takes place before an altar, in the _interior_ of the temple. The +Virgin, a most graceful figure, but rather too old, stands attended +by her maidens; St. Joseph holds his wand with the flower and the holy +Dove resting on it: one of the disappointed suitors is about to strike +him; another breaks his wand against his knee. Taddeo Gaddi, Angelico, +Ghirlandajo, Perugino, all followed this traditional conception of the +subject, except that they omit the altar, and place the locality in +the open air, or under a portico. Among the relics venerated in the +Cathedral of Perugia, is the nuptial ring of the blessed Virgin; and +for the altar of the sacrament there, Perugino painted the appropriate +subject of the Marriage of the Virgin.[1] Here the ceremony takes +place under the portico of the temple, and Joseph of course puts the +ring on her finger. It is a beautiful composition, which has been +imitated more or less by the painters of the Perugino school, and +often repeated in the general arrangement. + +[Footnote 1: It was carried off from the church by the French, sold in +France, and is now to be seen in the Musée at Caen.] + +But in this subject, Raphael, while yet a youth, excelled his +master and all who had gone before him. Every one knows the famous +"SPOSALIZIO of the Brera."[1] It was painted by Raphael in his +twenty-first year, for the church of S. Francesco, in Città di +Castello; and though he has closely followed the conception of +his master, it is modified by that ethereal grace which even then +distinguished him. Here Mary and Joseph stand in front of the temple, +the high-priest joins their hands, and Joseph places the ring on the +finger of the bride; he is a man of about thirty, and holds his wand, +which has blossomed into a lily, but there is no Dove upon it. Behind +Mary is a group of the virgins of the temple; behind Joseph the group +of disappointed suitors; one of whom, in the act of breaking his wand +against his knee, a singularly graceful figure, seen more in front +and richly dressed, is perhaps the despairing youth mentioned in the +legend.[2] With something of the formality of the elder schools, the +figures are noble and dignified; the countenances of the principal +personages have a characteristic refinement and beauty, and a +soft, tender, enthusiastic melancholy, which lends a peculiar and +appropriate charm to the subject. In fact, the whole scene is here +idealized; It is like a lyric poem, (Kugler's Handbook, 2d edit.) + +[Footnote 1: At Milan. The fine engraving by Longhi is well known.] + +[Footnote 2: In the series by Giotto at Padua, we have the youth +breaking his wand across his knee.] + +In Ghirlandajo's composition (Florence, S. Maria Novella), Joseph +is an old man with a bald head; the architecture is splendid; the +accessory figures, as is usual with Ghirlandajo, are numerous and +full of grace. In the background are musicians playing on the pipe +and tabor, an incident which I do not recollect to have seen in other +pictures. + +The Sposalizio by Girolamo da Cotignola (Bologna Gal.), painted for +the church of St. Joseph, is treated quite in a mystical style. Mary +and Joseph stand before an altar, on the steps of which are seated, on +one side a prophet, on the other a sibyl. + + * * * * * + +By the German painters the scene is represented with a characteristic +homely neglect of all historic propriety. The temple is a Gothic +church; the altar has a Gothic altar-piece; Joseph looks like an old +burgher arrayed in furs and an embroidered gown; and the Virgin is +richly dressed in the costume of the fifteenth century. The suitors +are often knights and cavaliers with spurs and tight hose. + + * * * * * + +It is not said anywhere that St. Anna and St. Joachim were present at +the marriage of their daughter; hence they are supposed to have been +dead before it took place. This has not prevented some of the old +German artists from introducing them, because, according to their +ideas of domestic propriety, they _ought_ to have been present. + + * * * * * + +I observe that the later painters who treated the subject, Rubens and +Poussin for instance, omit the disappointed suitors. + + * * * * * + +After the marriage, or betrothal, Joseph conducts his wife to his +house. The group of the returning procession has been beautifully +treated in Giotto's series at Padua;[1] still more beautifully by +Luigi in the fragment of fresco now in the Brera at Milan. Here Joseph +and Mary walk together hand in hand. He looks at her, just touching +her fingers with an air of tender veneration; she looks down, serenely +modest. Thus they return together to their humble home; and with this +scene closes the first part of the life of the Virgin Mary. + +[Footnote 1: Cappella dell' Arena, engraved for the Arundel Society.] + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART II + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE RETURN FROM +EGYPT. + +1. THE ANNUNCIATION. 2. THE SALUTATION OF ELIZABETH. 3. THE JOUBNEY TO +BETHLEHEM. 4. THE NATIVITY. 6. THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. 6. +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. 7. THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 8. THE +FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. 9. THE RIPOSO. 10. THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION. + +_Ital._ L' Annunciazione. La B. Vergine Annunziata. _Fr._ +L'Annonciation. La Salutation Angélique. _Ger._ Die Verkündi gung. Der +Englische Gruss. March 25. + + +The second part of the life of the Virgin Mary begins with the +Annunciation and ends with the Crucifixion, comprising all those +scriptural incidents which connect her history with that of her divine +Son. + +But to the scenes narrated in the Gospels the painters did not confine +themselves. Not only were the simple scripture histories coloured +throughout by the predominant and enthusiastic veneration paid to the +Virgin--till the life of Christ was absolutely merged in that of His +mother, and its various incidents became "the seven joys and the seven +sorrows of Mary,"--but we find the artistic representations of her +life curiously embroidered and variegated by the introduction of +traditional and apocryphal circumstances, in most cases sanctioned +by the Church authorities of the time. However doubtful or repulsive +some of these scenes and incidents, we cannot call them absolutely +unmeaning or absurd; on the contrary, what was _supposed_ grew up very +naturally, in the vivid and excited imaginations of the people, out of +what was _recorded_; nor did they distinguish accurately between what +they were allowed and what they were commanded to believe. Neither can +it be denied that the traditional incidents--those at least which we +find artistically treated--are often singularly beautiful, poetical, +and instructive. In the hands of the great religions artists, who +worked in their vocation with faith and simplicity, objects and scenes +the most familiar and commonplace became sanctified and glorified by +association with what we deem most holy and most venerable. In the +hands of the later painters the result was just the reverse--what +was most spiritual, most hallowed, most elevated, became secularized, +materialized, and shockingly degraded. + +No subject has been more profoundly felt and more beautifully handled +by the old painters, nor more vilely mishandled by the moderns, than +the ANNUNCIATION, of all the scenes in the life of Mary the most +important and the most commonly met with. Considered merely as an +artistic subject, it is surely eminently beautiful: it places before +us the two most graceful forms which the hand of man was ever called +on to delineate;--the winged spirit fresh from paradise; the woman +not less pure, and even more highly blessed--the chosen vessel of +redemption, and the personification of all female loveliness, all +female excellence, all wisdom, and all purity. + + * * * * * + +We find the Annunciation, like many other scriptural incidents, +treated in two ways--as a mystery, and as an event. Taken in the +former sense, it became the expressive symbol of a momentous article +of faith, _The Incarnation of the Deity_. Taken in the latter sense, +it represented the announcement of salvation to mankind, through the +direct interposition of miraculous power. In one sense or the other, +it enters into every scheme of ecclesiastical decoration; but +chiefly it is set before us as a great and awful mystery, of which +the two figures of Gabriel, the angel-messenger, and Mary the +"highly-favoured," placed in relation to each other, became the +universally accepted symbol, rather than the representation. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION AS A MYSTERY. + + +Considering the importance given to the Annunciation in its mystical +sense, it is strange that we do not find it among the very ancient +symbolical subjects adopted in the first ages of Christian art. It +does not appear on the sarcophagi, nor in the early Greek carvings and +diptychs, nor in the early mosaics--except once, and then as a part of +the history of Christ, not as a symbol; nor can we trace the mystical +treatment of this subject higher than the eleventh century, when +it first appears in the Gothic sculpture and stained glass. In the +thirteenth, and thenceforward, the Annunciation appears before +us, as the expression in form of a theological dogma, everywhere +conspicuous. It became a primal element in every combination of sacred +representations; the corner-stone, as it were, of every architectural +system of religious decoration. It formed a part of every altar-piece, +either in sculpture or painting. Sometimes the Virgin stands on +one side of the altar, the angel on the other, carved in marble or +alabaster, or of wood richly painted and gilt; or even, as I have +seen in some instances, of solid silver. Not seldom, we find the two +figures placed in niches against the pillars, or on pedestals at the +entrance of the choir. It was not necessary, when thus symbolically +treated, to place the two figures in proximity to signify their +relation to each other; they are often divided by the whole breadth +of the chancel. + +Whatever the subject of the altar-piece--whether the Nativity, or the +Enthroned Madonna, or the Coronation, or the Crucifixion, or the +Last Supper,--the Annunciation almost invariably formed part of the +decoration, inserted either into the spandrels of the arches above, or +in the predella below; or, which is very common, painted or carved on +the doors of a tabernacle or triptychon. + +If the figures are full-length, a certain symmetry being required, +they are either both standing or both kneeling; it is only in later +times that the Virgin sits, and the angel kneels. When disposed in +circles or semicircles, they are often merely busts, or half-length +figures, separated perhaps by a framework of tracery, or set on each +side of the principal subject, whatever that may be. Hence it is +that we so often find in galleries and collections, pictures of the +Annunciation in two separate parts, the angel in one frame, the +Virgin in another; and perhaps the two pictures, thus disunited, +may have found their way into different countries and different +collections,--the Virgin being in Italy and the angel in England. + +Sometimes the Annunciation--still as a mystical subject--forms an +altar-piece of itself. In many Roman Catholic churches there is +a chapel or an altar dedicated expressly to the mystery of the +Annunciation, the subject forming of course the principal decoration. +At Florence there is a church--one of the most splendid and +interesting of its many beautiful edifices--dedicated to the +Annunciation, or rather to the Virgin in her especial character and +dignity, as the Instrument of the Incarnation, and thence styled +the church _della Santissima Nunziata_. The fine mosaic of the +Annunciation by Ghirlandajo is placed over the principal entrance. Of +this church, and of the order of the Servi, to whom it belongs, I have +already spoken at length. Here, in the first chapel on the left, as +we enter, is to be found the miraculous picture of the Annunciation, +formerly held in such veneration, not merely by all Florence, but +all Christendom:--found, but not seen--for it is still concealed from +profane eyes, and exhibited to the devout only on great occasions. The +name of the painter is disputed; but, according to tradition, it is +the work of a certain Bartolomeo; who, while he sat meditating on the +various excellences and perfections of our Lady, and most especially +on her divine beauty, and thinking, with humility, how inadequate were +his own powers to represent her worthily, fell asleep; and on awaking, +found the head of the Virgin had been wondrously completed, either by +the hand of an angel, or by that of St. Luke, who had descended from +heaven on purpose. Though this curious relic has been frequently +restored, no one has presumed to touch the features of the Virgin, +which are, I am told--for I have never been blessed with a sight +of the original picture--marvellously sweet and beautiful. It is +concealed by a veil, on which is painted a fine head of the Redeemer, +by Andrea del Sarto; and forty-two lamps of silver burn continually +round it. There is a copy in the Pitti Palace, by Carlo Dolce. + +It is evident that the Annunciation, as a mystery, admits of a style +of treatment which would not be allowable in the representation of +an event. In the former case, the artist is emancipated from all +considerations of locality or circumstance. Whether the background +be of gold, or of blue, or star-bespangled sky,--a mere curtain, or a +temple of gorgeous architecture; whether the accessories be the most +simple or the most elaborate, the most real or the most ideal; all +this is of little moment, and might be left to the imagination of the +artist, or might be modified according to the conditions imposed by +the purpose of the representation and the material employed, so long +as the chief object is fulfilled--the significant expression of an +abstract dogma, appealing to the faith, not to the senses or the +understanding, of the observer. + +To this class, then, belong all those church images and pictures of +the Annunciation, either confined to the two personages, with just +sufficient of attitude and expression to place them in relation to +each other, or with such accompaniments as served to carry out the +mystical idea, still keeping it as far as possible removed from the +region of earthly possibilities. In the fifteenth century--that age of +mysticism--we find the Annunciation, not merely treated as an abstract +religious emblem, but as a sort of divine allegory or poem, which +in old French and Flemish art is clothed in the quaintest, the most +curious forms. I recollect going into a church at Breslau, and +finding over one of the altars a most elaborate carving in wood of +the Annunciation. Mary is seated within a Gothic porch of open tracery +work; a unicorn takes refuge in her bosom: outside, a kneeling angel +winds a hunting horn; three or four dogs are crouching near him. I +looked and wondered. At first I could make nothing of this singular +allegory; but afterwards found the explanation, in a learned French +work on the "Stalles d'Amiens." I give the original passage, for it +will assist the reader to the comprehension of many curious works of +art; but I do not venture to translate it. + +"On sait qu'an XVI siècle, le mystère de l'Incarnation étoit souvent +représenté par une allegorie ainsi conçue: Une licorne se réfugiant +au sein d'une vierge pure, quatre lévriers la pressant d'une course +rapide, un veneur ailé sonnant de la trompette. La science de la +zoologie mystique du temps aide à en trouver l'explication; le +fabuleux animal dont l'unique corne ne blessait que pour purger de +tout venin l'endroit du corps qu'elle avoit touché, figuroit Jésus +Christ, médecin et sauveur des âmes; on donnait aux lévriers agiles +les noms de Misericordia, Veritas, Justitia, Pax, les quatre raisons +qui ont pressé le Verbe éternel de sortir de son repos mais comme +c'étoit par la Vierge Marie qu'il avoit voulu descendre parmi les +hommes et se mettre en leur puissance, on croyoit ne pouvoir mieux +faire que de choisir dans la fable, le fait d'une pucelle pouvant +seule servir de piége à la licorne, en l'attirant par le charme +et le parfum de son sein virginal qu'elle lui présentoit; enfin +l'ange Gabriel concourant au mystère étoit bien reconnoissable sous +les traits du venenr ailé lançant les lévriers et embouchant la +trompette." + + * * * * * + +It appears that this was an accepted religious allegory, as familiar +in the sixteenth century as those of Spenser's "Fairy Queen" or the +"Pilgrim's Progress" are to us. I have since found it frequently +reproduced in the old French and German prints: there is a specimen +in the British Museum; and there is a picture similarly treated in the +Musée at Amiens. I have never seen it in an Italian picture or print; +unless a print after Guido, wherein a beautiful maiden is seated under +a tree, and a unicorn has sought refuge in her lap, be intended to +convey the same far-fetched allegory. + +Very common, however, in Italian art, is a less fantastic, but still +wholly poetical version of the Annunciation, representing, in fact, +not the Annunciation, but the Incarnation. Thus, in a picture by +Giovanni Sanzio (the father of Raphael) (Brera, Milan), Mary stands +under a splendid portico; she appears as if just risen from her seat +her hands are meekly folded over her bosom; her head declined. The +angel kneels outside the portico, holding forth his lily; while above, +in the heavens, the Padre Eterno sends forth the Redeemer, who, in +form of the infant Christ bearing his cross, floats downwards towards +the earth, preceded by the mystic Dove. This manner of representing +the Incarnation is strongly disapproved of by the Abbé Méry (v. +Théologie des Peintres), as not only an error, but a heresy: yet it +was frequently repeated in the sixteenth century. + +The Annunciation is also a mystery when certain emblems are introduced +conveying a certain signification; as when Mary is seated on a throne, +wearing a radiant crown of mingled gems and flowers, and receives the +message of the angel with all the majesty that could be expressed by +the painter; or is seated, in a garden enclosed by a hedge of roses +(the _Hortus clausus_ or _conclusus_ of the Canticles); or where the +angel holds in his hands the sealed book, as in the famous altar-piece +at Cologne. + +In a picture by Simone Memmi, the Virgin seated on a Gothic throne +receives, as the higher and superior being, yet with a shrinking +timidity, the salutation of the angel, who comes as the messenger +of peace, olive-crowned, and bearing a branch of olive in his hand. +(Florence Gal.) This poetical version is very characteristic of the +early Siena school, in which we often find a certain fanciful and +original way of treating well known subjects. Taddeo Bartoli, another +Sienese, and Martin Schoen, the most poetical of the early Germans, +also adopted the olive-symbol; and we find it also in the tabernacle +of King Réné, already described. + +The treatment is clearly devotional and ideal where attendant +saints and votaries stand or kneel around, contemplating with devout +gratitude or ecstatic wonder the divine mystery. Thus, in a remarkable +and most beautiful picture by Fra Bartolomeo, the Virgin is seated on +her throne; the angel descends from on high bearing his lily: around +the throne attend St. John the Baptist and St. Francis, St. Jerome, +St. Paul, and St. Margaret. (Bologna Gal.) Again, in a very beautiful +picture by Francia, Mary stands in the midst of an open landscape; her +hands, folded over each other, press to her bosom a book closed and +clasped: St. Jerome stands on the right, John the Baptist on the left; +both look up with a devout expression to the angel descending from +above. In both these examples Mary is very nobly and expressively +represented as the chosen and predestined vehicle of human redemption. +It is not here the Annunciation, but the "_Sacratissima Annunziata_" +we see before us. In a curious picture by Francesco da Cotignola, +Mary stands on a sculptured pedestal, in the midst of an architectural +decoration of many-coloured marbles, most elaborately painted: through +an opening is seen a distant landscape, and the blue sky; on her +right stands St. John the Baptist, pointing upwards; on her left St. +Francis, adoring; the votary kneels in front. (Berlin Gal.) Votive +pictures of the Annunciation were frequently expressive offerings from +those who desired, or those who had received, the blessing of an heir; +and this I take to be an instance. + +In the following example, the picture is votive in another sense, +and altogether poetical. The Virgin Mary receives the message of the +angel, as usual; but before her, at a little distance, kneels the +Cardinal Torrecremata, who presents three young girls, also kneeling, +to one of whom the Virgin gives a purse of money. This curious and +beautiful picture becomes intelligible, when we find that it was +painted for a charitable community, instituted by Torrecremata, +for educating and endowing poor orphan girls, and styled the +"_Confraternità dell' Annunziatà _."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Benozzo Gozzoli, in S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome.] + +In the charming Annunciation by Angelico, the scene is in the cloister +of his own convent of St. Mark. A Dominican (St. Peter Martyr) +stands in the background with hands folded in prayer. I might add +many beautiful examples from Fra Bartolomeo, and in sculpture from +Benedetto Maiano, Luca della Robbia, and others, but have said enough +to enable the observer to judge of the intention of the artist. The +Annunciation by Sansovino among the bas-reliefs, which cover the +chapel at Loretto is of great elegance. + +I must, however, notice one more picture. Of six Annunciations +painted by Rubens, five represent the event; the sixth is one of his +magnificent and most palpable allegories, all glowing with life and +reality. Here Mary kneels on the summit of a flight of steps; a dove, +encompassed by cherubim, hovers over her head. Before her kneels +the celestial messenger; behind him Moses and Aaron, with David and +other patriarchal ancestors of Christ. In the clouds above is seen +the heavenly Father; on his right are two female figures, Peace and +Reconciliation; on his left, angels bear the ark of the covenant. In +the lower part of the picture, stand Isaiah and Jeremiah, with four +sibyls:--thus connecting the prophecies of the Old Testament, and +the promises made to the Gentile nations through the sibyls, with the +fulfilment of both in the message from on high. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION AS AN EVENT. + + +Had the Annunciation to Mary been merely mentioned as an awful and +incomprehensible vision, it would have been better to have adhered to +the mystical style of treatment, or left it alone altogether; but the +Scripture history, by giving the whole narration as a simple fact, a +real event, left it free for representation as such; and, as such, the +fancy of the artist was to be controlled and limited only by the words +of Scripture as commonly understood and interpreted, and by those +proprieties of time, place, and circumstance, which would be required +in the representation of any other historical incident or action. + +When all the accompaniments show that nothing more was in the mind +of the artist than the aim to exhibit an incident in the life of the +Virgin, or an introduction to that of our Lord, the representation is +no longer mystical and devotional, but historical. The story was to be +told with all the fidelity, or at least all the likelihood, that was +possible; and it is clear that, in this case, the subject admitted, +and even required, a more dramatic treatment, with such accessories +and accompaniments as might bring the scene within the sphere of the +actual. In this sense it is not to be mistaken. Although the action is +of itself so very simple, and the actors confined to two persons, it +is astonishing to note the infinite variations of which this favourite +theme has been found susceptible. Whether all these be equally +appropriate and laudable, is quite another question; and in how far +the painters have truly interpreted the Scriptural narration, is now +to be considered. + +And first, with regard to the time, which is not especially mentioned. +It was presumed by the Fathers and early commentators on Scripture, +that the Annunciation must have taken place in early spring-time, at +eventide, soon after sunset, the hour since consecrated as the "Ave +Maria," as the bell which announces it is called the "Angelus;"[1] +but other authorities say that it was rather at midnight, because +the nativity of our Lord took place at the corresponding hour in the +following December. This we find exactly attended to by many of the +old painters, and indicated either by the moon and stars in the sky, +or by a taper or a lamp burning near. + +[Footnote 1: So Lord Byron:-- + + "Ave Maria! blessed be the hour! + The time, the clime, the spot, where I so oft + Have felt that moment in its fullest power + Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, + While swung the deep bell in the distant tower, + Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft, + And not a breath crept through the rosy air, + And yet the forest leaves seem'd stirr'd with prayer"] + + * * * * * + +With regard to the locality, we are told by St. Luke that the angel +Gabriel was sent from God, and that "he came _in_ to Mary" (Luke i. +28), which seems to express that she was _within_ her house. + +In describing the actual scene of the interview between the angel and +Mary, the legendary story of the Virgin adheres very closely to the +scriptural text. But it also relates, that Mary went forth at evening +to draw water from the fountain; that she heard a voice which said, +"Hail thou that art full of grace!" and thereupon being troubled, she +looked to the right and to the left, and seeing no one, returned to +her _house_, and sat down to her work, (Protevangelion, ix. 7.) Had +any exact attention been paid to oriental customs, Mary might have +been working or reading or meditating on the roof of her house; but +this has not suggested itself in any instance that I can remember. We +have, as the scene of the interview, an interior which is sometimes +like an oratory, sometimes a portico with open arcades; but more +generally a bedroom. The poverty of Joseph and Mary, and their humble +condition in life, are sometimes attended to, but not always; for, +according to one tradition, the house at Nazareth was that which Mary +had inherited from her parents, Joachim and Anna, who were people of +substance. Hence, the painters had an excuse for making the chamber +richly furnished, the portico sustained by marble pillars, or +decorated with sculpture. In the German and Flemish pictures, the +artist, true to the national characteristic of _naïve_ and literal +illustration, gives us a German or a Gothic chamber, with a lattice +window of small panes of glass, and a couch with pillows, or a +comfortable four-post bedstead, furnished with draperies, thus +imparting to the whole scene an air of the most vivid homely reality. + +As for the accessories, the most usual, almost indispensable, is the +pot of lilies, the symbolical _Fleur de Marie_, which I have already +explained at length. There is also a basket containing needle work and +implements of female industry, as scissors, &c.; not merely to express +Mary's habitual industry, but because it is related that when she +returned to her house, "she took the purple linen, and sat down to +work it." The work-basket is therefore seldom omitted. Sometimes a +distaff lies at her feet, as in Raphael's Annunciation. In old German +pictures we have often a spinning-wheel. To these emblems of industry +is often added a basket, or a dish, containing fruit; and near it a +pitcher of water to express the temperance of the blessed Virgin. + +There is grace and meaning in the introduction of birds, always +emblems of the spiritual. Titian places a tame partridge at the feet +of Mary, which expresses her tenderness; but the introduction of a +cat, as in Barroccio's picture, is insufferable. + + * * * * * + +The archangel Gabriel, "one of those who stand continually in the +presence of God," having received his mission, descends to earth. +In the very earliest representation of the Annunciation, as an event +(Mosaic, S. Maria Maggiore), we have this descent of the winged spirit +from on high; and I have seen other instances. There is a small and +beautiful sketch by Garofalo (Alton Towers), in which, from amidst +a flood of light, and a choir of celestial spirits, such as Milton +describes as adoring the "divine sacrifice" proclaimed for sinful man +(Par. Lost, b. iii.), the archangel spreads his lucid wings, and seems +just about to take his flight to Nazareth. He was accompanied, says +the Italian legend, by a train of lower angels, anxious to behold +and reverence their Queen; these remained, however, at the door, or +"before the gate," while Gabriel entered. + +The old German masters are fond of representing him as entering by +a door in the background, while the serene Virgin, seated in front, +seems aware of his presence without seeing him. + +In some of the old pictures, he comes in flying from above, or he is +upborne by an effulgent cloud, and surrounded by a glory which lights +the whole picture,--a really _celestial_ messenger, as in a fresco +by Spinello Aretino. In others, he comes gliding in, "smooth sliding +without step;" sometimes he enters like a heavenly ambassador, and +little angels hold up his train. In a picture by Tintoretto, he comes +rushing in as upon a whirlwind, followed by a legion of lesser angels; +while on the outside of the building, Joseph the carpenter is seen +quietly at his work. (Venice, School of S. Rocco.) + +But, whether walking or flying, Gabriel bears, of course, the +conventional angelic form, that of the human creature, winged, +beautiful, and radiant with eternal youth, yet with a grave and +serious mien, in the later pictures, the drapery given to the angel is +offensively scanty; his sandals, and bare arms, and fluttering robe, +too much _à l'antique_; he comes in the attitude of a flying Mercury, +or a dancer in a ballet. But in the early Italian pictures his dress +is arranged with a kind of solemn propriety: it is that of an acolyte, +white and full, and falling in large folds over his arms, and in +general concealing his feet. In the German pictures, he often wears +the priestly robe, richly embroidered, and clasped in front by a +jewel. His ambrosial curls fall over this cope in "hyacinthine +flow." The wings are essential, and never omitted. They are white, or +many-coloured, eyed like the peacock's train, or bedropped with gold. +He usually bears the lily in his hand, but not always. Sometimes it is +the sceptre, the ancient attribute of a herald; and this has a scroll +around it, with the words, "Ave Maria gratia plena!" The sceptre or +wand is, occasionally surmounted by a cross. + +In general, the palm is given to the angel who announces the death of +Mary. In one or two instances only I have seen the palm given to the +angel Gabriel, as in a predella by Angelico; for which, however, the +painter had the authority of Dante, or Dante some authority earlier +still. He says of Gabriel, + + "That he bore the _palm_ + Down unto Mary when the Son of God + Vouchsafed to clothe him in terrestrial weeds." + +The olive-bough has a mystical sense wherever adopted: it is the +symbol of _peace_ on earth. Often the angel bears neither lily, nor +sceptre, nor palm, nor olive. His hands are folded on his bosom; or, +with one hand stretched forth, and the other pointing upwards, he +declares his mission from on high. + +In the old Greek pictures, and in the most ancient Italian examples, +the angel stands; as in the picture by Cimabue, wherein the Greek +model is very exactly followed. According to the Roman Catholic +belief, Mary is Queen of heaven, and of angels--the superior being; +consequently, there is propriety in making the angel deliver his +message kneeling: but even according to the Protestant belief the +attitude would not be unbecoming, for the angel, having uttered +his salutation, might well prostrate himself as witness of the +transcending miracle, and beneath the overshadowing presence of +the Holy Spirit. + +Now, as to the attitude and occupation of Mary at the moment the +angel entered, authorities are not agreed. It is usual to exhibit her +as kneeling in prayer, or reading with a large book open on a desk +before her. St. Bernard says that she was studying the book of the +prophet Isaiah, and as she recited the verse, "Behold, a Virgin shall +conceive, and bear a son," she thought within her heart, in her great +humility, "How blessed the woman of whom these words are written! +Would I might be but her handmaid to serve her, and allowed, to kiss +her feet!"--when, in the same instant, the wondrous vision burst +upon her, and the holy prophecy was realized in herself. (Il perfetto +Legendario.) + +I think it is a manifest fault to disturb the sublime tenor of the +scene by representing Mary as starting up in alarm; for, in the first +place, she was accustomed, as we have seen, to the perpetual ministry +of angels, who daily and hourly attended on her. It is, indeed, said +that Mary was troubled; but it was not the presence, but the "saying" +of the angel which troubled her--it was the question "how this should +be?" (Luke i. 29.) The attitude, therefore, which some painters have +given to her, as if she had started from her seat, not only in terror, +but in indignation, is altogether misplaced. A signal instance is +the statue of the Virgin by Mocchi in the choir of the cathedral at +Orvieto, so grand in itself, and yet so offensive as a devotional +figure. Misplaced is also, I think, the sort of timid shrinking +surprise which is the expression in some pictures. The moment is +much too awful, the expectance much too sublime, for any such human, +girlish emotions. If the painter intend to express the moment in which +the angel appears and utters the salutation, "Hail!" then Mary may be +standing, and her looks directed towards him, as in a fine majestic +Annunciation of Andrea del Sarto. Standing was the antique attitude +of prayer; so that if we suppose her to have been interrupted in her +devotions, the attitude is still appropriate. But if that moment +be chosen in which she expressed her submission to the divine will, +"Behold the handmaid of the Lord! let it be unto me according to thy +word!" then she might surely kneel with bowed bead, and folded hands, +and "downcast eyes beneath th' almighty Dove." No attitude could be +too humble to express that response; and Dante has given us, as the +most perfect illustration of the virtue of humility, the sentiment and +attitude of Mary when submitting herself to the divine will. (Purg. +x., Cary's Trans.) + + "The angel (who came down to earth + With tidings of the peace to many years + Wept for in vain, that op'd the heavenly gates + From their long interdict) before us seem'd + In a sweet act so sculptur'd to the life, + He look'd no silent image. One had sworn + He had said 'Hail!' for SHE was imag'd there, + By whom the key did open to God's love; + And in her act as sensibly imprest + That word, 'Behold the handmaid of the Lord,' + As figure seal'd on wax." + +And very beautifully has Flaxman transferred the sculpture "divinely +wrought upon the rock of marble white" to earthly form. + + * * * * * + +The presence of the Holy Spirit in the historical Annunciations is to +be accounted for by the words of St. Luke, and the visible form of the +Dove is conventional and authorized. In many pictures, the celestial +Dove enters by the open casement. Sometimes it seems to brood +immediately over the head of the Virgin; sometimes it hovers towards +her bosom. As for the perpetual introduction of the emblem of the +Padre Eterno, seen above the sky, under the usual half-figure of a +kingly ancient man, surrounded by a glory of cherubim, and sending +forth upon a beam of light the immaculate Dove, there is nothing to +be said but the usual excuse for the mediæval artists, that certainly +there was no _conscious_ irreverence. The old painters, great as they +were in art, lived in ignorant but zealous times--in times when +faith was so fixed, so much a part of the life and soul, that it was +not easily shocked or shaken; as it was not founded in knowledge or +reason, so nothing that startled the reason could impair it. Religion, +which now speaks to us through words, then spoke to the people through +visible forms universally accepted; and, in the fine arts, we accept +such forms according to the feeling which _then_ existed in men's +minds, and which, in its sincerity, demands our respect, though now we +might not, could not, tolerate the repetition. We must also remember +that it was not in the ages of ignorance and faith that we find +the grossest materialism in art. It was in the learned, half-pagan +sixteenth and the polished seventeenth century, that this materialized +theology became most offensive. Of all the artists who have sinned +in the Annunciation--and they are many--Nicolò Poussin is perhaps +the worst. Yet he was a good, a pious man, as well as a learned and +accomplished painter. All through the history of the art, the French +show themselves as the most signal violators of good taste, and what +they have invented a word for--_bienséance_. They are worse than the +old Germans; worse than the modern Spaniards--and that is saying much. + +In Raphael's Annunciation, Mary is seated in a reclining attitude, +leaning against the side of her couch, and holding a book. The angel, +whose attitude expresses a graceful _empressement_, kneels at some +distance, holding the lily. + + * * * * * + +Michael Angelo gives us a most majestic Virgin standing on the steps +of a prie-Dieu, and turning with hands upraised towards the angel, who +appears to have entered by the open door; his figure is most clumsy +and material, and his attitude unmeaning and ungraceful. It is, I +think, the only instance in which Michael Angelo has given wings to +an angelic being: for here they could not be dispensed with. + +In a beautiful Annunciation by Johan Van Eyck (Munich Gal., Cabinet +iii. 35), the Virgin kneels at a desk with a book before her. She has +long fair hair, and a noble intellectual brow. Gabriel, holding his +sceptre, stands in the door-way. The Dove enters by the lattice. A +bed is in the background, and in front a pot of lilies. In another +Annunciation by Van Eyck, painted on the Ghent altar-piece, we have +the mystic, not the historical, representation, and a very beautiful +effect is produced by clothing both the angel and Mary in robes of +pure white. (Berlin Gal., 520, 521.) + +In an engraving after Rembrandt, the Virgin kneels by a fountain, +and the angel kneels on the opposite side. This seems to express the +legendary scene. + +These few observations on the general arrangement of the theme, +whether mystical or historical, will, I hope, assist the observer in +discriminating for himself. I must not venture further, for we have a +wide range of subjects before us. + + + + +THE VISITATION. + +_Ital._ La Visitazione di Maria. _Fr._ La Visitation de la Vierge +_Ger._ Die Heimsuchung Mariä. July 2. + + +After the Annunciation of the angel, the Scripture goes on to relate +how "Mary arose and went up into the hill country with haste, to +the house of her cousin Elizabeth, and saluted her." This meeting +of the two kinswomen is the subject styled in art the "Visitation," +and sometimes the "Salutation of Elizabeth." It is of considerable +importance, in a series of the life of the Virgin, as an event; and +also, when taken separately in its religious significance, as being +the first recognition of the character of the Messiah. "Whence is this +to me," exclaims Elizabeth, "that the mother of my Lord should come to +me?" (Luke i. 43); and as she spoke this through the influence of the +Holy Spirit, and not through knowledge, she is considered in the light +of a prophetess. + +Of Elizabeth I must premise a few words, because in many +representations relating to the life of the Virgin, and particularly +in those domestic groups, the Holy Families properly so called, she +is a personage of great importance, and we ought to be able, by some +preconceived idea of her bearing and character, to test the propriety +of that impersonation usually adopted by the artists. We must remember +that she was much older than her cousin, a woman "well stricken +in years;" but it is a, great mistake to represent her as old, as +wrinkled and decrepit, as some painters have done. We are told that +she was righteous before the Lord, "walking in all his commandments +blameless:" the manner in which she received the visit of Mary, +acknowledging with a glad humility the higher destinies of her young +relative, show her to have been free from all envy and jealousy. +Therefore all pictures of Elizabeth should exhibit her as an elderly, +but not an aged matron; a dignified, mild, and gracious creature; one +selected to high honour by the Searcher of hearts, who, looking down +on hers, had beheld it pure from any secret taint of selfishness, even +as her conduct had been blameless before man.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a full account of the legends relating to Elizabeth, +the mother of the Baptist, see the fourth series of Sacred and +Legendary Art.] + + * * * * * + +Such a woman as we believe Mary to have been must have loved and +honoured such a woman as Elizabeth. Wherefore, having heard that +Elizabeth had been exalted to a miraculous motherhood, she made haste +to visit her, not to ask her advice,--for being graced with all good +gifts of the Holy Spirit, and herself the mother of Wisdom, she could +not need advice,--but to sympathize with her cousin and reveal what +had happened to herself. + +Thus then they met, "these two mothers of two great princes, of whom +one was pronounced the greatest born of woman, and the other was his +Lord:" happiest and most exalted of all womankind before or since, +"needs must they have discoursed like seraphim and the most ecstasied +order of Intelligences!" Such was the blessed encounter represented in +the Visitation. + + * * * * * + +The number of the figures, the locality and circumstances, vary +greatly. Sometimes we have only the two women, without accessories +of any kind, and nothing interferes with the high solemnity of that +moment in which Elizabeth confesses the mother of her Lord. The better +to express this willing homage, this momentous prophecy, she is often +kneeling. Other figures are frequently introduced, because it could +not be supposed that Mary made the journey from Nazareth to the +dwelling of Zacharias near Jerusalem, a distance of fifty miles, +alone. Whether her husband Joseph accompanied her, is doubtful; +and while many artists have introduced him, others have omitted him +altogether. According to the ancient Greek formula laid down for the +religious painters, Mary is accompanied by a servant or a boy, who +carries a stick across his shoulder, and a basket slung to it. The old +Italians who followed the Byzantine models seldom omit this attendant, +but in some instances (as in the magnificent composition of Michael +Angelo, in the possession of Mr. Bromley, of Wootten) a handmaid +bearing a basket on her head is substituted for the boy. In many +instances Joseph, attired as a traveller, appears behind the Virgin, +and Zacharias, in his priestly turban and costume, behind Elizabeth. + +The locality is often an open porch or a garden in front of a house; +and this garden of Zacharias is celebrated in Eastern tradition. It is +related that the blessed Virgin, during her residence with her cousin +Elizabeth, frequently recreated herself by walking in the garden +of Zacharias, while she meditated on the strange and lofty destiny +to which she was appointed; and farther, that happening one day to +touch a certain flower, which grew there, with her most blessed hand, +from being inodorous before, it became from that moment deliciously +fragrant. The garden therefore was a fit place for the meeting. + + * * * * * + +1. The earliest representation of the Visitation to which I can refer +is a rude but not ungraceful drawing, in the Catacombs at Rome, of two +women embracing. It is not of very high antiquity, perhaps the seventh +or eighth century, but there can be so doubt about the subject. +(Cemetery of Julius, v. Bosio, Roma sotterana.) + +2. Cimabue has followed the Greek formula, and his simple group +appears to me to have great feeling and simplicity. + +3. More modern instances, from the date of the revival of art, abound +in every form. Almost every painter who has treated subjects from the +life of the Virgin has treated the Visitation. In the composition by +Raphael (Madrid Gal.) there are the two figures only; and I should +object to this otherwise perfect picture, the bashful conscious look +of the Virgin Mary. The heads are, however, eminently beautiful and +dignified. In the far background is seen the Baptism of Christ--very +happily and significantly introduced, not merely as expressing the +name of the votary who dedicated the picture, _Giovan-Battista_ +Branconio, but also as expressing the relation between the two unborn +Children--the Christ and his Prophet. + +4. The group by Sebastian del Piombo is singularly grand, showing in +every part the influence of Michael Angelo, but richly coloured in +Sebastian's best manner. The figures are seen only to the knees. In +the background, Zacharias is seen hurrying down some steps to receive +the Virgin.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, 1224. There is, in the Louvre, another Visitation +of singular and characteristic beauty by D. Ghirlandajo.] + +5. The group by Pinturicchio, with the attendant angels, is remarkable +for its poetic grace; and that by Lucas v. Leyden is equally +remarkable for affectionate sentiment. + +6. Still more beautiful, and more dramatic and varied, is another +composition by Pinturicchio in the Sala Borgia. (Vatican, Rome.) The +Virgin and St. Elizabeth, in the centre, take each other's hands. +Behind the Virgin is St. Joseph, a maiden with a basket on her head, +and other attendants. Behind St. Elizabeth, we have a view into the +interior of her house, through arcades richly sculptured; and within, +Zacharias is reading, and the handmaids of Elizabeth, are spinning and +sewing. This elegant fresco was painted for Alexander VI. + +7. There is a fine picture of this subject, by Andrea Sabattini of +Salerno, the history of which is rather curious. "It was painted at +the request of the Sanseverini, princes of Salerno, to be presented to +a nunnery, in which one of that noble family had taken the veil. Under +the form of the blessed Virgin, Andrea represented the last princess +of Salerno, who was of the family of Villa Marina; under that of St. +Joseph, the prince her husband; an old servant of the family figures +as St. Elizabeth; and in the features of Zacharias we recognize those +of Bernardo Tasso, the father of Torquato Tasso, and then secretary +to the prince of Salerno. After remaining for many years over the high +altar of the church, it was removed through the scruples of one of +the Neapolitan archbishops, who was scandalized by the impropriety of +placing the portraits of well-known personages in such a situation." +The picture, once removed from its place, disappeared, and by some +means found its way to the Louvre. Andrea, who was one of the most +distinguished of the scholars of Raphael, died in 1545.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture is thus described in the old catalogues of +the Louvre (No. 1207); but is not to be found in that of Villot.] + +8. The composition by Rubens has all that scenic effect and dramatic +movement which was characteristic of the painter. The meeting takes +place on a flight of steps leading to the house of Zacharias. The +Virgin wears a hat, as one just arrived from a journey; Joseph +and Zacharias greet each other; a maiden with a basket on her head +follows; and in the foreground a man unloads the ass. + +I will mention two other example, each perfect in its way, in two most +opposite styles of treatment. + +9. The first is the simple majestic composition of Albertinelli. +(Florence Gal.) The two women, standing alone under a richly +sculptured arch, and relieved against the bright azure sky, embrace +each other. There are no accessories. Mary is attired in dark-blue +drapery, and Elizabeth wears an ample robe of a saffron or rather +amber colour. The mingled grandeur, power, and grace, and depth of +expression in these two figures, are quite extraordinary; they look +like what they are, and worthy to be mothers of the greatest of kings +and the greatest of prophets. Albertinelli has here emulated his +friend Bartolomeo--his friend, whom he so loved, that when, after the +horrible execution of Savonarola, Bartolomeo, broken-hearted, threw +himself into the convent of St. Mark, Albertinelli became almost +distracted and desperate. He would certainly, says Vasari, have gone +into the same convent, but for the hatred be bore the monks, "of whom +he was always saying the most injurious things." + +Through some hidden influence of intense sympathy, Albertinelli, +though in point of character the very antipodes of his friend, often +painted so like him, that his pictures--and this noble picture more +particularly--might be mistaken for the work of the Frate. + + * * * * * + +10. We will now turn to a conception altogether different, and equally +a masterpiece; it is the small but exquisitely finished composition +by Rembrandt. (Grosvenor Gal.) The scene is the garden in front of +the house of Zacharias; Elizabeth is descending the steps in haste +to receive and embrace with outstretched arms the Virgin Mary, who +appears to have just alighted from her journey. The aged Zacharias, +supported by a youth, is seen following Elizabeth to welcome their +guest. Behind Mary stands a black female attendant, in the act of +removing a mantle from her shoulders; in the background a servant, +or (as I think) Joseph, holds the ass on which Mary has journeyed; a +peacock with a gem-like train, and a hen with a brood of chickens (the +latter the emblem of maternity), are in the foreground. Though the +representation thus conceived appears like a scene of every-day life, +nothing can be more poetical than the treatment, more intensely true +and noble than the expression of the diminutive figures, more masterly +and finished than the execution, more magical and lustrous than the +effect of the whole. The work of Albertinelli, in its large and solemn +beauty and religious significance, is worthy of being placed over an +altar, on which we might offer up the work of Rembrandt as men offer +incense, gems, and gold. + +As the Visitation is not easily mistaken, I have said enough of it +here; and we pass to the next subject,--The Dream of Joseph. + + * * * * * + +Although the feast of the Visitation is fixed for the 2d of July, it +was, and is, a received opinion, that Mary began her journey to the +hill country but a short time, even a few days, after the Annunciation +of the angel. It was the sixth month with Elizabeth, and Mary +sojourned with her three months. Hence it is supposed, by many +commentators, that Mary must have been present at the birth of John +the Baptist. It may seem surprising that the early painters should not +have made use of this supposition. I am not aware that there exists +among the numerous representations of the birth of St. John, any +instance of the Virgin being introduced; it should seem that the lofty +ideas entertained of the Mater Dei rendered it impossible to place her +in a scene where she would necessarily take a subordinate position: +this I think sufficiently accounts for her absence.[1] Mary then +returned to her own dwelling at Nazareth; and when Joseph (who in +these legendary stories is constantly represented as a house-carpenter +and builder, and travelling about to exercise his trade in various +places) also came back to his home, and beheld his wife, the +suspicion entered his mind that she was about to become a mother, +and very naturally his mind was troubled "with sorrow and insecure +apprehensions; but being a just man, that is, according to the +Scriptures and other wise writers, a good, a charitable man, he would +not openly disgrace her, for he found it more agreeable to justice to +treat an offending person with the easiest sentence, than to render +her desperate, and without remedy, and provoked by the suffering of +the worst of what she could fear. No obligation to justice can force +a man to be cruel; pity, and forbearance, and long-suffering, and +fair interpretation, and excusing our brother" (and our sister), "and +taking things in the best sense, and passing the gentlest sentence, +are as certainly our duty, and owing to every person who _does_ offend +and _can_ repent, as calling men to account can be owing to the law." +(v. Bishop Taylor's Life of Christ.) Thus says the good Bishop Taylor, +praising Joseph, that he was too truly just to call furiously for +justice, and that, waiving the killing letter of the law, he was +"minded to dismiss his wife privily;" and in this he emulated the +mercy of his divine foster-Son, who did not cruelly condemn the woman +whom he knew to be guilty, but dismissed her "to repent and sin no +more." But while Joseph was pondering thus in his heart, the angel +of the Lord, the prince of angels, even Gabriel, appeared to him in a +dream, saying, "Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee +Mary thy wife!" and he awoke and obeyed that divine voice. + +[Footnote 1: There is, however, in the Liverpool Museum, a very +exquisite miniature of the birth of St. John the Baptist, in which the +female figure standing near represents, I think, the Virgin Mary. It +was cut out of a choral book of the Siena school.] + +This first vision of the angel is not in works of art easily +distinguished from the second vision but there is a charming fresco by +Luini, which can bear no other interpretation. Joseph is seated by the +carpenter's bench, and leans his head on his hand slumbering. (Milan, +Brera.) An angel stands by him pointing to Mary who is seen at a +window above, busied with needlework. + +On waking from this vision, Joseph, says the legend, "entreated +forgiveness of Mary for having wronged her even in thought." This is +a subject quite unknown, I believe, before the fifteenth century, and +not commonly met with since, but there are some instances. On one of +the carved stalls of the Cathedral of Amiens it is very poetically +treated. (Stalles d'Amiens, p. 205.) Mary is seated on a throne under +a magnificent canopy; Joseph, kneeling before her and presented by two +angels, pleads for pardon. She extends one hand to him; in the other +is the volume of the Holy Scriptures. There is a similar version of +the text in sculpture over one of the doors of Notre-Dame at Paris. +There is also a picture by Alessandro Tiarini (Le repentir de Saint +Joseph, Louvre, 416), and reckoned by Malvasia, his finest work, +wherein Joseph kneels before the Virgin, who stands with a dignified +air, and, while she raises him with one hand, points with the other +up to heaven. Behind is seen the angel Gabriel with his finger on +his lip, as commanding silence, and two other angels. The figures are +life-size, the execution and colour very fine; the whole conception in +the grand but mannered style of the Guido school. + + + + +THE NATIVITY. + +_Ital._ Il Presepio. Il Nascimento del Nostro Signore. _Fr._ La +Nativité. _Ger._ Die Geburt Christi. Dec. 25. + + +The birth of our Saviour is related with characteristic simplicity +and brevity in the Gospels; but in the early Christian traditions this +great event is preceded and accompanied by several circumstances +which have assumed a certain importance and interest in the artistic +representations. + +According to an ancient legend, the Emperor Augustus Cæsar repaired +to the sibyl Tiburtina, to inquire whether he should consent to allow +himself to be worshipped with divine honours, which the Senate had +decreed to him. The sibyl, after some days of meditation, took the +Emperor apart, and showed him an altar; and above the altar, in the +opening heavens, and in a glory of light, he beheld a beautiful Virgin +holding an Infant in her arms, and at the same time a voice was heard +saying, "This is the altar of the Son of the living God;" whereupon +Augustus caused an altar to be erected on the Capitoline Hill, with +this inscription, _Ara primogeniti Dei_; and on the same spot, in +later times, was built the church called the _Ara-Coeli_, well known, +with its flight of one hundred and twenty-four marble steps, to all +who have visited Rome. + +Of the sibyls, generally, in their relation to sacred art, I have +already spoken.[1] This particular prophecy of the Tiburtine sibyl +to Augustus rests on some very antique traditions, pagan as well as +Christian. It is supposed to have suggested the "Pollio" of Virgil, +which suggested the "Messiah" of Pope. It is mentioned by writers of +the third and fourth centuries, and our own divines have not wholly +rejected it, for Bishop Taylor mentions the sibyl's prophecy among +"the great and glorious accidents happening about the birth of Jesus." +(Life of Jesus Christ, sec. 4.) + +[Footnote 1: Introduction. The personal character and history of the +Sibyls will be treated in detail in the fourth series of Sacred and +Legendary Art.] + +A very rude but curious bas-relief preserved in the church of the +Ara-Coeli is perhaps the oldest representation extant. The Church +legend assigns to it a fabulous antiquity; but it must be older than +the twelfth century, as it is alluded to by writers of that period. +Here the Emperor Augustus kneels before the Madonna and Child and at +his side is the sibyl, Tiburtina, pointing upwards. + +Since the revival of art, the incident has been frequently treated. It +was painted by Cavallini, about 1340, on the vault of the choir of +the Ara-Coeli. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it became +a favourite subject. It admitted of those classical forms, and that +mingling of the heathen and the Christian in style and costume, which +were calculated to please the churchmen and artists of the time, and +the examples are innumerable. + +The most celebrated, I believe, is the fresco by Baldassare Peruzzi, +in which the figure of the sibyl is certainly very majestic, but +the rest of the group utterly vulgar and commonplace. (Siena, Fonte +Giusta.) Less famous, but on the whole preferable in point of taste, +is the group by Garofalo, in the palace of the Quirinal; and there +is another by Titian, in which the scene is laid in a fine landscape +after his manner. Vasari mentions a cartoon of this subject, painted +by Rosso for Francis I., "among the best things Rosso ever produced," +and introducing the King and Queen of France, their guards, and a +concourse of people, as spectators of the scene. In some instances the +locality is a temple, with an altar, before which kneels the Emperor, +having laid upon it his sceptre and laurel crown: the sibyl points to +the vision seen through a window above. I think it is so represented +in a large picture at Hampton Court, by Pietro da Cortona. + + * * * * * + +The sibylline prophecy is supposed to have occurred a short tune +before the Nativity, about the same period when the decree went forth +"that all the world should be taxed." Joseph, therefore, arose and +saddled his ass, and set his wife upon it, and went up from Nazareth +to Bethlehem. The way was long, and steep, and weary; "and when Joseph +looked back, he saw the face of Mary that it was sorrowful, as of one +in pain; but when he looked back again, she smiled. And when they, +were come to Bethlehem, there was no room for them in the inn, because +of the great concourse of people. And Mary said to Joseph, "Take me +down for I suffer." (Protevangelion.) + +The journey to Bethlehem, and the grief and perplexity of Joseph, have +been often represented. 1. There exists a very ancient Greek carving +in ivory, wherein Mary is seated on the ass, with an expression of +suffering, and Joseph tenderly sustains her; she has one arm round his +neck, leaning on him: an angel leads the ass, lighting the way with +a torch. It is supposed that this curious relic formed part of the +ornaments of the ivory throne of the Exarch of Ravenna, and that it is +at least as old as the sixth century.[1] 2. There is an instance more +dramatic in an engraving after a master of the seventeenth century. +Mary, seated on the ass, and holding the bridle, raises her eyes to +heaven with an expression of resignation; Joseph, cap in hand, humbly +expostulates with the master of the inn, who points towards the +stable; the innkeeper's wife looks up at the Virgin with a strong +expression of pity and sympathy. 3. I remember another print of the +same subject, where, in the background, angels are seen preparing the +cradle in a cave. + +[Footnote 1: It is engraved in Gori's "Thesaurus," and described in +Münter's "Sinnbilder."] + +I may as well add that the Virgin, in this character of mysterious, +and religious, and most pure maternity, is venerated under the title +of _La Madonna del Parto_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Every one who has visited Naples will remember the +church on the Mergellina, dedicated to the _Madonna del Parto_, where +lies, beneath his pagan tomb, the poet Sannazzaro. Mr. Hallam, in +a beautiful passage of his "History of the Literature of Europe," +has pointed out the influence of the genius of Tasso on the whole +school of Bolognese painters of that time. Not less striking was the +influence of Sannazzaro and his famous poem on the Nativity (_De Partû +Virginis_), on the contemporary productions of Italian art, and more +particularly as regards the subject under consideration: I can trace +it through all the schools of art, from Milan to Naples, during the +latter half of the sixteenth century. Of Sannazzaro's poem, Mr. +Hallam says, that "it would be difficult to find its equal for purity, +elegance, and harmony of versification." It is not the less true, that +even its greatest merits as a Latin poem exercised the most perverse +influence on the religious art of that period. It was, indeed, only +_one_ of the many influences which may be said to have demoralized the +artists of the sixteenth century, but it was one of the greatest.] + +The Nativity of our Saviour, like the Annunciation, has been treated +in two ways, as a mystery and as an event, and we must be careful to +discriminate between them. + + +THE NATIVITY AS A MYSTERY. + +In the first sense the artist has intended simply to express the +advent of the Divinity on earth in the form of an Infant, and the +_motif_ is clearly taken from a text in the Office of the Virgin, +_Virgo quem genuit, adoravit._ In the beautiful words of Jeremy +Taylor, "She blessed him, she worshipped him, and she thanked him that +he would be born of her;" as, indeed, many a young mother has done +before and since, when she has hung in adoration over the cradle of +her first-born child;--but _here_ the child was to be a descended +God; and nothing, as it seems to me, can be more graceful and more +profoundly suggestive than the manner in which some of the early +Italian artists have expressed this idea. When, in such pictures, the +locality is marked by the poor stable, or the rough rocky cave, it +becomes "a temple full of religion, full of glory, where angels are +the ministers, the holy Virgin the worshipper, and Christ the Deity." +Very few accessories are admitted, merely such as serve to denote that +the subject is "a Nativity," properly so called, and not the "Madre +Pia," as already described. The divine Infant lies in the centre of +the picture, sometimes on a white napkin, sometimes with no other +bed than the flowery turf; sometimes his head rests on a wheat-sheaf, +always here interpreted as "the bread of life." He places his finger +on his lip, which expresses the _Verbum sum_ (or, _Vere Verbum hoc +est abbreviatum_), "I am the word," or "I am the bread of life" (_Ego +sum panis ille vitæ._ John vi. 48), and fixes his eyes on the heavens +above, where the angels are singing the _Gloria in excelsis._ In +one instance, I remember, an angel holds up the cross before him; in +another, he grasps it in his hand; or it is a nail, or the crown of +thorns, anticipative of his earthly destiny. The Virgin kneels on one +side; St. Joseph, when introduced, kneels on the other; and frequently +angels unite with them in the act of adoration, or sustain the +new-born Child. In this poetical version of the subject, Lorenzo +di Credi, Perugino, Francia, and Bellini, excelled all others[1]. +Lorenzo, in particular, became quite renowned for the manner in which +he treated it, and a number of beautiful compositions from his hand +exist in the Florentine and other galleries. + +[Footnote 1: There are also most charming examples in sculpture by +Luca della Robbia, Donatello, and other masters of the Florentine +school.] + +There are instances in which attendant saints and votaries are +introduced as beholding and adoring this great mystery. 1. For +instance, in a picture by Cima, Tobit and the angel are introduced +on one side, and St. Helena and St. Catherine on the other. 2. In a +picture by Francia (Bologna Gal.), the Infant, reclining upon a white +napkin, is adored by the kneeling Virgin, by St. Augustine, and by two +angels also kneeling. The votary, Antonio Galeazzo Bentivoglio, for +whom the picture was painted, kneels in the habit of a pilgrim.[1] He +had lately returned from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, thus +poetically expressed in the scene of the Nativity, and the picture was +dedicated as an act of thanksgiving as well as of faith. St. Joseph +and St. Francis stand on one side; on the other is a shepherd crowned +with laurel. Francia, according to tradition, painted his own portrait +as St. Francis; and his friend the poet, Girolamo Casio de' Medici, +as the shepherd. 3. In a large and famous Nativity by Giulio Romano +(Louvre, 293), which once belonged to our Charles I., St. John the +Evangelist, and St. Longinus (who pierced our Saviour's side with his +lance), are standing on each side as two witnesses to the divinity of +Christ;--here strangely enough placed on a par: but we are reminded +that Longinus had lately been inaugurated as patron of Mantua, (v. +Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +[Footnote 1: "An excellent likeness," says Vasari. It is engraved as +such in Litta's Memorials of the Bentivogli. Girolamo Casio received +the laurel crown from the hand of Clement VII. in 1523. A beautiful +votive Madonna, dedicated by Girolamo Casio and his son Giacomo, and +painted by Beltraffio, is in the Louvre.] + +In a triptych by Hans Hemling (Berlin Gal.) we have in the centre the +Child, adored, as usual, by the Virgin mother and attending angels, +the votary also kneeling: in the compartment on the right, we find the +manifestation of the Redeemer to the _west_ exhibited in the prophecy +of the sibyl to Augustus; on the left, the manifestation of the +Redeemer to the _east_ is expressed by the journey of the Magi, and +the miraculous star--"we have seen his star _in the east_." + +But of all these ideal Nativities, the most striking is one by Sandro +Botticelli, which is indeed a comprehensive poem, a kind of hymn on +the Nativity, and might be set to music. In the centre is a shed, +beneath which the Virgin, kneeling, adores the Child, who has +his finger on his lip. Joseph is seen a little behind, as if in +meditation. On the right hand, the angel presents three figures +(probably the shepherds) crowned with olive; on the left is a similar +group. On the roof of the shed, three angels, with olive-branches in +their hands, sing the _Gloria in excelsis_. Above these are twelve +angels dancing or floating round in a circle, holding olive-branches +between them. In the foreground, in the margin of the picture, +three figures rising out of the flames of purgatory are received and +embraced by angels. With all its quaint fantastic grace and dryness of +execution, the whole conception is full of meaning, religious as well +as poetical. The introduction of the olive, and the redeemed, souls, +may express "peace on earth, good will towards men;" or the olive may +likewise refer to that period of universal peace in which the _Prince +of Peace_ was born into the world.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This singular picture, formerly in the Ottley collection, +was, when I saw it, in the possession of Mr. Fuller Maitland, of +Stensted Park.] + +I must mention one more instance for its extreme beauty. In a picture +by Lorenzo di Credi (Florence, Pal. Pitti) the Infant Christ lies on +the ground on a part of the veil of the Virgin, and holds in his hand +a bird. In the background, the miraculous star sheds on the earth a +perpendicular blaze of light, and farther off are the shepherds. On +the other side, St. Jerome, introduced, perhaps, because he made his +abode at Bethlehem, is seated beside his lion. + + +THE NATIVITY AS AN EVENT. + +We now come to the Nativity historically treated, in which time, +place, and circumstance, have to be considered as in any other actual +event. + +The time was the depth of winter, at midnight; the place a poor +stable. According to some authorities, this stable was the interior +of a cavern, still shown at Bethlehem as the scene of the Nativity, in +front of which was a ruined house, once inhabited by Jesse, the father +of David, and near the spot where David pastured his sheep: but the +house was now a shed partly thatched, and open at that bitter mason to +all the winds of heaven. Here it was that the Blessed Virgin "brought +forth her first-born Son, wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid +him in a manger." + +We find in the early Greek representations, and in the early Italian +painters who imitated the Byzantine models, that in the arrangement +a certain pattern was followed: the locality is a sort of +cave--literally a hole in a rock; the Virgin Mother reclines on a +couch; near her lies the new-born Infant wrapped in swaddling clothes. +In one very ancient example (a miniature of the ninth century in a +Greek Menologium), an attendant is washing the Child. + +But from the fourteenth century we find this treatment discontinued. +It gave just offence. The greatest theologians insisted that the birth +of the Infant Christ was as pure and miraculous as his conception; and +it was considered little less than heretical to portray Mary reclining +on a couch as one exhausted by the pangs of childbirth (Isaiah lxvi. +7), or to exhibit assistants as washing the heavenly Infant. "To her +alone," says St. Bernard, "did not the punishment of Eve extend." "Not +in sorrow," says Bishop Taylor, "not in pain, but in the posture and +guise of worshippers (that is, kneeling), and in the midst of glorious +thoughts and speculations, did Mary bring her Son into the world." + +We must seek for the accessories and circumstances usually introduced +by the painters in the old legendary traditions then accepted and +believed. (Protevangelion, xiv.) Thus one legend relates that +Joseph went to seek a midwife, and met a woman coming down from the +mountains, with whom he returned to the stable. But when they entered +it was filled with light greater than the sun at noonday; and as the +light decreased and they were able to open their eyes, they beheld +Mary sitting there with her Infant at her bosom. And the Hebrew woman +being amazed said, "Can this be true?" and Mary answered, "It is true; +as there is no child like unto my son, so there is no woman like unto +his mother." + + * * * * * + +These circumstances we find in some of the early representations, +more or less modified by the taste of the artist. I have seen, for +instance, an old German print, in which the Virgin "in the posture +and guise of worshippers," kneels before her Child as usual; while the +background exhibits a hilly country, and Joseph with a lantern in his +hand is helping a woman over a stile. Sometimes there are two women, +and then the second is always Mary Salome, who, according to a passage +in the same popular authority, visited the mother in her hour of +travail. + +The angelic choristers in the sky, or upon the roof of the stable, +sing the _Gloria in excelsis Deo_; they are never, I believe, omitted, +and in early pictures are always three in number; but in later +pictures, the mystic _three_ become a chorus of musicians Joseph is +generally sitting by, leaning on his staff in profound meditation, or +asleep as one overcome by fatigue; or with a taper or a lantern in his +hand, to express the night-time. + +Among the accessories, the ox and the ass are indispensable. The +introduction of these animals rests on an antique tradition mentioned +by St. Jerome, and also on two texts of prophecy: "The ox knoweth his +owner, and the ass his master's crib" (Isaiah i. 3); and Habakkuk iii. +4, is rendered, in the Vulgate, "He shall lie down between the ox and +the ass." From the sixth century, which is the supposed date of +the earliest extant, to the sixteenth century, there was never any +representation of the Nativity without these two animals; thus in the +old carol so often quoted-- + + "Agnovit bos et asinus + Quod Puer erat Dominus!" + +In some of the earliest pictures the animals kneel, "confessing the +Lord." (Isaiah xliii. 20.) In some instances they stare into the +manger with a most _naïve_ expression of amazement at what they find +there. One of the old Latin hymns, _De Nativitate Domini_, describes +them, in that wintry night, as warming the new-born Infant with their +breath; and they have always been interpreted as symbols, the ox as +emblem of the Jews, the ass of the Gentiles. + +I wonder if it has ever occurred to those who have studied the +inner life and meaning of these old representations,--owed to them, +perhaps, homilies of wisdom, as well as visions of poetry,--that the +introduction of the ox and the ass, those symbols of animal servitude +and inferiority, might be otherwise translated;--that their pathetic +dumb recognition of the Saviour of the world might be interpreted +as extending to them also a participation in his mission of love and +mercy;--that since to the lower creatures it was not denied to be +present at that great manifestation, they are thus brought nearer to +the sympathies of our humanity, as we are, thereby, lifted to a nearer +communion with the universal spirit of love;--but this is "considering +too deeply," perhaps, for the occasion. Return we to our pictures. +Certainly we are not in danger of being led into any profound or +fanciful speculations by the ignorant painters of the later schools of +art. In their "Nativities," the ox and ass are not, indeed, omitted; +they must be present by religious and prescriptive usage; but they +are to be made picturesque, as if they were in the stable by right, +and as if it were only a stable, not a temple hallowed to a diviner +significance. The ass, instead of looking devoutly into the cradle, +stretches out his lazy length in the foreground; the ox winks his eyes +with a more than bovine stupidity. In some of the old German pictures, +while the Hebrew ox is quietly chewing the cud, the Gentile ass "lifts +up his voice" and brays with open mouth, as if in triumph. + +One version of this subject, by Agnolo Gaddi, is conceived with much +simplicity and originality. The Virgin and Joseph are seen together +within a rude and otherwise solitary building. She points expressively +to the manger where lies the divine Infant, while Joseph leans on his +staff and appears lost in thought. + +Correggio has been much admired for representing in his famous +Nativity the whole picture as lighted by the glory which proceeds from +the divine Infant, as if the idea had been new and original. ("_La +Notte_," Dresden Gal.) It occurs frequently before and since his time, +and is founded on the legendary story quoted above, which describes +the cave or stable filled with a dazzling and supernatural light. + + * * * * * + +It is not often we find the Nativity represented as an historical +event without the presence of the shepherds; nor is the supernatural +announcement to the shepherds often treated as a separate subject: it +generally forms part of the background of the Nativity; but there are +some striking examples. + +In a print by Rembrandt, he has emulated, in picturesque and poetical +treatment, his famous Vision of Jacob, in the Dulwich Gallery. The +angel (always supposed to be Gabriel) appears in a burst of radiance +through the black wintry midnight, surrounded by a multitude of the +heavenly host. The shepherds fall prostrate, as men amazed and "sore +afraid;" the cattle flee different ways in terror (Luke ii. 9.) I do +not say that this is the most elevated way of expressing the scene; +but, as an example of characteristic style, it is perfect. + + + + +THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. + +_Ital._ L' Adorazione del Pastori. _Fr._ L'Adoration des Bergers. +_Ger._ Die Anbetung der Hirten. + + +The story thus proceeds:--When the angels were gone away into heaven, +the shepherds came with haste, "and found Mary, and Joseph, and the +young Child lying in a manger." + +Being come, they present their pastoral offerings--a lamb, or doves, +or fruits (but these, considering the season, are misplaced); they +take off their hats with reverence, and worship in rustic fashion. +In Raphael's composition, the shepherds, as we might expect from him, +look as if they had lived in Arcadia. In some of the later Italian +pictures, they pipe and sing. It is the well-known custom in Italy +for the shepherds of the Campagna, and of Calabria, to pipe before the +Madonna and Child at Christmas time; and these _Piffereri_, with their +sheepskin jackets, ragged hats, bagpipes, and tabors, were evidently +the models reproduced in some of the finest pictures of the Bolognese +school; for instance, in the famous Nativity by Annibale Caracci, +where a picturesque figure in the corner is blowing into the bagpipes +with might and main. In the Venetian pictures of the Nativity, the +shepherds are accompanied by their women, their sheep, and even their +dogs. According to an old legend, Simon and Jude, afterwards apostles, +were among these shepherds. + +When the angels scatter flowers, as in compositions by Raphael and +Ludovico Caracci, we must suppose that they were not gathered on +earth, but in heaven. + +The Infant is sometimes asleep:--so Milton sings-- + + "But see the Virgin blest + Hath laid her Babe to rest!" + +In a drawing by Raphael, the Child slumbers, and Joseph raises the +coverlid, to show him to a shepherd. We have the same idea in several +other instances. In a graceful composition by Titian, it is the Virgin +Mother who raises the veil from the face of the sleeping Child. + + * * * * * + +From the number of figures and accessories, the Nativity thus treated +as an historical subject becomes capable of almost endless variety; +but as it is one not to be mistaken, and has a universal meaning and +interest, I may now leave it to the fancy and discrimination of the +observer. + + + + +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. + +_Ital._ L' Adorazione de' Magi. L' Epifania. _Fr._ L'Adoration des +Rois Mages. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der Weisen aus dem Morgenland. Die +heiligen drei Könige. Jan. 6. + + +This, the most extraordinary incident in the early life of our +Saviour, rests on the authority of one evangelist only. It is +related by St. Matthew so briefly, as to present many historical and +philosophical difficulties. I must give some idea of the manner in +which these difficulties were elucidated by the early commentators, +and of the notions which prevailed in the middle ages relative to the +country of the Three Kings, before it will be possible to understand +or to appreciate the subject as it has been set before us in every +style of art, in every form, in every material, from the third century +to the present time. + +In the first place, who were these Magi, or these kings, as they are +sometimes styled? "To suppose," says the antique legend, "that they +were called Magi because they were addicted to magic, or exercised +unholy or forbidden arts, would be, heaven save us! a rank heresy." +No! Magi, in the Persian tongue, signifies "wise men." They were, +in their own country, kings or princes, as it is averred by all the +ancient fathers; and we are not to be offended at the assertion, +that they were at once princes and _wise_ men,--"Car à l'usage de ce +temps-là les princes et les rois etoient très sages!"[1] + +[Footnote 1: Quoted literally from the legend in the old French +version of the _Flos Sanctorum_.] + +They came from the eastern country, but from what country is not +said; whether from the land of the Arabians, or the Chaldeans, or the +Persians, or the Parthians. + +It is written in the Book of Numbers, that when Balaam, the son of +Beor, was called upon to curse the children of Israel, he, by divine +inspiration, uttered a blessing instead of a curse. And he took up +this parable, and said, "I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold +him, but not nigh: there shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre +shall rise out of Israel." And the people of that country, though +they were Gentiles, kept this prophecy as a tradition among them, and +waited with faith and hope for its fulfilment. When, therefore, their +princes and wise men beheld a star different in its appearance and +movement from those which they had been accustomed to study (for they +were great astronomers), they at once knew its import, and hastened +to follow its guidance. According to an ancient commentary on St. +Matthew, this star, on its first appearance, had the form of a radiant +child bearing a sceptre or cross. In a fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, it is +thus figured; and this is the only instance I can remember. But to +proceed with our story. + +When the eastern sages beheld this wondrous and long-expected star, +they rejoiced greatly; and they arose, and taking leave of their lands +and their vassals, their relations and their friends, set forth on +their long and perilous journey across vast deserts and mountains, +and broad rivers, the star going before them, and arrived at length at +Jerusalem, with a great and splendid train of attendants. Being come +there, they asked at once, "Where is he who is born king of the Jews?" +On hearing this question, King Herod was troubled, and all the city +with him; and he inquired of the chief priests where Christ should +be born. And they said to him, "in Bethlehem of Judea." Then Herod +privately called the wise men, and desired they would go to Bethlehem, +and search for the young child (he was careful not to call him +_King_), saying, "When ye have found him, bring me word, that I may +come and worship him also." So the Magi departed, and the star which +they had seen in the east went before them, until it stood over the +place where the young child was--he who was born King of kings. They +had travelled many a long and weary mile; "and what had they come for +to see?" Instead of a sumptuous palace, a mean and lowly dwelling; in +place of a monarch surrounded by his guards and ministers and all the +terrors of his state, an infant wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid +upon his mother's knee, between the ox and the ass. They had come, +perhaps, from some far-distant savage land, or from some nation +calling itself civilized, where innocence had never been accounted +sacred, where society had as yet taken no heed of the defenceless +woman, no care for the helpless child; where the one was enslaved, +and the other perverted: and here, under the form of womanhood +and childhood, they were called upon to worship the promise of +that brighter future, when peace should inherit the earth, and +righteousness prevail over deceit, and gentleness with wisdom reign +for ever and ever! How must they have been amazed! How must they have +wondered in their souls at such a revelation!--yet such was the faith +of these wise men and excellent kings, that they at once prostrated +themselves, confessing in the glorious Innocent who smiled upon them +from his mother's knee, a greater than themselves--the image of a +truer divinity than they had ever yet acknowledged. And having bowed +themselves down--first, as was most fit, offering _themselves_,--they +made offering of their treasure, as it had been written in ancient +times, "The kings of Tarshish and the isles shall bring presents, +and the kings of Sheba shall offer gifts." And what were these gifts? +Gold, frankincense, and myrrh; by which symbolical oblation they +protested a threefold faith;--by gold, that he was king; by incense, +that he was God; by myrrh, that he was man, and doomed to death. In +return for their gifts, the Saviour bestowed upon them others of more +matchless price. For their gold he gave them charity and spiritual +riches; for their incense, perfect faith; and for their myrrh, perfect +truth and meekness: and the Virgin, his mother, also bestowed on them +a precious gift and memorial, namely, one of those linen bands in +which she had wrapped the Saviour, for which they thanked her with +great humility, and laid it up amongst their treasures. When they had +performed their devotions and made their offerings, being warned in a +dream to avoid Herod, they turned back again to their own dominions; +and the star which had formerly guided them to the west, now went +before them towards the east, and led them safely home. When they were +arrived there, they laid down their earthly state; and in emulation of +the poverty and humility in which they had found the Lord of all power +and might, they distributed their goods and possessions to the poor, +and went about in mean attire, preaching to their people the new king +of heaven and earth, the CHILD-KING, the Prince of Peace. We are not +told what was the success of their mission; neither is it anywhere +recorded, that from that time forth, every child, as it sat on +its mother's knee, was, even for the sake of that Prince of Peace, +regarded as sacred--as the heir of a divine nature--as one whose tiny +limbs enfolded a spirit which was to expand into the man, the king, +the God. Such a result was, perhaps, reserved for other times, when +the whole mission of that divine Child should be better understood +than it was then, or is _now_. But there is an ancient oriental +tradition, that about forty years later, when St. Thomas the apostle +travelled into the Indies, he found these Wise Men there, and did +administer to them the rite of baptism; and that afterwards, in +carrying the light of truth into the far East, they fell among +barbarous Gentiles, and were put to death; thus each of them receiving +in return for the earthly crowns they had cast at the feet of the +Saviour, the heavenly crown of martyrdom and of everlasting life. + +Their remains, long afterwards discovered, were brought to +Constantinople by the Empress Helena; thence in the time of the first +Crusade they were transported to Milan, whence they were carried off +by the Emperor Barbarossa, and deposited in the cathedral at Cologne, +where they remain to this day, laid in a shrine of gold and gems; and +have performed divers great and glorious miracles. + + * * * * * + +Such, in few words, is the church legend of the Magi of the East, +the "three Kings of Cologne," as founded on the mysterious Gospel +incident. Statesmen and philosophers, not less than ecclesiastics, +have, as yet, missed the whole sense and large interpretation of the +mythic as well as the scriptural story; but well have the artists +availed themselves of its picturesque capabilities! In their hands +it has gradually expanded from a mere symbol into a scene of the +most dramatic and varied effect and the most gorgeous splendour. As a +subject it is one of the most ancient in the whole range of Christian +art. Taken in the early religions sense, it signified the calling +of the Gentiles; and as such we find it carved in bas-relief on +the Christian sarcophagi of the third and fourth centuries, and +represented with extreme simplicity. The Virgin mother is seated on a +chair, and holds the Infant upright on her knee. The Wise Men, always +three in number, and all alike, approach in attitudes of adoration. +In some instances they wear Phrygian caps, and their camels' heads +are seen behind them, serving to express the land whence they came, +the land of the East, as well as their long journey; as on one of the +sarcophagi in the Christian Museum of the Vatican. The star in these +antique sculptures is generally omitted; but in one or two instances +it stands immediately over the chair of the Virgin. On a sarcophagus +near the entrance of the tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna, they are +thus represented. + +The mosaic in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome, is somewhat +later in date than these sarcophagi (A.D. 440), and the representation +is very peculiar and interesting. Here the Child is seated alone on a +kind of square pedestal, with his hand raised in benediction; behind +the throne stand two figures, supposed to be the Virgin and Joseph; on +each side, two angels. The kings approach, dressed as Roman warriors, +with helmets on their heads. + +In the mosaic in the church of Sant' Appollinare-Novo, at Ravenna +(A.D. 534), the Virgin receives them seated on a throne, attended +by the archangels; they approach, wearing crowns on their heads, +and bending in attitudes of reverence: all three figures are exactly +alike, and rather less in proportion than the divine group. + + * * * * * + +Immediately on the revival of art we find the Adoration of the Kings +treated in the Byzantine style, with few accessories. Very soon, +however, in the early Florentine school, the artists began to avail +themselves of that picturesque variety of groups of which the story +admitted. + +In the legends of the fourteenth century, the kings had become +distinct personages, under the names of Caspar (or Jasper), Melchior, +and Balthasar: the first being always a very aged man, with a long +white beard; the second, a middle-aged man; the third is young, and +frequently he is a Moor or Negro, to express the King of Ethiopia +or Nubia, and also to indicate that when the Gentiles were called +to salvation, all the continents and races of the earth, of whatever +complexion, were included. The difference of ages is indicated in +the Greek formula; but the difference of complexion is a modern +innovation, and more frequently found in the German than in the +Italian schools. In the old legend of the Three Kings, as inserted in +Wright's "Chester Mysteries," Jasper, or Caspar, is King of Tarsus, +the land of merchants; he makes the offering of gold. Melchior, the +King of Arabia and Nubia, offers frankincense; and Balthasar, King of +Saba,--"the land of spices and all manner of precious gums,"--offers +myrrh.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The names of the Three Kings appear for the first time in +a piece of rude sculpture over the door of Sant' Andrea at Pistoia, to +which is assigned the date 1166. (_Vide_ D'Agincourt, _Scultura_, pl. +xxvii.)] + +It is very usual to find, in the Adoration of the Magi, the angelic +announcement to the shepherds introduced into the background; or, more +poetically, the Magi approaching on one side, and the shepherds on the +other. The intention is then to express a double signification; it is +at once the manifestation to the Jews, and the manifestation to the +Gentiles. + +The attitude of the Child varies. In the best pictures he raises his +little hand in benediction. The objection that he was then only an +infant of a few days old is futile: for he was from his birth the +CHRIST. It is also in accordance with the beautiful and significant +legend which describes him as dispensing to the old wise men the +spiritual blessings of love, meekness, and perfect faith, in return +for their gifts and their homage. It appears to me bad taste, +verging on profanity, to represent him plunging his little hand into +the coffer of gold, or eagerly grasping one of the gold pieces. +Neither should he be wrapped up in swaddling clothes, nor in any +way a subordinate figure in the group; for it is the Epiphany, the +Manifestation of a divine humanity to Jews and Gentiles, which is +to be expressed; and there is meaning as well as beauty in those +compositions which represent the Virgin at lifting a veil and showing +him to the Wise Man. + +The kingly character of the adorers, which became in the thirteenth +century a point of faith, is expressed by giving them all the +paraphernalia and pomp of royalty according to the customs of the +time in which the artist lived. They are followed by a vast train +of attendants, guards, pages, grooms, falconers with hawks; and, in +a picture by Gaudenzio Ferrari, we have the court-dwarf, and, in a +picture by Titian, the court-fool, both indispensable appendages of +royal state in those times. The Kings themselves wear embroidered +robes, crowns, and glittering weapons, and are booted and spurred as +if just alighted from a long journey; even on one of the sarcophagi +they are seen in spurs. + +The early Florentine and Venetian painters profited by the commercial +relations of their countries with the Levant, and introduced all kinds +of outlandish and oriental accessories to express the far country +from which the strangers had arrived; thus we have among the presents, +apes, peacocks, pheasants, and parrots. The traditions of the crusades +also came in aid, and hence we have, the plumed and jewelled turbans, +the armlets and the scymitars, and, in the later pictures, even +umbrellas and elephants. I remember, in an old Italian print of this +subject, a pair of hunting leopards or _chetas_. + +It is a question whether Joseph was present--whether he _ought_ to +have been present: in one of the early legends, it is asserted that +he hid himself and would not appear, out of his great humility, and +because it should not be supposed that he arrogated any relationship +to the divine Child. But this version of the scene is quite +inconsistent with the extreme veneration afterwards paid to Joseph; +and in later times, that is, from the fifteenth century, he is seldom +omitted. Sometimes he is seen behind the chair of the Virgin, leaning +on his stick, and contemplating the scene with a quiet admiration. +Sometimes he receives the gifts offered to the Child, acting the part +of a treasurer or chamberlain. In a picture by Angelico one of the +Magi grasps his hand as if in congratulation. In a composition by +Parmigiano one of the Magi embraces him. + +It was not uncommon for pious votaries to have themselves painted +in likeness of one of the adoring Kings. In a picture by Sandro +Botticelli, Cosmo de' Medici is thus introduced; and in a large and +beautifully arranged composition by Leonardo da Vinci, which unhappily +remains as a sketch only, the three Medici of that time, Cosmo, +Lorenzo, and Giuliano, are figured as the three Kings. (Both these +pictures are in the Florence Gal.) + +A very remarkable altar-piece, by Jean Van Eyck, represents the +worship of the Magi. In the centre, Mary and her Child are seated +within a ruined temple; the eldest of the three Kings kneeling, does +homage by kissing the hand of the Child: it is the portrait of Philip +the Good, Duke of Burgundy. The second, prostrate behind him with a +golden beaker in his hand, is supposed to be one of the great officers +of his household. The third King exhibits the characteristic portrait +of Charles the Bold; there is no expression of humility or devotion +either in his countenance or attitude; he stands upright, with a lofty +disdainful air, as if he were yet unresolved whether he would kneel +or not. On the right of the Virgin, a little in the foreground, stands +Joseph in a plain red dress, holding his hat in his hand, and looking +with as air of simple astonishment at his magnificent guests. All the +accessories in this picture, the gold and silver vessels, the dresses +of the three Kings sparking with jewels and pearls, the velvets, +silks, and costly furs, are painted with the most exquisite finish and +delicacy, and exhibit to us the riches of the court of Burgundy, in +which Van Eyck then resided. (Munich Gal, 45.) + +In Raphael's composition, the worshippers wear the classical, not the +oriental costume; but an elephant with a monkey on his back is seen +in the distance, which at once reminds us of the far East. (Rome, +Vatican.) + +Ghirlandajo frequently painted the Adoration of the Magi, and shows +in his management of the accessories much taste and symmetry. In one +of his compositions, the shed forms a canopy in the centre; two of +the Kings kneel in front. The country of the Ethiopian King is not +expressed by making him of a black complexion, but by giving him +a Negro page, who is in the act of removing his master's crown. +(Florence, Pitti Pal.) + +A very complete example of artificial and elaborate composition may be +found in the drawing by Baldassare Peruzzi in our National Gallery. +It contains at least fifty figures; in the centre, a magnificent +architectural design; and wonderful studies of perspective to the +right and left, in the long lines of receding groups. On the whole, +it is a most skilful piece of work; but to my taste much like a +theatrical decoration,--pompous without being animated. + +A beautiful composition by Francia I must not pass over.[1] Here, to +the left of the picture, the Virgin is seated on the steps of a ruined +temple, against which grows a fig-tree, which, though it be December, +is in full leaf. Joseph kneels at her side, and behind her are two +Arcadian shepherds, with the ox and the ass. The Virgin, who has +a charming air of modesty and sweetness, presents her Child to the +adoration of the Wise Men: the first of these kneels with joined +hands; the second, also kneeling, is about to present a golden vase; +the Negro King, standing, has taken off his cap, and holds a censer +in his hand; and the divine infant raises his hand in benediction. +Behind the Kings are three figures on foot, one a beautiful youth in +an attitude of adoration. Beyond these are five or six figures on +horseback, and a long train upon horses and camels is seen approaching +in the background. The landscape is very beautiful and cheerful: the +whole picture much in the style of Francia's master, Lorenzo Costa. I +should at the first glance have supposed it to be his, but the head of +the Virgin is unmistakably Francia. + +[Footnote 1: Dresden Gal. Arnold, the well-known print-seller at +Dresden, has lately published a very beautiful and finished engraving +of this fine picture; the more valuable, because engravings after +Francia are very rare.] + +There are instances of this subject idealized into a mystery; for +example, in a picture by Palma Vecchio (Milan, Brera), St. Helena +stands behind the Virgin, in allusion to the legend which connects +her with the history of the Kings. In a picture by Garofalo, the star +shining above is attended by angels bearing the instruments of the +Passion, while St. Bartholomew, holding his skin, stands near the +Virgin and Child: it was painted for the abbey of St. Bartholomew, at +Ferrara. + +Among the German examples, the picture by Albert Durer, in the tribune +of the Florence Gallery; and that of Mabuse, in the collection of Lord +Carlisle, are perhaps the most perfect of their kind. + +In the last-named picture the Virgin, seated, in a plain dark-blue +mantle, with the German physiognomy, but large browed, and with a very +serious, sweet expression, holds the Child. The eldest of the Kings, +as usual, offers a vase of gold, out of which Christ has taken a +piece, which be holds in his hand. The name of the King, JASPER, is +inscribed on the vase; a younger King behind holds a cup. The black +Ethiopian king, Balthasar, is conspicuous on the left; he stands, +crowned and arrayed in gorgeous drapery, and, as if more fully to mark +the equality of the races--at least in spiritual privileges--his train +is borne by a white page. An exquisite landscape is seen through the +arch behind, and the shepherds are approaching in the middle distance. +On the whole, this is one of the most splendid pictures of the early +Flemish school I have ever seen; for variety of character, glow of +colour, and finished execution, quite unsurpassed. + +In a very rich composition by Lucas van Leyden, Herod is seen in the +background, standing in the balcony of his palace, and pointing out +the scene to his attendants. + +As we might easily imagine, the ornamental painters of the Venetian +and Flemish schools delighted in this subject, which allowed them full +scope for their gorgeous colouring, and all their scenic and dramatic +power. Here Paul Veronese revelled unreproved in Asiatic magnificence: +here his brocaded robes and jewelled diadems harmonized with his +subject; and his grand, old, bearded, Venetian senators figured, +not unsuitably, as Eastern Kings. Here Rubens lavished his ermine +and crimson draperies, his vases, and ewers, and censers of flaming +gold;--here poured over his canvas the wealth "of Ormuz and of Ind." +Of fifteen pictures of this subject, which he painted at different +times, the finest undoubtedly is that in the Madrid Gallery. Another, +also very fine, is in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster. +In both these, the Virgin, contrary to all former precedent, is +not seated, but _standing_, as she holds up her Child for worship. +Afterwards we find the same position of the Virgin in pictures by +Vandyck, Poussin, and other painters of the seventeenth century. It is +quite an innovation on the old religious arrangement; but in the utter +absence of all religious feeling, the mere arrangement of the figures, +except in an artistic point of view, is of little consequence. + +As a scene of oriental pomp, heightened by mysterious shadows and +flashing lights, I know nothing equal to the Rembrandt in the +Queen's Gallery; the procession of attendants seen emerging from the +background through the transparent gloom is quite awful; but in this +miraculous picture, the lovely Virgin Mother is metamorphosed into a +coarse Dutch _vrow_, and the divine Child looks like a changeling imp. + +In chapels dedicated to the Nativity or the Epiphany, we frequently +find the journey of the Wise Men painted round the walls. They +are seen mounted on horseback, or on camels, with a long train of +attendants, here ascending a mountain, there crossing a river; here +winding through a defile, there emerging from a forest; while the +miraculous star shines above, pointing out the way. Sometimes we have +the approach of the Wise Men on one side of the chapel, and their +return to their own country on the other. On their homeward journey +they are, in some few instances, embarking in a ship: this occurs in +a fresco by Lorenzo Costa, and in a bas-relief in the cathedral of +Amiens. The allusion is to a curious legend mentioned by Arnobius the +Younger, in his commentary on the Psalms (fifth century). He says, +in reference to the 48th Psalm, that when Herod found that the three +Kings had escaped from him "in ships of Tarsus," in his wrath he +burned all the vessels in the port. + +There is a beautiful fresco of the journey of the Magi in the Riccardi +Chapel at Florence, painted by Benozzo Gozzoli for the old Cosmo de' +Medici. + +"The Baptism of the Magi by St. Thomas," is one of the compartments +of the Life of the Virgin, painted by Taddeo Gaddi, in the Baroncelli +Chapel at Florence, and this is the only instance I can refer to. + + * * * * * + +Before I quit this subject--one of the most interesting in the whole +range of art--I must mention a picture by Giorgione in the Belvedere +Gallery, well known as one of the few undoubted productions of that +rare and fascinating painter, and often referred to because of its +beauty. Its signification has hitherto escaped all writers on art, as +far as I am acquainted with them, and has been dismissed as one of his +enigmatical allegories. It is called in German, _Die Feldmässer_ (the +Land Surveyors), and sometimes styled in English the _Geometricians_, +or the _Philosophers_, or the _Astrologers_. It represents a wild, +rocky landscape, in which are three men. The first, very aged, in as +oriental costume, with a long gray beard, stands holding in his hand +an astronomical table; the next, a man in the prime of life, seems +listening to him; the third, a youth, seated and looking upwards, +holds a compass. I have myself no doubt that this beautiful picture +represents the "three wise men of the East," watching on the Chaldean +hills the appearance of the miraculous star, and that the light +breaking in the far horizon, called in the German description the +rising sun, is intended to express the rising of the star of Jacob.[1] +In the sumptuous landscape, and colour, and the picturesque rather +than religious treatment, this picture is quite Venetian. The +interpretation here suggested I leave to the consideration of the +observer; and without allowing myself to be tempted on to further +illustration, will only add, in conclusion, that I do not remember +any Spanish picture of this subject remarkable either for beauty or +originality.[2] + +[Footnote 1: There is also a print by Giulio Bonasoni, which appears +to represent the wise men watching for the star. (_Bartsch_, xv. +156.)] + +[Footnote 2: In the last edition of the Vienna Catalogue, this picture +has received its proper title.] + + + + +THE PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN, THE PRESENTATION, AND THE CIRCUMCISION +OF CHRIST. + +_Ital._ La Purificazione della B. Vergine. _Ger._ Die Darbringung im +Tempel. Die Beschneidung Christi. + + +After the birth of her Son, Mary was careful to fulfil all the +ceremonies of the Mosaic law. As a first-born son, he was to be +redeemed by the offering of five shekels, or a pair of young pigeons +(in memory of the first-born of Egypt). But previously, being born +of the children of Abraham, the infant Christ was submitted to the +sanguinary rite which sealed the covenant of Abraham, and received +the name of JESUS--"that name before which every knee was to bow, +which was to be set above the powers of magic, the mighty rites +of sorcerers, the secrets of Memphis, the drugs of Thessaly, the +silent and mysterious murmurs of the wise Chaldees, and the spells +of Zoroaster; that name which we should engrave on our hearts, and +pronounce with our most harmonious accents, and rest our faith on, and +place our hopes in, and love with the overflowing of charity, joy, and +adoration." (v. Bishop Taylor's Life of Christ.) + +The circumcision and the naming of Christ have many times been painted +to express the first of the sorrows of the Virgin, being the first of +the pangs which her Son was to suffer on earth. But the Presentation +in the Temple has been selected with better taste for the same +purpose; and the prophecy of Simeon, "Yea, a sword shall pierce +through thy own soul also," becomes the first of the Seven Sorrows. +It is an undecided point whether the Adoration of the Magi took +place thirteen days, or one year and thirteen days after the birth of +Christ. In a series of subjects artistically arranged, the Epiphany +always precedes, in order of time, that scene in the temple which +is sometimes styled the Purification, sometimes the Presentation and +sometimes the _Nunc Dimitis_. They are three distinct incidents; but, +as far as I can judge, neither the painters themselves, nor those who +have named pictures, have been careful to discriminate between them. +On a careful examination of various compositions, some of special +celebrity, which are styled, in a general way, the Presentation in +the Temple, it will appear, I think, that the idea uppermost in the +painter's mind has been to represent the prophecy of Simeon. + +No doubt, in later times, the whole scene, as a subject of art, was +considered in reference chiefly to the Virgin, and the intention was +to express the first of her Seven Sorrows. But in ancient art, and +especially in Greek art, the character of Simeon assumed a singular +significance and importance, which so long as modern art was +influenced by the traditional Byzantine types, modified, in some +degree, the arrangement and sentiment of this favourite subject. + +It is related that when Ptolemy Philadelphus about 260 years before +Christ, resolved to have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into +Greek, for the purpose of placing them in his far-famed library, +he despatched messengers to Eleazar, the High Priest of the Jews, +requiring him to send scribes and interpreters learned in the Jewish +law to his court at Alexandria. Thereupon Eleazar selected six of +the most learned Rabbis from each of the twelve tribes of Israel, +seventy-two persons in all, and sent them to Egypt, in obedience to +the commands of King Ptolemy, and among these was Simeon, a priest, +and a man full of learning. And it fell to the lot of Simeon to +translate the book of the prophet Isaiah. And when he came to that +verse where it is written, "Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bear +a son," he began to misdoubt, in his own mind, how this could be +possible; and, after long meditation, fearing to give scandal and +offence to the Greeks, he rendered the Hebrew word _Virgin_ by a Greek +word which signifies merely a _young woman_; but when he had written +it down, behold an angel effaced it, and substituted the right word. +Thereupon he wrote it again and again; and the same thing happened +three times; and he remained astonished and confounded. And while he +wondered what this should mean, a ray of divine light penetrated his +soul; it was revealed to him that the miracle which, in his human +wisdom he had presumed to doubt, was not only possible, but that he, +Simeon, "should not see death till he had seen the Lord's Christ." +Therefore he tarried on earth, by the divine will, for nearly three +centuries, till that which he had disbelieved had come to pass. He was +led by the Spirit to the temple on the very day when Mary came there +to present her Son, and to make her offering, and immediately, taking +the Child in his arms, he exclaimed, "Lord, _now_ lettest thou thy +servant depart in peace, according to thy word." And of the Virgin +Mother, also, he prophesied sad and glorious things. + +Anna the Prophetess, who was standing by, also testified to the +presence of the theocratic King: but she did not take him in her arms, +as did Simeon. (Luke ii. 82.) Hence, she was early regarded as a +type of the synagogue, which prophesied great things of the Messiah, +but, nevertheless, did not embrace him when he appeared, as did the +Gentiles. + +That these curious legends relative to Simeon and Anna, and their +symbolical interpretation, were well known to the old painters, there +can be no doubt; and both were perhaps in the mind of Bishop Taylor +when he wrote his eloquent chapter on the Presentation. "There be +some," he says, "who wear the name of Christ on their heads, to make +a show to the world; and there be some who have it always in their +mouths; and there be some who carry Christ on their shoulders, as +if he were a burthen too heavy to bear; and there be some--who is +me!--who trample him under their feet, but _he_ is the true Christian +who, _like Simeon_, embraces Christ, and takes him to his heart." + +Now, it seems to me that it is distinctly the acknowledgment of +Christ by Simeon,--that is, Christ received by the Gentiles,--which +is intended to be placed before us in the very early pictures of the +Presentation, or the _Nunc dimittis_, as it is always styled in Greek +art. The appearance of an attendant, bearing the two turtle-doves, +shows it to be also the so-called Purification of the Virgin. In +an antique formal Greek version we have the Presentation exactly +according to the pattern described by Didron. The great gold censer is +there; the cupola, at top; Joseph carrying the two young pigeons, and +Anna behind Simeon. + + * * * * * + +In a celebrated composition by Fra Bartolomeo, there is the same +disposition of the personages, but an additional female figure. This +is not Anna, the mother of the Virgin (as I have heard it said), but +probably Mary Salome, who had always attended on the Virgin ever since +the Nativity at Bethlehem. + +The subject is treated with exquisite simplicity by Francia; we have +just the same personages as in the rude Greek model, but disposed with +consummate grace. Still, to represent the Child as completely undraped +has been considered as a solecism. He ought to stretch out his hands +to his mother and to look as if he understood the portentous words +which foretold his destiny. Sometimes the imagination is assisted by +the choice of the accessories; thus Fra Bartolomeo has given us, in +the background of his group, Moses holding the _broken_ table of the +old law; and Francia represents in the same manner the sacrifice +of Abraham; for thus did Mary bring her Son as an offering. In many +pictures Simeon raises his eyes to heaven in gratitude; but those +painters who wished to express the presence of the Divinity in the +person of Christ, made Simeon looking at the Child, and addressing +_him_ as "Lord." + + + + +THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. + +_Ital._ La Fuga in Egitto. _Fr._ La Fuite de la Sainte Famille en +Egypte. _Ger._ Die Flucht nach Ægypten. + + +The wrath of Herod against the Magi of the East who had escaped from +his power, enhanced by his fears of the divine and kingly Infant, +occasioned the massacre of the Innocents, which led to the flight +of the Holy Family into Egypt. Of the martyred children, in their +character of martyrs, I have already spoken, and of their proper place +in a scheme of ecclesiastical decoration. There is surely something +very pathetic in that feeling which exalted these infant victims into +objects of religious veneration, making them the cherished companions +in heavenly glory of the Saviour for whose sake they were sacrificed +on earth. He had said, "Suffer little children to come unto me;" +and to these were granted the prerogatives of pain, as well as the +privileges of innocence. If, in the day of retribution, they sit at +the feet of the Redeemer, surely they will appeal against us, then and +there;--against us who, in these days, through our reckless neglect, +slay, body and soul, legions of innocents,--poor little unblest +creatures, "martyrs by the pang without the palm,"--yet dare to call +ourselves Christians. + + * * * * * + +The Massacre of the Innocents, as an event, belongs properly to the +life of Christ: it is not included in a series of the life of the +Virgin, perhaps from a feeling that the contrast between the most +blessed of women and mothers, and those who wept distracted for their +children, was too painful, and did not harmonize with the general +subject. In pictures of the Flight into Egypt, I have seen it +introduced allusively into the background; and in the architectural +decoration of churches dedicated to the Virgin Mother, as Notre Dame +de Chartres, it finds a place, but not often a conspicuous place;[1] +it is rather indicated than represented. I should pass over the +subject altogether, best pleased to be spared the theme, but +that there are some circumstances connected with it which require +elucidation, because we find them introduced incidentally into +pictures of the Flight and the _Riposo_. + +[Footnote 1: It is conspicuous and elegantly treated over the door of +the Lorenz Kirche at Nuremberg.] + +Thus, it is related that among the children whom Herod was bent on +destroying, was St. John the Baptist; but his mother Elizabeth fled +with him to a desert place, and being pursued by the murderers, "the +rock opened by a miracle, and close upon Elizabeth and her child;" +which means, as we may presume, that they took refuge in a cavern, +and were concealed within it until the danger was over. Zacharias, +refusing to betray his son, was slain "between the temple and the +altar," (Matt, xxiii. 35.) Both these legends are to be met with +in the Greek pictures, and in the miniatures of the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries.[1] + +[Footnote 1: They will be found treated at length in the artistic +subjects connected with St. John the Baptist.] + +From the butchery which made so many mothers childless, the divine +Infant and his mother were miraculously saved; for an angel spoke to +Joseph in a dream, saying, "Arise, and take the young child and his +mother, and flee into Egypt." This is the second of the four angelic +visions which are recorded of Joseph. It is not a frequent subject +in early art, but is often met with in pictures of the later schools. +Joseph is asleep in his chair, the angel stands before him, and, with +a significant gesture, points forward--"arise and flee!" + +There is an exquisite little composition by Titian, called a _Riposo_, +which may possibly represent the preparation for the Flight. Here Mary +is seated under a tree nursing her Infant, while in the background is +a sort of rude stable, in which Joseph is seen saddling the ass, while +the ox is on the outside. + +In a composition by Tiarini, we see Joseph holding the Infant, while +Mary, leaning one hand on his shoulder, is about to mount the ass. + +In a composition by Poussin, Mary, who has just seated herself on the +ass, takes the Child from the arms of Joseph. Two angels lead the ass, +a third kneels in homage, and two others are seen above with a curtain +to pitch a tent. + + * * * * * + +I must notice here a tradition that both the ox and the ass who stood +over the manger at Bethlehem, accompanied the Holy Family into Egypt. +In Albert Durer's print, the ox and the ass walk side by side. It is +also related that the Virgin was accompanied by Salome, and Joseph by +three of his sons. This version of the story is generally rejected +by the painters; but in the series by Giotto in the Arena at Padua, +Salome and the three youths attend on Mary and Joseph; and I remember +another instance, a little picture by Lorenzo Monaco, in which Salome, +who had vowed to attend on Christ and his mother as long as she lived, +is seen following the ass, veiled, and supporting her steps with a +staff. + +But this is a rare exception. The general treatment confines the group +to Joseph, the mother, and the Child. To Joseph was granted, in those +hours of distress and danger, the high privilege of providing for +the safety of the Holy Infant--a circumstance much enlarged upon in +the old legends, and to express this more vividly, he is sometimes +represented in early Greek art as carrying the Child in his arms, or +on his shoulder, while Mary follows on the ass. He is so figured +on the sculptured doors of the cathedral of Beneventum, and in the +cathedral of Monreale, both executed by Greek artists.[1] But we are +not to suppose that the Holy Family was left defenceless on the long +journey. The angels who had charge concerning them were sent to guide +them by day, to watch over them by night, to pitch their tent before +them, and to refresh them with celestial fruit and flowers. By the +introduction of these heavenly ministers the group is beautifully +varied. + +[Footnote 1: 11th century. Also at Città di Castello; same date.] + +Joseph, says the Gospel story, "arose by night;" hence there is both +meaning and propriety in those pictures which represent the Flight +as a night-scene, illuminated by the moon and stars, though I believe +this has been done more to exhibit the painter's mastery over effects +of dubious light, than as a matter of biblical accuracy. Sometimes an +angel goes before, carrying a torch or lantern, to light them on the +way; sometimes it is Joseph who carries the lantern. + +In a picture by Nicolo Poussin, Mary walks before, carrying the +Infant; Joseph follows, leading the ass; and an angel guides them. + +The journey did not, however, comprise one night only. There is, +indeed, an antique tradition, that space and time were, on this +occasion, miraculously shortened to secure a life of so much +importance; still, we are allowed to believe that the journey extended +over many days and nights; consequently it lay within the choice of +the artist to exhibit the scene of the Flight either by night or by +day. + +In many representations of the Flight into Egypt, we find in the +background men sowing or cutting corn. This is in allusion to the +following legend:-- + +When it was discovered that the Holy Family had fled from Bethlehem, +Herod sent his officers in pursuit of them. And it happened that when +the Holy Family had travelled some distance, they came to a field +where a man was sowing wheat. And the Virgin said to the husbandman, +"If any shall ask you whether we have passed this way, ye shall +answer, 'Such persons passed this way when I was sowing this corn.'" +For the holy Virgin was too wise and too good to save her Son by +instructing the man to tell a falsehood. But behold, a miracle! For +by the power of the Infant Saviour, in the space of a single night, +the seed sprung up into stalk, blade, and ear, fit for the sickle. +And next morning the officers of Herod came up, and inquired of the +husbandman, saying, "Have you seen an old man with a woman and a Child +travelling this way?" And the man, who was reaping his wheat, in great +wonder and admiration, replied "Yes." And they asked again, "How long +is it since?" And he answered. "When I was sowing this wheat." Then +the officers of Herod turned back, and left off pursuing the Holy +Family. + +A very remarkable example of the introduction of this legend occurs +in a celebrated picture by Hans Hemling (Munich Gal., Cabinet iv. 69), +known as "Die Sieben Freuden Mariä." In the background, on the left, +is the Flight into Egypt; the men cutting and reaping corn, and the +officers of Herod in pursuit of the Holy Family. By those unacquainted +with the old legend, the introduction of the cornfield and reapers +is supposed to be merely a decorative landscape, without any peculiar +significance. + + * * * * * + +In a very beautiful fresco by Pinturicchio, (Rome, St. Onofrio), the +Holy Family are taking their departure from Bethlehem. The city, +with the massacre of the Innocents, is seen in the background. In the +middle distance, the husbandman cutting corn; and nearer, the palm +tree bending down. + + * * * * * + +It is supposed by commentators that Joseph travelled from Bethlehem +across the hilly country of Judea, taking the road to Joppa, and then +pursuing the way along the coast. Nothing is said in the Gospel of the +events of this long and perilous journey of at least 400 miles, which, +in the natural order of things, must have occupied five or six weeks; +and the legendary traditions are very few. Such as they are, however, +the painters have not failed to take advantage of them. + +We are told that on descending from the mountains, they came down +upon a beautiful plain enamelled with flowers, watered by murmuring +streams, and shaded by fruit trees. In such a lovely landscape have +the painters delighted to place some of the scenes of the Flight into +Egypt. On another occasion, they entered a thick forest, a wilderness +of trees, in which they must have lost their way, had they not been +guided by an angel. Here we encounter a legend which has hitherto +escaped, because, indeed, it defied, the art of the painter. As the +Holy Family entered this forest, all the trees bowed themselves down +in reverence to the Infant God; only the aspen, in her exceeding pride +and arrogance, refused to acknowledge him, and stood upright. Then the +Infant Christ pronounced a curse against her, as he afterwards cursed +the barren fig tree; and at the sound of his words the aspen began to +tremble through all her leaves, and has not ceased to tremble even to +this day. + +We know from Josephus the historian, that about this time Palestine +was infested by bands of robbers. There is an ancient tradition, that +when the Holy Family travelling through hidden paths and solitary +defiles, had passed Jerusalem, and were descending into the plains of +Syria, they encountered certain thieves who fell upon them; and one +of them would have maltreated and plundered them, but his comrade +interfered, and said, "Suffer them, I beseech thee, to go in peace, +and I will give thee forty groats, and likewise my girdle;" which +offer being accepted, the merciful robber led the Holy Travellers +to his stronghold on the rock, and gave them lodging for the night. +(Gospel of Infancy, ch. viii.) And Mary said to him, "The Lord God +will receive thee to his right hand, and grant thee pardon of thy +sins!" And it was so: for in after times these two thieves were +crucified with Christ, one on the right hand, and one on the left; +and the merciful thief went with the Saviour into Paradise. + +The scene of this encounter with the robbers, near Ramla, is still +pointed out to travellers, and still in evil repute as the haunt of +banditti. The crusaders visited the spot as a place of pilgrimage; +and the Abbé Orsini considers the first part of the story as +authenticated; but the legend concerning the good thief he admits +to be doubtful. (Vie de la Ste. Vierge.) + +As an artistic subject this scene has been seldom treated. I have seen +two pictures which represent it. One is a fresco by Giovanni di San +Giovanni, which, having been cut from the wail of some suppressed +convent, is now in the academy at Florence. The other is a composition +by Zuccaro. + +One of the most popular legends concerning the Flight into Egypt is +that of the palm or date tree, which at the command of Jesus bowed +down its branches to shade and refresh his mother; hence, in the scene +of the Flight, a palm tree became a usual accessory. In a picture by +Antonello Mellone, the Child stretches out his little hand and lays +hold of the branch: sometimes the branch is bent down by angel hands. +Sozomenes relates, that when the Holy Family reached the term of +their journey, and approached the city of Heliopolis in Egypt, a tree +which grew before the gates of the city, and was regarded with great +veneration as the seat of a god, bowed down its branches at the +approach of the Infant Christ. Likewise it is related (not in legends +merely, but by grave religious authorities) that all the idols of the +Egyptians fell with their faces to the earth. I have seen pictures of +the Flight into Egypt, in which broken idols lie by the wayside. + + * * * * * + +In the course of the journey the Holy Travellers had to cross rivers +and lakes; hence the later painters, to vary the subject, represented +them as embarking in a boat, sometimes steered by an angel. The first, +as I have reason to believe, who ventured on this innovation, was +Annibale Caracci. In a picture by Poussin, the Holy Family are about +to embark. In a picture by Giordano, an angel with one knee bent, +assists Mary to enter the boat. In a pretty little picture by Teniers, +the Holy Family and the ass are seen in a boat crossing a ferry by +moonlight; sometimes they are crossing a bridge. + +I must notice here a little picture by Adrian Vander Werff, in which +the Virgin, carrying her Child, holds by the hand the old decrepit +Joseph, who is helping her, or rather is helped by her, to pass a +torrent on some stepping-stones. This is quite contrary to the feeling +of the old authorities, which represent Joseph as the vigilant and +capable guardian of the Mother and her Child: but it appears to have +here a rather particular and touching significance; it was painted by +Vander Werff for his daughter in his old age, and intended to express +her filial duty and his paternal care. + +The most beautiful Flight into Egypt I have ever seen, is a +composition by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The Virgin is seated and sustained +on the ass with a quite peculiar elegance. The Infant, standing on her +knee, seems to point out the way; an angel leads the ass, and Joseph +follows with the staff and wallet. In the background the palm tree +inclines its branches. (At Varallo, in the church of the Minorites.) + +Claude has introduced the Flight of the Holy Family as a landscape +group into nine different pictures. + + + + +THE REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY. + +_Ital._ Il Riposo. _Fr._ Le Repos de la Sainte Famille. _Ger._ Die +Ruhe in Ægypten. + + +The subject generally styled a "Riposo" is one of the most graceful +and most attractive in the whole range of Christian art. It is not, +however, an ancient subject, for I cannot recall an instance earlier +than the sixteenth century; it had in its accessories that romantic +and pastoral character which recommended it to the Venetians and to +the landscape-painters of the seventeenth century, and among these we +must look for the most successful and beautiful examples. + +I must begin by observing that it is a subject not only easily +mistaken by those who have studied pictures; but perpetually +misconceived and misrepresented by the painters themselves. Some +pictures which erroneously bear this title, were never intended to +do so. Others, intended to represent the scene, are disfigured +and perplexed by mistakes arising either from the ignorance or the +carelessness of the artist. + +We must bear in mind that the Riposo, properly so called, is not +merely the Holy Family seated in a landscape; it is an episode of +the Flight into Egypt, and is either the rest on the journey, or at +the close of the journey; quite different scenes, though all go by +the same name. It is not an ideal religious group, but a reality, a +possible and actual scene; and it is clear that the painter, if he +thought at all, and did not merely set himself to fabricate a pretty +composition, was restricted within the limits of the actual and +possible, at least according to the histories and traditions of the +time. Some of the accessories introduced would stamp the intention at +once; as the date tree, and Joseph gathering dates; the ass feeding in +the distance; the wallet and pilgrim's staff laid beside Joseph; the +fallen idols; the Virgin scooping water from a fountain; for all these +are incidents which properly belong to the Riposo. + +It is nowhere recorded; either in Scripture or in the legendary +stories, that Mary and Joseph in their flight were accompanied by +Elizabeth and the little St. John; therefore, where either of these +are introduced, the subject is not properly a _Riposo_, whatever the +intention of the painter may have been: the personages ought to be +restricted to the Virgin, her Infant, and St. Joseph, with attendant +angels. An old woman is sometimes introduced, the same who is +traditionally supposed to have accompanied them in their flight. If +this old woman be manifestly St. Anna or St. Elizabeth, then it is not +a _Riposo_, but merely a _Holy Family_. + +It is related that the Holy Family finally rested, after their long +journey, in the village of Matarea, beyond the city of Hermopolis (or +Heliopolis), and took up their residence in a grove of sycamores, a +circumstance which gave the sycamore tree a sort of religions interest +in early Christian times. The crusaders imported it into Europe; and +poor Mary Stuart may have had this idea, or this feeling when she +brought from France, and planted in her garden, the first sycamores +which grew in Scotland. + +Near to this village of Matarea, a fountain miraculously sprung up +for the refreshment of the Holy Family. It still exists, as we +are informed by travellers, and is still styled by the Arabs, "The +Fountain of Mary."[1] This fountain is frequently represented, as in +the well-known Riposo by Correggio, where the Virgin is dipping a bowl +into the gushing stream, hence called the "Madonna _della Scodella_" +(Parma): in another by Baroccio (Grosvenor Gal.), and another by +Domenichino (Louvre, 491). + +[Footnote 1: The site of this fountain is about four miles N.E. of +Cairo.] + +In this fountain, says another legend, Mary washed the linen of the +Child. There are several pictures which represent the Virgin washing +linen in a fountain; for example, one by Lucio Massari, where, in a +charming landscape, the little Christ takes the linen out of a basket, +and Joseph hangs it on a line to dry. (Florence Gal.) + +The ministry of the angels is here not only allowable, but beautifully +appropriate; and never has it been more felicitously and more +gracefully expressed than in a little composition by Lucas Cranach, +where the Virgin and her Child repose under a tree, while the angels +dance in a circle round them. The cause of the Flight--the Massacre +of the Innocents--is figuratively expressed by two winged boys, who, +seated on a bough of the tree, are seen robbing a nest, and wringing +the necks of the nestlings, while the parent-birds scream and flutter +over their heads: in point of taste, this significant allegory had +been better omitted; it spoils the harmony of composition. There +is another similar group, quite as graceful, by David Hopfer. +Vandyck seems to have had both in his memory when he designed the +very beautiful Riposo so often copied and engraved (Coll. of Lord +Ashburton); here the Virgin is seated under a tree, in an open +landscape, and holds her divine Child; Joseph, behind, seems asleep; +in front of the Virgin, eight lovely angels dance in a round, while +others, seated in the sky, make heavenly music. + +In another singular and charming Riposo by Lucas Cranach, the Virgin +and Child are seated under a tree; to the left of the group is a +fountain, where a number of little angels appear to be washing linen; +to the right, Joseph approaches leading the ass, and in the act of +reverently removing his cap. + +There is a Riposo by Albert Durer which I cannot pass over. It is +touched with all that homely domestic feeling, and at the same time +all that fertility of fancy, which are so characteristic of that +extraordinary man. We are told that when Joseph took up his residence +at Matarea in Egypt, he provided for his wife and Child by exercising +his trade as a carpenter. In this composition he appears in the +foreground dressed as an artisan with an apron on, and with an axe in +his hand is shaping a plank of wood. Mary sits on one side spinning +with her distaff, and watching her Infant slumbering in its cradle. +Around this domestic group we have a crowd of ministering angels; some +of these little winged spirits are assisting Joseph, sweeping up the +chips and gathering them into baskets; others are merely "sporting at +their own sweet will." Several more dignified-looking angels, having +the air of guardian spirits, stand or kneel round the cradle, bending +over it with folded hands.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the famous set of wood cuts of the Life of the Virgin +Mary.] + +In a Riposo by Titian, the Infant lies on a pillow on the ground, and +the Virgin is kneeling before him, while Joseph leans on his pilgrim's +staff, to which is suspended a wallet. In another, two angels, +kneeling, offer fruits in a basket; in the distance, a little angel +waters the ass at a stream. (All these are engraved.) + +The angels, according to the legend, not only ministered to the Holy +Family, but pitched a tent nightly, in which they were sheltered. +Poussin, in an exquisite picture, has represented the Virgin and Child +reposing under a curtain suspended from the branches of a tree and +partly sustained by angels, while others, kneeling, offer fruit. +(Grosvenor Gal.) + +Poussin is the only painter who has attempted to express the locality. +In one of his pictures the Holy Family reposes on the steps of an +Egyptian temple; a sphinx and a pyramid are visible in the background. +In another Riposo by the same master, an Ethiopian boy presents fruits +to the Infant Christ. Joseph is frequently asleep, which is hardly +consonant with the spirit of the older legends. It is, however, a +beautiful idea to make the Child and Joseph both reposing, while the +Virgin Mother, with eyes upraised to heaven, wakes and watches, as +in a picture by Mola (Louvre, 269); but a yet more beautiful idea to +represent the Virgin and Joseph sunk in sleep, while the divine Infant +lying in his mother's arms wakes and watches for both, with his little +hands joined in prayer, and his eyes fixed on the hovering angels or +the opening skies above. + +In a Riposo by Rembrandt, the Holy Family rest by night, and are +illuminated only by a lantern suspended on the bough of a tree, the +whole group having much the air of a gypsy encampment. But one of +Rembrandt's imitators has in his own way improved on this fancy; the +Virgin sleeps on a bank with the Child on her bosom; Joseph, who looks +extremely like an old tinker, is doubling his fist at the ass, which +has opened its mouth to bray. + + * * * * * + +Before quitting the subject of the Riposo, I must mention a very +pretty and poetical legend, which I have met with in one picture only; +a description of it may, however, lead to the recognition of others. + +There is, in the collection of Lord Shrewsbury, at Alton Towers, a +Riposo attributed to Giorgione, remarkable equally for the beauty and +the singularity of the treatment. The Holy Family are seated in the +midst of a wild but rich landscape, quite in the Venetian style; +Joseph is asleep; the two children are playing with a lamb. The +Virgin, seated holds a book, and turns round, with an expression of +surprise and alarm, to a female figure who stands on the right. This +woman has a dark physiognomy, ample flowing drapery of red and white, +a white turban twisted round her head, and stretches out her hand with +the air of a sibyl. The explanation of this striking group I found +in an old ballad-legend. Every one who has studied the moral as well +as the technical character of the various schools of art, must have +remarked how often the Venetians (and Giorgione more especially) +painted groups from the popular fictions and ballads of the time; and +it has often been regretted that many of these pictures are becoming +unintelligible to us from our having lost the key to them, in losing +all trace of the fugitive poems or tales which suggested them. + +The religious ballad I allude to must have been popular in the +sixteenth century; it exists in the Provençal dialect, in German, +and in Italian; and, like the wild ballad of St. John Chrysostom, it +probably came in some form or other from the East. The theme is, in +all these versions, substantially the same. The Virgin, on her arrival +in Egypt, is encountered by a gypsy (Zingara or Zingarella), who +crosses the Child's palm after the gypsy manner, and foretells all the +wonderful and terrible things which, as the Redeemer of mankind, he +was destined to perform and endure on earth. + +An Italian version which lies before me is entitled, _Canzonetta +nuova, sopra la Madonna, quando si partò in Egitto col Bambino Gesù +e San Giuseppe_, "A new Ballad of our Lady, when she fled into Egypt +with the Child Jesus and St. Joseph." + +It begins with a conversation between the Virgin, who has just arrived +from her long journey, and the gypsy-woman, who thus salutes her:-- + + ZINGARELLA. + Dio ti salvi, bella Signora, + E ti dia buona ventura. + Ben venuto, vecchiarello, + Con questo bambino bello! + + MADONNA. + Ben trovata, sorella mia, + La sua grazia Dio ti dia. + Ti perdoni i tuoi peccati + L' infinità sua bontade. + + ZINGARELLA. + Siete stanchi e meschini, + Credo, poveri pellegrini + Che cercate d' alloggiare. + Vuoi, Signora, scavalcare? + + MADONNA. + Voi che siete, sorella mia, + Tutta piena di cortesia, + Dio vi renda la carità + Per l'infinità sua bontà . + Noi veniam da Nazaretta, + Siamo senza alcun ricetto, + Arrivati all' strania + Stanchi e lassi dalla via! + + GYPSY. + God save thee, fair Lady, and give thee good luck + Welcome, good old man, with this thy fair Child! + + MARY. + Well met, sister mine! God give thee grace, and of + his infinite mercy forgive thee thy sins! + + GYPSY. + Ye are tired and drooping, poor pilgrims, as I think, + seeking a night's lodging. Lady, wilt thou choose to alight? + + MARY. + + O sister mine! full of courtesy, God of his infinite goodness + reward thee for thy charity. We are come from + Nazareth, and we are without a place to lay our heads, + arrived in a strange land, all tired and weary with the way! + +The Zingarella then offers them a resting-place, and straw and fodder +for the ass, which being accepted, she asks leave to tell their +fortune, but begins by recounting, in about thirty stanzas, all the +past history of the Virgin pilgrim; she then asks to see the Child-- + + Ora tu, Signora mia. + Che sei piena di cortesia, + Mostramelo per favore + Lo tuo Figlio Redentore! + + And now, O Lady mine, that art full of courtesy, grant + me to look upon thy Son, the Redeemer! + +The Virgin takes him from the arms of Joseph-- + + Datemi, o caro sposo, + Lo mio Figlio grazioso! + Quando il vide sta meschina + Zingarella, che indovina! + + Give me, dear husband, my lovely boy, that this poor + gypsy, who is a prophetess, may look upon him. + +The gypsy responds with becoming admiration and humility, praises +the beauty of the Child, and then proceeds to examine his palm: which +having done, she breaks forth into a prophecy of all the awful future, +tells how he would be baptized, and tempted, scourged, and finally +hung upon a cross-- + + Questo Figlio accarezzato + Tu lo vedrai ammazzato + Sopra d'una dura croce, + Figlio bello! Figlio dolce! + +but consoles the disconsolate Mother, doomed to honour for the sake of +us sinners-- + + Sei arrivata a tanti onori + Per noi altri Peccatori! + +and ends by begging an alms-- + + Non ti vo' più infastidire, + Bella Signora; so chi hai a fare. + Dona la limosinella + A sta povera Zingarella +true repentance and eternal life. + + Vo' una vera contrizione + Per la tua intercezione, + Accio st' alma dopo morte + Tragga alle celesti porte! + +And so the story ends. + +There can be no doubt, I think, that we have here the original theme +of Giorgione's picture, and perhaps of others. + +In the Provençal ballad, there are three gypsies, men, not women, +introduced, who tell the fortune of the Virgin and Joseph, as well +as that of the Child, and end by begging alms "to wet their thirsty +throats." Of this version there is a very spirited and characteristic +translation by Mr. Kenyon, under the title of "a Gypsy Carol."[1] + +[Footnote 1: A Day at Tivoli, with other Verses, by John Kenyon, p. +149.] + + +THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + +According to some authorities, the Holy Family sojourned in Egypt +during a period of seven years, but others assert that they returned +to Judea at the end of two years. + +In general the painters have expressed the Return from Egypt by +exhibiting Jesus as no longer an infant sustained in his mother's +arms, but as a boy walking at her side. In a picture by Francesco +Vanni, he is a boy about two or three years old, and carries a little +basket full of carpenter's tools. The occasion of the Flight and +Return is indicated by three or four of the martyred Innocents, who +are lying on the ground. In a picture by Domenico Feti two of the +Innocents are lying dead on the roadside. In a very graceful, animated +picture by Rubens, Mary and Joseph lead the young Christ between them, +and the Virgin wears a large straw hat. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART III. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE SOJOURN IN EGYPT TO THE +CRUCIFIXION OF OUR LORD. + +1. THE HOLY FAMILY. 2. THE VIRGIN SEEKS HER SON. 3. THE DEATH OF +JOSEPH. 4. THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. 5. "LO SPASIMO." 6. THE CRUCIFIXION. +7. THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS. 8. THE ENTOMBMENT. + + +THE HOLY FAMILY. + +When the Holy Family under divine protection, had returned safely from +their sojourn in Egypt, they were about to repair to Bethlehem; but +Joseph hearing that Archelaus "did reign in Judea in the room of his +father Herod, he was afraid to go thither; and being warned of God +in a dream, he turned aside into Galilee," and came to the city of +Nazareth, which was the native place and home of the Virgin Mary. +Here Joseph dwelt, following in peace his trade of a carpenter, and +bringing up his reputed Son to the same craft: and here Mary nurtured +her divine Child; "and he grew and waxed strong in spirit, and the +grace of God was upon him." No other event is recorded until Jesus had +reached his twelfth, year. + + * * * * * + +This, then, is the proper place to introduce some notice of those +representations of the domestic life of the Virgin and the infancy +of the Saviour, which, in all their endless variety, pass under the +general title of THE HOLY FAMILY--the beautiful title of a beautiful +subject, addressed in the loveliest and most familiar form at once to +the piety and the affections of the beholder. + +These groups, so numerous, and of such perpetual recurrence, that they +alone form a large proportion of the contents of picture galleries +and the ornaments of churches, are, after all, a modern innovation in +sacred art. What may be called the _domestic_ treatment of the history +of the Virgin cannot be traced farther back than the middle of the +fifteenth century. It is, indeed, common to class all those pictures +as Holy Families which include any of the relatives of Christ grouped +with the Mother and her Child; but I must here recapitulate and +insist upon the distinction to be drawn between the _domestic_ and +the _devotional_ treatment of the subject; a distinction I have been +careful to keep in view throughout the whole range of sacred art, +and which, in this particular subject, depends on a difference in +sentiment and intention, more easily felt than set down in words. It +is, I must repeat, a _devotional_ group where the sacred personages +are placed in direct relation to the worshippers, and where their +supernatural character is paramount to every other. It is a _domestic_ +or an _historical_ group, a Holy Family properly so called, when the +personages are placed in direct relation to each other by some link +of action or sentiment, which expresses the family connection between +them, or by some action which has a dramatic rather than a religious +significance. The Italians draw this distinction in the title "_Sacra +Conversazione_" given to the first-named subject, and that of "_Sacra +Famiglia_" given to the last. For instance, if the Virgin, watching +her sleeping Child, puts her finger on her lip to silence the little +St. John; there is here no relation between the spectator and the +persons represented, except that of unbidden sympathy: it is a +family group; a domestic scene. But if St. John, looking out of the +picture, points to the Infant, "Behold the Lamb of God!" then the +whole representation changes its significance; St. John assumes the +character of precursor, and we, the spectators, are directly addressed +and called upon to acknowledge the "Son of God, the Saviour of +mankind." + +If St. Joseph, kneeling, presents flowers to the Infant Christ, while +Mary looks on tenderly (as in a group by Raphael), it is an act of +homage which expresses the mutual relation of the three personages; it +is a Holy Family: whereas, in the picture by Murillo, in our National +Gallery, where Joseph and Mary present the young Redeemer to the +homage of the spectator, while the form of the PADRE ETERNO, and +the Holy Spirit, with attendant angels, are floating above, we have +a devotional group, a "_Sacra Conversazione_:"--it is, in fact a +material representation of the Trinity; and the introduction of Joseph +into such immediate propinquity with the personages acknowledged +as divine is one of the characteristics of the later schools of +theological art. It could not possibly have occurred before the end +of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. + +The introduction of persons who could not have been contemporary, as +St. Francis or St. Catherine, renders the group ideal and devotional. +On the other hand, as I have already observed, the introduction of +attendant angels does not place the subject out of the domain of the +actual; for the painters literally rendered what in the Scripture text +is distinctly set down and literally interpreted, "He shall give his +angels charge concerning thee." Wherever lived and moved the Infant +Godhead, angels were always _supposed_ to be present; therefore it lay +within the province of an art addressed especially to our senses, to +place them bodily before us, and to give to these heavenly attendants +a visible shape and bearing worthy of their blessed ministry. + +The devotional groups, of which I have already treated most fully, +even while placed by the accessories quite beyond the range of actual +life, have been too often vulgarized and formalized by a trivial or +merely conventional treatment.[1] In these really domestic scenes, +where the painter sought unreproved his models in simple nature, and +trusted for his effect to what was holiest and most immutable in our +common humanity, he must have been a bungler indeed if he did not +succeed in touching some responsive chord of sympathy in the bosom of +the observer. This is, perhaps, the secret of the universal, and, in +general, deserved popularity of these Holy Families. + +[Footnote 1: See the "Mater Amabilis" and the "Pastoral Madonnas," p. +229, 239.] + + +TWO FIGURES. + +The simplest form of the family group is confined to two figures, +and expresses merely the relation between the Mother and the Child. +The _motif_ is precisely the same as in the formal, goddess-like, +enthroned Madonnas of the antique time; but here quite otherwise +worked out, and appealing to other sympathies. In the first instance, +the intention was to assert the contested pretensions of the human +mother to divine honours; here it was rather to assert the humanity of +her divine Son; and we have before us, in the simplest form, the first +and holiest of all the social relations. + +The primal instinct, as the first duty, of the mother, is the +nourishment of the life she has given. A very common subject, +therefore, is Mary in the act of feeding her Child from her bosom. I +have already observed that, when first adopted, this was a theological +theme; an answer, _in form_, to the challenge of the Nestorians, +"Shall we call him _God_, who hath sucked his mother's breast?" Then, +and for at least 500 years afterwards, the simple maternal action +involved a religious dogma, and was the visible exponent of a +controverted article of faith. All such controversy had long ceased, +and certainly there was no thought of insisting on a point of +theology in the minds of those secular painters of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, who have set forth the representation with such +an affectionate and delicate grace; nor yet in the minds of those who +converted the lovely group into a moral lesson. For example, we find +in the works of Jeremy Taylor (one of the lights of our Protestant +Church) a long homily "Of nursing children, in imitation of the +blessed Virgin Mother;" and prints and pictures of the Virgin thus +occupied often bear significant titles and inscriptions of the same +import; such as "Le prémier devoir d'une mère," &c. + +I do not find this _motif_ in any known picture by Raphael: but in +one of his designs, engraved by Marc Antonio, it is represented with +characteristic grace and delicacy. + +Goethe describes with delight a picture by Correggio, in which the +attention of the Child seems divided between the bosom of his mother, +and some fruit offered by an angel. He calls this subject "The Weaning +of the Infant Christ." Correggio, if not the very first, is certainly +among the first of the Italians who treated this _motif_ in the simple +domestic style. Others of the Lombard school followed him; and I know +not a more exquisite example than the maternal group by Solario, now +in the Louvre, styled _La Vierge à l'Oreiller verd_, from the colour +of the pillow on which the Child is lying. The subject is frequent in +the contemporary German and Flemish schools of the sixteenth century. +In the next century, there are charming examples by the Bologna +painters and the _Naturalisti_, Spanish, Italian, and Flemish. I would +particularly point to one by Agostino Caracci (Parma), and to another +by Vandyck (that engraved by Bartolozzi), as examples of elegance; +while in the numerous specimens by Rubens we have merely his own +wife and son, painted with all that coarse vigorous life, and homely +affectionate expression, which his own strong domestic feelings could +lend them. + +We have in other pictures the relation between the Mother and Child +expressed and varied in a thousand ways; as where she contemplates him +fondly--kisses him, pressing his cheeks to hers; or they sport with a +rose, or an apple, or a bird; or he presents it to his mother; these +originally mystical emblems being converted into playthings. In +another sketch she is amusing him by tinkling a bell:--the bell, +which has a religious significance, is here a plaything. One or more +attendant angels may vary the group, without taking it out of the +sphere of reality. In a quaint but charming picture in the Wallerstein +Collection, an angel is sporting with the Child at his mother's +feet--is literally his playfellow; and in a picture by Cambiaso, Mary, +assisted by an angel, is teaching her Child to walk. + + * * * * * + +To represent in the great enthroned Madonnas, the Infant Saviour of +the world asleep, has always appeared to me a solecism: whereas in +the domestic subject the Infant slumbering on his mother's knee, or +cradled in her arms, or on her bosom, or rocked by angels, is a most +charming subject. Sometimes angels are seen preparing his bed, or +looking on while he sleeps, with folded hands and overshadowing wings. +Sometimes Marry hangs over his pillow; "pondering in her heart" +the wondrous destinies of her Child. A poetess of our own time has +given us an interpretation worthy of the most beautiful of these +representations, in the address of the Virgin Mary to the Child +Jesus,--"Sleep, sleep, mine Holy One!" + + "And are thou come for saving, baby-browed + And speechless Being? art thou come for saving? + The palm that grows beside our door is bowed + By treadings of the low wind from the south, + A restless shadow through the chamber waving, + Upon its bough a bird sings in the sun. + But thou, with that close slumber on thy mouth, + Dost seem of wind and sun already weary, + Art come for saving, O my weary One? + + "Perchance this sleep that shutteth out the dreary + Earth-sounds and motions, opens on thy soul + High dreams on fire with God; + High songs that make the pathways where they roll + More bright than stars do theirs; and visions new + Of thine eternal nature's old abode. + Suffer this mother's kiss, + Best thing that earthly is, + To glide the music and the glory through, + Nor narrow in thy dream the broad upliftings + Of any seraph wing. + Thus, noiseless, thus!--Sleep, sleep, my dreaming One."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, vol. ii. p. 174.] + +Such high imaginings might be suggested by the group of Michael +Angelo,--his famous "Silenzio:" but very different certainly are the +thoughts and associations conveyed by some of the very lovely, but at +the same time familiar and commonplace, groups of peasant-mothers and +sleeping babies--the countless productions of the later schools--even +while the simplicity and truth of the natural sentiment go straight to +the heart. + +I remember reading a little Italian hymn composed for a choir of nuns, +and addressed to the sleeping Christ, in which he is prayed to awake +or if he will not, they threaten to pull him by his golden curls until +they rouse him to listen! + + * * * * * + +I have seen a graceful print which represents Jesus as a child +standing at his mother's knee, while she feeds him from a plate or cap +held by an angel; underneath is the text, "_Butter and honey shall he +eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the good_" And +in a print of the same period, the mother suspends her needlework +to contemplate the Child, who, standing at her side, looks down +compassionately on two little birds, which flutter their wings and +open their beaks expectingly; underneath is the test, "Are not two +sparrows sold for a farthing?" + +Mary employed in needlework, while her cradled Infant slumbers at her +side, is a beautiful subject. Rossini, in his _Storia della Pittura_, +publishes a group, representing the Virgin mending or making a little +coat, while Jesus, seated at her feet, without his coat, is playing +with a bird; two angels are hovering above. It appears to me that +there is here some uncertainty as regards both the subject and the +master. In the time of Giottino, to whom Rossini attributes the +picture, the domestic treatment of the Madonna and Child was unknown. +If it be really by him, I should suppose it to represent Hannah and +her son Samuel. + + * * * * * + +All these, and other varieties of action and sentiment connecting the +Mother and her Child, are frequently accompanied by accessory figures, +forming, in their combination, what is properly a Holy Family. The +personages introduced, singly or together, are the young St. John, +Joseph, Anna, Joachim, Elizabeth, and Zacharias. + + +THREE FIGURES. + +The group of three figures most commonly met with, is that of the +Mother and Child, with St. John. One of the earliest examples of the +domestic treatment of this group is a quaint picture by Botticelli, +in which Mary, bending down, holds forth the Child to be caressed by +St. John,--very dry in colour and faulty in drawing, but beautiful +for the sentiment. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) Perhaps the most perfect +example which could be cited from the whole range of art, is +Raphael's "Madonna del Cardellino" (Florence Gal.); another is his +"Belle Jardinière" (Louvre, 375); another, in which the figures are +half-length, is his "Madonna del Giglio" (Lord Garvagh's Coll.). As +I have already observed, where the Infant Christ takes the cross from +St. John, or presents it to him, or where St. John points to him as +the Redeemer, or is represented, not as a child, but as a youth or a +man, the composition assumes a devotional significance. + +The subject of the Sleeping Christ is beautifully varied by the +introduction of St. John; as where Mary lifts the veil and shows her +Child to the little St. John, kneeling with folded hands: Raphael's +well-known "Vierge à la Diademe" is an instance replete with grace and +expression.[1] Sometimes Mary, putting her finger to her lip, exhorts +St. John to silence, as in a famous and oft-repeated subject by +Annibale Caracci, of which there is a lovely example at Windsor. Such +a group is called in Italian, _Il Silenzio_, and in French _le Sommeil +de Jésus_. + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, 376. It is also styled _la Vierge au Linge_] + + * * * * * + +Another group of three figures consists of the Mother, the Child, and +St. Joseph as foster-father. This group, so commonly met with in the +later schools of art, dates from the end of the fifteenth century. +Gerson, an ecclesiastic distinguished at the Council of Constance for +his learning and eloquence, had written a poem of three thousand lines +in praise of St. Joseph, setting him up as the Christian, example +of every virtue; and this poem, after the invention of printing, was +published and widely disseminated. Sixtus IV. instituted a festival +in honour of the "Husband of the Virgin," which, as a novelty +and harmonizing with the tone of popular feeling, was everywhere +acceptable. As a natural consequence, the churches and chapels were +filled with pictures, which represented the Mother and her Child, +with Joseph standing or seated by, in an attitude of religious +contemplation or affectionate sympathy; sometimes leaning on his +stick, or with his tools lying beside him; and always in the old +pictures habited in his appropriate colours, the saffron-coloured robe +over the gray or green tunic. + +In the Madonna and Child, as a strictly devotional subject, the +introduction of Joseph rather complicates the idea; but in the +domestic Holy Family his presence is natural and necessary. It is +seldom that he is associated with the action, where there is one; +but of this also there are some beautiful examples. + + * * * * * + +1. In a well-known composition by Raphael (Grosvenor Gal.), the mother +withdraws the covering from the Child, who seems to have that moment +awaked, and, stretching out his little arms, smiles in her face: +Joseph looks on tenderly and thoughtfully. + +2. In another group by Raphael (Bridgewater Gal.), the Infant is +seated on the mother's knee, and sustained by part of her veil; +Joseph, kneeling, offers flowers to his divine foster-Son, who eagerly +stretches out his little hand to take them. + +In many pictures, Joseph is seen presenting cherries; as in the +celebrated _Vierge aux Cerises_ of Annibale Caracci. (Louvre.) The +allusion is to a quaint old legend, often introduced in the religious +ballads and dramatic mysteries of the time. It is related, that before +the birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary wished to taste of certain +cherries which hung upon a tree high above her head; she requested +Joseph to procure them for her, and he reaching to pluck them, the +branch bowed down to his hand. + +3. There is a lovely pastoral composition by Titian, in which Mary +is seated under some trees, with Joseph leaning on his staff, and the +Infant Christ standing between them: the little St. John approaches +with his lap full of cherries; and in the background a woman is seen +gathering cherries. This picture is called a Ripose; but the presence +of St. John, and the cherry tree instead of the date tree, point out a +different signification. Angels presenting cherries on a plate is also +a frequent circumstance, derived from the same legend. + +4. In a charming picture by Garofalo, Joseph is caressing the Child, +while Mary--a rather full figure, calm, matronly, and dignified, as is +usual with Garofalo--sits by, holding a book in her hand, from which +she has just raised her eyes. (Windsor Gal.) + +5. In a family group by Murillo, Joseph, standing, holds the Infant +pressed to his bosom; while Mary, seated near a cradle, holds out her +arms to take it from him: a carpenter's bench is seen behind. + +6. A celebrated picture by Rembrandt, known as _le Ménage du +Menuisier_, exhibits a rustic interior; the Virgin is seated with the +volume of the Scriptures open on her knees--she turns, and lifting +the coverlid of the cradle, contemplates the Infant asleep: in the +background Joseph is seen at his work; while angels hover above, +keeping watch over the Holy Family. Exquisite for the homely +natural sentiment, and the depth of the colour and chiaro-oscuro. +(Petersburg.) + +7. Many who read these pages will remember the pretty little picture +by Annibale Caracci, known as "le Raboteur."[1] It represents Joseph +planing a board, while Jesus, a lovely boy about six or seven years +old, stands by, watching the progress of his work. Mary is seated on +one side plying her needle. The great fault of this picture is the +subordinate and utterly commonplace character given to the Virgin +Mother: otherwise it is a very suggestive and dramatic subject, and +one which might be usefully engraved in a cheap form for distribution. + +[Footnote 1: In the Coll. of the Earl of Suffolk, at Charlton.] + + * * * * * + +Sometimes, in a Holy Family of three figures, the third figure is +neither St. John nor St. Joseph, but St. Anna. Now, according to +some early authorities, both Joachim and Anna died either before the +marriage of Mary and Joseph, or at least before the return from Egypt. +Such, however, was the popularity of these family groups, and the +desire to give them all possible variety, that the ancient version of +the story was overruled by the prevailing taste, and St. Anna became +an important personage. One of the earliest groups in which the mother +of the Virgin is introduced as a third personage, is a celebrated, +but to my taste not a pleasing, composition, by Lionardo da Vinci, +in which St. Anna is seated on a sort of chair, and the Virgin on her +knees bends down towards the Infant Christ, who is sporting with a +lamb. (Louvre, 481.) + + +FOUR FIGURES. + +In a Holy Family of four figures, we have frequently the Virgin, the +Child, and the infant St. John, with St. Joseph standing by. Raphael's +Madonna del Passeggio is an example. In a picture by Palma Vecchio, +St. John presents a lamb, while St. Joseph kneels before the Infant +Christ, who, seated on his mother's knee, extends his arms to his +foster-father. Nicole Poussin was fond of this group, and has repeated +it at least ten times with variations. + +But the most frequent group of four figures consists of the Virgin and +Child, with St. John and his mother, St. Elizabeth--the two mothers +and the two sons. Sometimes the children are sporting together, +or embracing each other, while Mary and Elizabeth look on with a +contemplative tenderness, or seem to converse on the future destinies +of their sons. A very favourite and appropriate action is that of St. +Elizabeth presenting St. John, and teaching him to kneel and fold his +hands, as acknowledging in his little cousin the Infant Saviour. We +have then, in beautiful contrast, the aged coifed head of Elizabeth, +with its matronly and earnest expression; the youthful bloom and soft +virginal dignity of Mary; and the different character of the boys, the +fair complexion and delicate proportions of the Infant Christ, and +the more robust and brown-complexioned John. A great painter will be +careful to express these distinctions, not by the exterior character +only, but will so combine the personages, that the action represented +shall display the superior dignity of Christ and his mother. + + +FIVE OR SIX FIGURES. + +The addition of Joseph as a fifth figure, completes the domestic +group. The introduction of the aged Zacharias renders, however, yet +more full and complete, the circle of human life and human affection. +We have then, infancy, youth, maturity, and age,--difference of sex +and various degrees of relationship, combined into one harmonious +whole; and in the midst, the divinity of innocence, the Child-God, +the brightness of a spiritual power, connecting our softest earthly +affections with our highest heavenward aspirations.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The inscription under a Holy Family in which the children +are caressing each other is sometimes _Delicæ meæ esse cum filiis +hominum_ (Prov. viii. 31, "My delights were with the sons of men").] + + * * * * * + +A Holy Family of more than six figures (the angels not included) is +very unusual. But there are examples of groups combining all those +personages mentioned in the Gospels as being related to Christ, +though the nature and the degree of this supposed relationship has +embarrassed critics and commentators, and is not yet settled. + +According to an ancient tradition, Anna, the mother of the Virgin +Mary, was three times married, Joachim being her third husband: the +two others were Cleophas and Salomé. By Cleophas she had a daughter, +also called Mary, who was the wife of Alpheus, and the mother +of Thaddeus, James Minor, and Joseph Justus. By Salomé she had a +daughter, also Mary, married to Zebedee, and the mother of James Major +and John the Evangelist. This idea that St. Anna was successively the +wife of three husbands, and the mother of three daughters, all of +the name of Mary, has been rejected by later authorities; but in the +beginning of the sixteenth century it was accepted, and to that period +may be referred the pictures, Italian and German, representing a +peculiar version of the Holy Family more properly styled "the Family +of the Virgin Mary." + +A picture by Lorenzo di Pavia, painted about 1513, exhibits a very +complete example of this family group. Mary is seated in the centre, +holding in her lap the Infant Christ; near her is St. Joseph. Behind +the Virgin stand St. Anna, and three men, with their names inscribed, +Joachim, Cleophas, and Salomé. On the right of the Virgin is Mary the +daughter of Cleophas, Alpheus her husband, and her children Thaddeus, +James Minor, and Joseph Justus. On the left of the Virgin is Mary the +daughter of Salome, her husband Zebedee, and her children James Major +and John the Evangelist.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture I saw in the Louvre some years ago, but it +is not in the New Catalogue by M. Villot.] + +A yet more beautiful example is a picture by Perugino in the Musée +at Marseilles, which I have already cited and described (Sacred and +Legendary Art): here also the relatives of Christ, destined to be +afterwards his apostles and the ministers of his word, are grouped +around him in his infancy. In the centre Mary is seated and holding +the child; St. Anna stands behind, resting her hands affectionately on +the shoulders of the Virgin. In front, at the feet of the Virgin, are +two boys, Joseph and Thaddeus; and near them Mary, the daughter of +Cleophas, holds the hand of her third son James Minor. To the right is +Mary Salomé, holding in her arms her son John the Evangelist, and at +her feet is her other son, James Major. Joseph, Zebedee, and other +members of the family, stand around. The same subject I have seen in +illuminated MSS., and in German prints. It is worth remarking that all +these appeared about the same time, between 1505 and 1520, and that +the subject afterwards disappeared; from which I infer that it was +not authorized by the Church; perhaps because the exact degree of +relationship between these young apostles and the Holy Family was +not clearly made out, either by Scripture or tradition. + +In a composition by Parmigiano, Christ is standing at his mother's +knee; Elizabeth presents St. John the Baptist; the other little St. +John kneels on a cushion. Behind the Virgin are St. Joachim and St. +Anna; and behind Elizabeth, Zebedee and Mary Salomé, the parents of +St. John the Evangelist. In the centre, Joseph looks on with folded +hands. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue _raisonnée_ of the Holy Families painted by distinguished +artists including from two to six figures would fill volumes: I +shall content myself with directing attention to some few examples +remarkable either for their celebrity, their especial beauty, or for +some peculiarity, whether commendable or not, in the significance or +the treatment. + +The strictly domestic conception may be said to have begun with +Raphael and Correggio; and they afford the most perfect examples +of the tender and the graceful in sentiment and action, the softest +parental feeling, the loveliest forms of childhood. Of the purely +natural and familiar treatment, which came into fashion in the +seventeenth century, the pictures of Guido, Rubens, and Murillo +afford the most perfect specimens. + +1. Raphael. (Louvre, 377.) Mary, a noble queenly creature, is seated, +and bends towards her Child, who is springing from his cradle to meet +her embrace; Elizabeth presents St. John; and Joseph, leaning on his +hand, contemplates the group: two beautiful angels scatter flowers +from above. This is the celebrated picture once supposed to have been +executed expressly for Francis I.; but later researches prove it to +have been painted for Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It appears from the correspondence relative to this +picture and the "St. Michael," that both pictures were painted by +order of this Lorenzo de' Medici, the same who is figured in Michael +Angelo's _Pensiero_, and that they were intended as presents to +Francis I. (See Dr. Gaye's _Carteggio_, ii. 146, and also the new +Catalogue of the Louvre by F. Villot.) I have mentioned this Holy +Family not as the finest of Raphael's Madonnas, but because there is +something peculiarly animated and dramatic in the _motif_, considering +the time at which it was painted. It was my intention to have given +here a complete list of Raphael's Holy Families; but this has been +so well done in the last English edition of Kugler's Handbook, that +it has become superfluous as a repetition. The series of minute +and exquisite drawings by Mr. George Scharf, appended to Kugler's +Catalogue, renders it easy to recognize all the groups described in +this and the preceding pages.] + +2. Correggio. Mary holds the Child upon her knee, looking down upon +him fondly. Styled, from the introduction of the work-basket, _La +Vierge au Panier_. A finished example of that soft, yet joyful, +maternal feeling for which Correggio was remarkable. (National Gal. +23.) + +3. Pinturicchio. In a landscape, Mary and Joseph are seated together; +near them are some loaves and a small cask of wine. More in front the +two children, Jesus and St. John, are walking arm in arm; Jesus holds +a book and John a pitcher, as if they were going to a well. (Siena +Acad.) + +4. Andrea del Sarto. The Virgin is seated on the ground, and holds the +Child; the young St. John is in the arms of St. Elizabeth, and Joseph +is seen behind. (Louvre, 439.) This picture, another by the same +painter in the National Gallery, a third in the collection of Lord +Lansdowne, and in general all the Holy Families of Andrea, may +be cited as examples of fine execution and mistaken or defective +character. No sentiment, no action, connects the personages either +with each other, or with the spectator. + +5. Michael Angelo. The composition, in the Florence Gallery, styled +a Holy Family, appears to me a signal example of all that should be +avoided. It is, as a conception, neither religious nor domestic; in +execution and character exaggerated and offensive, and in colour hard +and dry. + +Another, a bas-relief, in which the Child is shrinking from a +bird held up by St. John, is very grand in the forms: the mistake +in sentiment, as regards the bird, I have pointed out in the +Introduction. (Royal Academy.) A third, in which the Child leans +pensively on a book lying open on his mother's knee, while she looks +out on the spectator, is more properly a _Mater Amabilis_. + +There is an extraordinary fresco still preserved in the Casa +Buonarotti at Florence, where it was painted on the wall by Michael +Angelo, and styled a Holy Family, though the exact meaning of the +subject has been often disputed. It appears to me, however, very +clear, and one never before or since attempted by any other artist. +(This fresco is engraved in the _Etruria Pittrice_.) Mary is seated +in the centre; her Child is reclining on the ground between her knees; +and the little St. John holding his cross looks on him steadfastly. +A man coming forward seems to ask of Mary, "Whose son is this?" She +most expressively puts aside Joseph with her hand, and looks up, as +if answering, "Not the son of an earthly, but of a heavenly Father!" +There are five other figures standing behind, and the whole group is +most significant. + +6. Albert Durer. The Holy Family seated under a tree; the Infant is +about to spring from the knee of his mother into the outstretched arms +of St. Anna; Joseph is seen behind with his hat in his hand; and to +the left sits the aged Joachim contemplating the group. + +7. Mary appears to have just risen from her chair, the Child bends +from her arms, and a young and very little angel, standing on tiptoe, +holds up to him a flower--other flowers in his lap:--a beautiful old +German print. + +8. Giulio Romano. (_La Madonna del Bacino_.) (Dresden Gal.) The Child +stands in a basin, and the young St. John pours water upon him from +a vase, while Mary washes him. St. Elizabeth stands by, holding +a napkin; St. Joseph, behind, is looking on. Notwithstanding the +homeliness of the action, there is here a religious and mysterious +significance, prefiguring the Baptism. + +9. N. Poussin. Mary, assisted by angels, washes and dresses her Child. +(Gal. of Mr. Hope.) + +10. V. Salimbeni.--An Interior. Mary and Joseph are occupied by the +Child. Elizabeth is spinning. More in front St. John is carrying two +puppies in the lappet of his coat, and the dog is leaping up to him. +(Florence, Pitti Pal.) This is one out of many instances in which +the painter, anxious to vary the oft-repeated subject, and no longer +restrained by refined taste or religious veneration, has fallen into +a most offensive impropriety. + +11. Ippolito Andreasi. Mary, seated, holds the Infant Christ between +her knees; Elizabeth leans over the back of her chair; Joseph leans on +his staff behind the Virgin; the little St. John and an angel present +grapes, while four other angels are gathering and bringing them. +A branch of vine, loaded with grapes, is lying in the foreground. +Christ looks like a young Bacchus; and there is something mannered and +fantastic in the execution. (Louvre, 38.) With this domestic scene is +blended a strictly religious symbol, "_I am the vine_." + +12. Murilio. Mary is in the act of swaddling her Child (Luke ii, 7), +while two angels, standing near him, solace the divine Infant with +heavenly music. (Madrid Gal.) + +13. Rubens. Mary, seated on the ground, holds the Child with a +charming maternal expression, a little from her, gazing on him with +rapturous earnestness, while he looks up with responsive tenderness in +her face. His right hand rests on a cross presented by St. John, who +is presented by St. Elizabeth. Wonderful for the intensely natural and +domestic expression, and the beauty of the execution. (Florence, Pitti +Pal.) + +14. D. Hopfer. Within the porch of a building, Mary is seated on one +side, reading intently. St. Anna, on the other side, holds out her +arms to the Child, who is sitting on the ground between them; an angel +looks in at the open door behind. (Bartsch., viii. 483.) + +15. Rembrandt. (_Le Ménage du Menuisier_.) A rustic interior. Mary, +seated in the centre, is suckling her Child. St. Anna, a fat Flemish +grandame, has been reading the volume of the Scriptures, and bends +forward in order to remove the covering and look in the Infant's face. +A cradle is near. Joseph is seen at work in the background. (Louvre.) + +16. Le Brun. (_The Benedicite_.) Mary, the Child, and Joseph, are +seated at a frugal repast. Joseph is in the act of reverently saying +grace, which gives to the picture the title by which it is known.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, Ecole Française 57. There is a celebrated +engraving by Edelinck.] + + * * * * * + +It is distinctly related that Joseph brought up his foster-Son as a +carpenter, and that Jesus exercised the craft of his reputed father. +In the Church pictures, we do not often meet with this touching +and familiar aspect of the life of our Saviour. But in the small +decorative pictures painted for the rich ecclesiastics, and for +private oratories, and in the cheap prints which were prepared for +distribution among the people, and became especially popular during +the religious reaction of the seventeenth century, we find this +homely version of the subject perpetually, and often most pleasingly, +exhibited. The greatest and wisest Being who ever trod the earth was +thus represented, in the eyes of the poor artificer, as ennobling +and sanctifying labour and toil; and the quiet domestic duties +and affections were here elevated, and hallowed, by religious +associations, and adorned by all the graces of Art. Even where +the artistic treatment was not first-rate, was not such as the +painters--priests and poets as well as painters--of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries would have lent to such themes,--still if the +sentiment and significance were but intelligible to those especially +addressed, the purpose was accomplished, and the effect must have been +good. + +I have before me an example in a set of twelve prints, executed in the +Netherlands, exhibiting a sort of history of the childhood of Christ, +and his training under the eye of his mother. It is entitled _Jesu +Christi Del Domini Salvatoris nostri Infantia_, "The Infancy of our +Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ;" and the title-page is surrounded +by a border composed of musical instruments, spinning-wheels, +distaffs, and other implements, of female industry, intermixed with +all kinds of mason's and carpenter's tools. To each print is appended +a descriptive Latin verse; Latin being chosen, I suppose, because the +publication was intended for distribution in different countries, and +especially foreign missions, and to be explained by the priests to the +people. + +1. The figure of Christ is seen in a glory surrounded by cherubim, &c. + +2. The Virgin is seated on the hill of Sion. The Infant in her lap, +with outspread arms, looks up to a choir of angels, and is singing +with them. + +3. Jesus, slumbering in his cradle, is rocked by two angels, while +Mary sits by, engaged in needlework.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The Latin stanza beneath, is remarkable for its elegance, +and because it has been translated by Coleridge, who mentions that he +found the print and the verse under it in a little inn in Germany. + + Dormi, Jesu, mater ridet, + Quæ tam dulcem somnum videt, + Dormi, Jesu, blandule! + Si non dormis mater plorat, + Inter fila cantans orat, + Blande, veni, somnule! + + Sleep, sweet babe! my cares beguiling, + Mother sits beside thee smiling, + Sleep, my darling, tenderly! + If thou sleep not, mother mourneth, + Singing as her wheel she turneth" + Come, soft slumber, balmily!"] + +4. The interior of a carpenter's shop. Joseph is plying his work, +while Joachim stands near him. The Virgin is measuring linen, and St. +Anna looks on. Two angels are at play with the Infant Christ, who is +blowing soap-bubbles. + +5. While Mary is preparing the family meal, and watching a pot which +is boiling on the fire, Joseph is seen behind chopping wood: more +in front, Jesus is sweeping together the chips, and two angels are +gathering them up. + +6. Mary is reeling off a skein of thread; Joseph is squaring a plank; +Jesus is picking up the chips, assisted by two angels. + +7. Mary is seated at her spinning-wheel; Joseph, assisted by Jesus, is +sawing through a large beam; two angels looking on. + +8. Mary is spinning with a distaff; behind, Joseph is sawing a beam, +on which Jesus is standing above; and two angels are lifting a plank. + +9. Joseph is seen building up the framework of a house, assisted by an +angel; Jesus is boring a hole with a large gimlet: an angel helps him; +Mary is winding thread. + +10. Joseph is busy roofing in the house; Jesus, assisted by the +angels, is carrying a beam of wood up a ladder; below, in front, Mary +is carding wool or flax. + +11. Joseph is building a boat, assisted by Jesus, who has a hammer +and chisel in his hand: two angels help him. The Virgin is knitting +a stocking; and the new-built house is seen in the background. + +12. Joseph is erecting a fence round a garden; Jesus, assisted by +the angels, is fastening the palings together; while Mary is weaving +garlands of roses. + +Justin Martyr mentions, as a tradition of his time, that Jesus +assisted his foster-father in making yokes and ploughs. In +Holland, where these prints were published, the substitution of +the boat-building seems very natural. St. Bonaventura, the great +Franciscan theologian, and a high authority in all that relates to +the life and character of Mary, not only described her as a pattern +of female industry, but alludes particularly to the legend of the +distaff, and mentions a tradition, that, when in Egypt, the Holy +Family was so reduced by poverty, that Mary begged from door to door +the fine flax which she afterwards spun into a garment for her Child. + + * * * * * + +As if to render the circle of maternal duties, and thereby the +maternal example, more complete, there are prints of Mary leading her +Son to school. I have seen one in which he carries his hornbook in +his hand. Such representations, though popular, were condemned by the +highest church authorities as nothing less than heretical. The Abbé +Méry counts among the artistic errors "which endanger the faith +of good Christians," those pictures which represent Mary or Joseph +instructing the Infant Christ; as if all learning, all science, +divine and human, were not his by intuition, and without any earthly +teaching, (v. Théologie des Peintres.) A beautiful Holy Family, +by Schidone, is entitled, "The Infant Christ learning to read" +(Bridgewater Gal.); and we frequently meet with pictures in which the +mother holds a book, while the divine Child, with a serious intent +expression, turns over the leaves, or points to the letters: but I +imagine that these, and similar groups, represent Jesus instructing +Mary and Joseph, as he is recorded to have done. There is also a +very pretty legend, in which he is represented as exciting the +astonishment, of the schoolmaster Zaccheus by his premature wisdom. +On these, and other details respecting the infancy of our Saviour, I +shall have to say much more when treating of the History of Christ. + + + + +THE DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE. + +_Ital._ La Disputa nel Tempio. _Fr._ Jésus au milieu des Docteurs. + + +The subject which we call the Dispute in the Temple, or "Christ +among the Doctors," is a scene of great importance in the life of +the Redeemer (Luke ii. 41, 52). His appearance in the midst of the +doctors, at twelve years old, when he sat "hearing them and asking +them questions, and all who heard him were astonished at his +understanding and his answers," has been interpreted as the first +manifestation of his high character as teacher of men, as one come +to throw a new light on the prophecies,-- + + "For trailing clouds of glory had he come + From heaven, which was his home;" + +and also as instructing as that those who are to become teachers of +men ought, when young, to listen to the voice of age and experience; +and that those who have grown old may learn lessons of wisdom +from childish innocence. Such is the historical and scriptural +representation. But in the life of the Virgin, the whole scene changes +its signification. It is no longer the wisdom of the Son, it is the +sorrow of the Mother which is the principal theme. In their journey +home from Jerusalem, Jesus has disappeared; he who was the light of +her eyes, whose precious existence had been so often threatened, has +left her care, and gone, she knows not whither. "No fancy can imagine +the doubts, the apprehensions, the possibilities of mischief, the +tremblings of heart, which the holy Virgin-mother feels thronging in +her bosom. For three days she seeks him in doubt and anguish." (Jeremy +Taylor's "Life of Christ.") At length he is found seated in the temple +in the midst of the learned doctors, "hearing them, and asking them +questions." And she said unto him, "Son, why hast thou thus dealt with +us? behold, I and thy father have sought thee sorrowing." And he said +unto them, "How is it that ye sought me? Wise ye not that I must be +about my Father's business?" + +Now there are two ways of representing this scene. In all the earlier +pictures it is chiefly with reference to the Virgin Mother: it is one +of the sorrowful mysteries of the Rosary. The Child Jesus sits in the +temple, teaching with hand uplifted; the doctors round him turn over +the leaves of their great books, searching the law and the prophets. +Some look up at the young inspired Teacher--he who was above the law, +yet came to obey the law and fulfil the prophecies--with amazement. +Conspicuous in front, stand Mary and Joseph, and she is in act to +address to him the tender reproach, "I and thy father have sought +thee sorrowing." In the early examples she is a principal figure, but +in later pictures she is seen entering in the background; and where +the scene relates only to the life of Christ, the figures of Joseph +and Mary are omitted altogether, and the Child teacher becomes the +central, or at least the chief, personage in the group. + +In a picture by Giovanni da Udine, the subject is taken out of the +region of the actual, and treated altogether as a mystery. In the +centre sits the young Redeemer, his hand raised, and surrounded by +several of the Jewish doctors; while in front stand the four fathers +of the Church, who flourished in the interval between the fourth and +sixth centuries after Christ; and these, holding their books, point to +Jesus, or look to him, as to the source of their wisdom;--a beautiful +and poetical version of the true significance of the story, which +the critics of the last century would call a chronological mistake. +(Venice, Academy.) + +But those representations which come under our especial consideration +at present, are such as represent the moment in which Mary appears +before her Son. The earliest instance of this treatment is a group by +Giotto. Dante cites the deportment of the Virgin on this occasion, and +her mild reproach, "_con atto dolce di madre_," as a signal lesson of +gentleness and forbearance. (Purgatorio, c. xv.) It is as if he had +transferred the picture of Giotto into his Vision; for it is as a +picture, not an action, that it is introduced. Another, by Simon +Memmi, in the Roscoe Collection at Liverpool, is conceived in a +similar spirit. In a picture by Garofalo, Mary does not reproach her +Son, but stands listening to him with her hands folded on her bosom. +In a large and fine composition by Pinturicchio, the doctors throw +down their books before him, while the Virgin and Joseph are entering +on one side. The subject is conspicuous in Albert Durer's Life of +the Virgin, where Jesus is seated on high, as one having authority, +teaching from a chair like that of a professor in a university, and +surrounded by the old bearded doctors; and Mary stands before her Son +in an attitude of expostulation. + +After the restoration of Jesus to his parents, they conducted him +home; "but his mother kept all these sayings in her heart." The return +to Nazareth, Jesus walking humbly between Joseph and Mary, was painted +by Rubens for the Jesuit College at Antwerp, as a lesson to youth. +Underneath is the text, "And he was subject unto them."[1] + +[Footnote 1: It has been called by mistake "The Return from Egypt"] + + + + +THE DEATH OF JOSEPH. + +_Ital._ La Morte di San Giuseppe. _Fr._ La Mort de St. Joseph _Ger._ +Josef's Tod. + + +Between the journey to Jerusalem and the public appearance of Jesus, +chronologers place the death of Joseph, but the exact date is not +ascertained: some place it in the eighteenth year of the life of our +Saviour, and others in his twenty-seventh year, when, as they assert, +Joseph was one hundred and eleven years old. + +I have already observed, that the enthusiasm for the character of +Joseph, and his popularity as a saint and patron of power, date from +the fifteenth century; and late in the sixteenth century I find, for +the first time, the death of Joseph treated as a separate subject. It +appears that the supposed anniversary of his death (July 20) had long +been regarded in the East as a solemn festival, and that it was the +custom to read publicly, on this occasion, some homily relating to his +life and death. The very curious Arabian work, entitled "The History +of Joseph the Carpenter," is supposed to be one of these ancient +homilies, and, in its original form, as old as the fourth century.[1] +Here the death of Joseph is described with great detail, and with many +solemn and pathetic circumstances; and the whole history is put into +the mouth of Jesus, who is supposed to recite it to his disciples: +he describes the pious end of Joseph; he speaks of himself as being +present, and acknowledged by the dying man as "Redeemer and Messiah," +and he proceeds to record the grief of Mary:-- + +"And my mother, the Virgin, arose, and she came nigh to me and said, +'O my beloved Son now must the good old man die!' and I answered and +said unto her, 'O my most dear mother, needs must all created beings +die; and death will have his rights, even over thee, beloved mother; +but death to him and to thee is no death, only the passage to eternal +life; and this body I have derived from thee shall also undergo +death.'" + +[Footnote 1: The Arabic MS. in the library at Paris is of the year +1299, and the Coptic version as old as 1367. Extracts from these +were become current in the legends of the West, about the fifteenth +century.--See the "Neu Testamentlichen Apokryphen," edited in German +by Dr. K.F. Borberg.] + +And they sat, the Son and the mother, beside Joseph; and Jesus held +his hand, and watched the last breath of life trembling on his lips; +and Mary touched his feet, and they were cold; and the daughters and +the sons of Joseph wept and sobbed around in their grief; and then +Jesus adds tenderly, "I, and my mother Mary, we wept with them." + +Then follows a truly Oriental scene, of the evil angels rising up with +Death, and rejoicing in his power over the saint, while Jesus rebukes +them; and at his prayer God sends down Michael, prince of the angelic +host, and Gabriel, the herald of light, to take possession of the +departing spirit, enfold it in a robe of brightness thereby to +preserve it from the "dark angels," and carry it up into heaven. + +This legend of the death of Joseph was, in many forms, popular in +the sixteenth century; hence arose the custom of invoking him as +Intercessor to obtain a blessed and peaceful end, so that he became, +in some sort, the patron saint of death-beds; and it is at this time +we find the first representations of the death of Joseph, afterwards +a popular subject in the churches and convents of the Augustine canons +and Carmelite friars, who had chosen him for their patron saint; and +also in family chapels consecrated to the memory or the repose of the +dead. + +The finest example I have seen, is by Carlo Maratti, in the Vienna +Gallery. St. Joseph is on a couch; Christ is seated near him; and the +Virgin stands by with folded hands, in a sad, contemplative attitude. + + * * * * * + +I am not aware that the Virgin has ever been introduced into any +representation of the temptation or the baptism of our Saviour. These +subjects, so important and so picturesque, are reserved till we enter +upon the History of Christ. + + + + +THE MARRIAGE AT CANA IN GALILEE. + +_Ital._ Le Nozze di Cana. _Fr._ Les Noces de Cana. _Ger._ Die Hochzeit +zu Cana. + + +After his temptation and baptism, the first manifestation of the +divine mission and miraculous power of Jesus was at the wedding +feast at Cana in Galilee; and those who had devoted themselves to the +especial glorification of the Virgin Mother did not forget that it was +at her request this first miracle was accomplished:--that out of her +tender and sympathetic commiseration for the apparent want, arose +her appeal to him,--not, indeed, as requiring anything from him, but, +looking to him with habitual dependence on his goodness and power. She +simply said, "They have no wine!" He replied, "Woman, what have I to +do with thee? Mine hour is not yet come." The term _woman_, thus used, +sounds harsh to us; but in the original is a term of respect. Nor did +Jesus intend any denial to the mother, whom he regarded with dutiful +and pious reverence:--it was merely an intimation that he was not +yet entered into the period of miraculous power. He anticipated +it, however, for her sake, and because of her request. Such is the +view taken of this beautiful and dramatic incident by the early +theologians; and in the same spirit it has been interpreted by the +painters. + +The Marriage at Cana appears very seldom in the ancient +representations taken from the Gospel. All the monkish institutions +then prevalent discredited marriage; and it is clear that this +distinct consecration of the rite by the presence of the Saviour and +his mother did not find favour with the early patrons of art. + +There is an old Greek tradition, that the Marriage at Cana was that +of John the Evangelist. In the thirteenth century, when the passionate +enthusiasm for Mary Magdalene was at its height, it was a popular +article of belief, that the Marriage which Jesus graced with his +presence was that of John the Evangelist and Mary Magdalene; and +that immediately after the wedding feast, St. John and Mary, devoting +themselves to an austere and chaste religious life, followed Christ, +and ministered to him. + +As a scene in the life of Christ, the Marriage at Cana, is of course +introduced incidentally; but even here, such were the monastic +principles and prejudices, that I find it difficult to point out any +very early example. In the "Manual of Greek Art," published by Didron, +the rules for the representation are thus laid down:--"A table; +around it Scribes and Pharisees; one holds up a cup of wine, and +seems astonished. In the midst, the bride and bridegroom are seated +together. The bridegroom is to have 'grey hair and a round beard +(_cheveux gris et barbe arrondie_); both are to be crowned with +flowers; behind them, a servitor. Christ, the Virgin, and Joseph are +to be on one side, and on the other are six jars: the attendants are +in the act of filling them with water from leathern buckets." + +The introduction of Joseph is quite peculiar to Greek art; and the +more curious, that in the list of Greek subjects there is not one from +his life, nor in which he is a conspicuous figure. On the other hand, +the astonished "ruler of the feast" (the _Architriclino_), so dramatic +and so necessary to the comprehension of the scene, is scarcely ever +omitted. The apostles whom we may imagine to be present, are Peter, +Andrew, James, and John. + + * * * * * + +As a separate subject, the Marriage at Cana first became popular in +the Venetian school, and thence extended to the Lombard and German +schools of the same period--that is, about the beginning of the +sixteenth century. + +The most beautiful representation I have ever seen is a fresco, +by Luini, in the church of San Maurizio, at Milan. It belongs to a +convent of nuns; and I imagine, from its introduction there, that it +had a mystic signification, and referred to a divine _Sposalizio_. +In this sense, the treatment is perfect. There are just the number +of figures necessary to tell the story, and no more. It is the bride +who is here the conspicuous figure, seated in the centre, arrayed in +spotless white, and represented as a nun about to make her profession; +for this is evidently the intended signification. The bridegroom is at +her side, and near to the spectator. Christ, and the Virgin are seated +together, and appear to be conversing. A man presents a cup of wine. +Including guests and attendants, there are only twelve figures. +The only fault of this exquisite and graceful composition, is the +introduction of a cat and dog in front: we feel that they ought to +have been omitted, as giving occasion for irreverent witticisms.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This beautiful fresco, which is seldom seen, being behind +the altar, was in a very ruined condition when I saw it last in 1855.] + +In contrast with this picture, and as a gorgeous specimen of the +Venetian style of treatment, we may turn to the "Marriage at Cana" in +the Louvre, originally painted to cover one side of the refectory of +the convent of _San Giorgio Maggiore_ at Venice, whence it was carried +off by the French in 1796. This immense picture is about thirty-six +feet in length, and about twenty feet in height, and contains more +than a hundred figures above life-size. In the centre Christ is +seated, and beside him the Virgin Mother. Both heads are merely +commonplace, and probably portraits, like those of the other +personages at the extremity of the table. On the left are seated the +bride and bridegroom. In the foreground a company of musicians are +performing a concert; behind the table is a balustrade, where are +seen numerous servants occupied in cutting up the viands and serving +dishes, with attendants and spectators. The chief action to be +represented, the astonishing miracle performed by him at whose command +"the fountain blushed into wine," is here quite a secondary matter; +and the value of the picture lies in its magnitude and variety as +a composition, and the portraits of the historical characters and +remarkable personages introduced,--Francis I., his queen Eleanora of +Austria, Charles V. and others. In the group of musicians in front we +recognize Titian and Tintoretto, old Bassano, and Paolo himself. + +The Marriage at Cana, as a refectory subject, had been unknown till +this time: it became popular, and Paolo afterwards repeated it several +times. The most beautiful of all, to my feeling, is that in the +Dresden Gallery, where the "ruler of the feast," holding up the glass +of wine with admiration, seems to exclaim, "Thou hast kept the good +wine until now." In another, which is at Milan, the Virgin turns round +to the attendant, and desires him to obey her Son;--"Whatsoever he +saith unto you, do it!" + +As the Marriage at Cana belongs, as a subject, rather to the history +of Christ, than to that of the Virgin his mother, I shall not enter +into it further here, but proceed. + + * * * * * + +After the marriage at Cana in Galilee, which may be regarded as the +commencement of the miraculous mission of our Lord, we do not hear +anything of his mother, the Virgin, till the time approached when he +was to close his ministry by his death. She is not once referred to +by name in the Gospels until the scene of the Crucifixion. We are +indeed given to understand, that in the journeys of our Saviour, and +particularly when he went up from Nazareth to Jerusalem, the women +followed and ministered to him (Matt. xxvii. 55, Luke, viii. 2): and +those who have written the life of the Virgin for the edification of +the people, and those who have translated it into the various forms +of art, have taken it for granted that SHE, his mother, could not have +been absent or indifferent where others attended with affection and +zeal: but I do not remember any scene in which she is an actor, or +even a conspicuous figure. + +Among the carvings on the stalls at Amiens, there is one which +represents the passage (Matt. xii. 46.) wherein our Saviour, preaching +in Judea, is told that his mother and his brethren stand without. +"But he answering, said to him that told him, 'Who is my mother? +and who are my brethren?' And he stretched forth his hand toward +his disciples, and said, 'Behold my mother and my brethren!'" The +composition exhibits on one side Jesus standing and teaching his +disciples; while on the other, through an open door, we perceive the +Virgin and two or three others. This representation is very rare. The +date of these stalls is the sixteenth century; and such a group in a +series of the life of the Virgin could not, I think, have occurred +in the fifteenth. It would have been quite inconsistent with all the +religious tendencies of that time, to exhibit Christ as preaching +_within_, while his "divine and most glorious" Mother was standing +_without_. + +The theologians of the middle ages insist on the close and mystical +relation which they assure us existed between Christ and his mother: +however far separated, there was constant communion between them; and +wherever he might be--in whatever acts of love, or mercy, or benign +wisdom occupied for the good of man--_there_ was also his mother, +present with him in the spirit. I think we can trace the impress +of this mysticism in some of the productions of the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries. For example, among the frescoes by Angelico da +Fiesole in the cloisters of St. Mark, at Florence, there is one of +the Transfiguration, where the Saviour stands glorified with arms +outspread--a simple and sublime conception,--and on each side, half +figures of Moses and Elias: lower down appear the Virgin and St. +Dominick. There is also in the same series a fresco of the Last Supper +as the Eucharist, in which the Virgin is kneeling, glorified, on one +side of the picture, and appears as a partaker of the rite. Such a +version of either subject must be regarded as wholly mystical and +exceptional, and I am not acquainted with any other instance. + + + + +LO SPASIMO. + + "O what avails me now that honour high, + To have conceived of God, and that salute, + 'Hail highly favoured among woman blest! + While I to sorrows am no less advanced, + And fears as eminent, above the lot + Of other women by the birth I bore." + --"This is my favoured lot, + My exaltation to afflictions high." + + MILTON. + + +In the Passion of our Lord, taken in connection with the life of the +Virgin Mother, there are three scenes in which she is associated with +the action as an important, if not a principal, personage. + +We are told in the Gospel of St. John (chap. xvii), that Christ took a +solemn farewell of his disciples: it is therefore supposed that he did +not go up to his death without taking leave of his Mother,--without +preparing her for that grievous agony by all the comfort that his +tender and celestial pity and superior nature could bestow. This +parting of Christ and his Mother before the Crucifixion is a modern +subject. I am not acquainted with any example previous to the +beginning of the sixteenth century. The earliest I have met with is by +Albert Durer, in the series of the life of the Virgin, but there are +probably examples more ancient, or at least contemporary. In Albert +Durer's composition, Mary is sinking to the earth, as if overcome with +affliction, and is sustained in the arms of two women; she looks up +with folded hands and streaming eyes to her Son who stands before her; +he, with one hand extended, looks down upon her compassionately, and +seems to give her his last benediction. I remember another instance, +by Paul Veronese, full of that natural affectionate sentiment which +belonged to the Venetian school. (Florence Gal.) In a very beautiful +picture by Carotto of Verona, Jesus _kneels_ before his Mother, and +receives her benediction before he departs: this must be regarded +as an impropriety, a mistake in point of sentiment, considering the +peculiar relation between the two personages; but it is a striking +instance of the popular notions of the time respecting the high +dignity of the Virgin Mother. I have not seen it repeated.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Verona, San Bernardino. It is worth remarking, with +regard to this picture, that the Intendant of the Convent rebuked +the artist, declaring that he had made the Saviour show _too little_ +reverence for his Mother, seeing that he knelt to her on one knee +only.--See the anecdote in _Vasari_, vol. i. p. 651. Fl. Edit. 1838.] + + * * * * * + +It appears from the Gospel histories, that the women who had attended +upon Christ during his ministry failed not in their truth and their +love to the last. In the various circumstances of the Passion of +our Lord, where the Virgin Mother figures as an important personage, +certain of these women are represented as always near her, and +sustaining her with a tender and respectful sympathy. Three are +mentioned by name,--Mary Magdalene; Mary the wife of Cleophas; +and Mary, the mother of James and John. Martha, the sister of Mary +Magdalene, is also included, as I infer from her name, which in +several instances is inscribed in the nimbus encircling her head. I +have in another place given the story of Martha, and the legends +which in the fourteenth century converted her into a very important +character in sacred art, (First Series of Sacred and Legendary Art.) +These women, therefore, form, with the Virgin, the group of _five_ +female figures which are generally included in the scriptural scenes +from the Life of Christ. + +Of course, these incidents, and more especially the "Procession to +Calvary," and the "Crucifixion," belong to another series of subjects, +which I shall have to treat hereafter in the History of our Lord; +but they are also included in a series of the Rosary, as two of the +mystical SORROWS; and under this point of view I must draw attention +to the peculiar treatment of the Virgin in some remarkable examples, +which will serve as a guide to others. + + * * * * * + +The Procession to Calvary (_Il Portamento della Croce_) followed a +path leading from the gate of Jerusalem to Mount Calvary, which has +been kept in remembrance and sanctified as the _Via Dolorosa_, and +there is a certain spot near the summit of the hill, where, according +to a very ancient tradition, the Virgin Mother, and the women her +companions, placed themselves to witness the sorrowful procession; +where the Mother, beholding her divine Son dragged along, all bleeding +from the scourge, and sinking under his cross, in her extreme agony +sank, fainting, to the earth. This incident gave rise to one of the +mournful festivals of the Passion Week, under the title, in French, +of _Notre Dame du Spasme_ or _de la Pamoison_; in Italian _La Madonna +dello Spasimo_, or _Il Pianto di Maria_; and this is the title given +to some of those representations in which the affliction of Mary is a +prominent part of the tragic interest of the scene. She is sometimes +sinking to the earth, sustained by the women or by St. John; sometimes +she stands with clasped hands, mute and motionless with excess of +anguish; sometimes she stretches out her arms to her Son, as Jesus, +sinking under the weight of his cross, turns his benign eyes upon her, +and the others who follow him: "Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for +me!" + +This is the moment chosen by Raphael in that sublime composition +celebrated under the title "_Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_" (Madrid Gal.); +so called because it was originally painted for the high altar of the +church of the Sicilian Olivetans at Palermo, dedicated to the _Madonna +dello Spasimo_. It was thence removed, by order of Philip IV. of +Spain, early in the seventeenth century, and is now placed in the +gallery at Madrid. Here the group of the five women forms an important +part of the picture, occupying the foreground on the right. The +expression in the face of the Mother, stretching forth her arms to +her Son with a look of appealing agony, has always been cited as one +of the great examples of Raphael's tragic power. It is well known +that in this composition the attitude of Christ was suggested by the +contemporary engraving of Martin Schoen; but the prominence given to +the group of women, the dramatic propriety and pathetic grace in the +action of each, and the consummate skill shown in the arrangement +of the whole, belong only to Raphael.[1] In Martin Schoen's vivid +composition, the Virgin, and the women her companions, are seen far +off in the background, crouching in the "hollow way" between two +cliffs, from which spot, according to the old tradition, they beheld +the sad procession. We have quite a contrary arrangement in an early +composition by Lucas van Leyden. The procession to Calvary is seen +moving along in the far distance, while the foreground is occupied by +two figures only, Mary in a trance of anguish sustained by the weeping +St. John. + +[Footnote 1: The veneration at all times entertained for this picture +was probably enhanced by a remarkable fact in its history. Raphael +painted it towards the close of the year 1517, and when finished, it +was embarked at the port of Ostia, to be consigned to Palermo. A storm +came on, the vessel foundered at sea, and all was lost except the case +containing this picture, which was floated by the currents into the +Bay of Genoa; and, on being landed, the wondrous masterpiece of art +was taken out unhurt. The Genoese at first refused to give it up, +insisting that it had been preserved and floated to their shores by +the miraculous interposition of the blessed Virgin herself; and it +required a positive mandate from the Pope before they would restore +it to the Olivetan fathers.--See _Passavant's Rafael_, i. 292.] + +In a very fine "Portamento del Croce," by Gaudenzio Ferrari, one of +the soldiers or executioners, in repulsing the sorrowful mother, +lifts up a stick as if to strike her;--a gratuitous act of ferocity, +which shocks at once the taste and the feelings, and, without adding +anything to the pathos of the situation, detracts from the religious +dignity of the theme. It is like the soldier kicking our Saviour, +which I remember to have seen in a version of the subject by a much +later painter, Daniele Crespi. + +Murillo represents Christ as fainting under the weight of the cross, +while the Virgin sits on the ground by the way-side, gazing on +him with fixed eyes and folded hands, and a look of unutterable +anguish.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture, remarkable for the intense expression, was +in the collection of Lord Orford, and sold in June, 1856.] + + * * * * * + +The Ecce Homo, by Correggio, in our National Gallery, is treated in +a very peculiar manner with reference to the Virgin, and is, in fact, +another version of _Lo Spasimo_, the fourth of her ineffable sorrows. +Here Christ, as exhibited to the people by Pilate, is placed in the +distance, and is in all respects the least important part of the +picture, of which we have the real subject in the far more prominent +figure of the Virgin in the foreground. At sight of the agony and +degradation of her Son, she closes her eyes, and is on the point +of swooning. The pathos of expression in the half-unconscious face +and helpless, almost lifeless hands, which seem to seek support, is +particularly fine. + + +THE CRUCIFIXION. + + "Verum stabas, optima Mater, juxta crucem Filli tui, non solum + corpore, sed mentis constatia." + +This great subject belongs more particularly to the Life of Christ. It +is, I observe, always omitted in a series of the Life of the Virgin, +unless it be the Rosary, in which the "Vigil of the Virgin by the +Cross" is the fifth and greatest of the Seven Sorrows. + +We cannot fail to remark, that whether the Crucifixion be treated as a +mystery or as an event, Mary is always an important figure. + +In the former case she stands alone on the right of the cross, and St. +John on the left.[1] She looks up with an expression of mingled grief +and faith, or bows her head upon her clasped hands in resignation. In +such a position she is the idealized Mater Dolorosa, the Daughter of +Jerusalem, the personified Church mourning for the great Sacrifice; +and this view of the subject I have already discussed at length. + +[Footnote 1: It has been a question with the learned whether the +Virgin Mary, with St. John, ought not to stand on the left of the +cross, in allusion to Psalm cxlii. (always interpreted as prophetic +of the Passion of Christ) ver. 4: "_I looked on my right hand, and be +held, but there was none who would know me._"] + +On the other hand, when the Crucifixion is treated as a great +historical event, as a living scene acted before our eyes, then the +position and sentiment given to the Virgin are altogether different, +but equally fixed by the traditions of art. That she was present, and +near at hand, we must presume from the Gospel of St. John, who was an +eye-witness; and most of the theological writers infer that on this +occasion her constancy and sublime faith were even greater than her +grief, and that her heroic fortitude elevated her equally above the +weeping women and the timorous disciples. This is not, however, the +view which the modern painters have taken, and even the most ancient +examples exhibit the maternal grief for a while overcoming the +constancy. She is standing indeed, but in a fainting attitude, as if +about to sink to the earth, and is sustained in the arms of the two +Marys, assisted, sometimes, but not generally, by St. John; Mary +Magdalene is usually embracing the foot of the cross. With very little +variation this is the visual treatment down to the beginning of the +sixteenth century. I do not know who was the first artist who placed +the Mother prostrate on the ground; but it must be regarded as a +fault, and as detracting from the high religious dignity of the +scene. In all the greatest examples, from Cimabue, Giotto, and Pietro +Cavallini, down to Angelico, Masaccio, and Andrea Mantegna, and their +contemporaries, Mary is uniformly standing. + +In a Crucifixion by Martin Schoen, the Virgin, partly held up in the +arms of St. John, embraces with fervour the foot of the cross: a very +rare and exceptional treatment, for this is the proper place of Mary +Magdalene. In Albert Durer's composition, she is just in the act of +sinking to the ground in a very natural attitude, as if her limbs had +given way under her. In Tintoretto's celebrated Crucifixion, we have +an example of the Virgin placed on the ground, which if not one of the +earliest, is one of the most striking of the more modern conceptions. +Here the group at the foot of the cross is wonderfully dramatic and +expressive, but certainly the reverse of dignified. Mary lies fainting +on the earth; one arm is sustained by St. John, the other is round the +neck of a woman who leans against the bosom of the Virgin, with eyes +closed, as if lost in grief. Mary Magdalene and another look up to the +crucified Saviour, and more in front a woman kneels wrapped up in a +cloak, and hides her face. (Venice, S. Rocco.) + +Zani has noticed the impropriety here, and in other instances, of +exhibiting the "_Grandissima Donna_" as prostrate, and in a state +of insensibility; a style of treatment which, in more ancient times, +would have been inadmissible. The idea embodied by the artist should +be that which Bishop Taylor has _painted_ in words:--"By the cross +stood the holy Virgin Mother, upon whom old Simeon's prophecy was now +verified; for now she felt a sword passing through her very soul. +She stood without clamour and womanish noises sad, silent, and with +a modest grief, deep as the waters of the abyss, but smooth as the +face of a pool; full of love, and patience, and sorrow, and hope!" +To suppose that this noble creature lost all power over her emotions, +lost her consciousness of the "high affliction" she was called to +suffer, is quite unworthy of the grand ideal of womanly perfection +here placed before us. It is clear, however, that in the later +representations, the intense expression of maternal anguish in the +hymn of the Stabat Mater gave the key to the prevailing sentiment. +And as it is sometimes easier to faint than to endure; so it was +easier for certain artists to express the pallor and prostration of +insensibility, than the sublime faith and fortitude which in that +extremest hour of trial conquered even a mother's unutterable woe. + +That most affecting moment, in which the dying Saviour recommends his +Mother to the care of the best beloved of his disciples, I have never +seen worthily treated. There are, however, some few Crucifixions in +which I presume the idea to have been indicated; as where the Virgin +stands leaning on St. John, with his sustaining arm reverently round +her, and both looking up to the Saviour, whose dying face is turned +towards them. There is an instance by Albert Durer (the wood-cut +in the "Large Passion"); but the examples are so few as to be +exceptional. + + * * * * * + +THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS, and the DEPOSITION, are two separate +themes. In the first, according to the antique formula, the Virgin +should stand; for here, as in the Crucifixion, she must be associated +with the principal action, and not, by the excess of her grief, +disabled from taking her part in it. In the old legend it is said, +that when Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus wrenched out the nails +which fastened the hands of our Lord to the cross, St. John took them +away secretly, that his mother might not see them--"_affin que la +Vierge Marie ne les veit pas, crainte que le coeur ne lui amolist_." +And then, while Nicodemus drew forth the nails which fastened his +feet, Joseph of Arimathea sustained the body, so that the head and +arms of the dead Saviour hung over his shoulder. And the afflicted +Mother, seeing this, arose on her feet and she took the bleeding hands +of her Son, as they hung down, and clasped them in her own, and kissed +him tenderly. And then, indeed, she sank to the earth, because of the +great anguish she suffered, lamenting her Son, whom the cruel Jews had +murdered.[1] + +[Footnote 1: "---- tant qu'il n'y a coeur si dur, ni entendement +d'homme qui n'y deust penser. 'Lasse, mon confort! m'amour et ma joye, +que les Juifz ont faict mourir à grand tort et sans cause pour ce +qu'il leur monstrait leurs faltes et enseignoit leur saulvement! O +felons et mauvais Juifz, ne m'epargnez pas! puisque vous crucifiez +mon enfant crucifiez moy--moy qui suis sa dolente mere, et me tuez +d'aucune mort affin que je meure avec luy!'" v. _The old French +Legend_, "_Vie de Notre-Dame la glorieuse Vierge Marie._"] + +The first action described in this legend (the afflicted Mother +embracing the arm of her Son) is precisely that which was adopted by +the Greek masters, and by the early Italians who followed them, Nicolo +Pisano, Cimabue, Giotto, Puccio Capanna, Duccio di Siena, and others +from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. But in later pictures, +the Virgin in the extremity of her grief has sunk to the ground. In an +altar-piece by Cigoli, she is seated on the earth, looking out of the +picture, as if appealing, "Was ever sorrow like unto my sorrow?" while +the crown of thorns lies before her. This is very beautiful; but even +more touching is the group in the famous "Descent from the Cross," the +masterpiece of Daniel di Volterra (Rome, Trinità di Monte): here the +fainting form of the Virgin, extended on the earth, and the dying +anguish in her face, have never been exceeded, and are, in fact, the +chief merit of the picture. In the famous Descent at Antwerp, the +masterpiece of Rubens, Mary stands, and supports the arm of her Son as +he is let down from the cross. This is in accordance with the ancient +version; but her face and figure are the least effective part of this +fine picture. + +In a beautiful small composition, a print, attributed to Albert Durer, +there are only three figures. Joseph of Arimathea stands on a ladder, +and detaches from the cross the dead form of the Saviour, who is +received into the arms of his Mother. This is a form of the _Mater +Dolorosa_ which is very uncommon, and must be regarded as exceptional, +and ideal, unless we are to consider it as a study and an incomplete +group. + + * * * * * + +The DEPOSITION is properly that moment which succeeds the DESCENT from +the Cross; when the dead form of Christ is deposed or laid upon the +ground, resting on the lap of his Mother, and lamented by St. John, +the Magdalene, and others. The ideal and devotional form of this +subject, styled a Pietà , may be intended to represent one of those +festivals of the Passion Week which commemorate the participation of +the holy Virgin Mother in the sufferings of her Son.[1] I have already +spoken at length of this form of the Mater Dolorosa; the historical +version of the same subject is what we have now to consider, but only +so far as regards the figure of the Virgin. + +[Footnote 1: "C'est ce que l'on a jugé à propos d'appeler _La +Compassion_ de la Vierge, autrement _Notre Dame de Pitié_."--Vide +_Baillet_, "Les Fêtes Mobiles."] + +In a Deposition thus dramatically treated, there are always from four +to six or eight figures. The principal group consists of the dead +Saviour and his Mother. She generally holds him embraced, or bends +over him contemplating his dead face, or lays her cheek to his with +an expression of unutterable grief and love: in the antique conception +she is generally fainting; the insensibility, the sinking of the whole +frame through grief, which in the Crucifixion is misplaced, both in +regard to the religious feeling and the old tradition, is here quite +proper.[1] Thus she appears in the genuine Greek and Greco-Italian +productions of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as well as in +the two finest examples that could be cited in more modern times. + +[Footnote 1: The reason given is curious:--"_Perchè quando Gesù pareva +tormentato essendo vivo, il dolore si partiva frà la santissima madre +e lui; ma quando poi egli era morto, tutto il dolore rimaneva per la +sconsolata madre._"] + +1. In an exquisite composition by Raphael, usually styled a Pietà , +but properly a Deposition, there are six figures: the extended form +of Christ; the Virgin swooning in the arms of Mary Salome and Mary +Cleophas; Mary Magdalene sustains the feet of Christ, while her sister +Martha raises the veil of the Virgin, as if to give her air; St. John +stands by with clasped hands; and Joseph of Arimathea looks on the +sorrowing group with mingled grief and pity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This wonderful drawing (there is no _finished_ picture) +was in the collection of Count Fries, and then belonged to Sir T. +Lawrence. There is a good engraving by Agricola.] + +2. Another, an admirable and celebrated composition by Annibale +Caracci, known as the Four Marys, omits Martha and St. John. The +attention of Mary Magdalene is fixed on the dead Saviour; the other +two Marys are occupied by the fainting Mother. (Castle Howard.) On +comparing this with Raphael's conception, we find more of common +nature, quite as much pathos, but in the forms less of that pure +poetic grace, which softens at once, and heightens the tragic effect. + +Besides Joseph of Arimathea, we have sometimes Nicodemus; as in the +very fine Deposition by Perugino, and in one, not loss fine, by Albert +Durer. In a Deposition by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Lazarus, whom Jesus +raised from the dead, stands near his sister Martha. + +In a picture by Vandyke, the Mother closes the eyes of the dead +Redeemer: in a picture by Rubens, she removes a thorn from his wounded +brow:--both natural and dramatic incidents very characteristic of +these dramatic painters. + +There are some fine examples of this subject in the old German school. +In spite of ungraceful forms, quaint modern costumes, and worse +absurdities, we often find _motifs_, unknown in the Italian school, +most profoundly felt, though not always happily expressed, I remember +several instances in which the Madonna does not sustain her Son; but +kneeling on one side, and, with clasped hands, she gazes on him with +a look, partly of devotion, partly of resignation; both the devotion +and the resignation predominating over the maternal grief. I have +been asked, "why no painter has ever yet represented the Great Mother +as raising her hands in thankfulness that her Son _had_ drank the +cup--_had_ finished the work appointed for him on earth?" This would +have been worthy of the religions significance of the moment; and I +recommend the theme to the consideration of artists.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the most modern Deposition I have seen (one of +infinite beauty, and new in arrangement, by Paul Delaroche), the +Virgin, kneeling at some distance, and a little above, contemplates +her dead Son. The expression and attitude are those of intense +anguish, and _only_ anguish. It is the bereaved Mother; it is a +craving desolation, which is in the highest degree human and tragic; +but it is not the truly religious conception.] + + * * * * * + +The entombment follows, and when treated as a strictly historical +scene, the Virgin Mother is always introduced, though here as a less +conspicuous figure, and one less important to the action. Either +she swoons, which is the ancient Greek conception; or she follows, +with streaming eyes and clasped hands, the pious disciples who bear +the dead form of her Son, as in Raphael's wonderful picture in the +Borghese Palace, and Titian's, hardly less beautiful, in the Louvre, +where the compassionate Magdalene sustains her veiled and weeping +figure;--or she stands by, looking on disconsolate, while the beloved +Son is laid in the tomb. + + * * * * * + +All these fine and important themes belong properly to a series of +the History of Christ. In a series of the Life of the Virgin, the +incidents of the Passion of our Lord are generally omitted; whereas, +in the cycle of subjects styled the ROSARY, the Bearing of the Cross, +the Crucifixion, and the Deposition, are included in the fourth and +fifth of the "Sorrowful Mysteries." I shall have much more to say on +these subjects when treating of the artistic representations from +the History of Christ. I will only add here, that their frequency as +_separate_ subjects, and the preëminence given to the figure of the +Virgin as the mother of Pity, are very suggestive and affecting when +we come to consider their _intention_ as well as their significance. +For, in the first place, they were in most instances the votive +offerings of those who had lost the being most dear to them, and +thus appealed so the divine compassion of her who had felt that sword +"pierce through her own heart also." In this sense they were often +suspended as memorials in the chapels dedicated to the dead, of which +I will cite one very beautiful and touching example. There is a votive +Deposition by Giottino, in which the general conception is that which +belonged to the school, and very like Giotto's Deposition in the Arena +at Padua. The dead Christ is extended on a white shroud, and embraced +by the Virgin; at his feet kneels the Magdalene, with clasped hands +and flowing hair; Mary Salome kisses one of his hands, and Martha +(as I suppose) the other; the third Mary, with long hair, and +head dropping with grief, is seated in front to the right. In the +background, in the centre, stands St. John, bending over the group in +profound sorrow; on his left hand Joseph of Arimathea stands with the +vase of "spices and ointments," and the nails; near him Nicodemus. +On the right of St. John kneels a beautiful young girl, in the rich +Florentine costume, who, with a sorrowful earnestness and with her +hands crossed over her bosom, contemplates the dead Saviour. St. +Romeo (or San Remigio) patron of the church in which the picture was +dedicated, lays his hand paternally on her head; beside her kneels a +Benedictine nun, who in the game manner is presented by St. Benedict. +These two females, sisters perhaps, are the bereaved mourners who +dedicated the picture, certainly one of the finest of the Giottesque +school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is now in the gallery of the Uffizii, at Florence. In +the Florentine edition of Vasari the name of the church in which this +picture was originally placed is called San _Romeo_, who is St. Remi +(or Remigio), Bishop of Reims. The painter, Giottino, the greatest and +the most interesting, personally, of the Giottesque artists, was, as +Vasari says, "of a melancholy temperament, and a lover of solitude;" +"more desirous of glory than of gain;" "contented with little, and +thinking more of serving and gratifying others than of himself;" +"taking small care for himself, and perpetually engrossed by the works +he had undertaken." He died of consumption, in 1356, at the age of +thirty two.] + +Secondly, we find that the associations left in the minds of the +people by the expeditions of the Crusaders and the pilgrimages to +the Holy Sepulchre, rendered the Deposition and the Entombment +particularly popular and impressive as subjects of art, even down to +a late period. "Ce que la vaillante épée des ayeux avait glorieusement +defendu, le ciscaux des enfans aimait à le réproduire, leur piété à +l'honorer." I think we may trace these associations in many examples, +particularly in a Deposition by Raphael, of which there is a fine old +engraving. Here, in the centre, stands a circular building, such as +the church at Jerusalem was always described; in front of which are +seen the fainting Virgin and the mournful women: a grand and solemn +group, but poetically rather than historically treated. + + * * * * * + +In conclusion, I must notice one more form of the Mater Dolorosa, one +of the dramatic conceptions of the later schools of art; as far as I +knew, there exist no early examples. + +In a picture by Guercino (Louvre), the Virgin and St. Peter lament the +death of the Saviour. The Mother, with her clasped hands resting on +her knees, appears lost in resigned sorrow: she mourns her Son. Peter, +weeping, as with a troubled grief, seems to mourn at once his Lord +and Master, and his own weak denial. This picture has the energetic +feeling and utter want of poetic elevation which generally +characterized Guercino. + +There is a similar group by Ludovico Caracci in the Duonio at Bologna. + +In a picture by Tiarini, the _Madre Addolorata_ is seated, holding +in her hand the crown of thorns; Mary Magdalene kneels before her, +and St. John stands by--both expressing the utmost veneration and +sympathy. These and similar groups are especially to be found in the +later Bologna school. In all the instances known to me, they have been +painted for the Dominicans, and evidently intended to illustrate the +sorrows of the Rosary. + +In one of the services of the Passion Week, and in particular +reference to the maternal anguish of the Virgin, it was usual to read, +as the Epistle, a selection from the first chapter of the Lamentations +of Jeremiah, eloquent in the language of desolation and grief. The +painters seemed to have filled their imagination with the images +there presented; and frequently in the ideal _Pietà _ the daughter +of Jerusalem "sits solitary, with none to comfort her." It is the +contrary in the dramatic version: the devotion of the women, the +solicitude of the affectionate Magdalene, and the filial reverence of +St. John, whom the scriptural history associates with the Virgin in a +manner so affecting, are never forgotten. + +In obedience to the last command of his dying Master, John the +Evangelist-- + + "He, into whose keeping, from the cross, + The mighty charge was given--" + + DANTE. + +conducted to his own dwelling the Mother to whom he was henceforth to +be as a Son. This beautiful subject, "John conducting the Virgin to +his home," was quite unknown, as far as I am aware, in the earlier +schools of art, and appears first in the seventeenth century. An +eminent instance is a fine solemn group by Zurbaran. (Munich.) Christ +was laid in the sepulchre by night, and here, in the gray dawn, John +and the veiled Virgin are seen as returning from the entombment, and +walking mournfully side by side. + + * * * * * + +We find the peculiar relation between the Mother of Christ and St. +John, as her adopted son, expressed in a very tender and ideal manner, +on one of the wings of an altar-piece, attributed to Taddeo Gaddi. +(Berlin Gal., No. 1081.) Mary and St. John stand in front; he holds +one of her hands clasped in both his own, with a most reverent and +affectionate expression. Christ, standing between them, lays one hand +on the shoulder of each; the sentiment of this group is altogether +very unusual; and very remarkable. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART IV. + + + + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE RESURRECTION OF OUR LORD TO THE +ASSUMPTION. + +1. THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. 2. THE ASCENSION. 3. +THE DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST. 4. THE DEATH OF THE VIRGIN. 5. THE +ASSUMPTION AND CORONATION. + + +THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. + +The enthusiastic and increasing veneration for the Madonna, the large +place she filled in the religious teaching of the ecclesiastics and +the religious sentiments of the people, are nowhere more apparent, +nor more strikingly exhibited, than in the manner in which she was +associated with the scenes which followed the Passion;--the manner +in which some incidents were suggested, and treated with a peculiar +reference to her, and to her maternal feelings. It is nowhere said +that the Virgin Mother was one of the Marys who visited the tomb on +the morning of the resurrection, and nowhere is she so represented. +But out of the human sympathy with that bereaved and longing heart, +arose the beautiful legend of the interview between Christ and his +Mother after he had risen from the dead. + +There existed a very ancient tradition (it is mentioned by St. +Ambrose in the fourth century, as being then generally accepted by +Christians), that Christ, after his return from Hades, visited his +Mother even before he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden. +It is not indeed so written in the Gospel; but what of that? The +reasoning which led to the conclusion was very simple. He whose last +earthly thought was for his Mother would not leave her without that +consolation it was in his power to give; and what, as a son, it was +his duty to do (for the _humanity_ of Christ is never forgotten by +those who most intensely believed in his _divinity_,) that, of course, +he did do. + +The story is thus related:--Mary, when all was "finished," retired +to her chamber, and remained alone with her grief--not wailing, not +repining, not hopeless, but waiting for the fulfilment of the promise. +Open before her lay the volume of the prophecies; and she prayed +earnestly, and she said, "Thou, didst promise, O my most dear Son! +that thou wouldst rise again on the third day. Before yesterday was +the day of darkness and bitterness, and, behold, this is the third +day. Return then to me thy Mother; O my Son, tarry not, but come!" +And while thus she prayed, lo! a bright company of angels, who entered +waving their palms and radiant with joy; and they surrounded her, +kneeling and singing the triumphant Easter hymn, _Regina Coeli lætare, +Alleluia!_[1] And then came Christ partly clothed in a white garment, +having in his left hand the standard of the cross, as one just +returned from the nether world, and victorious over the powers of +sin and death. And with him came the patriarchs and prophets, whose +long-imprisoned spirits he had released from Hades.[2] All these knelt +before the Virgin, and saluted her, and blessed her, and thanked her, +because through her had come their deliverance. But, for all this, the +Mother was not comforted till she had heard the voice of her Son. Then +he, raising his hand in benediction, spoke and said, "I salute thee, +O my Mother!" and she, weeping tears of joy, responded, "Is it thou +indeed, my most dear Son?" and she fell upon his neck, and he embraced +her tenderly, and showed her the wounds he had received for sinful +man. Then he bid her be comforted and weep no more, for the pain +of death had passed away, and the gates of hell had not prevailed +against him. And she thanked him meekly on her knees, for that he had +been pleased to bring redemption to man, and to make her the humble +instrument of his great mercy. And they sat and talked together, until +he took leave of her to return to the garden, and to show himself to +Mary Magdalene, who, next to his glorious Mother, had most need of +consolation.[3] + +[Footnote 1: + + "Regina Coeli lætare Alleluia! + Quia quem meruisti portare, Alleluia! + Resurrexit sicut dixit, Alleluia! + Ora pro nobis Deum, Alleluia!"] + +[Footnote 2: The legend of the "Descent into Hades" (or limbo), often +treated of in art, will be given at length in the History of our +Lord.] + +[Footnote 3: I have given the legend from various sources; but there +is something quite untranslatable and perfectly beautiful in the +naïveté of the old Italian version. After describing the celestial +music of the angels, the rejoicing of the liberated patriarchs, and +the appearance of Christ, _allegro, e bello e tutto lucido_, it thus +proceeds: "_Quando ella lo vidde, gli andò incontro ella ancora con +le braccia aperte, e quasi tramortita per l'allegrazza. Il benedetto +Gesù l'abbraccio teneressimamente, ed ella glidesse; 'Ahi, figliuolo +mio cordialissimo, sei tu veramente il mio Gesù, ò pur m'inganna +l'affetto!' 'Io sono il tuo figliuolo, madre mia, dolcissima,' disse +il Signore: 'cessino hormai le tue lagrime, non fare ch'io ti veda +più di mala voglia, Già son finiti li tuoi e li miei travagli e dolori +insieme!' Erano rimase alcune lagrime negli occhi della Vergine.... +e per la grande allegrezza non poteva proferire parola alcuna ... +ma quando al fine potè parlare, lo ringrazio per parte di tutto +il genere humano, per la redenzione, operata e fatta, per tutto +generalmente."--v. Il Perfetto Legendario_] + +The pathetic sentiment, and all the supernatural and mystical +accompaniments of this beautiful myth of the early ages, have been +very inadequately rendered by the artists. It is always treated as a +plain matter-of-fact scene. The Virgin kneels; the Saviour, bearing +his standard, stands before her; and where the delivered patriarchs +are introduced, they are generally either Adam and Eve, the authors +of the fall or Abraham and David, the progenitors of Christ and the +Virgin. The patriarchs are omitted in the earliest instance I can +refer to, one of the carved panels of the stalls in the Cathedral of +Amiens: also in the composition by Albert Durer, not included in his +life of the Virgin, but forming one of the series of the Passion. +Guido has represented the scene in a very fine picture, wherein an +angel bears the standard of victory, and behind our Saviour are Adam +and Eve. (Dresden Gal.) + +Another example, by Guercino (Cathedral, Cento), is cited by Goethe +as an instance of that excellence in the expression of the natural +and domestic affections which characterized the painter. Mary kneels +before her Son, looking up in his face with unutterable affection; +he regards her with a calm, sad look, "as if within his noble soul +there still remained the recollection of his sufferings and hers, +outliving the pang of death, the descent into the grave, and which +the resurrection had not yet dispelled." This, however, is not the +sentiment, at once affectionate and joyously triumphant, of the +old legend. I was pleased with a little picture in the Lichtenstein +Gallery at Vienna, where the risen Saviour, standing before his +Mother, points to the page of the book before her, as if he said, "See +you not that thus it is written?" (Luke xxiv. 46.) Behind Jesus is +St. John the Evangelist bearing the cup and the cross, as the cup of +sorrow and the cross of pain, not the mere emblems. There is another +example, by one of the Caracci, in the Fitzwilliam Collection at +Cambridge. + +A picture by Albano of this subject, in which Christ comes flying or +floating on the air, like an incorporeal being, surrounded by little +fluttering cherubim, very much like Cupids, is an example of all that +is most false and objectionable in feeling and treatment. (Florence, +Pitti Pal.) + +The popularity of this scene in the Bologna school of art arose, I +think, from its being adopted as one of the subjects from the Rosary, +the first of "the five Glorious Mysteries;" therefore especially +affected by the Dominicans, the great patrons of the Caracci at that +time. + + * * * * * + +The ASCENSION, though one of the "Glorious Mysteries," was also +accounted as the seventh and last of the sorrows of the Virgin, for +she was then left alone on earth. All the old legends represent her +as present on this occasion, and saying, as she followed with uplifted +eyes the soaring figure of Christ, "My Son, remember me when thou +comest to thy kingdom! Leave me not long after thee, my Son!" In +Giotto's composition in the chapel of the Arena, at Padua, she is by +far the most prominent figure. In almost all the late pictures of the +Ascension, she is introduced with the other Marys, kneeling on one +side, or placed in the centre among the apostles. + + * * * * * + +The DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST is a strictly scriptural subject. I +have heard it said that the introduction of Mary is not authorized by +the scripture narrative. I must observe, however that, without any +wringing of the text for an especial purpose, the passage might be +so interpreted. In the first chapter of the Acts (ver. 14), after +enumerating the apostles by name, it is added, "These all continued +with one accord in prayer and supplication, with the women and Mary +the mother of Jesus, and with his brethren." And in the commencement +of the second chapter the narrative thus proceeds: "And when the day +of Pentecost was fully come, they were _all_ with one accord in +one place." The word _all_ is, in the Concordance, referred to the +previous text (ver. 14), as including Mary and the women: thus they +who were constant in their love were not refused a participation in +the gifts of the Spirit. Mary, in her character of the divine Mother +of Wisdom, or even Wisdom herself,[1] did not, perhaps, need any +accession of intellectual light; but we must remember that the Holy +Spirit was the Comforter, as well as the Giver of wisdom; therefore, +equally needed by those, whether men or women, who were all equally +called upon to carry out the ministry of Christ in love and service, +in doing and in suffering. + +[Footnote 1: The sublime eulogium of Wisdom (Prov. viii. 22), is, in +the Roman Catholic Church, applied to the Virgin Mary.] + +In the account of the apostles I have already described at length the +various treatment and most celebrated examples of this subject, and +shall only make one or two observations with especial reference to +the figure of the Virgin. It was in accordance with the feelings and +convictions prevalent in the fifteenth century, that if Mary were +admitted to be present, she would take the principal place, as Queen +and Mother of the Apostles (_Regina et Mater Apostolorum_). She +is, therefore, usually placed either in front, or in the centre +on a raised seat or dais; and often holding a book (as the _Mater +Sapientiæ_); and she receives the divine affusion either with veiled +lids and meek rejoicing; or with uplifted eyes, as one inspired, she +pours forth the hymn, _Veni, Sancte Spiritus_. + +I agree with the critics that, as the Spirit descended in form +of cloven tongues of fire, the emblem of the Dove, almost always +introduced, is here superfluous, and, indeed, out of place. + + * * * * * + +I must mention here another subject altogether apocryphal, and +confined to the late Spanish and Italian schools: The Virgin receives +the sacramental wafer from the hand of St. John the Evangelist. +This is frequently misunderstood, and styled the Communion of Mary +Magdalene. But the long hair and uncovered head of the Magdalene, and +the episcopal robe of St. Maximin, are in general distinguishable from +the veiled matronly head of the Virgin Mother, and the deacon's vest +of St. John. There is also a legend that Mary received baptism from +St. Peter; but this is a subject I have never met with in art, ancient +or modern. It may possibly exist. + +I am not acquainted with any representations taken from the sojourn on +earth of the Blessed Virgin from this time to the period of her death, +the date of which is uncertain. It is, however, generally supposed to +have taken place in the forty-eighth year of our era, and about eleven +years after the Crucifixion, therefore in her sixtieth year. There +is no distinct record, either historical or legendary, as to the +manner in which she passed these years. There are, indeed, floating +traditions alluded to by the early theological writers, that when the +first persecution broke out at Jerusalem, Mary accompanied St. John +the Evangelist to Ephesus, and was attended thither by the faithful +and affectionate Mary Magdalene. Also that she dwelt for some time on +Mount Carmel, in an oratory erected there by the prophet Elijah, and +hence became the patroness of the Carmelites, under the title of Our +Lady of Mount Carmel (_La Madonna del Carmine_, or _del Carmelo_). +If there exist any creations of the artists founded on these obscure +traditions, which is indeed most probable, particularly in the +edifices of the Carmelites in Spain, I have not met with them. + + * * * * * + +It is related that before the apostles separated to obey the command +of their divine Master, and preach the gospel to all the nations of +the earth, they took a solemn leave of the Virgin Mary, and received +her blessing. This subject has been represented, though not by any +distinguished artist. I remember such a picture, apparently of the +sixteenth century, in the Church of S. Maria-in-Capitolio at Cologne, +and another, by Bissoni, in the San Giustina at Padua. (Sacred and +Legendary Art.) + + + + + +THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION Of THE VIRGIN + + +_Lat._ Dormitio, Pausatio, Transitus, Assumptio, B. Virginis. _Ital._ +Il Transito di Maria. Il Sonno della Beata Vergine. L' Assunzione. +_Fr._ La Mort de la Vierge. L'Assomption. _Ger._ Das Absterben der +Maria. Maria Himmelfahrt. August, 13, 15. + + +We approach the closing scenes. + +Of all the representations consecrated to the glory of the Virgin, +none have been more popular, more multiplied through every form of +art, and more admirably treated, than her death and apotheosis. +The latter in particular, under the title of "the Assumption," +became the visible expression of a dogma of faith then universally +received--namely, the exaltation and deification of the Virgin in +the body as well as in the spirit. As such it meets us at every turn +in the edifices dedicated to her; in painting over the altar, in +sculpture over the portal, or gleaming upon us in light from the +shining many-coloured windows. Sometimes the two subjects are +combined, and the death-scene (_Il transito di Maria_) figured below, +is, in fact, only the _transition_ to the blessedness and exaltation +figured above. But whether separate or combined, the two scenes, in +themselves most beautiful and touching,--the extremes of the mournful +and the majestic, the dramatic and the ideal,--offered to the medieval +artists such a breadth of space for the exhibition of feeling and +fancy as no other subject afforded. Consequently, among the examples +handed down to us, are to be found some of the most curious and +important relics of the early schools, while others rank among the +grandest productions of the best ages of art. + +For the proper understanding of these, it is necessary to give the old +apocryphal legend at some length; for, although the very curious and +extravagant details of this legend were not authorized by the Church +as matters of fact or faith, it is clear that the artists were +permitted thence to derive their materials and their imagery. In +what manner they availed themselves of this permission, and how far +the wildly poetical circumstances with which the old tradition was +gradually invested, were allowed to enter into the forms of art, we +shall afterwards consider. + + + THE LEGEND OF THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION OF THE MOST GLORIOUS + VIRGIN MARY. + + Mary dwelt in the house of John upon Mount Sion looking for + the fulfilment of the promise of deliverance, and she spent + her days in visiting those places which had been hallowed by + the baptism, the sufferings, the burial and resurrection of + her divine Son, but more particularly the tomb wherein he was + laid. And she did not this as seeking the living among the + dead, but for consolation and for remembrance. + + And on a certain day; the heart of the Virgin, being filled + with an inexpressible longing to behold her Son, melted away + within her, and she wept abundantly. And lo! an angel appeared + before her clothed in light as with a garment. And he saluted + her, and said, "Hail, O Mary! blessed by him who hath given + salvation to Israel I bring thee here a branch of palm + gathered in Paradise; command that it be carried before thy + bier in the day of thy death; for in three days they soul + shall leave thy body, and though shalt enter into Paradise, + where thy Son awaits thy coming." Mary, answering, said, "If I + have found grace in thy eyes, tell me first what is thy name; + and grant that the apostles my brethren may be reunited to me + before I die, that in their presence I may give up my soul to + God. Also, I pray thee, that my soul, when delivered from my + body, may not be affrighted by any spirit of darkness, nor + any evil angel be allowed to have any power over me." And the + angel said, "Why dost thou ask my name? My name is the Great + and the Wonderful. And now doubt not that all the apostles + shall be reunited, to thee this day; for he who in former + times transported the prophet Habakkuk from Judea to Jerusalem + by the hair of his head, can as easily bring hither the + apostles. And fear thou not the evil spirit, for hast thou not + bruised his head and destroyed his kingdom?" And having said + these words, the angel departed into heaven; and the palm + branch which he had left behind him shed light from every + leaf, and sparkled as the stars of the morning. Then Mary + lighted, the lamps and prepared her bed, and waited until the + hour was come. And in the same instant John, who was preaching + at Ephesus, and Peter, who was preaching at Antioch, and all + the other apostles who were dispersed in different parts of + the world, were suddenly caught up as by a miraculous power, + and found themselves before the door of the habitation of + Mary. When Mary saw them all assembled round her, she blessed + and thanked the Lord, and she placed in the hands of St. John + the shining palm, and desired that he should bear it before + her at the time of her burial. Then Mary, kneeling down, made + her prayer to the Lord her Son, and the others prayed with + her; then she laid herself down in her bed and composed + herself for death. And John wept bitterly. And about the third + hour of the night, as Peter stood at the head of the bed and + John at the foot, and the other apostles around, a mighty + sound filled the house, and a delicious perfume filled + the chamber. And Jesus himself appeared accompanied by an + innumerable company of angels, patriarchs, and prophets; all + these surrounded the bed of the Virgin, singing hymns of joy. + And Jesus said to his Mother, "Arise, my beloved, mine elect! + come with me from Lebanon, my espoused! receive the crown that + is destined for thee!" And Mary, answering, said, "My heart + is ready; for it was written of me that I should do thy will!" + Then all the angels and blessed spirits who accompanied Jesus + began to sing and rejoice. And the soul of Mary left her body, + and was received into the arms of her Son; and together they + ascended into heaven.[1] And the apostles looked up, saying, + "Oh most prudent Virgin, remember us when thou comest to + glory!" and the angels, who received her into heaven, sung + these words, "Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness + leaning upon her Beloved? she is fairer than all the daughters + of Jerusalem." + +[Footnote 1: In the later French legend, it is the angel +Michael who takes charge of the departing soul. "_Ecce Dominus +venit cum multitudine angelorum_; et Jésus Christ vint en grande +compaignie d'anges; entre lesquels estoit Sainct Michel, et quand +la Vierge Marie le veit elle dit, 'Benoist soit Jésus Christ car il +ne m'a pas oubliée.' Quand elle eut ce dit elle rendit l'esprit, +lequel Sainct Michel print."] + + But the body of Mary remained upon the earth; and three among + the virgins prepared to wash and clothe it in a shroud; but + such a glory of light surrounded her form, that though they + touched it they could not see it, and no human eye beheld + those chaste and sacred limbs unclothed. Then the apostles + took her up reverently and placed her upon a bier, and John, + carrying the celestial palm, went before. Peter sung the 114th + Psalm, "_In exitu Israel de Egypto, domus Jacob de populo + barbaro_," and the angels followed after, also singing. The + wicked Jews, hearing these melodious voices, ran together; and + the high-priest, being seized with fury, laid his hands upon + the bier intending to overturn it on the earth; but both his + arms were suddenly dried up, so that he could not move them, + and he was overcome with fear; and he prayed to St. Peter + for help, and Peter said, "Have faith in Jesus Christ, and + his Mother, and thon shalt be healed;" and it was so. Then + they went on and laid the Virgin in a tomb in the Valley of + Jehoshaphat.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Or Gethsemane. I must observe here, that in the +genuine oriental legend, it is Michael the Archangel who hews off +the hands of the audacious Jew, which were afterwards, at the +intercession of St. Peter, reunited to his body.] + + And on the third day, Jesus said to the angels, "What honour + shall I confer on her who was my mother on earth, and brought + me forth?" And they answered, "Lord, suffer not that body + which was thy temple and thy dwelling to see corruption; but + place her beside thee on thy throne in heaven." And Jesus + consented; and the Archangel Michael brought unto the Lord, + the glorious soul of our Lady. And the Lord said, "Rise up, my + dove, my undefiled, for thou shalt not remain in the darkness + of the grave, nor shall thou see corruption;" and immediately + the soul of Mary rejoined her body, and she arose up glorious + from the tomb, and ascended into heaven surrounded and + welcomed by troops of angels, blowing their silver trumpets, + touching their golden lutes, singing, and rejoicing as they + sung, "Who is she that riseth as the morning, fair as the + moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners?" + (Cant. vi. 10.) + + But one among the apostles was absent; and when he arrived + soon after, he would not believe in the resurrection of the + Virgin; and this apostle was the same Thomas, who had formerly + been slow to believe in the resurrection of the Lord; and he + desired that the tomb should be opened before him; and when it + was opened it was found to be full of lilies and roses. Then + Thomas, looking up to heaven, beheld the Virgin bodily, in a + glory of light, slowly mounting towards the heaven; and she, + for the assurance of his faith, flung down to him her girdle, + the same which is to this day preserved in the cathedral of + Prato. And there were present at the death of the Virgin + Mary, besides the twelve apostles, Dionysius the Areopagite, + Timotheus, and Hierotheus; and of the women, Mary Salome, Mary + Cleophas,[1] and a faithful handmaid whose name was Savia. + +[Footnote 1: According to the French legend, Mary Magdalene and her +sister Martha were also present.] + + * * * * * + +This legend of the Death and Assumption of the Virgin has afforded to +the artists seven distinct scenes. + +1. The Angel, bearing the palm, announces to Mary her approaching +death. The announcing angel is usually supposed to be Gabriel, but +it is properly Michael, the "angel of death." 2. She takes leave of +the Apostles. 3. Her Death. 4. She is borne to the Sepulchre. 5. +Her Entombment. 6. Her Assumption, where she rises triumphant and +glorious, "like unto the morning" ("_quasi aurora consurgens_"). 7. +Her Coronation in heaven, where she takes her place beside her Son. + +In early art, particularly in the Gothic sculpture, two or more of +these subjects are generally grouped together. Sometimes we have the +death-scene and the entombment on a line below, and, above these, +the coronation or the assumption, as over the portal of Notre Dame at +Paris, and in many other instances; or we have first her death, above +this, her assumption, and, above all, her coronation; as over the +portal at Amiens and elsewhere. + + * * * * * + +I shall now take these subjects in their order. + +The angel announcing to Mary her approaching death has been rarely +treated. In general, Mary is seated or standing, and the angel kneels +before her, bearing the starry palm brought from Paradise. In the +frescoes at Orvieto, and in the bas-relief of Oreagna,[1] the angel +comes flying downwards with the palm. In a predella by Fra Filippo +Lippi, the angel kneels, reverently presenting a taper, which the +Virgin receives with majestic grace; St. Peter stands behind. It was +the custom to place a taper in the hand of a dying person; and as the +palm is also given sometimes to the angel of the incarnation, while +the taper can have but one meaning, the significance of the scene +is here fixed beyond the possibility of mistake, though there is a +departure from the literal details of the old legend. There is in +the Munich Gallery a curious German example of this subject by Hans +Schauffelein. + +[Footnote 1: On the beautiful shrine in Or-San-Michele, at Florence.] + + * * * * * + +The death of the Virgin is styled in Byzantine and old Italian art +the Sleep of the Virgin, _Il Sonno della Madonna_; for it was an +old superstition, subsequently rejected as heretical, that she did +not really die after the manner of common mortals, only fell asleep +till her resurrection. Therefore, perhaps, it is, that in the early +pictures we have before us, not so much a scene or action, as a sort +of mysterious rite; it is not the Virgin dead or dying in her bed; she +only slumbers in preparation for her entombment; while in the later +pictures, we have a death-bed scene with all the usual dramatic and +pathetic accessories. + +In one sense or the other, the theme has been constantly treated, +from the earliest ages of the revival of art down to the seventeenth +century. + +In the most ancient examples which are derived from the Greek school, +it is always represented with a mystical and solemn simplicity, +adhering closely to the old legend, and to the formula laid down in +the Greek Manual. + +There is such a picture in the Wallerstein Collection at Kensington +Palace. The couch or bier is in the centre of the picture, and Mary +lies upon it wrapped in a veil and mantle with closed eyes and hands +crossed over her bosom. The twelve apostles stand round in attitudes +of grief angels attend bearing tapers. Behind the extended form of the +Virgin is the figure of Christ; a glorious red seraph with expanded +wings hovers above his head. He holds in his arms the soul of the +Virgin in likeness of a new-born child. On each side stand St. +Dionysius the Areopagite, and St. Timothy, Bishop of Ephesas, in +episcopal robes. In front, the archangel Michael bends forward to +strike off the hands of the high-priest Adonijah, who had attempted to +profane the bier. (This last circumstance is rarely expressed, except +in the Byzantine pictures; for in the Italian legend, the hands of the +intruder wither and adhere to the bed or shrine.) In the picture +just described; all is at once simple, and formal, and solemn, and +supernatural; it is a very perfect example in its way of the genuine +Byzantine treatment. There is a similar picture in the Christian +museum of the Vatican. + +Another (the date about the first half of the fourteenth century, +as I think) is curious from the introduction of the women.[1] The +Virgin lies on an embroidered sheet held reverently by angels; at the +feet and at the head other angels bear tapers; Christ receives the +departing soul, which stretches out its arms; St. John kneels in +front, and St. Peter reads the service; the other apostles are behind +him, and there are three women. The execution of this curious picture +is extremely rude, but the heads very fine. Cimabue painted the Death +of the Virgin at Assisi. There is a beautiful example by Giotto, where +two lovely angels stand at the head and two at the feet, sustaining +the pall on which she lies; another most exquisite by Angelico in +the Florence Gallery; another most beautiful and pathetic by Taddeo +Bartoli in the Palazzo Publico at Siena. + +[Footnote 1: At present in the collection of Mr. Bromley, of Wootten.] + +The custom of representing Christ as standing by the couch or tomb of +his mother, in the act of receiving her soul, continued down to the +fifteenth century, at least with slight deviations from the original +conception. The later treatment is quite different. The solemn +mysterious sleep, the transition from one life to another, became a +familiar death-bed scene with the usual moving accompaniments. But +even while avoiding the supernatural incidents, the Italians gave to +the representation much ideal elegance; for instance, in the beautiful +fresco by Ghirlandajo. (Florence, S. Maria-Novella.) + + * * * * * + +In the old German school we have that homely matter-of-fact feeling, +and dramatic expression, and defiance of all chronological propriety, +which belonged to the time and school. The composition by Albert +Durer, in his series of the Life of the Virgin, has great beauty and +simplicity of expression, and in the arrangement a degree of grandeur +and repose which has caused it to be often copied and reproduced as a +picture, though the original form is merely that of a wood-cut.[1] In +the centre is a bedstead with a canopy, on which Mary lies fronting +the spectator, her eyes half closed. On the left of the bed stands +St. Peter, habited as a bishop: he places a taper in her dying hand; +another apostle holds the asperge with which to sprinkle her with +holy water: another reads the service. In the foreground is a priest +bearing a cross, and another with incense; and on the right, the other +apostles in attitudes of devotion and grief. + +[Footnote 1: There is one such copy in the Sutherland Gallery; and +another in the Munich Gallery, Cabinet viii. 161.] + +Another picture by Albert Durer, once in the Fries Gallery, at +Vienna, unites, in a most remarkable manner, all the legendary and +supernatural incidents with the most intense and homely reality. It +appears to have been painted for the Emperor Maximilian, as a tribute +to the memory of his first wife, the interesting Maria of Burgundy. +The disposition of the bed is the same as in the wood-cut, the foot +towards the spectator. The face of the dying Virgin is that of the +young duchess. On the right, her son, afterwards Philip of Spain, +and father of Charles V., stands as the young St. John, and presents +the taper; the other apostles are seen around, most of them praying; +St. Peter, habited as bishop, reads from an open book (this is the +portrait of George à Zlatkonia, bishop of Vienna, the friend and +counsellor of Maximilian); behind him, as one of the apostles, +Maximilian himself, with head bowed down, as in sorrow. Three +ecclesiastics are seen entering by an open door, bearing the cross, +the censer, and the holy water. Over the bed is seen the figure of +Christ; in his arms, the soul of the Virgin, in likeness of an infant +with clasped hands; and above all, in an open glory and like a vision, +her reception and coronation in heaven. Upon a scroll over her head, +are the words, "_Surge propera, amica mea; veni de Libano, veni +coronaberis._" (Cant. iv. 8.) Three among the hovering angels bear +scrolls, on one of which is inscribed the text from the Canticles, +"_Quæ est ista quæ progreditur quasi aurora consurgens, pulchra ut +luna, electa ut sol, terribilis ut castrorum acies ordinata?_" (Cant. +vi. 10;) on another, "_Quæ est ista quæ ascendit de deserto deliciis +affluens super dilectum suum?_" (Cant. viii. 5;) and on the third, +"_Quæ est ista quæ ascendit super dilectum suum ut virgula fumi?_" +(Cant. iii. 6.) This picture bears the date 1518. If it be true, as +is, indeed, most apparent, that it was painted by order of Maximilian +nearly forty years after the loss of the young wife he so tenderly +loved, and only one year before his own death, there is something +very touching in it as a memorial. The ingenious and tender compliment +implied by making Mary of Burgundy the real object of those mystic +texts consecrated to the glory of the MATER DEI, verges, perhaps, +on the profane; but it was not so intended; it was merely that +combination of the pious, and the poetical, and the sentimental, which +was one of the characteristics of the time, in literature, as well as +in art. (Heller's Albrecht Dürer p. 261.) + +The picture by Jan Schoreel, one of the great ornaments of the +Boisserée Gallery,[1] is remarkable for its intense reality and +splendour of colour. The heads are full of character; that of the +Virgin in particular, who seems, with half-closed eyes, in act to +breathe away her soul in rapture. The altar near the bed, having on +it figures of Moses and Aaron, is, however, a serious fault and +incongruity in this fine painting. + +[Footnote 1: Munich (70). The admirable lithograph by Strixner is well +known.] + +I must observe that Mary is not always dead or dying: she is sometimes +preparing for death, in the act of prayer at the foot of her couch, +with the apostles standing round, as in a very fine picture by Martin +Schaffner, where she kneels with a lovely expression, sustained in the +arms of St. John, while St. Peter holds the gospel open before her. +(Munich Gal.) Sometimes she is sitting up in her bed, and reading from +the Book of the Scripture, which is always held by St. Peter. + +In a picture by Cola della Matrice, the Death of the Virgin is treated +at once in a mystical and dramatic style. Enveloped in a dark blue +mantle spangled with golden stars, she lies extended on a couch; +St. Peter, in a splendid scarlet cope as bishop, reads the service; +St. John, holding the palm, weeps bitterly. In front, and kneeling +before the coach or bier, appear the three great Dominican saints +as witnesses of the religious mystery; in the centre, St. Dominick; +on the left, St. Catherine of Siena; and on the right, St. Thomas +Aquinas. In a compartment above is the Assumption. (Rome, Capitol.) + + * * * * * + +Among the later Italian examples, where the old legendary accessories +are generally omitted, there are some of peculiar elegance. One +by Ludovico Caracci, another by Domenichino, and a third by Carlo +Maratti, are treated, if not with much of poetry or religious +sentiment, yet with great dignity and pathos. + +I must mention one more, because of its history and celebrity: +Caravaggio, of whom it was said that he always painted like a ruffian, +because he _was_ a ruffian, was also a genius in his way, and for a +few months he became the fashion at Rome, and was even patronized by +some of the higher ecclesiastics. He painted for the church of _la +Scala in Trastevere_ a picture of the Death of the Virgin, wonderful +for the intense natural expression, and in the same degree grotesque +from its impropriety. Mary, instead of being decently veiled, lies +extended with long scattered hair; the strongly marked features +and large proportions of the figure are those of a woman of the +Trastevere.[1] The apostles stand around; one or two of them--I must +use the word--blubber aloud: Peter thrusts his fists into his eyes to +keep back the tears; a woman seated in front cries and sobs; nothing +can be more real, nor more utterly vulgar. The ecclesiastics for whom +the picture was executed were so scandalized, that they refused to +hang it up in their church. It was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, +and, with the rest of the Mantuan Gallery, came afterwards into the +possession of our unfortunate Charles I. On the dispersion of his +pictures, it found its way into the Louvre, where it now is. It has +been often engraved. + +[Footnote 1: The face has a swollen look, and it was said that +his model had been a common woman whose features were swelled by +intoxication. (Louvre, 32.)] + + * * * * * + +THE APOSTLES CARRY THE BODY OF THE VIRGIN TO THE TOMB. This is a very +uncommon subject. There is a most beautiful example by Taddeo Bartoli +(Siena, Pal. Publico), full of profound religious feeling. There is +a small engraving by Bonasoni, in a series of the Life of the Virgin, +apparently after Parmigiano, in which the apostles bear her on their +shoulders over rocky ground, and appear to be descending into the +Valley of Jehoshaphat: underneath are these lines:-- + + "Portan gli uomini santi in su le spalle + Al Sepolcro il corpo di Maria + Di Josaphat nella famosa valle." + +There is another picture of this subject by Ludovico Caracci, at +Parma. + + * * * * * + +THE ENTOMBMENT. In the early pictures, there is little distinction +between this subject and the Death of the Virgin. If the figure +of Christ stand over the recumbent form, holding in his arms the +emancipated soul, then it is the _Transito_--the death or sleep; but +when a sarcophagus is in the centre of the picture, and the body +lies extended above it on a sort of sheet or pall held by angels or +apostles, it may be determined that it is the Entombment of the Virgin +after her death. In a small and very beautiful picture by Angelico, we +have distinctly this representation.[1] She lies, like one asleep, on +a white pall, held reverently by the mourners. They prepare to lay her +in a marble sarcophagus. St. John, bearing the starry palm, appears +to address a man in a doctor's cap and gown, evidently intended for +Dionysius the Areopagite. Above, in the sky, the soul of the Virgin, +surrounded by most graceful angels, is received into heaven. This +group is distinguished from the group below, by being painted in a +dreamy bluish tint, like solidified light, or like a vision. + +[Footnote 1: This picture, now in the possession of W. Fuller +Maitland, Esq., was exhibited in the British Institution in the summer +of 1852. It is engraved in the Etruria Pittrice.] + + * * * * * + +THE ASSUMPTION. The old painters distinguish between the Assumption +of the soul and the Assumption of the body of the Virgin. In the first +instance, at the moment the soul is separated from the body, Christ +receives it into his keeping, standing in person either beside her +death-bed or above it. But in the Assumption properly so called, we +have the moment wherein the soul of the Virgin is reunited to her +body, which, at the command of Christ, rises up from the tomb. Of all +the themes of sacred art there is not one more complete and beautiful +than this, in what it represents, and in what it suggests. Earth and +its sorrows, death and the grave, are left below; and the pure spirit +of the Mother again clothed in its unspotted tabernacle, surrounded +by angelic harmonies, and sustained by wings of cherubim and seraphim, +soars upwards to meet her Son, and to be reunited to him forever. + + * * * * * + +We must consider this fine subject under two aspects. + +The first is purely ideal and devotional; it is simply the expression +of a dogma of faith, "_Assumpta est Maria Virgo in Coelum_." The +figure of the Virgin is seen within an almond-shaped aureole (the +mandorla), not unfrequently crowned as well as veiled, her hands +joined, her white robe falling round her feet (for in all the early +pictures the dress of the Virgin is white, often spangled with stars), +and thus she seems to cleave the air upwards, while adoring angels +surround the glory of light within which she is enshrined. Such are +the figures which are placed in sculpture over the portals of the +churches dedicated to her, as at Florence.[1] She is not always +standing and upright, but seated on a throne, placed within an aureole +of light, and borne by angels, as over the door of the Campo Santo +at Pisa. I am not sure that such figures are properly styled the +Assumption; they rather exhibit in an ideal form the glorification +of the Virgin, another version of the same idea expressed in the +_Incoronata_. She is here _Varia Virgo Assumpta_, or, in Italian, +_L'Assunta_; she has taken upon her the glory of immortality, though +not yet crowned. + +[Footnote 1: The "Santa Maria del Fiore,"--the Duomo.] + +But when the Assumption is presented to us as the final scene of her +life, and expresses, as it were, a progressive action--when she has +left the empty tomb, and the wondering, weeping apostles on the earth +below, and rises "like the morning" ("_quasi aurora surgens_") from +the night of the grave,--then we have the Assumption of the Virgin in +its dramatic and historical form, the final act and consummation of +her visible and earthly life. As the Church had never settled in what +manner she was translated into heaven, only pronouncing it heresy to +doubt the fact itself, the field was in great measure left open to the +artists. The tomb below, the figure of the Virgin floating in mid-air, +and the opening heavens above, such is the general conception fixed +by the traditions of art; but to give some idea of the manner in which +this has been varied, I shall describe a few examples. + +1. Giunta Pisano, 1230. (Assisi, S. Franceso.) Christ and the Virgin +ascend together in a seated attitude upborne by clouds and surrounded +by angels; his arm is round her. The empty tomb, with the apostles and +others, below. The idea is here taken from the Canticles (ch. viii.), +"Who is this that ariseth from the wilderness leaning upon her +beloved?" + +2. Andrea Orcagna, 1359. (Bas-relief, Or-San-Michele, Florence.) The +Virgin Mary is seated on a rich throne within the _Mandorla_, which +is borne upwards by four angels, while two are playing on musical +instruments. Immediately below the Virgin, on the right, is the +figure of St. Thomas, with hands outstretched, receiving the mystic +girdle: below is the entombment; Mary lies extended on a pall above +a sarcophagus. In the centre stands Christ, holding in his arms the +emancipated soul; he is attended by eight angels. St. John is at the +head of the Virgin, and near him an angel swings a censer; St. James +bends and kisses her hand; St. Peter reads as usual; and the other +apostles stand round, with Dionysius, Timothy, and Hierotheus, +distinguished from the apostles by wearing turbans and caps. The whole +most beautifully treated. + +I have been minutely exact in describing the details of this +composition, because it will be useful as a key to many others of the +early Tuscan school, both in sculpture and painting; for example, the +fine bas-relief by Nanni over the south door of the Duomo at Florence, +represents St. Thomas in the same manner kneeling outside the aureole +and receiving the girdle; but the entombment below is omitted. These +sculptures were executed at the time when the enthusiasm for the +_Sacratissima Cintola della Madonna_ prevailed throughout the length +and breadth of Tuscany, and Prato had become a place of pilgrimage. + +This story of the Girdle was one of the legends imported from the +East. It had certainly a Greek origin;[1] and, according to the Greek +formula, St. Thomas is to be figured apart in the clouds, on the +right of the Virgin, and in the act of receiving the girdle. Such is +the approved arrangement till the end of the fourteenth century; +afterwards we find St. Thomas placed below among the other apostles. + +[Footnote 1: It may be found in the Greek Menologium, iii. p. 225] + + +THE LEGEND OF THE HOLY GIRDLE. + +An account of the Assumption would be imperfect without some notice +of the western legend, which relates the subsequent history of the +Girdle, and its arrival in Italy, as represented in the frescoes of +Agnolo Gaddi at Prato.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Notizie istoriche intorno alla Sacratissima Cintola +di Maria Vergine, che si conserva, nella Città di Prato, dal Dottore +Giuseppe Bianchini di Prato_, 1795.] + +The chapel _della Sacratissima Cintola_ was erected from the designs +of Giovanni Pisano about 1320. This "most sacred" relic had long been +deposited under the high altar of the principal chapel, and held in +great veneration; but in the year 1312, a native of Prato, whose name +was Musciatino, conceived the idea of carrying it off, and selling it +in Florence. The attempt was discovered; the unhappy thief suffered +a cruel death; and the people of Prato resolved to provide for the +future custody of the precious relic a new and inviolable shrine. + +The chapel is in the form of a parallelogram, three sides of which are +painted, the other being separated from the choir by a bronze gate of +most exquisite workmanship, designed by Ghiberti, or, as others say, +by Brunelleschi, and executed partly by Simone Donatello. + +On the wall, to the left as we enter, is a series of subjects from the +Life of the Virgin, beginning, as usual, with the Rejection of Joachim +from the temple, and ending with the Nativity of our Saviour. + +The end of the chapel is filled up by the Assumption of the Virgin, +the tomb being seen below, surrounded by the apostles; and above it +the Virgin, as she floats into heaven, is in the act of loosening her +girdle, which St. Thomas, devoutly kneeling, stretches out his arms to +receive. Above this, a circular window exhibits, in stained glass, the +Coronation of the Virgin, surrounded by a glory of angels. + +On the third wall to the right we have the subsequent History of the +Girdle, in six compartments. + +St. Thomas, on the eve of his departure to fulfil his mission as +apostle in the far East, intrusts the precious girdle to the care of +one of his disciples, who receives it from his hands in an ecstasy of +amazement and devotion. + +The deposit remains, for a thousand years, shrouded from the eyes +of the profane; and the next scene shows us the manner in which it +reached the city of Prato. A certain Michael of the Dogomari family +in Prato, joined, with a party of his young townsmen, the crusade +in 1096. But, instead of returning to his native country after the +war was over, this same Michael took up the trade of a merchant, +travelling from land to land in pursuit of gain, until he came to the +city of Jerusalem, and lodged in the house of a Greek priest, to whom +the custody of the sacred relic had descended from a long line of +ancestry; and this priest, according to the custom of the oriental +church, was married, and had "one fair daughter, and no more, the +which he loved passing well," so well, that he had intrusted to her +care the venerable girdle. Now it chanced that Michael, lodging in +the same house, became enamoured of the maiden, and not being able to +obtain the consent of her father to their marriage, he had recourse +to the mother, who, moved by the tears and entreaties of the daughter, +not only permitted their union, but bestowed on her the girdle as a +dowry, and assisted the young lovers in their flight. + +In accordance with this story, we have, in the third compartment, the +Marriage of Michael with the Eastern Maiden, and then the Voyage from +the Holy Land to the Shores of Tuscany. On the deck of the vessel, and +at the foot of the mast, is placed the casket containing the relic, to +which the mariners attribute their prosperous voyage to the shores of +Italy. Then Michael is seen disembarking at Pisa, and, with his casket +reverently carried in his hands, he reenters the paternal mansion in +the city of Prato. + +Then we have a scene of wonder. Michael is extended on his bed in +profound sleep. An angel at his head, and another at his feet, are +about to lift him up; for, says the story, Michael was so jealous +of his treasure, that not only he kindled a lamp every night in its +honour, but, fearing he should be robbed of it, he placed it under +his bed, which action, though suggested by his profound sense of its +value, offended his guardian angels, who every night lifted him from +his bed and placed him on the bare earth, which nightly infliction +this pious man endured rather than risk the loss of his invaluable +relic. But after some years Michael fell sick and died. + +In the last compartment we have the scene of his death. The bishop +Uberto kneels at his side, and receives from him the sacred girdle, +with a solemn injunction to preserve it in the cathedral church of the +city, and to present it from time to time for the veneration of the +people, which injunction Uberto most piously fulfilled; and we see him +carrying it, attended by priests bearing torches, in solemn procession +to the chapel, in which it has ever since remained. + +Agnolo Gaddi was but a second-rate artist, even for his time, yet +these frescoes, in spite of the feebleness and general inaccuracy +of the drawing, are attractive from a certain _naïve_ grace; and the +romantic and curious details of the legend have lent them so much of +interest, that, as Lord Lindsay says, "when standing on the spot one +really feels indisposed for criticism."[1] + +[Footnote 1: M. Rio is more poetical. "Comme j'entendais raconter +cette légende pour la première fois, il me semblait que le tableau +réfléchissait une partie de la poésie qu'elle renferme. Cet amour +d'outre mer mêlé aux aventures chevaleresques d'une croisade, cette +relique précieuse donnée pour dot à une pauvre fille, la dévotion +des deux époux pour ce gage révéré de leur bonheur, leur départ +clandestin, leur navigation prospère avec des dauphins qui leur font +cortège à la surface des eaux, leur arrivée à Prato et les miracles +répétés qui, joints à une maladie mortelle, arracèhrent enfin de la +bouche du moribond une déclaration publique à la suite de laquelle +la ceinture sacrée fut déposée dans la cathédrale, tout ce mélange +de passion romanesque et de piété naïve, avait effacé pour moi les +imperfections techniques qui au raient pu frapper une observateur de +sang-froid."] + +The exact date of the frescoes executed by Agnolo Gaddi is not known, +but, according to Vasari, he was called to Prato _after_ 1348. An +inscription in the chapel refers them to the year 1390, a date too +late to be relied on. The story of Michele di Prato I have never seen +elsewhere; but just as the vicinity of Cologne, the shrine of the +"Three Kings," had rendered the Adoration of the Magi one of the +popular themes in early German and Flemish art; so the vicinity of +Prato rendered the legend of St. Thomas a favourite theme of the +Florentine school, and introduced it wherever the influence of that +school had extended. The fine fresco by Mainardi, in the Baroncelli +Chapel, is an instance; and I must cite one yet finer, that by +Ghirlandajo in the choir of S. Maria-Novella: in this last-mentioned +example, the Virgin stands erect in star-bespangled drapery and +closely veiled. + +We now proceed to other examples of the treatment of the Assumption. + +3. Taddeo Bartoli, 1413. He has represented the moment in which the +soul is reunited to the body. Clothed in a starry robe she appears in +the very act and attitude of one rising up from a reclining position, +which is most beautifully expressed, as if she were partly lifted +up upon the expanded many-coloured wings of a cluster of angels, and +partly drawn up, as it were, by the attractive power of Christ, who, +floating above her, takes her clasped hands in both his. The intense, +yet tender ecstasy in _her_ face, the mild spiritual benignity in +_his_, are quite indescribable, and fix the picture in the heart and +the memory as one of the finest religious conceptions extant. (Siena, +Palazzo Publico.) + +I imagine this action of Christ taking her hands in both his, must be +founded on some ancient Greek model, for I have seen the same _motif_ +in other pictures, German and Italian; but in none so tenderly or so +happily expressed. + +4. Domenico di Bartolo, 1430. A large altar-piece. Mary seated on a +throne, within a glory of encircling cherubim of a glowing red, and +about thirty more angels, some adoring, others playing on musical +instruments, is borne upwards. Her hands are joined in prayer, her +head veiled and crowned, and she wears a white robe, embroidered +with golden flowers. Above, in the opening heaven, is the figure of +Christ, young and beardless (_à l'antique_), with outstretched arms, +surrounded by the spirits of the blessed. Below, of a diminutive +size, as if seen from a distant height, is the tomb surrounded by +the apostles, St. Thomas holding the girdle. This is one of the most +remarkable and important pictures of the Siena school, out of Siena, +with which I am acquainted. (Berlin Gal., 1122.) + +5. Ghirlandajo, 1475. The Virgin stands in star-spangled drapery, with +a long white veil, and hands joined, as she floats upwards. She is +sustained by four seraphim. (Florence, S. Maria-Novella.) + +6. Raphael, 1516. The Virgin is seated within the horns of a crescent +moon, her hands joined. On each side an angel stands bearing a flaming +torch; the empty tomb and the eleven apostles below. This composition +is engraved after Raphael by an anonymous master (_Le Maitre au +dé_). It is majestic and graceful, but peculiar for the time. The two +angels, or rather genii, bearing torches on each side, impart to the +whole something of the air of a heathen apotheosis. + +7. Albert Durer. The apostles kneel or stand round the empty tomb; +while Mary, soaring upwards, is received into heaven by her Son; an +angel on each side. + +8. Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1525. Mary, in a white robe spangled with stars, +rises upward as if cleaving the air in an erect position, with her +hands extended, but not raised, and a beautiful expression of mild +rapture, as if uttering the words attributed to her, "My heart is +ready;" many angels, some of whom bear tapers, around her. One angel +presents the end of the girdle to St. Thomas; the other apostles and +the empty tomb lower down. (Vercelli, S. Cristofore.) + +9. Correggio. Cupola of the Duomo at Parma, 1530. This is, perhaps, +one of the earliest instances of the Assumption applied as a grand +piece of scenic decoration; at all events we have nothing in +this luxuriant composition of the solemn simplicity of the older +conception. In the highest part of the Cupola, where the strongest +light falls, Christ, a violently foreshortened figure, precipitates +himself downwards to meet the ascending Madonna, who, reclining amid +clouds, and surrounded by an innumerable company of angels, extends +her arms towards him. One glow of heavenly rapture is diffused over +all; but the scene is vast, confused, almost tumultuous. Below, all +round the dome, as if standing on a balcony, appear the apostles. + +10. Titian, 1540 (about). In the Assumption at Venice, a picture of +world-wide celebrity, and, in its way, of unequalled beauty, we have +another signal departure from all the old traditions. The noble figure +of the Virgin in a flood of golden light is borne, or rather impelled, +upwards with such rapidity, that her veil and drapery are disturbed +by the motion. Her feet are uncovered, a circumstance inadmissible in +ancient art; and her drapery, instead of being white, is of the usual +blue and crimson, her appropriate colours in life. Her attitude, +with outspread arms--her face, not indeed a young or lovely face, +but something far better, sublime and powerful in the expression of +rapture--the divinely beautiful and childish, yet devout, unearthly +little angels around her--the grand apostles below--and the splendour +of colour over all--render this picture an enchantment at once to the +senses and the imagination; to me the effect was like music. + +11. Palma Vecchio, 1535. (Venice Acad.) The Virgin looks down, not +upwards, as is usual, and is in the act of taking off her girdle to +bestow it on St. Thomas, who, with ten other apostles, stands below. + +12. Annibale Caracci, 1600. (Bologna Gal.) The Virgin amid a crowd +of youthful angels, and sustained by clouds, is placed _across_ the +picture with extended arms. Below is the tomb (of sculptured marble) +and eleven apostles, one of whom, with an astonished air, lifts from +the sepulchre a handful of roses. There is another picture wonderfully +fine in the same style by Agostino Caracci. This fashion of varying +the attitude of the Virgin was carried in the later schools to every +excess of affectation. In a picture by Lanfranco. she cleaves the air +like a swimmer, which is detestable. + +13. Rubens painted at least twelve Assumptions with characteristic +_verve_ and movement. Some of these, if not very solemn or poetical, +convey very happily the idea of a renovated life. The largest and most +splendid as a scenic composition is in the Musée at Brussels. More +beautiful, and, indeed, quite unusually poetical for Rubens, is +the small Assumption in the Queen's Gallery, a finished sketch for +the larger picture. The majestic Virgin, arrayed in white and blue +drapery, rises with outstretched arms, surrounded by a choir of +angels; below, the apostles and the women either follow with upward +gaze the soaring ecstatic figure, or look with surprise at the flowers +which spring within the empty tomb. + +In another Assumption by Rubens, one of the women exhibits the +miraculous flowers in her apron, or in a cloth, I forget which; but +the whole conception, like too many of his religious subjects, borders +on the vulgar and familiar. + +14. Guido, as it is well known, excelled in this fine subject,--I +mean, according to the taste and manner of his time and school. His +ascending Madonnas have a sort of aërial elegance, which is very +attractive; but they are too nymph-like. We must be careful to +distinguish in his pictures (and all similar pictures painted after +1615) between the Assumption and the Immaculate Conception; it is a +difference in sentiment which I have already pointed out. The small +finished sketch by Guido in our National Gallery is an Assumption and +Coronation together: the Madonna is received into heaven as _Regina +Angelorum_. The fine large Assumption in the Munich Gallery may be +regarded as the best example of Guido's manner of treating this theme. +His picture in the Bridgewater Gallery, often styled an Assumption, is +an Immaculate Conception. + +The same observations would apply to Poussin, with, however, more of +majesty. His Virgins are usually seated or reclining, and in general +we have a fine landscape beneath. + + * * * * * + +The Assumption, like the Annunciation, the Nativity, and other +historical themes, may, through ideal accessories, assume a purely +devotional form. It ceases then to be a fact or an event, and becomes +a vision or a mystery, adored by votaries, to which attendant saints +bear witness. Of this style of treatment there are many beautiful +examples. + +1. Early Florentine, about 1450. (Coll. of Fuller Maitland, Esq.) +The Virgin, seated, elegantly draped in white, and with pale-blue +ornaments in her hair, rises within a glory sustained by six angels; +below is the tomb full of flowers and in front, kneeling, St. Francis +and St. Jerome. + +2. Ambrogio Borgognone--1506. (Milan, Brera.) She stands, floating +upwards In a fine attitude: two angels crown her; others sustain her; +others sound their trumpets. Below are the apostles and empty tomb; at +each side, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine; behind them, St. Cosimo and +St. Damian; the introduction of these saintly apothecaries stamps the +picture as an ex-voto--perhaps against the plague. It is very fine, +expressive, and curious. + +3. F. Granacci. 1530.[1] The Virgin, ascending in glory, presents +her girdle to St. Thomas, who kneels: on each, side, standing as +witnesses. St. John the Baptist, as patron of Florence, St. Laurence, +as patron of Lorenzo de' Medici, and the two apostles, St. Bartholomew +and St. James. + +[Footnote 1: In the Casa Ruccellai (?) Engraved in the _Etruria +Pittrice_.] + +4. Andrea del Sarto, 1520. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) She is seated +amid vapoury clouds, arrayed in white: on each side adoring angels: +below, the tomb with the apostles, a fine solemn group: and hi front, +St. Nicholas, and that interesting penitent saint, St. Margaret of +Cortona. (Legends of the Monastic Orders.) The head of the Virgin +is the likeness of Andrea's infamous wife; otherwise this is a +magnificent picture. + + * * * * * + +The Coronation of the Virgin follows the Assumption. In some +instances, this final consummation of her glorious destiny supersedes, +or rather includes, her ascension into heaven. As I have already +observed, it is necessary to distinguish this scenic Coronation from +the mystical INCORONATA, properly so called, which is the triumph of +the allegorical church, and altogether an allegorical and devotional +theme; whereas, the scenic Coronation is the last event in a series of +the Life of the Virgin. Here we have before us, not merely the court +of heaven, its argent fields peopled with celestial spirits, and the +sublime personification of the glorified Church exhibited as a vision, +and quite apart from all real, all human associations; but we have +rather the triumph of the human mother;--the lowly woman lifted +into immortality. The earth and its sepulchre, the bearded apostles +beneath, show us that, like her Son, she has ascended into glory by +the dim portal of the grave, and entered into felicity by the path of +pain. Her Son, next to whom she has taken her seat, has himself wiped +the tears from her eyes, and set the resplendent crown upon her head; +the Father blesses her; the Holy Spirit bears witness; cherubim and +seraphim welcome her, and salute her as their queen. So Dante,-- + + "At their joy + And carol smiles the Lovely One of heaven, + That joy is in the eyes of all the blest." + +Thus, then, we must distinguish:-- + +1. The Coronation of the Virgin is a strictly devotional subject where +she is attended, not merely by angels and patriarchs, but by canonized +saints and martyrs, by fathers and doctors of the Church, heads of +religious orders in monkish dresses, patrons and votaries. + +2. It is a dramatic and historical subject when it is the last scene +in a series of the Life of the Virgin; when the death-bed, or the +tomb, or the wondering apostles, and weeping women, are figured on +the earth below. + +Of the former treatment, I have spoken at length. It is that most +commonly met with in early pictures and altar-pieces. + +With regard to the historical treatment, it is more rare as a separate +subject, but there are some celebrated examples both in church +decoration and in pictures. + +1. In the apsis of the Duomo at Spoleto, we have, below, the death +of the Virgin in the usual manner, that is, the Byzantine conception +treated in the Italian style, with Christ receiving her soul, and over +it the Coronation. The Virgin kneels in a white robe, spangled with +golden flowers; and Christ, who is here represented rather as the +Father than the Son, crowns her as queen of heaven. + +2. The composition by Albert Durer, which concludes his fine series +of wood-cuts, the "Life, of the Virgin" is very grand and singular. On +the earth is the empty tomb; near it the bier; around stand the twelve +apostles, all looking up amazed. There is no allusion to the girdle, +which, indeed, is seldom found in northern art. Above, the Virgin +floating in the air, with the rainbow under her feet, is crowned by +the Father and the Son, while over her head hovers the holy Dove. + +3. In the Vatican is the Coronation attributed to Raphael. That he +designed the cartoon, and began the altar-piece, for the nuns of +Monte-Luce near Perugia, seems beyond all doubt; but it is equally +certain that the picture as we see it was painted almost entirely by +his pupils Giulo Romano and Gian Francesco Penni. Here we have the +tomb below, filled with flowers; and around it the twelve apostles; +John and his brother James, in front, looking up; behind John, St. +Peter; more in the background, St. Thomas holds the girdle. Above is +the throne set in heaven, whereon the Virgin, mild and beautiful, sits +beside her divine Son, and with joined hands, and veiled head, and +eyes meekly cast down, bends to receive the golden coronet he is about +to place on her brow. The Dove is omitted, but eight seraphim, with +rainbow-tinted wings, hover above her head. On the right, a most +graceful angel strikes the tambourine; on the left, another, equally +graceful, sounds the viol; and, amidst a flood of light, hosts of +celestial and rejoicing spirits fill up the background. + +Thus, in highest heaven, yet not out of sight of earth, in beatitude +past utterance, in blessed fruition of all that faith creates and love +desires, amid angel hymns and starry glories, ends the pictured life +of Mary, MOTHER OF OUR LORD. + +THE END. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Legends of the Madonna, by Mrs. Jameson + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12047 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ed47857 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #12047 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12047) diff --git a/old/12047-8.txt b/old/12047-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..39e6799 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12047-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13720 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Legends of the Madonna, by Mrs. Jameson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Legends of the Madonna + +Author: Mrs. Jameson + +Release Date: April 15, 2004 [EBook #12047] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, William Flis, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +LEGENDS + +OF + +THE MADONNA, + +AS + +REPRESENTED IN THE FINE ARTS. + +BY MRS. JAMESON. + +CORRECTED AND ENLARGED EDITION. + +BOSTON: +HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY. +The Riverside Press, Cambridge. +1881. + + + + +NOTE BY THE PUBLISHERS. + +Some months since Mrs. Jameson kindly consented to prepare for this +Edition of her writings the series of _Sacred and Legendary Art_, but +dying before she had time to fulfil her promise, the arrangement has +been intrusted to other hands. The text of the whole series will be an +exact reprint of the last English Edition. + +TICKNOR & FIELDS. + +BOSTON, Oct. 1st, 1860. + + + + +CONTENTS. + +PREFACE + +INTRODUCTION-- + Origin of the Worship of the Madonna. + Earliest artistic Representations. + Origin of the Group of the Virgin and Child in the Fifth Century. + The First Council at Ephesus. + The Iconoclasts. + First Appearance of the Effigy of the Virgin on Coins. + Period of Charlemagne. + Period of the Crusades. + Revival of Art in the Thirteenth Century. + The Fourteenth Century. + Influence of Dante. + The Fifteenth Century. + The Council of Constance and the Hussite Wars. + The Sixteenth Century. + The Luxury of Church Pictures. + The Influence of Classical Literature on the Representations of the + Virgin. + The Seventeenth Century. + Theological Art. + Spanish Art. + Influence of Jesuitism on Art. + Authorities followed by Painters in the earliest Times. + Legend of St. Luke. + Character of the Virgin Mary as drawn in the Gospels. + Early Descriptions of her Person; how far attended to by the Painters. + Poetical Extracts descriptive of the Virgin Mary. + +SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN. + Proper Costume and Colours. + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS AND HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + Altar-pieces. + The Life of the Virgin Mary as treated in a Series. + The Seven Joys and Seven Sorrows as a Series. + Titles of the Virgin, as expressed in Pictures and Effigies. + Churches dedicated to her. + Conclusion. + +SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + +PART I. + +THE VIRGIN WITHOUT THE CHILD. + +LA VERGINE GLORIOSA. Earliest Figures. The Mosaics. The Virgin of San + Venanzio. The Virgin of Spoleto. + +The Enthroned Virgin without the Child, as type of heavenly Wisdom. + Various Examples. + +L'INCORONATA, the Type of the Church triumphant. The Virgin crowned by + her Son. Examples from the old Mosaics. Examples of the Coronation of + the Virgin from various Painters. + +The VIRGIN OF MERCY, as she is represented in the Last Judgment. + +The Virgin, as Dispenser of Mercy on Earth. Various Examples. + +The MATER DOLOROSA seated and standing, with the Seven Swords. + +The _Stabat Mater_, the Ideal Pietà. The Votive Pieta by Guido. + +OUR LADY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION Origin of the Subject. History + of the Theological Dispute. The First Papal Decree touching the + Immaculate Conception. The Bull of Paul V. The Popularity of the + Subject in Spain. Pictures by Guido, by Roelas, Velasquez, Murillo. + +The Predestination of the Virgin. Curious Picture by Cotignola. + + +PART II. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED. _Virgo Deipara_. The Virgin in her + Maternal Character. Origin of the Group of the Mother and Child. + Nestorian Controversy. + +The Enthroned Virgin in the old Mosaics. In early Italian Art The + Virgin standing as _Regina Coeli_. + +_La Madre Pia_ enthroned. _Mater Sapientiæ_ with the Book. + +The Virgin and Child enthroned with attendant Figures; with Angels; + with Prophets; with Apostles. + +With Saints: John the Baptist; St. Anna; St. Joachim; St. Joseph. + +With Martyrs and Patron Saints. + +_Various Examples of Arrangement_. With the Fathers of the Church; + with St. Jerome and St. Catherine; with the Marriage of St. Catherine. + The Virgin and Child between St. Catherine and St. Barbara; with Mary + Magdalene; with St. Lucia. + +The Virgin and Child between St. George and St. Nicholas; with St. + Christopher; with St. Leonard. The Virgin of Charity. + +The Madonnas of Florence; of Siena; of Venice and Lombardy. How + attended. + +The Virgin attended by the Monastic Saints. Examples from various + Painters. + +Votive Madonnas. For Mercies accorded; for Victory; for Deliverance + from Pestilence; against Flood and Fire. + +Family Votive Madonnas, Examples. The Madonna of the Bentivoglio + Family. The Madonna of the Sforza Family. The Madonna of the Moyer + Family, The Madonna di Foligno. German Votive Madonna at Rouen. + Madonna of Réné, Duke of Anjou; of the Pesaro Family at Venice. + +Half-length Enthroned Madonnas; first introduced by the Venetians. + Various Examples. + +The MATER AMABILIS, Early Greek Examples. The infinite Variety given + to this Subject. + +Virgin and Child with St. John. He takes the Cross + +The MADRE PIA; the Virgin adores her Son. + +Pastoral Madonnas of the Venetian School. + +Conclusion of the Devotional Subjects. + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + +PART I. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN FROM HER BIRTH TO HER MARRIAGE WITH JOSEPH. + +THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + +Joachim rejected from the Temple. Joachim herding his Sheep on the + Mountain. The Altercation between Anna and her Maid Judith. The + Meeting at the Golden Gate. + +THE NATIVITY OF THE VIRGIN. The Importance and Beauty of the Subject. + How treated. + +THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN. A Subject of great Importance. General + Arrangement and Treatment. Various Examples from celebrated Painters. + +The Virgin in the Temple. + +THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN. The Legend as followed by the Painters. + +Various Examples of the Marriage of the Virgin, as treated by + Perugino, Raphael, and others. + + +PART II. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE RETURN FROM +EGYPT. + +THE ANNUNCIATION, Its Beauty as a Subject. Treated as a Mystery and + as an Event. As a Mystery; not earlier than the Eleventh Century. + Its proper Place in architectural Decoration. On Altar-pieces. As + an Allegory. The Annunciation as expressing the Incarnation. Ideally + treated with Saints and Votaries. Examples by Simone Memmi, Fra + Bartolomeo, Angelico, and others. + +The Annunciation as an Event. The appropriate Circumstances. The + Time, the Locality, the Accessories. The Descent of the Angel; proper + Costume; with the Lily, the Palm, the Olive. + +Proper Attitude and Occupation of Mary; Expression and Deportment. The + Dove. Mistakes. Examples from various Painters. + +THE VISITATION. Character of Elizabeth. The Locality and + Circumstances. Proper Accessories. Examples from various Painters. + +THE DREAM OF JOSEPH. He entreats Forgiveness of Mary. + +THE NATIVITY. The Prophecy of the Sibyl. _La Madonna del Parto_. The + Nativity as a Mystery; with poetical Accessories; with Saints and + Votaries. + +The Nativity as an Event. The Time; the Places; the proper Accessories + and Circumstances; the angelic Choristers; Signification of the Ox and + the Ass. + +THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. + +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI; they are supposed to have been Kings. + Prophecy of Balaam. The Appearance of the Star. The Legend of the + three Kings of Cologne. Proper Accessories. Examples from various + Painters. The Land Surveyors, by Giorgione. + +THE PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN. The Prophecy of Simeon. Greek Legend + of the _Nunc Dimittis_. Various Examples. + +THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. The Massacre of the Innocents. The Preparation + for the Journey. The Circumstances. The Legend of the Robbers; of the + Palm. + +THE REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY. The Subject often mistaken. Proper + Treatment of the Group. The Repose at Matarea. The Ministry of Angels. + +THE LEGEND OF THE GYPSY. + +THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + + +PART III. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN FROM THE SOJOURN IN EGYPT TO THE CRUCIFIXION OF +OUR LORD. + +THE HOLY FAMILY. Proper Treatment of the Domestic Group as + distinguished from the Devotional. The simplest Form that of the + Mother and Child. The Child fed from his Mother's Bosom. The Infant + sleeps. + +Holy Family of three Figures; with the little St. John; with St. + Joseph; with St. Anna. + +Holy Family of four Figures; with St. Elizabeth and others. + +The Holy Family of Five and Six Figures. + +The Family of the Virgin grouped together. + +Examples of Holy Family as treated by various Artists. + +The Carpenter's Shop. + +The Infant Christ learning to read. + +THE DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE. The Virgin seeks her Son. + +THE DEATH OF JOSEPH. + +THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. Proper Treatment of the Virgin in this Subject; + as treated by Luini and by Paul Veronese. + +The Virgin attends on the Ministry of Christ. Mystical Treatment by + Fra Angelico. + +LO SPASIMO. Christ takes leave of his Mother. Women who are introduced + into Scenes of the Passion of our Lord. + +The Procession to Calvary, _Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_. + +THE CRUCIFIXION. Proper Treatment of the Virgin in this Subject. The + impropriety of placing her upon the ground. Her Fortitude. Christ + recommends his Mother to St. John. + +THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS. Proper Place and Action of the Virgin in + this Subject. + +THE DEPOSITION. Proper Treatment of this Form of the _Mater Dolorosa_. + Persons introduced. Various Examples. + +THE ENTOMBMENT. Treated as an historical Scene. As one of the Sorrows + of the Rosary; attended by Saints. + +The _Mater Dolorosa_ attended by St. Peter. Attended by St. John and + Mary Magdalene. + + +PART IV. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE RESURRECTION OF THE LORD TO THE +ASSUMPTION. + +THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. Beauty and Sentiment of the + old Legend; how represented by the Artists. + +THE ASCENSION OF OUR LORD. The proper Place of the Virgin Mary. + +THE DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST; Mary being one of the principal + persons. + +THE APOSTLES TAKE LEAVE OF THE VIRGIN. + +THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN. The old Greek Legend. + +The Angel announces to Mary her approaching Death. + +The Death of the Virgin, an ancient and important Subject. As treated + in the Greek School; in early German Art; in Italian Art. Various + Examples. + +The Apostles carry the Body of the Virgin to the Tomb. + +The Entombment. + +THE ASSUMPTION. Distinction between the Assumption of the Body and the + Assumption of the Soul of the Virgin. The Assumption as a Mystery; as + an Event. + +LA MADONNA BELLA CINTOLA. The Legend of the Girdle; as painted in the + Cathedral at Prato. + +Examples of the Assumption as represented by various Artists. + +THE CORONATION as distinguished from the _Incoronata_; how treated as + an historical Subject. Conclusion. + + + + +NOTE. + +The decease of Mrs. Jameson, the accomplished woman and popular +writer, at an advanced period of life, took place in March, 1860, +after a brief illness. But the frame had long been worn out by past +years of anxiety, and the fatigues of laborious literary occupation +conscientiously undertaken and carried out. Having entered certain +fields of research and enterprise, perhaps at first accidentally, Mrs. +Jameson could not satisfy herself by anything less than the utmost +that minute collection and progressive study could do to sustain her +popularity. Distant and exhausting journeys, diligent examination of +far-scattered examples of Art, voluminous and various reading, became +seemingly more and more necessary to her; and at the very time of life +when rest and slackened effort would have been natural,--not merely +because her labours were in aid of others, but to satisfy her own high +sense of what is demanded by Art and Literature,--did her hand and +brain work more and more perseveringly and thoughtfully, till at last +she sank under her weariness; and passed away. + +The father of Miss Murphy was a miniature-painter of repute, attached, +we believe, to the household of the Princess Charlotte. His daughter +Anna was naturally taught by him the principles of his own art; +but she had instincts for all,--taste for music,--a feeling for +poetry,--and a delicate appreciation of the drama. These gifts--in +her youth rarer in combination than they are now (when the connection +of the arts is becoming understood, and the love of all increasingly +diffused)--were, during part of Mrs. Jameson's life, turned to the +service of education.--It was not till after her marriage, that a +foreign tour led her into authorship, by the publication of "The Diary +of an Ennuyée," somewhere about the year 1826.--It was impossible to +avoid detecting in that record the presence of taste, thought, and +feeling, brought in an original fashion to bear on Art, Society, +Morals.--The reception of the book was decisive.--It was followed, at +intervals, by "The Loves of the Poets," "Memoirs of Italian Painters," +"The Lives of Female Sovereigns," "Characteristics of Women" (a series +of Shakspeare studies; possibly its writer's most popular book). After +this, the Germanism so prevalent five-and-twenty years ago, and now +somewhat gone by, possessed itself of the authoress, and she published +her reminiscences of Munich, the imitative art of which was new, and +esteemed as almost a revelation. To the list of Mrs. Jameson's books +may be added her translation of the easy, if not vigorous Dramas +by the Princess Amelia of Saxony, and her "Winter Studies and +Summer Rambles"--recollections of a visit to Canada. This included +the account of her strange and solitary canoe voyage, and her +residence among a tribe of Indians. From this time forward, social +questions--especially those concerning the position of women in life +and action--engrossed a large share of Mrs. Jameson's attention; and +she wrote on them occasionally, always in a large and enlightened +spirit, rarely without touches of delicacy and sentiment.--Even when +we are unable to accept all Mrs. Jameson's conclusions, or to join her +in the hero or heroine worship of this or the other favourite example, +we have seldom a complaint to make of the manner of the authoress. It +was always earnest, eloquent, and poetical. + +Besides a volume or two of collected essays, thoughts, notes on books, +and on subjects of Art, we have left to mention the elaborate volumes +on "Sacred and Legendary Art," as the greatest literary labour of a +busy life. Mrs. Jameson was putting the last finish to the concluding +portion of her work, when she was bidden to cease forever. + +There is little more to be told,--save that, in the course of her +indefatigable literary career, Mrs. Jameson drew round herself a large +circle of steady friends--these among the highest illustrators of +Literature and Art in France, Germany, and Italy; and that, latterly, +a pension from Government was added to her slender earnings. These, it +may be said without indelicacy, were liberally apportioned to the aid +of others,--Mrs. Jameson being, for herself, simple, self-relying, +and self-denying;--holding that high view of the duties belonging +to pursuits of imagination which rendered meanness, or servility, or +dishonourable dealing, or license glossed over with some convenient +name, impossible to her.--She was a faithful friend, a devoted +relative, a gracefully-cultivated, and honest literary worker, whose +mind was set on "the best and honourablest things." + + * * * * * + +Some months since Mrs. Jameson kindly consented to prepare for this +edition of her writings the "Legends of the Madonna," "Sacred and +Legendary Art," and "Legends of the Monastic Orders;" but, dying +before she had time to fulfil her promise, the arrangement has been +intrusted to other hands. The text of this whole series will be an +exact reprint of the last English Edition. + + * * * * * + +The portrait annexed to this volume is from a photograph taken in +London only a short time before Mrs. Jameson's death. + +BOSTON, September, 1860. + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + +TO THE FIRST EDITION. + +In presenting to my friends and to the public this Series of the +Sacred and Legendary Art, few preparatory words will be required. + +If in the former volumes I felt diffident of my own powers to do any +justice to my subject, I have yet been encouraged by the sympathy and +approbation of those who nave kindly accepted of what has been done, +and yet more kindly excused deficiencies, errors, and oversights, +which the wide range of subjects rendered almost unavoidable. + +With far more of doubt and diffidence, yet not less trust in the +benevolence and candour of my critics, do I present this volume to the +public. I hope it will be distinctly understood, that the general plan +of the work is merely artistic; that it really aims at nothing more +than to render the various subjects intelligible. For this reason +it has been thought advisable to set aside, in a great measure, +individual preferences, and all predilections for particular schools +and particular periods of Art,--to take, in short, the widest possible +range as regards examples,--and then to leave the reader, when thus +guided to the meaning of what he sees, to select, compare, admire, +according to his own discrimination, taste, and requirements. The +great difficulty has been to keep within reasonable limits. Though +the subject has a unity not found in the other volumes, it is +really boundless as regards variety and complexity. I may have been +superficial from mere superabundance of materials; sometimes mistaken +as to facts and dates; the tastes, the feelings, and the faith of my +readers may not always go along with me; but if attention and interest +have been exited--if the sphere of enjoyment in works of Art have been +enlarged and enlightened, I have done all I ever wished--all I ever +hoped, to do. + +With regard to a point of infinitely greater importance, I may +be allowed to plead,--that it has been impossible to treat of the +representations of the Blessed Virgin without touching on doctrines +such as constitute the principal differences between the creeds of +Christendom. I have had to ascend most perilous heights, to dive +into terribly obscure depths. Not for worlds would I be guilty of a +scoffing allusion to any belief or any object held sacred by sincere +and earnest hearts; but neither has it been possible for me to write +in a tone of acquiescence, where I altogether differ in feeling +and opinion. On this point I shall need, and feel sure that I shall +obtain, the generous construction of readers of all persuasions. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE EFFIGIES OF THE MADONNA. + +Through all the most beautiful and precious productions of human +genius and human skill which the middle ages and the _renaissance_ +have bequeathed to us, we trace, more or less developed, more or less +apparent, present in shape before us, or suggested through inevitable +associations, one prevailing idea: it is that of an impersonation in +the feminine character of beneficence, purity, and power, standing +between an offended Deity and poor, sinning, suffering humanity, and +clothed in the visible form of Mary, the Mother of our Lord. + +To the Roman Catholics this idea remains an indisputable religious +truth of the highest import. Those of a different creed may think fit +to dispose of the whole subject of the Madonna either as a form of +superstition or a form of Art. But merely as a form of Art, we cannot +in these days confine ourselves to empty conventional criticism. We +are obliged to look further and deeper; and in this department of +Legendary Art, as in the others, we must take the higher ground, +perilous though it be. We must seek to comprehend the dominant idea +lying behind and beyond the mere representation. For, after all, +some consideration is due to facts which we must necessarily accept, +whether we deal with antiquarian theology or artistic criticism; +namely, that the worship of the Madonna did prevail through all the +Christian and civilized world for nearly a thousand years; that, in +spite of errors, exaggerations, abuses, this worship did comprehend +certain great elemental truths interwoven with our human nature, and +to be evolved perhaps with our future destinies. Therefore did it work +itself into the life and soul of man; therefore has it been worked +_out_ in the manifestations of his genius; and therefore the multiform +imagery in which it has been clothed, from the rudest imitations of +life, to the most exquisite creations of mind, may be resolved, as a +whole, into one subject, and become one great monument in the history +of progressive thought and faith, as well as in the history of +progressive art. + +Of the pictures in our galleries, public or private,--of the +architectural adornments of those majestic edifices which sprung up +in the middle ages (where they have not been despoiled or desecrated +by a zeal as fervent as that which reared them), the largest and most +beautiful portion have reference to the Madonna,--her character, +her person, her history. It was a theme which never tired her +votaries,--whether, as in the hands of great and sincere artists, +it became one of the noblest and loveliest, or, as in the hands +of superficial, unbelieving, time-serving artists, one of the most +degraded. All that human genius, inspired by faith, could achieve of +best, all that fanaticism, sensualism, atheism, could perpetrate of +worst, do we find in the cycle of those representations which have +been dedicated to the glory of the Virgin. And indeed the ethics of +the Madonna worship, as evolved in art, might be not unaptly likened +to the ethics of human love: so long as the object of sense remained +in subjection to the moral idea--so long as the appeal was to the +best of our faculties and affections--so long was the image grand or +refined, and the influences to be ranked with those which have helped +to humanize and civilize our race; but so soon as the object became +a mere idol, then worship and worshippers, art and artists, were +together degraded. + +It is not my intention to enter here on that disputed point, the +origin of the worship of the Madonna. Our present theme lies within +prescribed limits,--wide enough, however, to embrace an immense +field of thought: it seeks to trace the progressive influence of +that worship on the fine arts for a thousand years or more, and to +interpret the forms in which it has been clothed. That the veneration +paid to Mary in the early Church was a very natural feeling in those +who advocated the divinity of her Son, would be granted, I suppose, +by all but the most bigoted reformers; that it led to unwise and +wild extremes, confounding the creature with the Creator, would be +admitted, I suppose, by all but the most bigoted Roman Catholics. How +it extended from the East over the nations of the West, how it grew +and spread, may be read in ecclesiastical histories. Everywhere it +seems to have found in the human heart some deep sympathy--deeper far +than mere theological doctrine could reach--ready to accept it; and in +every land the ground prepared for it in some already dominant idea +of a mother-Goddess, chaste, beautiful, and benign. As, in the oldest +Hebrew rites and Pagan superstitions, men traced the promise of a +coming Messiah,--as the deliverers and kings of the Old Testament, and +even the demigods of heathendom, became accepted types of the person +of Christ,--so the Eve of the Mosaic history, the Astarte of the +Assyrians-- + + "The mooned Ashtaroth, queen and mother both,"-- + +the Isis nursing Horus of the Egyptians, the Demeter and the +Aphrodite of the Greeks, the Scythian Freya, have been considered +by some writers as types of a divine maternity, foreshadowing the +Virgin-mother of Christ. Others will have it that these scattered, +dim, mistaken--often gross and perverted--ideas which were afterwards +gathered into the pure, dignified, tender image of the Madonna, +were but as the voice of a mighty prophecy, sounded through all the +generations of men, even from the beginning of time, of the coming +moral regeneration, and complete and harmonious development of the +whole human race, by the establishment, on a higher basis, of what +has been called the "feminine element" in society. And let me at least +speak for myself. In the perpetual iteration of that beautiful image +of THE WOMAN highly blessed--_there_, where others saw only pictures +or statues, I have seen this great hope standing like a spirit beside +the visible form; in the fervent worship once universally given to +that gracious presence, I have beheld an acknowledgment of a higher as +well as gentler power than that of the strong hand and the might that +makes the right,--and in every earnest votary one who, as he knelt, +was in this sense pious beyond the reach of his own thought, and +"devout beyond the meaning of his will." + +It is curious to observe, as the worship of the Virgin-mother expanded +and gathered to itself the relics of many an ancient faith, how +the new and the old elements, some of them apparently the most +heterogeneous, became amalgamated, and were combined into the early +forms of art;--how the Madonna, when she assumed the characteristics +of the great Diana of Ephesus, at once the type of Fertility, and the +Goddess of Chastity, became, as the impersonation of motherhood, all +beauty, bounty and graciousness; and at the same time, by virtue of +her perpetual virginity, the patroness of single and ascetic life--the +example and the excuse for many of the wildest of the early monkish +theories. With Christianity, new ideas of the moral and religious +responsibility of woman entered the world; and while these ideas were +yet struggling with the Hebrew and classical prejudices concerning the +whole sex, they seem to have produced some curious perplexity in the +minds of the greatest doctors of the faith. Christ, as they assure +us, was born of a woman only, and had no earthly father, that neither +sex might despair; "for had he been born a man (which was necessary), +yet not born of woman, the women might have despaired of themselves, +recollecting the first offence, the first man having been deceived by +a woman. Therefore we are to suppose that, for the exaltation of the +male sex, Christ appeared on earth as a man; and, for the consolation +of womankind, he was born of a woman only; as if it had been said, +'From henceforth no creature shall be base before God, unless +perverted by depravity.'" (Augustine, Opera Supt. 238, Serm. 63.) +Such is the reasoning of St. Augustine, who, I must observe, had an +especial veneration for his mother Monica; and it is perhaps for her +sake that he seems here desirous to prove that through the Virgin Mary +all womankind were henceforth elevated in the scale of being. And +this was the idea entertained of her subsequently: "Ennobler of thy +nature!" says Dante apostrophizing her, as if her perfections had +ennobled not merely her own sex, but the whole human race.[1] + +[Footnote 1: "Tu se' colei che l'umana natura Nobilitasti."] + +But also with Christianity came the want of a new type of womanly +perfection, combining all the attributes of the ancient female +divinities with others altogether new. Christ, as the model-man, +united the virtues of the two sexes, till the idea that there are +essentially masculine and feminine virtues intruded itself on the +higher Christian conception, and seems to have necessitated the +female type. + +The first historical mention of a direct worship paid to the Virgin +Mary, occurs in a passage in the works of St. Epiphanius, who died +in 403. In enumerating the heresies (eighty-four in number) which had +sprung up in the early Church, he mentions a sect of women, who had +emigrated from Thrace into Arabia, with whom it was customary to +offer cakes of meal and honey to the Virgin Mary, as if she had been a +divinity, transferring to her, in fact, the worship paid to Ceres. The +very first instance which occurs in written history of an invocation +to Mary, is in the life of St. Justina, as related by Gregory +Nazianzen. Justina calls on the Virgin-mother to protect her against +the seducer and sorcerer, Cyprian; and does not call in vain. (Sacred +and Legendary Art.) These passages, however, do not prove that +previously to the fourth century there had been no worship or +invocation of the Virgin, but rather the contrary. However this may +be, it is to the same period--the fourth century--we refer the most +ancient representations of the Virgin in art. The earliest figures +extant are those on the Christian sarcophagi; but neither in the early +sculpture nor in the mosaics of St. Maria Maggiore do we find any +figure of the Virgin standing alone; she forms part of a group of +the Nativity or the Adoration of the Magi. There is no attempt at +individuality or portraiture. St. Augustine says expressly, that there +existed in his time no _authentic_ portrait of the Virgin; but it +is inferred from his account that, authentic or not, such pictures +did then exist, since there were already disputes concerning their +authenticity. There were at this period received symbols of the person +and character of Christ, as the lamb, the vine, the fish, &c., but +not, as far as I can learn, any such accepted symbols of the Virgin +Mary. Further, it is the opinion of the learned in ecclesiastical +antiquities that, previous to the first Council of Ephesus, it was the +custom to represent the figure of the Virgin alone without the Child; +but that none of these original effigies remain to us, only supposed +copies of a later date.[1] And this is all I have been able to +discover relative to her in connection with the sacred imagery of the +first four centuries of our era. + +[Footnote 1: Vide "_Memorie dell' Immagine di M.V. dell' Imprunela_." +Florence, 1714.] + + * * * * * + +The condemnation of Nestorius by the Council of Ephesus, in the year +431, forms a most important epoch in the history of religious art. +I have given further on a sketch of this celebrated schism, and its +immediate and progressive results. It may be thus summed up here. The +Nestorians maintained, that in Christ the two natures of God and man +remained separate, and that Mary, his human mother, was parent of +the man, but not of the God; consequently the title which, during +the previous century, had been popularly applied to her, "Theotokos" +(Mother of God), was improper and profane. The party opposed to +Nestorius, the Monophysite, maintained that in Christ the divine and +human were blended in one incarnate nature, and that consequently Mary +was indeed the Mother of God. By the decree of the first Council +of Ephesus, Nestorius and his party were condemned as heretics; and +henceforth the representation of that beautiful group, since popularly +known as the "Madonna and Child," became the expression of the +orthodox faith. Every one who wished to prove his hatred of the +arch-heretic exhibited the image of the maternal Virgin holding in +her arms the Infant Godhead, either in his house as a picture, or +embroidered on his garments, or on his furniture, on his personal +ornaments--in short, wherever it could be introduced. It is worth +remarking, that Cyril, who was so influential in fixing the orthodox +group, had passed the greater part of his life in Egypt, and must nave +been familiar with the Egyptian type of Isis nursing Horus. Nor, as I +conceive, is there any irreverence in supposing that a time-honoured +intelligible symbol should be chosen to embody and formalize a creed. +For it must be remembered that the group of the Mother and Child was +not at first a representation, but merely a theological symbol set up +in the orthodox churches, and adopted by the orthodox Christians. + +It is just after the Council of Ephesus that history first makes +mention of a supposed authentic portrait of the Virgin Mary. The +Empress Eudocia, when travelling in the Holy Land, sent home such +a picture of the Virgin holding the Child to her sister-in-law +Pulcheria, who placed it in a church at Constantinople. It was at that +time regarded, as of very high antiquity, and supposed to have been +painted from the life. It is certain that a picture, traditionally +said to be the same which Eudocia had sent to Pulcheria, did exist +at Constantinople, and was so much venerated by the people as to be +regarded as a sort of palladium, and borne in a superb litter or car +in the midst of the imperial host, when the emperor led the army in +person. The fate of this relic is not certainly known. It is said to +have been taken by the Turks in 1453, and dragged through the mire; +but others deny this as utterly derogatory to the majesty of the Queen +of Heaven, who never would have suffered such an indignity to have +been put on her sacred image. According to the Venetian legend, it was +this identical effigy which was taken by the blind old Dandolo, when +he besieged and took Constantinople in 1204, and brought in triumph +to Venice, where it has ever since been preserved in the church of St. +Mark, and held in _somma venerazione_. No mention is made of St. Luke +in the earliest account of this picture, though like all the antique +effigies of uncertain origin, it was in after times attributed to him. + +The history of the next three hundred years testifies to the triumph +of orthodoxy, the extension and popularity of the worship of the +Virgin, and the consequent multiplication of her image in every form +and material, through the whole of Christendom. + +Then followed the schism of the Iconoclasts, which distracted +the Church for more than one hundred years, under Leo III., the +Isaurian, and his immediate successors. Such were the extravagances +of superstition to which the image-worship had led the excitable +Orientals, that, if Leo had been a wise and temperate reformer, he +might have done much good in checking its excesses; but he was himself +an ignorant, merciless barbarian. The persecution by which he sought +to exterminate the sacred pictures of the Madonna, and the cruelties +exercised on her unhappy votaries, produced a general destruction +of the most curious and precious remains of antique art. In other +respects, the immediate result was naturally enough a reaction, which +not only reinstated pictures in the veneration of the people, but +greatly increased their influence over the imagination; for it is at +this time that we first hear of a miraculous picture. Among those +who most strongly defended the use of sacred images in the churches, +was St. John Damascene, one of the great lights of the Oriental +Church. According to the Greek legend, he was condemned to lose his +right hand, which was accordingly cut off; but he, full of faith, +prostrating himself before a picture of the Virgin, stretched out the +bleeding stump, and with it touched her lips, and immediately a new +hand sprung forth "like a branch from a tree." Hence, among the Greek +effigies of the Virgin, there is one peculiarly commemorative of this +miracle, styled "the Virgin with three hands." (Didron, Manuel, p. +462.) In the west of Europe, where the abuses of the image-worship had +never yet reached the wild superstition of the Oriental Christians, +the fury of the Iconoclasts excited horror and consternation. The +temperate and eloquent apology for sacred pictures, addressed by +Gregory II. to the Emperor Leo, had the effect of mitigating the +persecution in Italy, where the work of destruction could not be +carried out to the same extent as in the Byzantine provinces. Hence it +is in Italy only that any important remains of sacred art anterior to +the Iconoclast dynasty have been preserved.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It appears, from one of these letters from Gregory II, +that it was the custom at that time (725) to employ religious pictures +as a means of instruction in the schools. He says, that if Lee were +to enter a school in Italy, and to say that he prohibited pictures, +the children would infallibly throw their hornbooks (_Ta volexxe del +alfabeto_) at his head.--v. _Bosio_, p. 567.] + +The second Council of Nice, under the Empress Irene in 787, condemned +the Iconoclasts, and restored the use of the sacred pictures in the +churches. Nevertheless, the controversy still raged till after the +death of Theophilus, the last and the most cruel of the Iconoclasts, +in 842. His widow Theodora achieved the final triumph of the orthodox +party, and restored the Virgin to her throne. We must observe, +however, that only pictures were allowed; all sculptured imagery +was still prohibited, and has never since been allowed in the Greek +Church, except in very low relief. The flatter the surface, the more +orthodox. + +It is, I think, about 886, that we first find the effigy of the Virgin +on the coins of the Greek empire. On a gold coin of Leo VI., the +Philosopher, she stands veiled, and draped, with a noble head, no +glory, and the arms outspread, just as she appears in the old mosaics. +On a coin of Romanus the Younger, she crowns the emperor, having +herself the nimbus; she is draped and veiled. On a coin of Nicephorus +Phocus (who had great pretensions to piety), the Virgin stands, +presenting a cross to the emperor, with the inscription, "Theotokos, +be propitious." On a gold coin of John Zimisces, 975, we first find +the Virgin and Child,--the symbol merely: she holds against her bosom +a circular glory, within which is the head of the Infant Christ. In +the successive reigns of the next two centuries, she almost constantly +appears as crowning the emperor. + +Returning to the West, we find that in the succeeding period, from +Charlemagne to the first crusade, the popular devotion to the Virgin, +and the multiplication of sacred pictures, continued steadily to +increase; yet in the tenth and eleventh centuries art was at its +lowest ebb. At this time, the subjects relative to the Virgin were +principally the Madonna and Child, represented according to the Greek +form; and those scenes from the Gospel in which she is introduced, as +the Annunciation, the Nativity, and the Worship of the Magi. + +Towards the end of the tenth century the custom of adding the angelic +salutation, the "_Ave Maria_," to the Lord's prayer, was first +introduced; and by the end of the following century, it had been +adopted in the offices of the Church. This was, at first, intended as +a perpetual reminder of the mystery of the Incarnation, as announced +by the angel. It must have had the effect of keeping the idea of +Mary as united with that of her Son, and as the instrument of the +Incarnation, continually in the minds of the people. + +The pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and the crusades in the eleventh and +the twelfth centuries, had a most striking effect on religious art, +though this effect was not fully evolved till a century later. More +particularly did this returning wave of Oriental influences modify the +representations of the Virgin. Fragments of the apocryphal gospels +and legends of Palestine and Egypt were now introduced, worked up +into ballads, stories, and dramas, and gradually incorporated with the +teaching of the Church. A great variety of subjects derived from the +Greek artists, and from particular localities and traditions of the +East, became naturalized in Western Europe, Among these were the +legends of Joachim and Anna; and the death, the assumption, and the +coronation of the Virgin. + +Then came the thirteenth century, an era notable in the history +of mind, more especially notable in the history of art. The seed +scattered hither and thither, during the stormy and warlike period of +the crusades, now sprung up and flourished, bearing diverse fruit. +A more contemplative enthusiasm, a superstition tinged with a morbid +melancholy, fermented into life and form. In that general "fit of +_compunction_," which we are told seized all Italy at this time, the +passionate devotion for the benign Madonna mingled the poetry of +pity with that of pain; and assuredly this state of feeling, with its +mental and moral requirements, must have assisted in emancipating art +from the rigid formalism of the degenerate Greek school. Men's hearts, +throbbing with a more feeling, more pensive life, demanded something +more _like_ life,--and produced it. It is curious to trace in the +Madonnas of contemporary, but far distant and unconnected schools of +painting, the simultaneous dawning of a sympathetic sentiment--for the +first time something in the faces of the divine beings responsive to +the feeling of the worshippers. It was this, perhaps, which caused +the enthusiasm excited by Cimabue's great Madonna, and made the people +shout and dance for joy when it was uncovered before them. Compared +with the spectral rigidity, the hard monotony, of the conventional +Byzantines, the more animated eyes, the little touch of sweetness in +the still, mild face, must have been like a smile out of heaven. As +we trace the same softer influence in the earliest Siena and Cologne +pictures of about the same period, we may fairly regard it as an +impress of the spirit of the time, rather than that of an individual +mind. + +In the succeeding century these elements of poetic art, expanded and +animated by an awakened observation of nature, and a sympathy with +her external manifestations, were most especially directed by the +increasing influence of the worship of the Virgin, a worship at once +religious and chivalrous. The title of "Our Lady"[1] came first into +general use in the days of chivalry, for she was the lady "of all +hearts," whose colours all were proud to wear. Never had her votaries +so abounded. Hundreds upon hundreds had enrolled themselves in +brotherhoods, vowed to her especial service;[2] or devoted to acts of +charity, to be performed in her name.[3] Already the great religious +communities, which at this time comprehended all the enthusiasm, +learning, and influence of the Church, had placed themselves solemnly +and especially under her protection. The Cistercians wore white in +honour of her purity; the Servi wore black in respect to her sorrows; +the Franciscans had enrolled themselves as champions of the Immaculate +Conception; and the Dominicans introduced the rosary. All these richly +endowed communities vied with each other in multiplying churches, +chapels, and pictures, in honour of their patroness, and expressive of +her several attributes. The devout painter, kneeling before his easel, +addressed himself to the task of portraying those heavenly lineaments +which had visited him perhaps in dreams. Many of the professed monks +and friars became themselves accomplished artists.[4] + +[Footnote 1: _Fr._ Notre Dame. _Ital._ La Madonna. _Ger._ Unser liebe +Frau.] + +[Footnote 2: As the Serviti, who were called in France, _les esclaves +de Marie_.] + +[Footnote 3: As the order of "Our Lady of Mercy," for the deliverance +of captives.--_Vide_ Legends of the Monastic Orders.] + +[Footnote 4: A very curious and startling example of the theological +character of the Virgin in the thirteenth century is figured in Miss +Twining's work, "_The Symbols of early Christian Art_;" certainly the +most complete and useful book of the kind which I know of. Here the +Madonna and Child are seated side by side with the Trinity; the Holy +Spirit resting on her crowned head.] + +At this time, Jacopo di Voragine compiled the "Golden Legend," a +collection of sacred stories, some already current, some new, or +in a new form. This famous book added many themes to those already +admitted, and became the authority and storehouse for the early +painters in their groups and dramatic compositions. The increasing +enthusiasm for the Virgin naturally caused an increasing demand for +the subjects taken from her personal history, and led, consequently, +to a more exact study of those natural objects and effects which were +required as accessories, to greater skill in grouping the figures, and +to a higher development of historic art. + +But of all the influences on Italian art in that wonderful fourteenth +century, Dante was the greatest. He was the intimate friend of Giotto. +Through the communion of mind, not less than through his writings, +he infused into religious art that mingled theology, poetry, and +mysticism, which ruled in the Giottesque school during the following +century, and went hand in hand with the development of the power and +practice of imitation. Now, the theology of Dante was the theology of +his age. His ideas respecting the Virgin Mary were precisely those +to which the writings of St. Bernard, St. Bonaventura, and St. Thomas +Aquinas had already lent all the persuasive power of eloquence, and +the Church all the weight of her authority. Dante rendered these +doctrines into poetry, and Giotto and his followers rendered them +into form. In the Paradise of Dante, the glorification of Mary, +as the "Mystic Rose" (_Roxa Mystica_) and Queen of Heaven,--with +the attendant angels, circle within circle, floating round her in +adoration, and singing the Regina Coeli, and saints and patriarchs +stretching forth their hands towards her,--is all a splendid, but +still indefinite vision of dazzling light crossed by shadowy forms. +The painters of the fourteenth century, in translating these glories +into a definite shape, had to deal with imperfect knowledge and +imperfect means; they failed in the power to realize either their own +or the poet's conception; and yet--thanks to the divine poet!--that +early conception of some of the most beautiful of the Madonna +subjects--for instance, the _Coronation_ and the _Sposalizio_--has +never, as a religious and poetical conception, been surpassed by later +artists, in spite of all the appliances of colour, and mastery of +light and shade, and marvellous efficiency of hand since attained. + +Every reader of Dante will remember the sublime hymn towards the close +of the Paradiso:-- + + "Vergine Madre, figlia del tuo figlio! + Umile ed alta più che creatura, + Terrains fisso d'eterno consiglio; + + Tu se' colei che l'umana natura + Nobilitasti si, che 'l suo fattore + Non disdegno di farsi sua fattura; + + Nel ventre tuo si raccese l'amore + Per lo cui caldo nell' eterna pace + Cosi è germinato questo fiore; + + Qui se' a noi meridiana face + Di caritade, e giuso intra mortali + Se' di speranza fontana vivace: + + Donna, se' tanto grande e tanto vali, + Che qual vuol grazia e a te non ricorre + Sua disianza vuol volar senz' ali; + + La tua benignita noa pur soccorre + A chi dimanda, ma molte fiate + Liberamente al dimandar precorre; + + In te misericordia, in te pietate, + In te magnificenza, in te s' aduna + Quantunque in creatura è di bontate!" + +To render the splendour, the terseness, the harmony, of this +magnificent hymn seems impossible. Cary's translation has, however, +the merit of fidelity to the sense:-- + + "Oh, Virgin-Mother, daughter of thy Son! + Created beings all in lowliness + Surpassing, as in height above them all; + Term by the eternal counsel preordain'd; + Ennobler of thy nature, so advanc'd + In thee, that its great Maker did not scorn + To make himself his own creation; + For in thy womb, rekindling, shone the love + Reveal'd, whose genial influence makes now + This flower to germin in eternal peace: + Here thou, to us, of charity and love + Art as the noon-day torch; and art beneath, + To mortal men, of hope a living spring. + So mighty art thou, Lady, and so great, + That he who grace desireth, and comes not + To thee for aidance, fain would have desire + Fly without wings. Not only him who asks, + Thy bounty succours; but doth freely oft + Forerun the asking. Whatsoe'er may be + Of excellence in creature, pity mild, + Relenting mercy, large munificence, + Are all combin'd in thee!" + +It is interesting to turn to the corresponding stanzas in Chaucer. +The invocation to the Virgin with which he commences the story of St. +Cecilia is rendered almost word for word from Dante:-- + + "Thou Maid and Mother, daughter of thy Son! + Thou wel of mercy, sinful soules cure!" + +The last stanza of the invocation is his own, and as characteristic of +the practical Chaucer, as it would have been contrary to the genius of +Dante:-- + + "And for that faith is dead withouten workis, + So for to worken give me wit and grace! + That I be quit from thence that most dark is; + O thou that art so fair and full of grace, + Be thou mine advocate in that high place, + There, as withouten end is sung Hozanne, + Thou Christes mother, daughter dear of Anne!" + +Still more beautiful and more his own is the invocation in the +"Prioress's Tale." I give the stanzas as modernized by Wordsworth:-- + + "O Mother Maid! O Maid and Mother free! + O bush unburnt, burning in Moses' sight! + That down didst ravish from the Deity, + Through humbleness, the Spirit that that did alight + Upon thy heart, whence, through that glory's might + Conceived was the Father's sapience, + Help me to tell it in thy reverence! + + "Lady, thy goodness, thy magnificence, + Thy virtue, and thy great humility, + Surpass all science and all utterance; + For sometimes, Lady! ere men pray to thee, + Thou go'st before in thy benignity, + The light to us vouchsafing of thy prayer, + To be our guide unto thy Son so dear. + + "My knowledge is so weak, O blissful Queen, + To tell abroad thy mighty worthiness, + That I the weight of it may not sustain; + But as a child of twelve months old, or less, + That laboureth his language to express, + Even so fare I; and therefore, I thee pray, + Guide thou my song, which I of thee shall say." + +And again, we may turn to Petrarch's hymn to the Virgin, wherein +he prays to be delivered from his love and everlasting regrets for +Laura:-- + + "Vergine bella, che di sol vestita, + Coronata di stelle, al sommo Sole + Piacesti sì, che'n te sua luce ascose. + + "Vergine pura, d'ogni parte intera, + Del tuo parto gentil figliuola e madre! + + "Vergine sola al mondo senza esempio, + Che 'l ciel di tue bellezze innamorasti." + +The fancy of the theologians of the middle ages played rather +dangerously, as it appears to me, for the uninitiated and +uninstructed, with the perplexity of these divine relationships. It is +impossible not to feel that in their admiration for the divine beauty +of Mary, in borrowing the amatory language and luxuriant allegories +of the Canticles, which represent her as an object of delight to the +Supreme Being, theologians, poets, and artists had wrought themselves +up to a wild pitch of enthusiasm. In such passages as those I have +quoted above, and in the grand old Church hymns, we find the best +commentary and interpretation of the sacred pictures of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries. Yet during the thirteenth century there was +a purity in the spirit of the worship which at once inspired and +regulated the forms in which it was manifested. The Annunciations and +Nativities were still distinguished by a chaste and sacred simplicity. +The features of the Madonna herself, even where they were not what we +call beautiful, had yet a touch of that divine and contemplative grace +which the theologians and the poets had associated with the queenly, +maternal, and bridal character of Mary. + +Thus the impulses given in the early part of the fourteenth century +continued in progressive development through the fifteenth; the +spiritual for some time in advance of the material influences; the +moral idea emanating as it were _from_ the soul, and the influences +of external nature flowing _into_ it; the comprehensive power of fancy +using more and more the apprehensive power of imitation, and both +working together till their "blended might" achieved its full fruition +in the works of Raphael. + + * * * * * + +Early in the fifteenth century, the Council of Constance (A.D. 1414), +and the condemnation of Huss, gave a new impulse to the worship of the +Virgin. The Hussite wars, and the sacrilegious indignity with which +her sacred images had been treated in the north, filled her orthodox +votaries of the south, of Europe with a consternation and horror +like that excited by the Iconoclasts of the eighth century, and were +followed by a similar reaction. The Church was called upon to assert +more strongly than ever its orthodox veneration for her, and, as a +natural consequence, votive pictures multiplied, the works of the +excelling artists of the fifteenth century testify to the zeal of the +votaries, and the kindred spirit in which the painters worked. + +Gerson, a celebrated French priest, and chancellor of the university +of Paris, distinguished himself in the Council of Constance by the +eloquence with which he pleaded for the Immaculate Conception, and the +enthusiasm with which he preached in favour of instituting a festival +in honour of this mystery, as well as another in honour of Joseph, +the husband of the Virgin. In both he was unsuccessful during his +lifetime; but for both eventually his writings prepared the way. +He also composed a Latin poem of three thousand lines in praise of +Joseph, which was among the first works published after the invention +of printing. Together with St. Joseph, the parents of the Virgin, St. +Anna more particularly, became objects, of popular veneration, and +all were at length exalted to the rank of patron saints, by having +festivals instituted in their honour. It is towards the end of the +fifteenth century, or rather a little later, that we first meet with +that charming domestic group, called the "Holy Family," afterwards +so popular, so widely diffused, and treated with such an infinite +variety. + + * * * * * + +Towards the end of this century sprung up a new influence,--the +revival of classical learning, a passionate enthusiasm for the poetry +and mythology of the Greeks, and a taste for the remains of antique +art. This influence on the representations of the Virgin, as far as +it was merely external, was good. An added dignity and grace, a more +free and correct drawing, a truer feeling for harmony of proportion +and all that constitutes elegance, were gradually infused into the +forms and attitudes. But dangerous became the craving for mere +beauty,--dangerous the study of the classical and heathen literature. +This was the commencement of that thoroughly pagan taste which in +the following century demoralized Christian art. There was now an +attempt at varying the arrangement of the sacred groups which led to +irreverence, or at best to a sort of superficial mannered grandeur; +and from this period we date the first introduction of the portrait +Virgins. An early, and most scandalous example remains to us in one +of the frescoes in the Vatican, which represents Giulia Farnese in the +character of the Madonna, and Pope Alexander VI. (the infamous Borgia) +kneeling at her feet in the character of a votary. Under the influence +of the Medici the churches of Florence were filled with pictures of +the Virgin, in which the only thing aimed at was an alluring and +even meretricious beauty. Savonarola thundered from his pulpit in the +garden of San Marco against these impieties. He exclaimed against +the profaneness of those who represented the meek mother of Christ in +gorgeous apparel, with head unveiled, and under the features of women +too well and publicly known. He emphatically declared that if the +painters knew as well as he did the influence of such pictures in +perverting simple minds, they would hold their own works in horror and +detestation. Savonarola yielded to none in orthodox reverence for the +Madonna; but he desired that she should be represented in an orthodox +manner. He perished at the stake, but not till after he had made +a bonfire in the Piazza at Florence of the offensive effigies; he +perished--persecuted to death by the Borgia family. But his influence +on the greatest Florentine artists of his time is apparent in the +Virgins of Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, and Fra Bartolomeo, all of +whom had been his friends, admirers, and disciples: and all, differing +from each other, were alike in this, that, whether it be the dignified +severity of Botticelli, or the chaste simplicity of Lorenzo di Credi, +or the noble tenderness of Fra Bartolomeo, we feel that each of them +had aimed to portray worthily the sacred character of the Mother of +the Redeemer. And to these, as I think, we might add Raphael himself, +who visited Florence but a short time after the horrible execution +of Savonarola, and must have learned through his friend Bartolomeo to +mourn the fate and revere the memory of that remarkable man, whom he +placed afterwards in the grand fresco of the "Theologia," among the +doctors and teachers of the Church. (Rome, Vatican.) Of the numerous +Virgins painted by Raphael in after times, not one is supposed to have +been a portrait: he says himself, in a letter to Count Castiglione, +that he painted from an idea in his own mind, "mi servo d' una certa +idea che mi viene in mente;" while in the contemporary works of Andrea +del Sarto, we have the features of his handsome but vulgar wife in +every Madonna he painted.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The tendency to portraiture, in early Florentine and +German art, is observable from an early period. The historical sacred +subjects of Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Van Eyck, are crowded with +portraits of living personages. Their introduction into devotional +subjects, in the character of sacred persons, is far less excusable.] + +In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the constellation of living +genius in every department of art, the riches of the Church, the +luxurious habits and classical studies of the churchmen, the decline +of religious conviction, and the ascendency of religious controversy, +had combined to multiply church pictures, particularly those of a +large and decorative character. But, instead of the reign of faith, +we had now the reign of taste. There was an absolute passion for +picturesque grouping; and, as the assembled figures were to be as +varied as possible in action and attitude, the artistic treatment, in +order to prevent the lines of form and the colours of the draperies +from interfering with each other, required great skill and profound +study: some of these scenic groups have become, in the hands of great +painters, such as Titian, Paul Veronese, and Annibale Caracci, so +magnificent, that we are inclined to forgive their splendid errors. +The influence of Sanazzaro, and of his famous Latin poem on the +Nativity ("_De Partu Virginis_"), on the artists of the middle of the +sixteenth century, and on the choice and treatment of the subjects +pertaining to the Madonna, can hardly be calculated; it was like that +of Dante in the fourteenth century, but in its nature and result how +different! The grand materialism of Michael Angelo is supposed to have +been allied to the genius of Dante; but would Dante have acknowledged +the group of the Holy Family in the Florentine Gallery, to my feeling, +one of the most profane and offensive of the so-called _religious_ +pictures, in conception and execution, which ever proceeded from +the mind or hand of a great painter? No doubt some of the sculptural +Virgins of Michael Angelo are magnificent and stately in attitude and +expression, but too austere and mannered as religious conceptions: nor +can we wonder if the predilection for the treatment of mere form led +his followers and imitators into every species of exaggeration and +affectation. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the same artist +who painted a Leda, or a Psyche, or a Venus one day, painted for the +same patron a Virgin of Mercy, or a "Mater Purissima" on the morrow. +_Here_, the votary told his beads, and recited his Aves, before +the blessed Mother of the Redeemer; _there_, she was invoked in +the purest Latin by titles which the classical mythology had far +otherwise consecrated. I know nothing more disgusting in art than the +long-limbed, studied, inflated Madonnas, looking grand with all their +might, of this period; luckily they have fallen into such disrepute +that we seldom see them. The "Madonna dell' lungo Collo" of Parmigiano +might be cited as a favourable example of this mistaken and wholly +artificial grace. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) + +But in the midst of these paganized and degenerate influences, the +reform in the discipline of the Roman Catholic Church was preparing +a revolution in religious art. The Council of Trent had severely +denounced the impropriety of certain pictures admitted into churches: +at the same time, in the conflict of creed which now divided +Christendom, the agencies of art could not safely be neglected by that +Church which had used them with such signal success. Spiritual art +was indeed no more. It was dead: it could never be revived without +a return to those modes of thought and belief which had at first +inspired it. Instead of religious art, appeared what I must call +_theological_ art. Among the events of this age, which had great +influence on the worship and the representations of the Madonna, +I must place the battle of Lepanto, in 1571, in which the combined +fleets of Christendom, led by Don Juan of Austria, achieved a +memorable victory over the Turks. This victory was attributed by Pope +Pius V. to the especial interposition of the Blessed Virgin. A new +invocation was now added to her Litany, under the title of _Auxilium +Christianorum_; a new festival, that of the Rosary, was now added to +those already held in her honour; and all the artistic genius which +existed in Italy, and all the piety of orthodox Christendom, were now +laid under contribution to incase in marble sculpture, to enrich with +countless offerings, that miraculous house, which the angels had +borne over land and sea, and set down at Loretto; and that miraculous, +bejewelled, and brocaded Madonna, enshrined within it. + + * * * * * + +In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Caracci school gave +a new impetus to religious, or rather, as it has been styled in +contradistinction, sacerdotal or theological art. If these great +painters had been remarkable merely for the application of new +artistic methods, for the success with which they combined the aims of +various schools-- + + "Di Michel Angiol la terribil via + E 'l vero natural di Tiziano," + +the study of the antique with the observation of real life,--their +works undoubtedly would never have taken such a hold on the minds of +their contemporaries, nor kept it so long. Everything to live must +have an infusion of truth within it, and this "patchwork ideal," as +it has been well styled, was held together by such a principle. The +founders of the Caracci school, and their immediate followers, felt +the influences of the time, and worked them out. They were devout +believers in their Church, and most sincere worshippers of the +Madonna. Guido, in particular, was so distinguished by his passionate +enthusiasm for her, that he was supposed to have been favoured by a +particular vision, which enabled him more worthily to represent her +divine beauty. + +It is curious that, hand in hand with this development of taste and +feeling in the appreciation of natural sentiment and beauty, and +this tendency to realism, we find the associations of a peculiar and +specific sanctity remaining with the old Byzantine type. This arose +from the fact, always to be borne in mind, that the most ancient +artistic figure of the Madonna was a purely theological symbol; +apparently the moral type was too nearly allied to the human and +the real to satisfy faith. It is the ugly, dark-coloured, ancient +Greek Madonnas, such as this, which had all along the credit of +being miraculous; and "to this day," says Kugler, "the Neapolitan +lemonade-seller will allow no other than a formal Greek Madonna, with +olive-green complexion and veiled head, to be set up in his booth." It +is the same in Russia. Such pictures, in which there is no attempt +at representation, real or ideal, and which merely have a sort of +imaginary sanctity and power, are not so much idols as they are mere +_Fetishes_. The most lovely Madonna by Raphael or Titian would not +have the same effect. Guido, who himself painted lovely Virgins, +went every Saturday to pray before the little black _Madonna della +Guardia_, and, as we are assured, held this old Eastern relic in +devout veneration. + +In the pictures of the Madonna, produced by the most eminent painters +of the seventeenth century, is embodied the theology of the time. +The Virgin Mary is not, like the Madonna di San Sisto, "a single +projection of the artist's mind," but, as far as he could put his +studies together, she is "a compound of every creature's best," +sometimes majestic, sometimes graceful, often full of sentiment, +elegance, and refinement, but wanting wholly in the spiritual element. +If the Madonna did really sit to Guido in person, (see Malvasia, +"Felsina Pittrice,") we fancy she must have revealed her loveliness, +but veiled her divinity. + +Without doubt the finest Madonnas of the seventeenth century are +those produced by the Spanish school; not because they more realize +our spiritual conception of the Virgin--quite the contrary: for here +the expression of life through sensation and emotion prevails over +abstract mind, grandeur, and grace;--but because the intensely human +and sympathetic character given to the Madonna appeals most strongly +to our human nature. The appeal is to the faith through the feelings, +rather than through the imagination. Morales and Ribera excelled +in the Mater Dolorosa; and who has surpassed Murilio in the tender +exultation of maternity?[1] There is a freshness and a depth of +feeling in the best Madonnas of the late Spanish school, which puts to +shame the mannerism of the Italians, and the naturalism of the Flemish +painters of the same period: and this because the Spaniards were +intense and enthusiastic believers, not mere thinkers, in art as in +religion. + +[Footnote 1: See in the Handbook to the Private Galleries of Art some +remarks on the tendencies of the Spanish School, p, 172.] + +As in the sixth century, the favourite dogma of the time (the union +of the divine and human nature in Christ, and the dignity of Mary +as parent of both) had been embodied in the group of the Virgin +and Child, so now, in the seventeenth, the doctrine of the eternal +sanctification and predestination of Mary was, after a long +controversy, triumphant, and took form in the "Immaculate Conception;" +that beautiful subject in which Guido and Murilio excelled, and which +became the darling theme of the later schools of art. It is worthy +of remark, that while in the sixth century, and for a thousand years +afterwards, the Virgin, in all devotional subjects, was associated in +some visible manner with her divine Son, in this she appears without +the Infant in her arms. The maternal character is set aside, and +she stands alone, absolute in herself, and complete in her own +perfections. This is a very significant characteristic of the +prevalent theology of the time. + +I forbear to say much of the productions of a school of art which +sprung up simultaneously with that of the Caracci, and in the end +overpowered its higher aspirations. The _Naturalisti_, as they were +called, imitated nature without selection, and produced some charming +painters. But their religious pictures are almost all intolerable, +and their Madonnas are almost all portraits. Rubens and Albano painted +their wives; Allori and Vandyck their mistresses; Domenichino his +daughter. Salvator Rosa, in his Satires, exclaims against this general +profaneness in terms not less strong than those of Savonarola in his +Sermons; but the corruption was by this time beyond the reach of cure; +the sin could neither be preached nor chided away. Striking effects of +light and shade, peculiar attitudes, scenic groups, the perpetual and +dramatic introduction of legendary scenes and personages, of visions +and miracles of the Madonna vouchsafed to her votaries, characterize +the productions of the seventeenth century. As "they who are whole +need not a physician, but they who are sick," so in proportion to +the decline of faith were the excitements to faith, or rather to +credulity: just in proportion as men were less inclined to believe +were the wonders multiplied which they were called on to believe. + +I have not spoken of the influence of Jesuitism on art. This Order +kept alive that devotion for the Madonna which their great founder +Loyola had so ardently professed when he chose for the "Lady" of +his thoughts, "no princess, no duchess, but one far greater, more +peerless." The learning of the Jesuits supplied some themes not +hitherto in use, principally of a fanciful and allegorical kind, and +never had the meek Mary been so decked out with earthly ornament +as in their church pictures. If the sanctification of simplicity, +gentleness, maternal love, and heroic fortitude, were calculated +to elevate the popular mind, the sanctification of mere glitter and +ornament, embroidered robes, and jewelled crowns, must have tended +to degrade it. It is surely an unworthy and a foolish excuse that, in +thus desecrating with the vainest and most vulgar finery the beautiful +ideal of the Virgin, an appeal was made to the awe and admiration +of vulgar and ignorant minds; for this is precisely what, in all +religious imagery, should be avoided. As, however, this sacrilegious +millinery does not come within the province of the fine arts, I may +pass it over here. + +Among the Jesuit prints of the seventeenth century, I remember one +which represents the Virgin and Child in the centre, and around are +the most famous heretics of all ages, lying prostrate, or hanging by +the neck. Julian the Apostate; Leo the Isaurian; his son, Constantine +Capronymus; Arius; Nestorius; Manicheus; Luther; Calvin:--very +characteristic of the age of controversy which had succeeded to the +age of faith, when, instead of solemn saints and grateful votaries, we +have dead or dying heretics surrounding the Mother of Mercy! + + * * * * * + +After this rapid sketch of the influences which modified in a general +way the pictures of the Madonna, we may array before us, and learn to +compare, the types which distinguished in a more particular manner the +separate schools, caught from some more local or individual impulses. +Thus we have the stern, awful quietude of the old Mosaics; the hard +lifelessness of the degenerate Greek; the pensive sentiment of +the Siena, and stately elegance of the Florentine Madonnas; the +intellectual Milanese, with their large foreheads and thoughtful eyes; +the tender, refined mysticism of the Umbrian; the sumptuous loveliness +of the Venetian; the quaint, characteristic simplicity of the early +German, so stamped with their nationality, that I never looked round +me in a room full of German girls without thinking of Albert Durer's +Virgins; the intense life-like feeling of the Spanish; the prosaic, +portrait-like nature of the Flemish schools, and so on. But here an +obvious question suggests itself. In the midst of all this diversity, +these ever-changing influences, was there no characteristic type +universally accepted, suggested by common religious associations, if +not defined by ecclesiastical authority, to which the artist was bound +to conform? How is it that the impersonation of the Virgin fluctuated, +not only with the fluctuating tendencies of successive ages, but even +with the caprices of the individual artist? + +This leads us back to reconsider the sources from which the artist +drew his inspiration. + +The legend which represents St. Luke the Evangelist as a painter +appears to be of Eastern origin, and quite unknown in Western Europe +before the first crusade. It crept in then, and was accepted with many +other oriental superstitions and traditions. It may have originated +in the real existence of a Greek painter named Luca--a saint, too, +he may have been; for the Greeks have a whole calendar of canonized +artists,--painters, poets, and musicians; and this Greek San Luca may +have been a painter of those Madonnas imported from the ateliers of +Mount Athos into the West by merchants and pilgrims; and the West, +which knew but of one St. Luke, may have easily confounded the painter +and the evangelist. + +But we must also remember, that St. Luke the Evangelist was early +regarded as the great authority with respect to the few Scripture +particulars relating to the character and life of Mary; so that, +in the figurative sense, he may be said to have _painted_ that +portrait of her which has been since received as the perfect type +of womanhood:--1. Her noble, trustful humility, when she receives +the salutation of the angel (Luke i. 38); the complete and feminine +surrender of her whole being to the higher, holier will--"Be it unto +me according to thy word." 2. Then, the decision and prudence of +character, shown in her visit to Elizabeth, her older relative; her +journey in haste over the hills to consult with her cousin, which +journey it is otherwise difficult to accord with the oriental customs +of the time, unless Mary, young as she was, had possessed unusual +promptitude and energy of disposition. (Luke i. 39, 40.) 3. The proof +of her intellectual power in the beautiful hymn she has left us, "_My +soul doth magnify the Lord._" (Luke i. 46.) The commentators are +not agreed as to whether this effusion was poured forth by immediate +inspiration, or composed and written down, because the same words, +"and Mary said," may be interpreted in either sense; but we can no +more doubt her being the authoress, than we can doubt of any other +particulars recorded in the same Gospel: it proves that she must have +been, for her time and country, most rarely gifted in mind, and deeply +read in the Scriptures. 4. She was of a contemplative, reflecting, +rather silent disposition. "She kept all these sayings, and pondered +them in her heart." (Luke ii. 51.) She made no boast of that wondrous +and most blessed destiny to which she was called; she thought upon it +in silence. It is inferred that as many of these sayings and events +could be known to herself alone, St. Luke the Evangelist could have +learned them only from her own lips. 5. Next her truly maternal +devotion to her divine Son, whom she attended humbly through his whole +ministry;[1] 6. and lastly, the sublime fortitude and faith with which +she followed her Son to the death scene, stood beside the cross till +all was finished, and then went home, and _lived_ (Luke xxiii.); for +she was to be to us an example of all that a woman could endure, as +well as all that a woman could be and act out in her earthly life. +(John xix. 25.) Such was the character of Mary; such the _portrait_ +really _painted_ by St. Luke; and, as it seems to me, these scattered, +artless, unintentional notices of conduct and character converge into +the most perfect moral type of the intellectual, tender, simple, and +heroic woman that ever was placed before us for our edification and +example. + +[Footnote 1: Milton places in the mouth of our Saviour an allusion to +the influence of his Mother in early life:-- + + "These growing thoughts my mother soon perceiving + By words at times cast forth, duly rejoiced, + And said to me apart, 'High are thy thoughts, + O Son; but nourish them, and let them soar + To what height sacred virtue and true worth + Can raise them, though above example high.'"] + +But in the Church traditions and enactments, another character +was, from the fifth century, assigned to her, out of which grew the +theological type, very beautiful and exalted, but absorbing to a great +degree the scriptural and moral type, and substituting for the merely +human attributes others borrowed from her relation to the great +scheme of redemption; for it was contended that, as the mother of +_the Divine_, she could not be herself less than divine; consequently +above the angels, and first of all created beings. According to the +doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, her tender woman's wisdom +became supernatural gifts; the beautiful humility was changed into a +knowledge of her own predestined glory; and, being raised bodily into +immortality, and placed beside her Son, in all "the sacred splendour +of beneficence," she came to be regarded as our intercessor before +that divine Son, who could refuse nothing to his mother. The relative +position of the Mother and Son being spiritual and indestructible was +continued in heaven; and thus step by step the woman was transmuted +into the divinity. + +But, like her Son, Mary had walked in human form upon earth, and in +form must have resembled her Son; for, as it is argued, Christ had no +earthly father, therefore could only have derived his human lineaments +from his mother. All the old legends assume that the resemblance +between the Son and the Mother must have been perfect. Dante alludes +to this belief: + + "Riguarda ormai nella faccia ch' a Christo + Piu s' assomiglia." + + "Now raise thy view + Unto the visage most resembling Christ." + +The accepted type of the head of Christ was to be taken as a model in +its mild, intellectual majesty, for that of the Virgin-mother, as far +as difference of sex would allow. + +In the ecclesiastical history of Nicephorus Gallixtus, he has inserted +a description of the person of Mary, which he declares to have been +given by Epiphanius, who lived in the fourth century, and by him +derived from a more ancient source. It must be confessed, that the +type of person here assigned to the Virgin is more energetic for a +woman than that which has been assigned to our Saviour as a man. "She +was of middle stature; her face oval; her eyes brilliant, and of an +olive tint; her eyebrows arched and black; her hair was of a pale +brown; her complexion fair as wheat. She spoke little, but she spoke +freely and affably; she was not troubled in her speech, but grave, +courteous, tranquil. Her dress was without ornament, and in her +deportment was nothing lax or feeble." To this ancient description +of her person and manners, we are to add the scriptural and popular +portrait of her mind; the gentleness, the purity, the intellect, +power, and fortitude; the gifts of the poetess and prophetess; the +humility in which she exceeded all womankind. Lastly, we are to +engraft on these personal and moral qualities, the theological +attributes which the Church, from early times, had assigned to +her, the supernatural endowments which lifted her above angels +and men:--all these were to be combined into one glorious type of +perfection. Where shall we seek this highest, holiest impersonation! +Where has it been attained, or even approached? Not, certainly, in the +mere woman, nor yet in the mere idol; not in those lovely creations +which awaken a sympathetic throb of tenderness; nor in those stern, +motionless types,--which embody a dogma; not in the classic features +of marble goddesses, borrowed as models; nor in the painted images +which stare upon us from tawdry altars in flaxen wigs and embroidered +petticoats. But where? + +Of course we each form to ourselves some notion of what we require; +and these requirements will be as diverse as our natures and our +habits of thought. For myself, I have seen my own ideal once, and only +once, attained: _there_, where Raphael--inspired if ever painter was +inspired--projected on the space before him that wonderful creation +which we style the _Madonna di San Sisto_ (Dresden Gal.); for there +she stands--the transfigured woman, at once completely human and +completely divine, an abstraction of power, purity, and love, poised +on the empurpled air, and requiring no other support; looking out, +with her melancholy, loving mouth, her slightly dilated, sibylline +eyes, quite through the universe, to the end and consummation of all +things;--sad, as if she beheld afar off the visionary sword that +was to reach her heart through HIM, now resting as enthroned on +that heart; yet already exalted through the homage of the redeemed +generations who were to salute her as Blessed. Six times have I +visited the city made glorious by the possession of this treasure, and +as often, when again at a distance, with recollections disturbed by +feeble copies and prints, I have begun to think, "Is it so indeed? is +she indeed so divine? or does not rather the imagination encircle +her with a halo of religion and poetry, and lend a grace which is not +really there?" and as often, when returned, I have stood before it and +confessed that there is more in that form and face than I had ever +yet conceived. I cannot here talk the language of critics, and speak +of this picture merely as a picture, for to me it was a revelation. +In the same gallery is the lovely Madonna of the Meyer family: +inexpressibly touching and perfect in its way, but conveying only one +of the attributes of Mary, her benign pity; while the Madonna di San +Sisto is an abstract of _all_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Expression is the great and characteristic excellence of +Raphael more especially in his Madonnas. It is precisely this which +all copies and engravings render at best most imperfectly; and in +point of expression the most successful engraving of the Madonna di +San Sisto is certainly that of Steinla.] + + * * * * * + +The poets are ever the best commentators on the painters. I have +already given from the great "singers of high poems" in the fourteenth +century _their_ exposition of the theological type of the Madonna. +Now, in some striking passages of our modern poets, we may find a most +beautiful commentary on what I have termed the _moral_ type. + +The first is from Wordsworth, and may be recited before the Madonna di +San Sisto:-- + + "Mother! whose virgin bosom was uncrost + With the least shade of thought to sin allied! + Woman! above all women glorified; + Out tainted nature's solitary boast; + Purer than foam on central ocean tost; + Brighter than eastern skies at daybreak strewn + With fancied roses, than the unblemish'd moon + Before her wane begins on heaven's blue coast, + Thy Image falls to earth. Yet some I ween, + Not unforgiven, the suppliant knee might bend, + As to a visible Power, in which did blend + All that was mix'd and reconcil'd in thee, + Of mother's love with maiden purity, + Of high with low, celestial with terrene." + +The next, from Shelley, reads like a hymn in honour of the Immaculate +Conception:-- + + Seraph of Heaven! too gentle to be human, + Veiling beneath that radiant form of woman + All that is insupportable in thee + Of light, and love, and immortality! + Sweet Benediction in the eternal curse! + Veil'd Glory of this lampless Universe! + Thou Moon beyond the clouds! Thou living Form + Among the Dead! Thou Star above the storm! + Thou Wonder, and thou Beauty, and thou Terror! + Thou Harmony of Nature's art! Thou Mirror + In whom, as in the splendour of the Sun, + All shapes look glorious which thou gazest on!" + + "See where she stands! a mortal shape endued + With love, and life, and light, and deity; + The motion which may change but cannot die, + An image of some bright eternity; + A shadow of some golden dream; a splendour + Leaving the third sphere pilotless." + +I do not know whether intentionally or not, but we have here assembled +some of the favourite symbols of the Virgin--the moon, the star, the +"_terribilis ut castrorum acies_" (Cant. vi. 10), and the mirror. + +The third is a passage from Robert Browning, which appears to me to +sum up the moral ideal:-- + + "There is a vision in the heart of each, + Of justice, mercy, wisdom, tenderness + To wrong and pain, and knowledge of their cure; + And these embodied in a woman's form + That best transmits them pure as first received + From God above her to mankind below!" + + + + +II. SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN. + + +That which the genius of the greatest of painters only once expressed, +we must not look to find in his predecessors, who saw only partial +glimpses of the union of the divine and human in the feminine form; +still less in his degenerate successors, who never beheld it at all. + +The difficulty of fully expressing this complex ideal, and the +allegorical spirit of the time, first suggested the expedient of +placing round the figure of the glorified Virgin certain accessory +symbols, which should assist the artist to express, and the observer +to comprehend, what seemed beyond the power of art to portray;--a +language of metaphor then understood, and which we also must +understand if we would seize the complete theological idea intended +to be conveyed. + +I shall begin with those symbols which are borrowed from the Litanies +of the Virgin, and from certain texts of the Canticles, in all ages +of the Church applied to her; symbols which, in the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, frequently accompany those representations +which set forth her Glorification or Predestination; and, in the +seventeenth, are introduced into the "Immaculate Conception." + +1. The Sun and the Moon.--"Electa ut Sol, pulchra ut Luna," is one +of the texts of the Canticles applied to Mary; and also in a passage +of the Revelation, "_A woman clothed with the sun, having the moon +under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars._" Hence the +radiance of the sun above her head, and the crescent moon beneath her +feet. From inevitable association the crescent moon suggests the +idea of her perpetual chastity; but in this sense it would be a pagan +rather than a Christian attribute. + +2. The STAR.--This attribute, often embroidered in front of the veil +of the Virgin or on the right shoulder of her blue mantle, has become +almost as a badge from which several well-known pictures derive +their title, "La Madonna della Stella." It is in the first place +an attribute alluding to the most beautiful and expressive of her +many titles:--"_Stella Maris_" Star of the Sea,[1] which is one +interpretation of her Jewish name, _Miriam_: but she is also "_Stella +Jacobi_," the Star of Jacob; "_Stella Matutina_," the Morning Star; +"_Stella non Erratica_," the Fixed Star. When, instead of the single +star on her veil or mantle, she has the crown of twelve stars, the +allusion is to the text of the Apocalypse already quoted, and the +number of stars is in allusion to the number of the Apostles.[2] + +[Footnote 1: + "Ave Maris Stella + Dei Mater alma!" &c.] + +[Footnote 2: "In capite inquit ejus corona stellarum duodecim; quidni +coronent sidera quam sol vestit?"--_St. Bernard_.] + +3. The LILY.--"_I am the rose of Sharon, and lily of the valleys._" +(Cant. ii. 1, 2.) As the general emblem of purity, the lily is +introduced into the Annunciation, where it ought to be without +stamens: and in the enthroned Madonnas it is frequently placed in +the hands of attendant angels, more particularly in the Florentine +Madonnas; the lily, as the emblem of their patroness, being chosen +by the citizens as the _device_ of the city. For the same reason it +became that of the French monarchy. Thorns are sometimes interlaced +with the lily, to express the "_Lilium inter Spinas_." (Cant. ii. 2.) + +4. The ROSE.--She is the rose of Sharon, as well as the lily of the +valley; and as an emblem of love and beauty, the rose is especially +dedicated to her. The plantation or garden of roses[1] is often +introduced; sometimes it forms the background of the picture. There +is a most beautiful example in a Madonna by Cesare di Sesto (Milan, +Brera); and another, "the Madonna of the Rose Bush," by Martin Schoen. +(Cathedral, Colmar.) + +[Footnote 1: Quasi plantatio rosæ in Jericho.] + +5. The ENCLOSED GARDEN (_Hortus conclusus_) is an image borrowed, +like many others, from the Song of Solomon. (Cant. iv. 12.) I have +seen this enclosed garden very significantly placed in the background +of the Annunciation, and in pictures of the Immaculate Conception. +Sometimes the enclosure is formed of a treillage or hedge of roses, as +in a beautiful Virgin by Francia.[1] Sometimes it is merely formed of +stakes or palisades, as In some of the prints by Albert Durer. + +[Footnote 1: Munich Gal.; another by Antonio da Negroponte in the +San Francesco della Vigna at Venice, is also an instance of this +significant background.] + +The WELL always full; the FOUNTAIN forever sealed; the TOWER of David; +the TEMPLE of Solomon; the CITY of David (_Civitas sancti_), (Cant iv. +4. 12, 15); all these are attributes borrowed from the Canticles, and +are introduced into pictures and stained glass. + +6. The PORTA CLAITSA, the Closed Gate, is another metaphor, taken from +the prophecy of Ezekiel (xliv. 4). + +7. The CEDAR of Lebanon (_Cedrus exaliata_, "exalted as a cedar in +Lebanon"), because of its height, its incorruptible substance, +its perfume, and the healing virtues attributed to it in the East, +expresses the greatness, the beauty, the goodness of Mary. + +The victorious PALM, the Plantain "far spreading," and the Cypress +pointing to heaven, are also emblems of the Virgin. + +The OLIVE, as a sign of peace, hope, and abundance, is also a fitting +emblem of the graces of Mary.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Quasi oliva speciosa in campis.] + +8. The Stem of Jesse (Isa. xi. 1), figured as a green branch entwined +with flowers, is also very significant. + +9. The MIRROR (_Specula sine macula_) is a metaphor borrowed from the +Book of Wisdom (vii, 25). We meet with it in some of the late pictures +of the Immaculate Conception. + +10. The SEALED BOOK is also a symbol often placed in the hands of the +Virgin in a mystical Annunciation, and sufficiently significant. The +allusion is to the text, "In that book were all my members written;" +and also to the text in Isaiah (xxix. 11, 12), in which he describes +the vision of the book that was sealed, and could be read neither by +the learned nor the unlearned. + +11. "The Bush which burned and was not consumed," is introduced, with +a mystical significance, into an Annunciation by Titian. + + * * * * * + +Besides these symbols, which have a mystic and sacred significance, +and are applicable to the Virgin only, certain attributes and +accessories are introduced into pictures of the Madonna and Child, +which are capable of a more general interpretation. + +1. The GLOBE, as the emblem of sovereignty, was very early placed in +the hand of the divine Child. When the globe is under the feet of +the Madonna and encircled by a serpent, as in some later pictures, +it figures our Redemption; her triumph over a fallen world--fallen +through sin. + +2. The SERPENT is the general emblem of Sin or Satan; but under the +feet of the Virgin it has a peculiar significance. She has generally +her foot on the head of the reptile. "SHE shall bruise thy head," as +it is interpreted in the Roman Catholic Church.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Ipsa_ conteret caput tuum.] + +3. The APPLE, which of all the attributes is the most common, +signifies the fall of man, which made Redemption necessary. It is +sometimes placed in the hands of the Child; but when in the hand of +the Mother, she is then designated as the second Eve.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Mors per Evam: vita per Mariam.] + +4. The POMEGRANATE, with the seeds displayed, was the ancient emblem +of hope, and more particularly of religious hope. It is often placed +in the hands of the Child, who sometimes presents it to his Mother. + +Other fruits and flowers, always beautiful accessories, are frequently +introduced according to the taste of the artist. But fruits in a +general sense signified "the fruits of the Spirit--joy, peace, love;" +and flowers were consecrated to the Virgin: hence we yet see them +placed before her as offerings. + +5. EARS OF WHEAT in the hand of the Infant (as in a lovely little +Madonna by Ludovico Caracci)[1] figured the bread in the Eucharist, +and GRAPES the wine. + +[Footnote 1: Lansdowne Collection. There was another exactly similar +in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +6. The BOOK.--In the hand of the Infant Christ, the book is the Gospel +in a general sense, or it is the Book of Wisdom. In the hand of the +Madonna, it may have one of two meanings. When open, or when she has +her finger between the leaves, or when the Child is turning over the +pages, then it is the Book of Wisdom, and is always supposed to be +open at the seventh chapter. When the book is clasped or sealed, it is +a mystical symbol of the Virgin herself, as I have already explained. + +7. The DOVE, as the received emblem of the Holy Spirit, is properly +placed above, as hovering over the Virgin. There is an exception to +this rule in a very interesting picture in the Louvre, where the +Holy Dove (with the _nimbus_) is placed at the feet of the Child.[1] +This is so unusual, and so contrary to all the received proprieties +of religious art, that I think the _nimbus_ may have been added +afterwards. + +[Footnote 1: The Virgin has the air of a gipsy. (Louvre, 515.)] + +The seven doves round the head of the Virgin signify the seven gifts +of the Spirit. These characterize her as personified Wisdom--the Mater +Sapientiæ. + +Doves placed near Mary when she is reading, or at work in the temple, +are expressive of her gentleness and tenderness. + +8. BIRDS.--The bird in the Egyptian hieroglyphics signified the soul +of man. In the very ancient pictures there can be no doubt, I think, +that the bird in the hand of Christ figured the soul, or the spiritual +as opposed to the material. But, in the later pictures, the original +meaning being lost, birds became mere ornamental accessories, or +playthings. Sometimes it is a parrot from the East, sometimes a +partridge (the partridge is frequent in the Venetian pictures): +sometimes a goldfinch, as in Raphael's Madonna _del Cardellino_. In a +Madonna by Guercino, the Mother holds a bird perched on her hand, and +the Child, with a most _naïve_ infantine expression, shrinks back from +it.[1] In a picture by Baroccio, he holds it up before a cat (Nat. +Gal. 29), so completely were the original symbolism and all the +religious proprieties of art at this time set aside. + +[Footnote 1: It was in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +Other animals are occasionally introduced. Extremely offensive are +the apes when admitted into devotional pictures. We have associations +with the animal as a mockery of the human, which render it a very +disagreeable accessory. It appears that, in the sixteenth century, +it became the fashion to keep apes as pets, and every reader of +Vasari will remember the frequent mention of these animals as pets +and favourites of the artists. Thus only can I account for the +introduction of the ape, particularly in the Ferrarese pictures. +Bassano's dog, Baroccio's cat, are often introduced. In a famous +picture by Titian, "La Vierge au Lapin," we have the rabbit. (Louvre.) +The introduction of these and other animals marks the decline of +religious art. + +Certain women of the Old Testament are regarded as especial types of +the Virgin. + +EVE. Mary is regarded as the second Eve, because, through her, came +the promised Redemption. She bruised the head of the Serpent. The Tree +of Life, the Fall, or Eve holding the Apple, are constantly introduced +allusively in the Madonna pictures, as ornaments of her throne, or +on the predella of an altar-piece, representing the Annunciation, the +Nativity, or the Coronation. + +RACHEL figures as the ideal of contemplative life. + +RUTH, as the ancestress of David. + +ABISHAG, as "the Virgin who was brought to the King." (I Kings i. 1.) + +BATHSHEBA, because she sat upon a throne on the right hand of her Son. + +JUDITH and ESTHER, as having redeemed their people, and brought +deliverance to Israel. It is because of their typical character, as +emblems of the Virgin, that these Jewish heroines so often figure in +the religious pictures.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The artistic treatment of these characters as types of +the Virgin, will be found in the fourth series of "Legendary Art."] + +In his "Paradiso" (c. xxxii.), Dante represents Eve, Rachel, Sara, +Ruth, Judith, as seated at the feet of the Virgin Mary, beneath her +throne in heaven; and next to Rachel, by a refinement of spiritual and +poetical gallantry, he has placed his Beatrice. + +In the beautiful frescoes of the church of St. Apollinaris at Remagen, +these Hebrew women stand together in a group below the throne of the +Virgin. + +Of the Prophets and the Sibyls who attend on Christ in his character +of the Messiah or Redeemer, I shall have much to say, when describing +the artistic treatment of the history and character of Our Lord. +Those of the prophets who are supposed to refer more particularly to +the Incarnation, properly attend on the Virgin and Child; but in the +ancient altar-pieces, they are not placed within the same frame, nor +are they grouped immediately round her throne, but form the outer +accessories, or are treated separately as symbolical. + +First, MOSES, because he beheld the burning bush, "which burned and +was not consumed." He is generally in the act of removing his sandals. + +AARON, because his rod blossomed miraculously. + +GIDEON, on whose fleece descended the dew of heaven, while all was +dry around. + +DANIEL, who beheld the stone which was cut out without hands, and +became a great mountain, filling the earth. (ch. ii. 45.) + +DAVID, as prophet and ancestor. "Listen, O daughter, and incline thine +ear." + +ISAIAH, "Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son." + +EZEKIEL, "This gate shall be shut." (ch. xliv. 2.) + +Certain of these personages, Moses, Aaron, Gideon, Daniel, Ezekiel, +are not merely accessories and attendant figures, but in a manner +attributes, as expressing the character of the Virgin. Thus in many +instances, we find the prophetical personages altogether omitted, and +we have simply the attribute figuring the prophecy itself, the burning +bush, the rod, the dewy fleece, &c. + +The Sibyls are sometimes introduced alternately with the Prophets. In +general, if there be only two, they are the Tiburtina, who showed the +vision to Augustus, and the Cumean Sibyl who foretold the birth of our +Saviour. The Sibyls were much the fashion in the classic times of the +sixteenth century; Michael Angelo and Raphael have left us consummate +examples. + +But I must repeat that the full consideration of the Prophets and +Sibyls as accessories belongs to another department of sacred art, and +they will find their place there. + +The Evangelists frequently, and sometimes one or more of the +Twelve Apostles, appear as accessories which assist the theological +conception. When other figures are introduced, they are generally +either the protecting saints of the country or locality, or the saints +of the Religious Order to whom the edifice belongs: or, where the +picture or window is an _ex-voto_, we find the patron saints of the +confraternity, or of the donor or votary who has dedicated it. + +Angels seated at the feet of the Madonna and playing on musical +instruments, are most lovely and appropriate accessories, for the +choral angels are always around her in heaven, and on earth she is +the especial patroness of music and minstrelsy.[1] Her delegate +Cecilia patronized _sacred_ music; but _all_ music and musicians, +all minstrels, and all who plied the "gaye science," were under the +protection of Mary. When the angels are singing from their music +books, and others are accompanying them with lutes and viols, the +song is not always supposed to be the same. In a Nativity they sing +the "Gloria in excelsis Deo;" in a Coronation, the "Regina Coeli;" +in an enthroned Madonna with votaries, the "Salve Regina, Mater +Misericordiæ!" in a pastoral Madonna and Child it may be the "Alma +Mater Redemptoris." + +[Footnote 1: The picture by Lo Spagna, lately added to our National +Gallery, is a beautiful example.] + + * * * * * + +In all the most ancient devotional effigies (those in the catacombs +and the old mosaics), the Virgin appears as a majestic woman of mature +age. In those subjects taken from her history which precede her return +from Egypt, and in the Holy Families, she should appear as a young +maiden from fifteen to seventeen years old. + +In the subjects taken from her history which follow the baptism of our +Lord, she should appear as a matron between forty and fifty, but still +of a sweet and gracious aspect. When Michael Angelo was reproached +with representing his Mater Dolorosa much too young, he replied that +the perfect virtue and serenity of the character of Mary would have +preserved her beauty and youthful appearance long beyond the usual +period.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The group in St. Peter's, Rome.] + +Because some of the Greek pictures and carved images had become black +through extreme age, it was argued by certain devout writers, that the +Virgin herself must have been of a very dark complexion; and in favour +of this idea they quoted this text from the Canticles, "I am black, +but comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem." But others say that her +complexion had become black only during her sojourn in Egypt. At all +events, though the blackness of these antique images was supposed to +enhance their sanctity, it has never been imitated in the fine arts, +and it is quite contrary to the description of Nicephorus, which is +the most ancient authority, and that which is followed in the Greek +school. + +The proper dress of the Virgin is a close red tunic, with long +sleeves;[1] and over this a blue robe or mantle. In the early +pictures, the colours are pale and delicate. Her head ought to be +veiled. The fathers of the primeval Church, particularly Tertullian, +attach great importance to the decent veil worn by Christian maidens; +and in all the early pictures the Virgin is veiled. The enthroned +Virgin, unveiled, with long tresses falling down on either side, +was an innovation introduced about the end of the fifteenth century; +commencing, I think, with the Milanese, and thence adopted in the +German schools and those of Northern Italy. The German Madonnas of +Albert Durer's time have often magnificent and luxuriant hair, curling +in ringlets, or descending to the waist in rich waves, and always +fair. Dark-haired Madonnas appear first in the Spanish and later +Italian schools. + +[Footnote 1: In a famous Pietà by Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio, +the Virgin, standing by the dead form of her Son, has the right arm +apparently bare; in the repetition of the subject it is clothed with +a full sleeve, the impropriety being corrected. The first is, however, +the most perfect and most precious as a work of art.--_Bartsch_, xiv. +34, 35.] + +In the historical pictures, her dress is very simple; but in those +devotional figures which represent her as queen of heaven, she wears a +splendid crown, sometimes of jewels interwoven with lilies and roses. +The crown is often the sovereign crown of the country in which the +picture is placed: thus, in the Papal States, she often wears the +triple tiara: in Austria, the imperial diadem. Her blue tunic is +richly embroidered with gold and gems, or lined with ermine, or stuff +of various colours, in accordance with a text of Scripture: "The +King's daughter is all glorious within; her clothing is of wrought +gold. She shall be brought unto the King in a vesture of needlework." +(Ps. xlv. 13.) In the Immaculate Conception, and in the Assumption, +her tunic should be plain white, or white spangled with golden stars. +In the subjects relating to the Passion, and after the Crucifixion, +the dress of the Virgin should be violet or gray. These proprieties, +however, are not always attended to. + +In the early pictures which represent her as nursing the divine Infant +(the subject called the _Vergine Lattante_), the utmost care is taken +to veil the bust as much as possible. In the Spanish school the most +vigilant censorship was exercised over all sacred pictures, and, with +regard to the figures of the Virgin, the utmost decorum was required. +"What," says Pacheco, "can be more foreign to the respect which we owe +to our Lady the Virgin, than to paint her sitting down with one of her +knees placed over the other, and often with her sacred feet uncovered +and naked? Let thanks be given to the Holy Inquisition, which commands +that this liberty should be corrected." For this reason, perhaps, we +seldom see the feet of the Virgin in Spanish pictures.[1] Carducho +speaks more particularly on the impropriety of painting the Virgin +unshod, "since it is manifest that, our Lady was in the habit of +wearing shoes, as is proved by the much venerated relic of one of them +from her divine feet at Burgos." + +[Footnote 1: Or in any of the old pictures till the seventeenth +century "Tandis que Dieu est toujours montré pieds nus, lui qui est +descendu à terre et a pris notre humanité, Marie au contraire est +constamment représentée les pieds perdus dans les plis trainants, +nombreux et légers de sa robe virginale; elle, qui est elevée au +dessus de la terre et rapprochée de Dieu par sa pureté. Dieu montre +par ses pieds nus qu'il a pris le corps de l'homme; Marie fait +comprendre en les cachant qu'elle participe de la spiritualité de +Dieu."] + +The Child in her arms is always, in the Greek and early pictures, +clothed in a little tunic, generally white. In the fifteenth century +he first appears partly, and then wholly, undraped. Joseph, as the +earthly _sposo_, wears the saffron-coloured mantle over a gray tunic. +In the later schools of art these significant colours are often +varied, and sometimes wholly dispensed with. + + + + +III. DEVOTIONAL AND HISTORICAL REPRESENTATIONS. + + +In this volume, as in the former ones, I have adhered to the +distinction between the devotional and the historical representations. + +I class as devotional, all those which express a dogma merely; all the +enthroned Madonnas, alone or surrounded by significant accessories +or attendant saints; all the Mystical Coronations and Immaculate +Conceptions; all the Holy Families with saints, and those completely +ideal and votive groups, in which the appeal is made to the faith and +piety of the observer. I shall give the characteristic details, in +particular instances, further on. + +The altar-pieces in a Roman Catholic church are always either strictly +devotional objects, or it may be, historical subjects (such as the +Nativity) treated in a devotional sense. They are sometimes in several +pieces or compartments. A Diptych is an altar-piece composed of two +divisions or leaves which are united by hinges, and close like a book. +Portable altar-pieces of a small size are generally in this form; and +among the most valuable and curious remains of early religious art are +the Greek and Byzantine Diptychs, sometimes painted, sometimes carved +in ivory[1]. A Triptych is an altar-piece in three parts; the two +outer divisions or wings often closing as shutters over the central +compartment. + +[Footnote 1: Among the "Casts from Ancient Ivory Carvings", +published by the Arundel Society, will be found some interesting and +illustrative examples, particularly Class III. Diptych _b_, Class VII +Diptych _c_ and Triptych _f_, Class IX. Triptych _k_.] + +On the outside of the shutters or doors the Annunciation was +generally painted, as the mystery which opened the gates of salvation; +occasionally, also, the portraits of the votaries or donors. + +Complete examples of devotional representation occur in the complex +and elaborate altar-pieces and windows of stained glass, which often +comprehend a very significant scheme of theology.[1]. I give here +plans of two of these old altar-pieces, which will assist the reader +in elucidating the meaning of others. + +[Footnote 1: Still more important examples occur in the porches and +exterior decoration of the old cathedrals, French and English which +have escaped mutilation. These will be found explained at length in +the Fourth Series of Sacred and Legendary Art.] + +The first is the altar-piece in the Rinuccini Chapel in the church +of the Santa Croco of Florence. It is necessary to premise that +the chapel was founded in honour of the Virgin and Mary Magdalene; +while the church is dedicated to the Holy Cross, and belongs to the +Franciscans. + +[Illustration: Altar-piece] + +The compartments are separated by wood-work most richly carved +and gilt in the Gothic style, with twisted columns, pinnacles, and +scrolls. The subjects are thus distributed. + +A. The Virgin and Child enthroned. She has the sun on her breast, the +moon under her feet, the twelve stars over her head, and is attended +by angels bearing the attributes of the cardinal virtues. B. St. +John the Baptist. C. St. Francis. D. St. John Evangelist. E. Mary +Magdalene. 1. The Crucifixion, with the Virgin and St. John. 2, 3, 4, +5. The four Evangelists with their books: half length. 6, 7. St. Peter +and St. Paul: half length. 8, 9, 10, 11. St. Thomas, St. Philip, St. +James, and St. Andrew: half length. PP. The Predella. 12. The Nativity +and Adoration of Magi. 13. St. Francis receives the Stigmata. 14. +Baptism of Christ. 15. The Vision of St. John in Patmos. 16. Mary +Magdalene borne up by angels. Between the altar-piece and the predella +runs the inscription in Gothic letters, AVE DELICISSIMIS VIRGO MARIA, +SUCCURRE NOBIS MATER PIA. MCCCLXXVIII. + +The second example is sketched from an altar-piece painted for the +suppressed convent of Santa Chiara, at Venice. It is six feet high, +and eight feet wide, and the ornamental caning in which the subjects +are enclosed particularly splendid and elaborate. + +[Illustration: Altar-piece] + +A. The Coronation of the Virgin, treated as a religious mystery, with +choral angels. B. The Nativity of our Lord. C. The Baptism. D. The +Last Supper. E. The Betrayal of Christ. F. The Procession to Calvary, +in which the Virgin is rudely pushed aside by the soldiers. G. The +Crucifixion, as an event: John sustains the Virgin at the foot of the +cross. H. The Resurrection and the _Noli me tangere_. I. Ascension. +1. Half-figure of Christ, with the hand extended in benediction; in +the other hand the Gospel. 2. David. 3. Isaiah. 4, 5, 6, 7. The +four Evangelists standing. 8. 9, 11, 12. Scenes from the Life of St. +Francis and St. Clara. 10. The Descent of the Holy Ghost. 13. The Last +Judgment. + +It is to be regretted that so many of these altar-pieces have been +broken up, and the detached parts sold as separate pictures: so that +we may find one compartment of an altar in a church at Rome, and +another hanging in a drawing-room in London; the upper part at Ghent, +the lower half at Paris; one wing at Berlin, another at Florence. But +where they exist as a whole, how solemn, significant, and instructive +the arrangement! It may be read as we read a poem. Compare these with +the groups round the enthroned Virgin in the later altar-pieces, +where the saints elbow each other in attitudes, where mortal men sit +with unseemly familiarity close to personages recognized as divine. +As I have remarked further on, it is one of the most interesting +speculations connected with the study of art, to trace this decline +from reverence to irreverence, from the most rigid formula to the most +fantastic caprice. The gradual disappearance of the personages of the +Old Testament, the increasing importance given to the family of the +Blessed Virgin, the multiplication of legendary subjects, and all the +variety of adventitious, unmeaning, or merely ornamental accessories, +strike us just in proportion as a learned theology replaced the +unreflecting, undoubting piety of an earlier age. + + * * * * * + +The historical subjects comprise the events from the Life of the +Virgin, when treated in a dramatic form; and all those groups which +exhibit her in her merely domestic relations, occupied by cares for +her divine Child, and surrounded by her parents and kindred, subjects +which assume a pastoral and poetical rather than an historical form. + +All these may be divided into Scriptural and Legendary +representations. The Scriptural scenes in which the Virgin Mary is a +chief or important personage, are the Annunciation, the Visitation, +the Nativity, the Purification, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight +into Egypt, the Marriage at Cana, the Procession to Calvary, the +Crucifixion (as related by St. John), and the Descent of the Holy +Ghost. The Traditional and Legendary scenes are those taken from +the apocryphal Scriptures, some of which have existed from the third +century. The Legend of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin, +with the account of her early life, and her Marriage with Joseph, +down to the Massacre of the Innocents, are taken from the Gospel of +Mary and the Protevangelion. The scenes of the Flight into Egypt, +the Repose on the Journey, and the Sojourn of the Holy Family at +Hieropolis or Matarea, are taken from the Gospel of Infancy. The +various scenes attending the Death and Assumption of the Virgin are +derived from a Greek legendary poem, once attributed to St. John the +Evangelist, but the work, as it is supposed, of a certain Greek, named +Meliton, who lived in the ninth century, and who has merely dressed +up in a more fanciful form ancient traditions of the Church. Many +of these historical scenes have been treated in a devotional style, +expressing not the action, but the event, taken in the light of a +religious mystery; a distinction which I have fully explained in the +following pages, where I have given in detail the legends on which +these scenes are founded, and the religious significance conveyed by +the treatment. + +A complete series of the History of the Virgin begins with the +rejection of her father Joachim from the temple, and ends with the +assumption and coronation, including most of the events in the History +of our Lord (as for example, the series painted by Giotto, in the +chapel of the Arena, at Padua); but there are many instances in which +certain important evens relating to the Virgin only, as the principal +person, are treated as a devotional series; and such are generally +found in the chapels and oratories especially dedicated to her. A +beautiful instance is that of the Death of the Virgin, treated in +a succession of scenes, as an event apart, and painted by Taddeo +Barrolo, in the Chapel of the Palazzo Publico, at Siena. This small +chapel was dedicated to the Virgin soon after the terrible plague of +1848 had ceased, as it was believed, by her intercession; so that +this municipal chapel was at once an expression of thanksgiving, and +a memorial of death, of suffering, of bereavement, and of hope in +the resurrection. The frescoes cover one wall of the chapel, and are +arranged in four scenes. + +1. Mary is reclining in her last sickness, and around her are the +Apostles, who, according to the beautiful legend, were _miraculously_ +assembled to witness her departure. To express this, one of them is +floating in as if borne on the air. St. John kneels at her feet, and +she takes, with an expression exquisitely tender and maternal, his two +hands in hers. This action is peculiar to the Siena school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: On each side of the principal door of the Cathedral at +Siena, which is dedicated to "Beata Virgine Assunta," and just within +the entrance, is a magnificent pilaster, of white marble, completely +covered from the base to the capital with the most luxuriant carving, +arabesques, foliage, &c., in an admirable and finished style. On the +bases of these two pilasters are subjects from the Life of the Virgin, +three on each side, and arranged, each subject on one side having its +pendant on the other. + +1. The meeting of Joachim and Anna. 2. The Nativity of Mary. 3. Her +sickness and last farewell to the Apostles; bending towards St. John, +she takes his hands in hers with the same tender expression as in +the fresco by Taddeo Bartola. 4. She lies dead on her couch. 5. The +Assumption. 6. The Coronation. + +The figures are about a foot in height, delicately carved, full of +that sentiment which is especially Sienese, and treated with a truly +sculptural simplicity.] + +2. She lies extended on her couch, surrounded by the weeping +Apostles, and Christ behind receives the parting soul,--the usual +representation, but treated with the utmost sentiment. + +3. She is borne to the grave by the Apostles; in the background, the +walls of the city of Jerusalem. Here the Greek legend of St. Michael +protecting her remains from the sacrilegious Jew is omitted, and a +peculiar sentiment of solemnity pervades the whole scene. + +4. The resurrection of the Virgin, when she rises from the tomb +sustained by hovering angels, and is received by Christ. + +When I first saw these beautiful frescoes, in 1847, they were in a +very ruined state; they have since been restored in a very good style, +and with a reverent attention to the details and expression. + +In general, however, the cycle commences either with the legend of +Joachim and Anna, or with the Nativity of the Virgin, and ends with +the assumption and coronation. A most interesting early example is the +series painted in fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, in the Baroncelli Chapel +at Florence. The subjects are arranged on two walls. The first on the +right hand, and the second, opposite to us as we enter. + +1. Joachim is rejected from the Temple. + +2. He is consoled by the Angel. + +3. The meeting of Joachim and Anna. + +4. The Birth of the Virgin. + +5. The Presentation of the Virgin. She is here a child of about five +years old; and having ascended five steps (of the fifteen) she turns +as if to bid farewell to her parents and companions, who stand below; +while on the summit the High Priest, Anna the prophetess, and the +maidens of the Temple come forward to receive her. + +6. The Marriage to Joseph, and the rage and disappointment of the +other suitors. + +The second wall is divided by a large window of the richest stained +glass, on each side of which the subjects are arranged. + +7. The Annunciation. This is peculiar. Mary, not throned or standing, +but seated on the ground, with her hands clasped, and an expression +beautiful for devotion and humility, looks upwards to the descending +angel. + +8. The Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth. + +9. The Annunciation to the Shepherds. + +10. The Nativity. + +11. The Wise Men behold the Star in the Form of a Child. + +12. They approach to Worship. Under the window is the altar, no longer +used as such; and behind it a small but beautiful triptych of the +Coronation of the Virgin, by Giotto, containing at least a hundred +heads of saints, angels, &c.; and on the wall opposite is the large +fresco of the Assumption, by Mainardi, in which St. Thomas receives +the girdle, the other Apostles being omitted. This is of much later +date, being painted about 1495. + +The series of five subjects in the Rinuccini Chapel (in the sacristy +of the same church) has been generally attributed to Taddeo Gaddi, +but I agree with those who gave it to a different painter of the same +period. + +The subjects are thus arranged:--1. The Rejection of Joachim, which +fills the whole arch at the top, and is rather peculiarly treated. +On the right of the altar advances a company of grave-looking Elders, +each with his offering. On the left, a procession of the matrons and +widows "who had been fruitful in Israel," each with her lamb. In the +centre, Joachim, with his lamb in his arms and an affrighted look, +is hurrying down the steps. 2. The Lamentation of Joachim on the +Mountain, and the Meeting of Joachim and Anna. 3. The Birth of the +Virgin. 4. The Presentation in the Temple. 5. The Sposalizio of the +Virgin, with which the series concludes; every event referring to her +divine Son, even the Annunciation, being omitted. On comparing these +frescoes with those in the neighbouring chapel of the Baroncelli, the +difference in _feeling_ will be immediately felt; but they are very +_naïve_ and elegant. + +About a hundred years later than these two examples we have the +celebrated series painted by Ghirlandajo, in the choir of S. Maria +Novella at Florence. There are three walls. On the principal wall, +facing us as we enter, is the window; and around it the Annunciation +(as a mystery), then the principal saints of the Order to whom the +church belongs,--St. Dominic and St. Peter Martyr, and the protecting +saints of Florence. + +On the left hand (i.e. the right as we face the high altar) is the +History of the Virgin; on the opposite side, the History of St. John +the Baptist. The various cycles relating to St. John as patron of +Florence will be fully treated in the last volume of Legendary Art; at +present I shall confine myself to the beautiful set of subjects which +relate the history of the Virgin, and which the engravings of Lasinio +(see the "Ancient Florentine Masters") have rendered well known to +the lovers of art. They cover the whole wall and are thus arranged, +beginning from the lowest on the left hand. + +1. Joachim is driven from the Temple. + +2. The Birth of the Virgin. + +3. The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple. + +4. The Marriage of Joseph and Mary. + +5. The Adoration of the Magi (this is very much ruined). + +6. The Massacre of the Innocents. (This also is much ruined.) Vasari +says it was the finest of all. It is very unusual to make this +terrible and pathetic scene part of the life of the Virgin. + +7. In the highest and largest compartment, the Death and Assumption of +the Virgin. + +Nearly contemporary with this fine series is that by Pinturicchio in +the Church of S. Maria del Popolo, at Rome (in the third chapel on the +right). It is comprised in five lunettes round the ceiling, beginning +with the Birth of the Virgin, and is remarkable for its elegance. + +About forty years after this series was completed the people of Siena, +who had always bees remarkable for their devotion to the Virgin, +dedicated to Her honour the beautiful little chapel called the Oratory +of San Bernardino (v. Legends of the Monastic Orders), near the church +of San Francesco, and belonging to the same Order, the Franciscans. +This chapel is an exact parallelogram and the frescoes which cover +the four walls are thus arranged above the wainscot, which rises about +eight feet from the ground. + +1. Opposite the door as we enter, the Birth of the Virgin. The usual +visitor to St. Anna is here a grand female figure, in voluminous +drapery. The delight and exultation of those who minister to the +new-born infant are expressed with the most graceful _naïveté_. This +beautiful composition should be compared with those of Ghirlandajo +and Andrea del Sarto in the Annunziata at Florence;[1] it yields to +neither as a conception and is wholly different. It is the work of a +Sienese painter little known--Girolamo del Pacchio. + +[Footnote 1: This series, painted by Andrea and his scholars and +companions, Franciabigio and Pontormo, is very remarkable as a work of +art, but presents nothing new in regard to the choice and treatment of +the subjects.] + +2. The Presentation in the Temple, by G.A. Razzi. The principal scene +is placed in the background, and the little Madonna, as she ascends +the steps, is received by the High Priest and Anna the prophetess. +Her father and mother and groups of spectators fill the foreground; +here, too, is a very noble female figure on the right; but the whole +composition is mannered, and wants repose and religious feeling. + +3. The Sposalizio, by Beccafumi. The ceremony takes place after the +manner of the Jews, outside the Temple. In a mannered, artificial +style. + +4, 5. On one side of the altar, the Angel Gabriel floating in--very +majestic and angelic; on the other side the Virgin Annunziata, with +that attitude and expression so characteristic of the Siena School, +as if shrinking from the apparition. These also are by Girolamo del +Pacchio, and extremely fine. + +6. The enthroned Virgin and Child, by Beccafumi. The Virgin is very +fine and majestic; around her throne stand and kneel the guardian +saints of Siena and the Franciscan Order; St. Francis, St. Antony of +Padua, St. Bernardino, St. Catherine of Siena, St. Ansano, St. John +B., St. Louis. (St. Catherine, as patroness of Siena, takes here the +place usually given to St. Clara in the Franciscan pictures.) + +7. The Visitation. Very fine and rather peculiar; for here Elizabeth +bends over Mary as welcoming her, while the other inclines her head as +accepting hospitality. By Razzi. + +8. The Death of the Virgin. Fourteen figures, among which are four +females lamenting, and St. John bearing the palm. The attitude and +expression of Mary, composed in death, are very fine; and Christ, +instead of standing, as usual, by the couch, with her parting soul in +his arms, comes rushing down from above with arms outspread to receive +it. + +9. The Assumption. Mary, attired all in white, rises majestically. +The tomb is seen beneath, out of which grow two tall lilies amid white +roses; the Apostles surround it, and St. Thomas receives the girdle. +This is one of the finest works of Razzi, and one of the purest in +point of sentiment. + +10. The Coronation, covering the whole wall which faces the altar, is +by Razzi; it is very peculiar and characteristic. The Virgin, all in +white, and extremely fine, bending gracefully, receives her crown; the +other figures have that vulgarity of expression which belonged to the +artist, and is often so oddly mingled with the sentiment and grandeur +of his school and time. On the right of the principal group stands +St. John B.; on the left, Adam and Eve; and behind the Virgin, her +mother, St. Anna, which is quite peculiar, and the only instance I can +remember. + + * * * * * + +It appears therefore that the Life of the Virgin Mary, whether treated +as a devotional or historical series, forms a kind of pictured drama +in successive scenes; sometimes comprising only six or eight of the +principal events of her individual life, as her birth, dedication, +marriage, death, and assumption: sometimes extending to forty or fifty +subjects, and combining her history with that of her divine Son. I +may now direct the attention of the reader to a few other instances +remarkable for their beauty and celebrity. + +Giotto, 1320. In the chapel at Padua styled _la Capella dell' Arena_. +One of the finest and most complete examples extant, combining the +Life of the Virgin with that of her Son. This series is of the highest +value, a number of scenes and situations suggested by the Scriptures +being here either expressed for the first time, or in a form unknown +in the Greek school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Kugler's Handbook, p. 129. He observes, that "the +introduction of the maid-servant spinning, in the story of St. Anna, +oversteps the limits of the higher ecclesiastical style." For an +explanation I must refer to the story as I have given it at p 249. +See, for the distribution of the subjects in this chapel, Lord +Lindsay's "Christian Art," vol. ii. A set of the subjects has since +been published by the Arundel Society.] + +Angiolo Gaddi, 1380. The series in the cathedral at Prato. These +comprise the history of the Holy Girdle. + +Andrea Orcagna, 1373. The beautiful series of bas-reliefs on the +shrine in Or-San-Michele, at Florence. + +Nicolò da Modena, 1450. Perhaps the earliest engraved example: +very remarkable for the elegance of the _motifs_ and the imperfect +execution, engraving on copper being then a new art. + +Albert Durer. The beautiful and well-known set of twenty-five +wood-cuts, published in 1510. A perfect example of the German +treatment. + +Bernardino Luini, 1515. A series of frescoes of the highest beauty, +painted for the monastery Della Pace. Unhappily we have only the +fragments which are preserved in the Brera. + +The series of bas-reliefs on the outer shrine of the Casa di Loretto, +by Sansovino, and others of the greatest sculptors of the beginning of +the sixteenth century. + +The series of bas-reliefs round the choir at Milan: seventeen +subjects. + + * * * * * + +We often find the Seven Joys and the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin +treated as a series. + +The Seven Joys are, the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity, +the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, Christ +found by his Mother, the Assumption and Coronation. + +The Seven Sorrows are, the Prophecy of Simeon, the Flight into Egypt, +Christ lost by his Mother, the Betrayal of Christ, the Crucifixion +(with St. John and the Virgin only present), the Deposition from the +Cross, the Ascension when the Virgin is left on earth. + +The Seven Joys and Sorrows are frequently found in altar-pieces and +religions prints, arranged in separate compartments, round the Madonna +in the centre. Or they are combined in various groups into one large +composition, as in a famous picture by Hans Hemling, wonderful for the +poetry, expression, and finished execution.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Altogether, on a careful consideration of this picture, +I do not consider the title by which it is generally known as +appropriate. It contains man groups which would not enter into the +mystic joys or sorrows; for instance, the Massacre of the Innocents, +Christ at Emmaus, the _Noli me tangere_, and others.] + +Another cycle of subjects consists of the fifteen Mysteries of the +Rosary. + +The five Joyful Mysteries, are the Annunciation, the Visitation, the +Nativity, the Purification, and Christ found in the Temple. + +The five Dolorous or Sorrowful Mysteries are, our Lord in the +Garden of Olives, the Flagellation, Christ crowned with Thorns, the +Procession to Calvary, the Crucifixion. + +The five Glorious Mysteries are, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the +Descent of the Holy Ghost, the Assumption, the Coronation. + +A series of subjects thus arranged cannot be called strictly +historical, but partakes of the mystical and devotional character. +The purpose being to excite devout meditation, requires a particular +sentiment, frequently distinguished from the merely dramatic and +historical treatment in being accompanied by saints, votaries, +and circumstances purely ideal; as where the Wise Men bring their +offerings, while St. Luke sits in a corner painting the portrait +of the Virgin, and St. Dominick kneels in adoration of the Mystery +(Mabuse, Munich Gal.);--and in a hundred other examples. + + + + +IV. TITLES OF THE VIRGIN MARY. + + +Of the various titles given to the Virgin Mary, and thence to certain +effigies and pictures of her, some appear to me very touching, as +expressive of the wants, the aspirations, the infirmities and sorrows, +which are common to poor suffering humanity, or of those divine +attributes from which they hoped to find aid and consolation. Thus we +have-- + +Santa Maria "del buon Consilio." Our Lady of good Counsel. + +S.M. "del Soccorso." Our Lady of Succour. Our Lady of the Forsaken. + +S.M. "del buon Core." Our Lady of good Heart. + +S.M. "della Grazia." Our Lady of Grace. + +S.M. "di Misericordia." Our Lady of Mercy. + +S.M. "Auxilium Afflictorum." Help of the Afflicted. + +S.M. "Refugium Peccatorum." Refuge of Sinners. + +S.M. "del Pianto," "del Dolore." Our Lady of Lamentation, or Sorrow. + +S.M. "Consolatrice," "della Consolazione," or "del Conforte." Our Lady +of Consolation. + +S.M. "della Speranza." Our Lady of Hope. + +Under these and similar titles she is invoked by the afflicted, and +often represented with her ample robe outspread and upheld by angels, +with votaries and suppliants congregated beneath its folds. In Spain, +_Nuestra Señora de la Merced_ is the patroness of the Order of Mercy; +and in this character she often holds in her hand small tablets +bearing the badge of the Order. (Legends of the Monastic Orders, 2d +edit.) + +S.M. "della Liberta," or "Liberatrice," Our Lady of Liberty; and S.M. +"della Catena," Our Lady of Fetters. In this character she is invoked +by prisoners and captives. + +S.M. "del Parto," Our Lady of Good Delivery, invoked by women in +travail.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Dante alludes to her in this character:-- + + "E per ventura udi 'Dolce Maria!' + Dinanzi a noi chiamar cosi nel pianto + Come fa donna che 'n partorir sia."--_Purg._ c. 20.] + +S.M. "del Popolo." Our Lady of the People. + +S.M. "della Vittoria." Our Lady of Victory. + +S.M. "della Pace." Our Lady of Peace. + +S.M. "della Sapienza," Our Lady of Wisdom; and S.M. "della +Perseveranza," Our Lady of Perseverance. (Sometimes placed in +colleges, with a book in her hand, as patroness of students.) + +S.M. "della Salute." Our Lady of Health or Salvation. Under this title +pictures and churches have been dedicated after the cessation of a +plague, or any other public calamity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: There is also somewhere in France a chapel dedicated to +_Notre Dame de la Haine_.] + +Other titles are derived from particular circumstances and +accessories, as-- + +S.M. "del Presepio," Our Lady of the Cradle; generally a Nativity, or +when she is adoring her Child. + +S.M. "della Scodella"--with the cup or porringer, where she is taking +water from a fountain; generally a Riposo. + +S.M. "dell' Libro," where she holds the Book of Wisdom. + +S.M. "della Cintola," Our Lady of the Girdle, where she is either +giving the Girdle to St. Thomas, or where the Child holds it in his +hand. + +S.M. "della Lettera." Our Lady of the Letter. This is the title given +to Our Lady as protectress of the city of Messina. According to the +Sicilian legend, she honoured the people of Messina by writing a +letter to them, dated from Jerusalem, "in the year of her Son, 42." In +the effigies of the "Madonna della Lettera," she holds this letter in +her hand. + +S.M. "della Rosa." Our Lady of the Rose. A title given to several +pictures, in which the rose, which is consecrated to her, is placed +either in her hand, or in that of the Child. + +S.M. "della Stella." Our Lady of the Star. She wears the star as one +of her attributes embroidered on her mantle. + +S.M. "del Fiore." Our Lady of the Flower. She has this title +especially as protectress of Florence. + +S.M. "della Spina." She holds in her hand the crown of thorns, and +under this title is the protectress of Pisa. + +S.M. "del Rosario." Our Lady of the Rosary, with the mystic string of +beads. I do not remember any instance of the Rosary placed in the hand +of the Virgin or the Child till after the battle of Lepanto (1571), +and the institution of the Festival of the Rosary, as an act of +thanksgiving. After this time pictures of the Madonna "del Rosario" +abound, and may generally be found in the Dominican churches. There is +a famous example by Guido in the Bologna Gallery, and a very beautiful +one by Murillo in the Dulwich Gallery. + +S.M. "del Carmine." Our Lady of Mount Carmel. She is protectress of +the Order of the Carmelites, and is often represented holding in her +hand small tablets, on which is the effigy of herself with the Child. + +S.M. "de Belem." Our Lady of Bethlehem. Under this title she is the +patroness of the Jeronymites, principally in Spain and Portugal. + +S.M. "della Neve." Our Lady of the Snow. In Spain, S. Maria la Blanca. +To this legend of the snow the magnificent church of S.M. Maggiore at +Rome is said to owe its origin. A certain Roman patrician, whose name +was John (Giovanni Patricie), being childless, prayed of the Virgin to +direct him how best to bestow his worldly wealth. She appeared to him +in a dream on the night of the fifth of August, 352, and commanded him +to build a church in her honour, on a spot where snow would be found +the next morning. The same vision having appeared to his wife and the +reigning pope, Liberius, they repaired in procession the next morning +to the summit of Mount Esquiline, where, notwithstanding the heat of +the weather, a large patch of ground was miraculously covered with +snow, and on it Liberius traced out with his crosier the plan of the +church. This story has been often represented in art, and is easily +recognized; but it is curious that the two most beautiful pictures +consecrated to the honour of the Madonna della Neve are Spanish and +not Roman, and were painted by Murillo about the time that Philip +IV. of Spain sent rich offerings to the church of S.M. Maggiore, thus +giving a kind of popularity to the legend. The picture represents +the patrician John and his wife asleep, and the Vision of the Virgin +(one of the loveliest ever painted by Murillo) breaking upon them in +splendour through the darkness of the night; while in the dim distance +is seen the Esquiline (or what is meant for it) covered with snow. In +the second picture, John and his wife are kneeling before the pope, +"a grand old ecclesiastic, like one of Titian's pontiffs." These +pictures, after being carried off by the French from the little church +of S.M. la Blanca at Seville, are now in the royal gallery at Madrid. + +S. Maria "di Loretto." Our Lady of Loretto. The origin of this title +is the famous legend of the Santa Casa, the house at Nazareth, which +was the birthplace of the Virgin, and the scene of the Annunciation. +During the incursions of the Saracens, the Santa Casa being threatened +with profanation, if not destruction, was taken up by the angels +and conveyed over land and sea till it was set down on the coast of +Dalmatia; but not being safe there, the angels again took it up, and, +bearing it over the Adriatic, set it down in a grove near Loretto. But +certain wicked brigands having disturbed its sacred quietude by strife +and murder, the house again changed its place, and was at length set +down on the spot where it now stands. The date of this miracle is +placed in 1295. + +The Madonna di Loretto is usually represented as seated with the +divine Child on the roof of a house, which is sustained at the corners +by four angels, and thus borne over sea and land. From the celebrity +of Loretto as a place of pilgrimage this representation became +popular, and is often found in chapels dedicated to our Lady of +Loretto. Another effigy of our Lady of Loretto is merely a copy of +a very old Greek "Virgin and Child," which is enshrined in the Santa +Casa. + +S.M. "del Pillar," Our Lady of the Pillar, is protectress of +Saragossa. According to the Legend, she descended from heaven standing +on an alabaster pillar, and thus appeared to St. James (Santiago) +when he was preaching the gospel in Spain. The miraculous pillar +is preserved in the cathedral of Saragossa, and the legend appears +frequently in Spanish art. Also in a very interior picture by Nicolo +Poussin, now in the Louvre. + + * * * * * + +Some celebrated pictures are individually distinguished by titles +derived from some particular object in the composition, as Raphael's +_Madonna de Impannata_, so called from the window in the back +ground being partly shaded with a piece of linen (in the Pitti +Pal., Florence); Correggio's _Vierge au Panier_, so called from the +work-basket which stands beside her (in our Nat Gal.); Murillo's +_Virgen de la Servilleta_, the Virgin of the Napkin, in allusion to +the dinner napkin on which it was painted.[1] Others are denominated +from certain localities, as the _Madonna di Foligno_ (now in the +Vatican); others from the names of families to whom they have +belonged, as _La Madonna della Famiglia Staffa_, at Perugia. + +[Footnote 1: There is a beautiful engraving in Stirling's "Annals of +the Artists of Spain."] + + * * * * * + +Those visions and miracles with which the Virgin Mary favoured many +of the saints, as St. Luke (who was her secretary and painter), St. +Catherine, St. Francis, St. Herman, and others, have already been +related in the former volumes, and need not be repeated here. + +With regard to the churches dedicated to the Virgin, I shall not +attempt to enumerate even the most remarkable, as almost every town +in Christian Europe contains one or more bearing her name. The most +ancient of which tradition speaks, was a chapel beyond the Tiber, at +Rome, which is said to have been founded in 217, on the site where S. +Maria _in Trastevere_ now stands. But there are one or two which carry +their pretensions much higher; for the cathedral at Toledo and the +cathedral at Chartres both claim the honour of having been dedicated +to the Virgin while she was yet alive.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In England we have 2,120 churches dedicated in her +honour; and one of the largest and most important of the London +parishes bears her name--"St. Marie-la-bonne"] + + * * * * * + +Brief and inadequate as are these introductory notices, they will, I +hope, facilitate the comprehension of the critical details into which +it has been necessary to enter in the following pages, and lend some +new interest to the subjects described. I have heard the artistic +treatment of the Madonna styled a monotonous theme; and to those who +see only the perpetual iteration of the same groups on the walls of +churches and galleries, varied as they may suppose only by the fancy +of the painter, it may seem so. But beyond the visible forms, there +lies much that is suggestive to a thinking mind--to the lover of Art +a higher significance, a deeper beauty, a more various interest, than +could at first be imagined. + +In fact, the greatest mistakes in point of _taste_ arise in general +from not knowing what we ought to demand of the artist, not only in +regard to the subject expressed, but with reference to the times in +which he lived, and his own individuality. An axiom which I have heard +confidently set forth, that a picture is worth nothing unless "he who +runs may read," has inundated the world with frivolous and pedantic +criticism. A picture or any other work of Art, is worth nothing except +in so far as it has emanated from mind, and is addressed to mind. It +should, indeed, be _read_ like a book. Pictures, as it has been well +said, are the books of the unlettered, but then we must at least +understand the language in which they are written. And further,--if, +in the old times, it was a species of idolatry to regard these +beautiful representations as endued with a specific sanctity and +power; so, in these days, it is a sort of atheism to look upon them +reckless of their significance, regardless of the influences through +which they were produced, without acknowledgment of the mind which +called them into being, without reference to the intention of the +artist in his own creation. + + * * * * * + +SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +I. + +In the first edition of this work, only a passing allusion was made to +those female effigies, by some styled "_la donna orante_" (the Praying +Woman) and by others supposed to represent Mary the Mother of our +Lord, of which so many examples exist in the Catacombs and in the +sculptured groups on the ancient Christian sarcophagi. I know it has +long been a disputed, or at least an unsettled and doubtful point, as +to whether certain female figures existing on the earliest Christian +monuments were or were not intended to represent the Virgin Mary. +The Protestants, on the one hand, as if still inspired by that +superstition against superstition which led to the violent and vulgar +destruction of so many beautiful works of art, and the Catholics on +the other, jealous to maintain the authenticity of these figures as a +testimony to the ancient worship of the Virgin, both appear to me to +have taken an exaggerated and prejudiced view of a subject which ought +to be considered dispassionately on purely antiquarian and critical +grounds. Having had the opportunity, during a late residence in +Italy, of reconsidering and comparing a great number of these antique +representations, and having heard the opinions of antiquarians, +theologians, and artists, who had given their attention to the +subject, and who occasionally differed from each other as to the +weight of evidence, I have arrived at the conviction, that some of +these effigies represent the Virgin Mary, and others do not. I confess +I do not believe in any authentic representation of the Virgin holding +the Divine Child older than the sixth century, except when introduced +into the groups of the Nativity and the Worship of the Magi. Previous +to the Nestorian controversy, these maternal effigies, as objects of +devotion, were, I still believe, unknown, but I cannot understand +why there should exist among Protestants, so strong a disposition to +discredit every representation of Mary the Mother of our Lord to which +a high antiquity had been assigned by the Roman Catholics. We know +that as early as the second century, not only symbolical figures of +our Lord, but figures of certain personages of holy life, as St. Peter +and St. Paul, Agnes the Roman, and Euphemia the Greek, martyr, did +certainly exist. The critical and historical testimony I have given +elsewhere. (Sacred and Legendary Art.) Why therefore should there not +have existed effigies of the Mother of Christ, of the "Woman highly +blessed," the subject of so many prophecies, and naturally the object +of a tender and just veneration among the early Christians? It seams +to me that nothing could be more likely, and that such representations +ought to have a deep interest for all Christians, no matter of what +denomination--for _all_, in truth, who believe that the Saviour of +the world had a good Mother, His only earthly parent, who brought Him +forth, nurtured and loved Him. That it should be considered a point +of faith with Protestants to treat such memorials with incredulity +and even derision, appears to me most inconsistent and unaccountable, +though I confess that between these simple primitive memorials and the +sumptuous tasteless column and image recently erected at Rome there is +a very wide margin of disputable ground, of which I shall say no more +in this place. But to return to the antique conception of the "Donna +orante" or so-called Virgin Mother, I will mention here only the moat +remarkable examples; for to enter fully into the subject would occupy +a volume in itself. + +There is a figure often met with in the Catacombs and on the +sarcophagi of a majestic woman standing with outspread arms (the +ancient attitude of prayer), or holding a book or scroll in her hand. +When this figure stands alone and unaccompanied by any attribute, I +think the signification doubtful: but in the Catacomb of St. Ciriaco +there is a painted figure of a woman, with arms outspread and +sustained on each aide by figures, evidently St. Peter and St. Paul; +on the sarcophagi the same figure frequently occurs; and there are +other examples certainly not later than the third and fourth century. +That these represent Mary the Mother of Christ I have not the least +doubt; I think it has been fully demonstrated that no other Christian +woman could have been so represented, considering the manners and +habits of the Christian community at that period. Then the attitude +and type are precisely similar to those of the ancient Byzantine +Madonnas and the Italian mosaics of Eastern workmanship, proving, as +I think, that there existed a common traditional original for this +figure, the idea of which has been preserved and transmitted in these +early copies. + +Further:--there exist in the Roman museums many fragments of ancient +glass found in the Christian tombs, on which are rudely pictured in +colours figures exactly similar, and having the name MARIA inscribed +above them. On one of these fragments I found the same female figure +between two male figures, with the names inscribed over them, MARIA. +PETRVS. PAVLVS., generally in the rudest and most imperfect style, as +if issuing from some coarse manufacture; but showing that they have +had a common origin with those far superior figures in the Catacombs +and on the sarcophagi, while the inscribed names leave no doubt as to +the significance. + +On the other hand, there are similar fragments of coarse glass found +in the Catacombs--either lamps or small vases, bearing the same female +in the attitude of prayer, and superscribed in rude letters, DULCIS +ANIMA PIE ZESES VIVAS. (ZESES instead of JESUS.) Such may, possibly, +represent, not the Virgin Mary, but the Christian matron or martyr +buried in the tomb; at least, I consider them as doubtful. + +The Cavaliere Rossi, whose celebrity as an antiquarian is not merely +Italian, but European, and whose impartiality can hardly be doubted, +told me that a Christian sarcophagus had lately been discovered at +Saint-Maxime, in the south of France, on which there is the same group +of the female figure praying, and over it the name MARIA. + +I ought to add, that on one of these sarcophagi, bearing the oft +repeated subject of the good Shepherd feeding His sheep, I found, as +the companion group, a female figure in the act of feeding birds which +are fluttering to her feet. It is not doubted that the good Shepherd +is the symbol of the beneficent Christ; whether the female figure +represent the Virgin-mother, or is to be regarded merely as a general +symbol of female beneficence, placed on a par with that of Christ +(in His human character), I will not pretend to decide. It is equally +touching and beautiful in either significance. + +Three examples of these figures occur to me. + +The first is from a Christian sarcophagus of early date, and in a good +style of art, probably of the third century--it is a noble figure, +in the attitude of prayer, and separated from the other groups by a +palm-tree on each side--at her feet is a bird (perhaps a dove, the +ancient symbol of the released soul), and scrolls which represent +the gospel. I regard this figure as doubtful; it may possibly be the +effigy of a Christian matron, who was interred in the sarcophagus. + +The second example is also from a sarcophagus. It is a figure holding +a scroll of the gospel, and standing between St. Peter and St. +Paul; on each side (in the original) there are groups expressing the +beneficent miracles of our Lord. This figure, I believe, represents +the Virgin Mary. + +In the third example, the conspicuous female figure is combined with +the series of groups on each side. She stands with hands outspread, in +the attitude of prayer, between the two apostles, who seem to sustain +her arms. On one side is the miracle of the water changed into wine; +on the other side, Christ healing the woman who touched His garment; +both of perpetual recurrence in these sculptures. Of these groups of +the miracles and actions of Christ on the early Christian sarcophagi, +I shall give a full account in the "History of our Lord, as +illustrated in the fine arts;" at present I confine myself to the +female figure which takes this conspicuous place, while other female +figures are prostrate, or of a diminutive size, to express their +humility or inferiority; and I have no doubt that thus situated it +is intended to represent the woman who was highly honoured as well as +highly blessed--the Mother of our Saviour. + +I have come therefore to the conclusion, that while many of these +figures have a certain significance, others are uncertain. Where +the figure is isolated, or placed within a frame or border, like the +memorial busts and effigies on the Pagan sarcophagi, I think it may +be regarded as probably commemorating the Christian martyr or matron +entombed in the sarcophagus; but when there is no division, where the +figure forms part of a continuous series of groups, expressing the +character and miracles of Christ, I believe that it represents His +mother. + + +II. + +The BORGHESE CHAPEL, in the church, of St. Maria Maggiore at Rome, was +dedicated to the honour of the Virgin Mary by Paul V. (Borghese), in +1611--the same Pope who in 1615 promulgated the famous Bull relative +to the Immaculate Conception. The scheme of decoration in this +gorgeous chapel is very remarkable, as testifying to the development +which the theological idea of the Virgin, as the Sposa or personified +Church, had attained at this period, and because it is not, as in +other examples, either historical or devotional, but purely doctrinal. + +As we enter, the profusion of ornament, the splendour of colour, +marbles, gilding, from the pavement under our feet to the summit of +the lofty dome, are really dazzling. First, and elevated above all, +we have the "Madonna della Concezione," Our Lady of the Immaculate +Conception, in a glory of light, sustained and surrounded by angels, +having the crescent under her feet, according to the approved +treatment. Beneath, round the dome, we read in conspicuous letters +the text from the Revelations:--SIGNUM. MAGNUM. APPARAVlT. IN COELO. +MULIER. AMICTA. SOLE. ET. LUNA. SUB. PEDIBUS. EJUS. ET. IN CAPITE. +EJUS, CORONA. STELLARUM. DUODECIM. (Rev. xii. 1.) Lower down is a +second inscription, expressing the dedication. MARIÆ. CHRISTI. MATRI. +SEMPER. VIRGINI. PAULUS. QUINTUS.P.M. The decorations beneath the +cornice consist of eighteen large frescoes, and six statues in marble, +above life size. Beginning with the frescoes, we have the subjects +arranged in the following order:-- + +1. The four great prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, +in their usual place in the four pendentives of the dome. (v. The +Introduction.) + +2. Two large frescoes. In the first, the Vision of St. Gregory +Thaumaturgus,[1] and Heretics bitten by Serpents. In the second, St. +John Damascene and St. Ildefonso miraculously rewarded for defending +the Majesty of the Virgin. (Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +[Footnote 1: St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop of Pontus in the third +century, was favoured by a vision of the Trinity, which enabled him to +confute and utterly subdue the Sabellian heretics--the Unitarians of +his time.] + +3. A large fresco, representing the four Doctors of the Church who had +especially written in honour of the Virgin: viz. Ireneus and Cyprian, +Ignatius and Theophilus, grouped two and two. + +4. St. Luke, who painted the Virgin, and whose gospel contains the +best account of her. + +5. As spiritual conquerors in the name of the Virgin, St. Dominic and +St. Francis, each attended by two companions of his Order. + +6. As military conquerors in the name of the Virgin, the Emperor +Heraclius, and Narses, the general against the Arians. + +7. A group of three female figures, representing the three famous +saintly princesses who in marriage preserved their virginity, +Pulcheria, Edeltruda (our famous queen Ethelreda), and Cunegunda. (For +the legends of Cunegunda and Ethelreda, see Legends of the Monastic +Orders.) + +8. A group of three learned Bishops, who had especially defended the +immaculate purity of the Virgin, St. Cyril, St. Anselm, and St. Denis +(?). + +9. The miserable ends of those who were opposed to the honour of the +Virgin. 1. The death of Julian the Apostate, very oddly represented; +he lies on an altar, transfixed by an arrow, as a victim; St. +Mercurius in the air. (For this legend see Sacred and Legendary Art.) +2. The death of Leo IV., who destroyed the effigies of the Virgin. 3. +The death of Constantine IV., also a famous iconoclast. + +The statues which are placed in niches are-- + +1, 2. St. Joseph, as the nominal husband, and St. John the Evangelist, +as the nominal son of the Virgin; the latter, also, as prophet and +poet, with reference to the passage in the Revelation, c. xii. 1. + +3, 4. Aaron, as priestly ancestor (because his wand blossomed), and +David, as kingly ancestor of the Virgin. + +5, 6. St. Dionysius the Areopagite, who was present at the death of +the Virgin, and St. Bernard, who composed the famous "Salve Regina" in +her honour. + +Such is this grand systematic scheme of decoration, which, to those +who regard it cursorily, is merely a sumptuous confusion of colours +and forms, or at best, "a fine example of the Guido school and +Bernino." It is altogether a very complete and magnificent specimen +of the prevalent style of art, and a very comprehensive and suggestive +expression of the prevalent tendency of thought, in the Roman +Catholic Church from the beginning of the seventeenth century. In no +description of this chapel have I ever seen the names and subjects +accurately given: the style of art belongs to the _decadence_, and the +taste being worse than, questionable, the pervading _doctrinal_ idea +has been neglected, or never understood. + + +III. + +Those pictures which represent the Virgin Mary kneeling before the +celestial throne, while the PADRE ETERNO or the MESSIAH extends his +hand or his sceptre towards her, are generally misunderstood. They +do not represent, the Assumption, nor yet the reception of Mary in +Heaven, as is usually supposed; but the election or predestination of +Mary as the immaculate vehicle or tabernacle of human redemption--the +earthly parent of the divine Saviour. I have described such a picture +by Dosso Dossi, and another by Cottignola. A third example may be +cited in a yet more beautiful and celebrated picture by Francia, now +in the Church at San Frediano at Lucca. Above, in the glory of Heaven, +the Virgin kneels before the throne of the Creator; she is clad in +regal attire of purple and crimson and gold; and she bends her fair +crowned head, and folds her hands upon her bosom with an expression +of meek yet dignified resignation--"_Behold the handmaid of the +Lord!_"--accepting, as woman, that highest glory, as mother, that +extremest grief, to which the Divine will, as spoken by the prophets +of old, had called her. Below, on the earth and to the right hand, +stand David and Solomon, as prophets and kingly ancestors: on the left +hand, St. Augustine and St. Anselm in their episcopal robes. (I have +mentioned, with regard to the office in honour of the Immaculate +Conception, that the idea is said to have originated in England. I +should also have added, that Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, was +its strenuous advocate.) Each of these personages holds a scroll. On +that of David the reference is to the 4th and 5th verses of Psalm +xxvii.--"_In the secret of his tabernacle he shall hide me_." On +that of Solomon is the text from his Song, ch. iv. 7. On that of St. +Augustine, a quotation, I presume, from his works, but difficult +to make out; it seems to be, "_In coelo qualis est Pater, talis est +Films; qualis est Filius, talis est Mater_." On that of St. Anselm the +same inscription which is on the picture of Cottignola quoted before, +"_non puto vere esse_." &c., which is, I suppose, taken from his +works. In the centre, St. Anthony of Padua kneels beside the sepulchre +full of lilies and roses; showing the picture to have been painted +for, or under the influence of, the Franciscan Order; and, like other +pictures of the same class, "an attempt to express in a visible form +the idea or promise of the redemption of the human race, as existing +in the Sovereign Eternal Mind before the beginning of the world." This +altar-piece has no date, but appears to have been painted about the +same time as the picture in our National Gallery (No. 179.), which +came from the same church. As a work of art it is most wonderfully +beautiful. The editors of the last excellent edition of Vasari speak +of it with just enthusiasm as "_Opera veramente stupenda in ogni +parte_!" The predella beneath, painted in chiaro-oscuro, is also of +exquisite beauty; and let us hope that we shall never see it separated +from the great subject, like a page or a paragraph torn out of a book +by ignorant and childish collectors. + + +IV. + +Although the Nativity of the Virgin Mary is one of the great festivals +of the Roman Catholic Church, I have seldom seen it treated as +a separate subject and an altar-piece. There is, however, a very +remarkable example in the Belle Arti at Siena. It is a triptych +enclosed in a framework elaborately carved and gilt, in the +Gothic style. In the centre compartment, St. Anna lies on a rich +couch covered with crimson drapery; a graceful female presents an +embroidered napkin, others enter, bringing refreshments, as usual. +In front, three attendants minister to the Infant: one of them is in +an attitude of admiration; on the right, Joachim seated, with white +hair and beard, receives the congratulations of a young man who seems +to envy his paternity. In the compartment on the right stand St. +James Major and St. Catherine; on the left, St. Bartholomew and St. +Elizabeth of Hungary (?). This picture is in the hard primitive style +of the fourteenth century, by an unknown painter, who must have lived, +before Giovanni di Paolo, but vividly coloured, exquisitely finished, +and full of sentiment and dramatic feeling. + + + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART I. + +THE VIRGIN WITHOUT THE CHILD. + +1. LA VERGINE GLORIOSA. 2. L'INCORONATA. +3. LA MADONNA DI MISERICORDIA. 4. LA MADRE +DOLOROSA. 5. LA CONCEZIONE. + +THE VIRGIN MARY. + +_Lat._ 1. Virgo Gloriosa. 2. Virgo Sponsa Dei. 3. Virgo Potens 4. +Virgo Veneranda. 5. Virgo Prædicanda. 6. Virgo Clemens. 7. Virgo +Sapientissima. 8. Sancta Virgo Virginum. _Ital._ La Vergine Gloriosa. +La Gran Vergine delle Vergini. _Fr._ La Grande Vierge. + +There are representations of the Virgin, and among them some of the +earliest in existence, which place her before us as an object of +religious veneration, but in which the predominant idea is not that +of her maternity. No doubt it was as the mother of the Saviour Christ +that she was originally venerated; but in the most ancient monuments +of the Christian faith, the sarcophagi, the rude paintings in the +catacombs, and the mosaics executed before the seventh century, +she appears simply as a veiled female figure, not in any respect +characterized. She stands, in a subordinate position, on one side of +Christ; St. Peter or St. John the Baptist on the other. + +When the worship of the Virgin came to us from the East, with it came +the Greek type--and for ages we had no other--the Greek classical +type, with something of the Oriental or Egyptian character. When thus +she stands before us without her Son, and the apostles or saints on +each side taking the subordinate position, then we are to regard her +not only as the mother of Christ, but as the second Eve, the mother of +all suffering humanity; THE WOMAN of the primeval prophecy whose issue +was to bruise the head of the Serpent; the Virgin predestined from +the beginning of the world who was to bring forth the Redeemer of the +world; the mystical Spouse of the Canticles; the glorified Bride of +a celestial Bridegroom; the received Type of the Church of Christ, +afflicted on earth, triumphant and crowned in heaven; the most +glorious, most pure, most pious, most clement, most sacred Queen and +Mother, Virgin of Virgins. + +The form under which we find this grand and mysterious idea of +glorified womanhood originally embodied, is wonderfully majestic +and simple. A female figure of colossal dimensions, far exceeding +in proportion all the attendant personages and accessories, stands +immediately beneath some figure or emblem representing almighty power: +either it is the omnipotent hand stretched out above her, holding the +crown of immortality; or it is the mystic dove which hovers over her; +or it is the half-form of Christ, in the act of benediction. + +She stands with arms raised and extended wide, the ancient attitude of +prayer; or with hands merely stretched forth, expressing admiration, +humility, and devout love. She is attired in an ample tunic of +blue or white, with a white veil over her head, thrown a little +back, and displaying an oval face with regular features, mild, +dignified--sometimes, in the figures of the ruder ages, rather stern +and melancholy, from the inability of the artist to express beauty; +but when least beautiful, and most formal and motionless, always +retaining something of the original conception, and often expressibly +striking and majestic. + +The earliest figure of this character to which I can refer is the +mosaic in the oratory of San Venanzio, in the Lateran, the work of +Greek artists under the popes John IV. and Theodorus, both Greeks by +birth, and who presided over the Church from 640 to 649. In the vault +of the tribune, over the altar, we have first, at the summit, a figure +of Christ half-length, with his hand extended in benediction; on each +side, a worshipping angel; below, in the centre, the figure of the +Virgin according to the ancient type, standing with extended arms, in +a violet or rather dark-blue tunic and white veil, with a small cross +pendant on her bosom. On her right hand stands St. Paul, on her left +St. Peter; beyond St. Peter and St. Paul, St. John the Baptist holding +a cross, and St. John the Evangelist holding a book; and beyond these +again, St. Domino and St. Venantius, two martyred saints, who perished +in Dalmatia, and whose relics were brought out of that country by the +founder of the chapel, John IV., himself a Dalmatian by birth. At the +extremities of this group, or rather line of figures, stand the two +popes, John IV. and Theodorus, under whom the chapel was founded and +dedicated. Although this ancient mosaic has been many times restored, +the original composition remains. + +Similar, but of later date, is the effigy of the Virgin over the altar +of the archiepiscopal chapel at Ravenna. This mosaic, with others of +Greek work, was brought from the old tribune of the cathedral, when +it was altered and repaired, and the ancient decorations removed or +destroyed. + +Another instance, also, at Ravenna, is the basso-relievo in +Greek marble, and evidently of Greek workmanship, which is said +to have existed from the earliest ages, in the church of S. +Maria-in-Porto-Fuori, and is now preserved in the S. Maria-in-Porto, +where I saw it in 1847. It is probably as old as the sixth or seventh +century. + +In St. Mark's at Venice, in the grand old basilica at Torcello, in +San Donate at Murano, at Monreale, near Palermo, and in most of the +old churches in the East of Europe, we find similar figures, either +Byzantine in origin, or in imitation of the Byzantine style. + +But about the middle of the thirteenth century, and contemporary with +Cimabue, we find the first indication of a departure, even in the +mosaics, from the lifeless, formal type of Byzantine art. The earliest +example of a more animated treatment is, perhaps, the figure in the +apsis of St. John Lateran. (Rome.) In the centre is an immense cross, +emblem of salvation; the four rivers of Paradise (the four Gospels) +flow from its base; and the faithful, figured by the hart and the +sheep, drink from these streams. Below the cross is represented, of +a small size, the New Jerusalem guarded by an archangel. On the right +stands the Virgin, of colossal dimensions. She places one hand on the +head of a diminutive kneeling figure, Pope Nicholas IV.,[1] by whom +the mosaic was dedicated about 1290; the other hand, stretched forth, +seems to recommend the votary to the mercy of Christ. + +[Footnote 1: For a minute reduction of the whole composition, see +Kugler's Handbook, p. 113.] + +Full-length effigies of the Virgin seated on a throne, or glorified as +queen of heaven, or queen of angels, without her divine Infant in her +arms, are exceedingly rare in every age; now and then to be met with +in the early pictures and illuminations, but never, that I know of, +in the later schools of art. A signal example is the fine enthroned +Madonna in the Campo Santo, who receives St. Ranieri when presented +by St. Peter and St. Paul. + +On the Dalmatica (or Deacon's robe) preserved in the sacristy of +St. Peter's at Rome (which Lord Lindsay well describes as a perfect +example of the highest style of Byzantine art) (Christian Art, i. +136), the embroidery on the front represents Christ in a golden circle +or glory, robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his +eyes looking into yours. He sits on the rainbow; his left hand holds +an open book, inscribed, "Come, ye blessed of my Father!" while +the right is raised in benediction. The Virgin stands on the right +entirely _within_ the glory; "she is sweet in feature and graceful +in attitude, in her long white robe." The Baptist stands on the left +_outside_ the glory. + +In pictures representing the glory of heaven, Paradise, or the Last +Judgment, we have this idea constantly repeated--of the Virgin on the +right hand of her Son, but not on the same throne with him, unless it +be a "Coronation," which is a subject apart. + +In the great altar-piece of the brothers Van Eyck, the upper part +contains three compartments;[1] in the centre is Christ, wearing the +triple tiara, and carrying the globe, as King, as Priest, as Judge--on +each side, as usual, but in separate compartments, the Virgin and St. +John the Baptist. The Virgin, a noble queenly figure, full of serene +dignity and grace, is seated on a throne, and wears a superb crown, +formed of lilies, roses, and gems, over her long fair hair. She +is reading intently in a book--The Book of Wisdom. She is here the +_Sponsa Dei_, and the _Virgo Sapientissima_, the most wise Virgin. +This is the only example I can recollect of the Virgin seated on the +right hand of her Son in glory, and _holding a book_. In every other +instance she is standing or seated with her hands joined or crossed +over her bosom, and her eyes turned towards him. + +[Footnote 1: It is well known that the different parts of this great +work have been dispersed. The three compartments mentioned here are at +Berlin.] + +Among innumerable examples, I will cite only one, perhaps the most +celebrated of all, and familiar, it may be presumed, to most of my +readers, though perhaps they may not have regarded it with reference +to the character and position given to the Virgin. It is one of the +four great frescoes of the Camera della Segnatura, in the Vatican, +exhibiting the four highest objects of mental culture--Theology, +Poetry, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence. In the first of these, +commonly, but erroneously, called _La Disputa dell' Sacramento_, +Raphael has combined into one great scene the whole system of +theology, as set forth by the Catholic Church; it is a sort of +concordance between heaven and earth--between the celestial and +terrestrial witnesses of the truth. The central group above shows us +the Redeemer of the world, seated with extended arms, having on the +right the Virgin in her usual place, and on the left, also in his +accustomed place, St. John the Baptist; both seated, and nearly on +a level with Christ. The Baptist is here in his character of the +Precursor "sent to bear witness to the light, that through him all +men might believe." (John i. 7.) The Virgin is exhibited, not merely +as the Mother, the Sposa, the Church, but as HEAVENLY WISDOM, for in +this character the Catholic Church has applied to her the magnificent +passage in Proverbs: "The Lord possessed me in the beginning of His +way, before His works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the +beginning, or ever the earth was." "Then I was by Him as one brought +up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing alway before Him." +(Prov. viii, 12-36, and Eccles. xxiv. 15, 16.) + +Nothing can be more beautiful than the serene grace and the mingled +majesty and humility in the figure of the Virgin, and in her +countenance, as she looks up adoring to the Fountain of _all_ light, +_all_ wisdom, and _all_ goodness. Above the principal group, is the +emblematical image of the FATHER; below is the holy Dove, in the act +of descending to the earth.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a detailed description of this fresco, see +Passavant's Raphael, i. 140, and Kugler's Handbook, 2d edit., where a +minute and beautiful reduction of the whole composition will give and +idea of the general design.] + +The Virgin alone, separate from her Son, standing or enthroned before +us, simply as the _Virgine Dea_ or _Regina Coeli_, is rarely met with +in modern art, either in sculpture or painting. I will give, however, +one signal example. + +In an altar-piece painted by Cosimo Rosselli, for the Serviti at +Florence, she stands alone, and in a majestic attitude, on a raised +pedestal. She holds a book, and looks upward, to the Holy Dove, +hovering over her head; she is here again the _Virgo Sapientiæ_. +(Fl. Gal.) On one side is St. John the Evangelist and St. Antonino of +Florence (see Legends of the Monastic Orders); on the other, St. Peter +and St. Philip Benozzi; in front kneel St. Margaret and St. Catherine: +all appear to contemplate with rapturous devotion the vision of the +Madonna. The heads and attitudes in this picture have that character +of elegance which distinguished the Florentine school at this period, +without any of those extravagances and peculiarities into which Piero +often fell; for the man had evidently a touch of madness, and was as +eccentric in his works as in his life and conversation. The order +of the Serviti, for whom he painted this picture, was instituted +in honour of the Virgin, and for her particular service, which will +account for the unusual treatment. + + * * * * * + +The numerous--often most beautiful--heads and half-length figures +which represent the Virgin alone, looking up with a devout or tender +expression, or with the head declined, and the hands joined in prayer, +or crossed over the bosom with virginal humility and modesty, belong +to this class of representations. In the ancient heads, most of which +are imitations of the old Greek effigies ascribed to St. Luke, there +is often great simplicity and beauty. When she wears the crown over +her veil, or bears a sceptre in her hand, she figures as the queen of +heaven (_Regina Coeli_). When such effigies are attended by adoring +angels, she is the queen of angels (_Regina Angelorum_). When she is +weeping or holding the crown of thorns, she is Our Lady of Sorrow, the +_Mater Dolorosa_. When she is merely veiled, with folded hands, and +in her features all the beauty, maiden purity, and sweetness which the +artist could render, she is simply the Blessed Virgin, the Madonna, +the _Santa Maria Vergine_. Such heads are very rare in the earlier +schools of art, which seldom represented the Virgin without her +Child, but became favourite studies of the later painters, and +were multiplied and varied to infinitude from the beginning of the +seventeenth century. From these every trace of the mystical and solemn +conception of antiquity gradually disappeared; till, for the majestic +ideal of womanhood, we have merely inane prettiness, or rustic, or +even meretricious grace, the borrowed charms of some earthly model. + + + + +L'INCORONATA. + + +The Coronation of the Virgin. _Lat._ Coronatio Beatæ Mariæ Virginis. +_Ital._ Maria coronata dal divin suo Figlio. _Fr._ Le Couronnement de +la Sainte Vierge. _Ger._ Die Krönung Mariä. + +The usual type of the Church triumphant is the CORONATION OF THE +VIRGIN properly so called, Christ in the act of crowning his Mother; +one of the most popular, significant, and beautiful subjects in the +whole range of mediæval art. + +When in a series of subjects from the life of the Virgin, so often +met with in religious prints and in the Roman Catholic churches, we +find her death and her assumption followed by her coronation; when +the bier or sarcophagus and the twelve apostles appear below, while +heaven opens upon us above; then the representation assumes a kind +of dramatic character: it is the last and most glorious event of her +history. The Mother, dying on earth, is received into glory by her Son +who had gone before her, and who thus celebrates the consummation of +his victory and hers. + +But when the scene is treated apart as a single subject; when, instead +of the apostles gazing up to heaven, or looking with amazement into +the tomb from which she had risen, we find the lower part of the +composition occupied by votaries, patron saints, or choral angels; +then the subject must be regarded as absolutely devotional and +typical. It is not a scene or an action; it is a great mystery. It +is consecrated to the honour of the Virgin as a type of the spiritual +Church. The Espoused is received into glory and crowned with the crown +of everlasting life, exalted above angels, spirits, and men. In this +sense we must understand the subject when we find it in ecclesiastical +sculpture, over the doors of places of worship, in the decorative +carving of church utensils, in stained glass. In many of the Italian +churches there is a chapel especially dedicated to the Virgin in this +character, called _la Capella dell' Incoronata_; and both in Germany +and Italy it is a frequent subject as an altar-piece. + +In all the most ancient examples, it is Christ only who places the +crown on the head of his Mother, seated on the same throne, and placed +at his right hand. Sometimes we have the two figures only; sometimes +the _Padre Eterno_ looks down, and the Holy Spirit in the form of the +dove hovers above or between them. In some later examples the Virgin +is seated between the Father and the Son, both in human form: they +place the crown on her head each holding it with one hand, the Holy +Spirit hovering above. In other representations the Virgin _kneels_ at +the feet of Christ; and he places the crown on her head, while two or +more rejoicing and adoring angels make heavenly music, or all Paradise +opens to the view; and there are examples where not only the choir +of attendant angels, but a vast assembly of patriarchs, saints, +martyrs, fathers of the Church--the whole company of the blessed +spirits--assist at this great ceremony. + +I will now give some celebrated examples of the various styles of +treatment. + +There is a group in mosaic, which I believe to be singular in its +kind, where the Virgin is enthroned, with Christ. She is seated at his +right hand, at the same elevation, and altogether as his equal. His +right arm embraces her, and his hand rests on her shoulder. She wears +a gorgeous crown, which her Son has placed on her brow Christ has only +the cruciform nimbus; in his left hand is an open book, on which is +inscribed, "_Veni, Electa mea_" &c. "Come, my chosen one, and I will +place thee upon my throne." The Virgin holds a tablet, on which are +the words "His right hand should be under my head, and his left hand +should embrace me." (Cant. viii. 3.) The omnipotent Hand is stretched +forth in benediction above. Here the Virgin is the type of the Church +triumphant and glorified, having overcome the world; and the solemn +significance of the whole representation is to be found in the Book of +Revelations: "To him that overcometh will I grant _to sit with me in +my throne_, even as I also overcame and am set down with my Father in +his throne." (Rev. iii. 21.) + +This mosaic, in which, be it observed, the Virgin is enthroned with +Christ, and _embraced_, not crowned, by him, is, I believe, unique +either as a picture or a church decoration. It is not older than +the twelfth century, is very ill executed, but is curious from the +peculiarity of the treatment. (Rome. S. Maria in Trastevere.) + + * * * * * + +In the mosaic in the tribune of S. Maria-Maggiore at Rome, perhaps +the earliest example extant of the Coronation, properly so called, the +subject is treated with a grand and solemn simplicity. Christ and the +Virgin, colossal figures, are seated on the same regal throne within +a circular glory. The background is blue studded with golden stars. +He places the crown on her head with his right hand; in the left he +holds an open book, with the usual text, "_Veni, Electa mea, et ponam +te in thronum meum_," &c. She bends slightly forward, and her hands +are lifted in adoration. Above and around the circular glory the +emblematical vine twines in arabesque form; among the branches and +leaves sit peacocks and other birds; the peacock being the old emblem +of immortality, as birds in general are emblems of spirituality. On +each side of the glory are nine adoring angels, representing the nine +choirs of the heavenly hierarchy; beyond these on the right stand St. +Peter, St. Paul, St. Francis; on the left, St. John the Baptist, St. +John the Evangelist, and St. Antony of Padua; all these figures being +very small in proportion to those of Christ and the Virgin. Smaller +still, and quite diminutive in comparison, are the kneeling figures of +Pope Nicholas IV. and Cardinal Giacomo Colonna, under whose auspices +the mosaic was executed by Jacopo della Turrita, a Franciscan friar, +about 1288. In front flows the river Jordan, symbol of baptism and +regeneration; on its shore stands the hart, the emblem of religions +aspiration. Underneath the central group is the inscription,-- + + MARIA VIRGO ASSUMPTA AD ETHERIUM THALAMUM + IN QUO REX REGUM STELLATO SEDET SOLIO. + +The whole of this vast and poetical composition is admirably executed, +and it is the more curious as being, perhaps, one of the earliest +examples of the glorification of St. Francis and St. Antony of Padua +(Monastic Orders), who were canonized about thirty or forty years +before. + +The mosaic, by Gaddo Gaddi (Florence, A.D. 1330), over the great door +in the cathedral at Florence, is somewhat different. Christ, while +placing the crown on the head of his Mother with his _left_ hand, +blesses her with his right hand, and he appears to have laid aside +his own crown, which lies near him. The attitude of the Virgin is also +peculiar.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the same cathedral (which is dedicated to the Virgin +Mary) the circular window of the choir opposite to the mosaic exhibits +the Coronation. The design, by Donatello, is eminently fine and +classical.] + +In a small altar-piece by Giotto (Florence, S. Croce), Christ and the +Virgin are seated together on a throne. He places the jewelled crown +on her head with _both_ hands, while she bends forward with her hands +crossed in her lap, and the softest expression in her beautiful face, +as if she as meekly resigned herself to this honour, as heretofore to +the angelic salutation which pronounced her "Blessed:" angels kneel +before the throne with censers and offerings. In another, by Giotto, +Christ wearing a coronet of gems is seated on a throne: the Virgin +_kneels_ before him with hands joined: twenty angels with musical +instruments attend around. In a "Coronation," by Piero Laurati, +the figures of Christ and the Virgin, seated together, resemble in +sentiment and expression those of Giotto. The angels are arranged in +a glory around, and the treatment is wholly typical. + +One of the most beautiful and celebrated of the pictures of Angelico +da Fiesole is the "Coronation" now in the Louvre; formerly it stood +over the high altar of the Church of St. Dominick at Fiesole, where +Angelico had been nurtured, and made his profession as monk. The +composition is conceived as a grand regal ceremony, but the beings who +figure in it are touched with a truly celestial grace. The Redeemer, +crowned himself, and wearing the ermine mantle of an earthly monarch, +is seated on a magnificent throne, under a Gothic canopy, to which +there is an ascent of nine steps. He holds the crown, which he is in +the act of placing, with both hands, on the head of the Virgin, who +kneels before him, with features of the softest and most delicate +beauty, and an expression of divine humility. Her face, seen in +profile, is partly shaded by a long transparent veil, flowing over +her ample robe of a delicate crimson, beneath which is a blue tunic. +On each side a choir of lovely angels, clothed from head to foot in +spangled tunics of azure and rose-colour, with shining wings, make +celestial music, while they gaze with looks of joy and adoration +towards the principal group. Lower down on the right of the throne +are eighteen, and on the left twenty-two, of the principal patriarchs, +apostles, saints, and martyrs, among whom the worthies of Angelico's +own community, St. Dominick and St. Peter Martyr, are of course +conspicuous. At the foot of the throne kneel on one side St. +Augustine, St. Benedict, St. Charlemagne, the royal saint; St. +Nicholas; and St. Thomas Aquinas holding a pen (the great literary +saint of the Dominican order, and author of the Office of the Virgin); +on the left we have a group of virgins, St. Agnes, St. Catherine with +her wheel, St. Catherine of Siena, her habit spangled with stars; +St. Cecilia crowned with her roses, and Mary Magdalene, with her +long golden hair.[1] Beneath this great composition runs a border or +predella, in seven compartments, containing in the centre a Pietà, and +on each side three small subjects from the history of St. Dominick, +to whom the church, whence it was taken, is dedicated. The spiritual +beauty of the heads, the delicate tints of the colouring, an ineffable +charm of mingled brightness and repose shed over the whole, give to +this lovely picture an effect like that of a church hymn, sung at +some high festival by voices tuned in harmony--"blest voices, uttering +joy!" + +[Footnote 1: See "Legends of the Monastic Orders," and "Sacred and +Legendary Art," for an account of all these personages.] + +In strong contrast with the graceful Italian conception, is the German +"Coronation," now in the Wallerstein collection. (Kensington Pal.) +It is supposed to have been painted for Philip the Good, Duke of +Burgundy, either by Hans Hemling, or a painter not inferior to him. +Here the Virgin is crowned by the Trinity. She kneels, with an air of +majestic humility, and hands meekly folded on her bosom, attired in +simple blue drapery, before a semicircular throne, on which are seated +the Father and the Son, between them, with outspread wings, touching +their mouths, the Holy Dove. The Father a venerable figure, wears the +triple tiara, and holds the sceptre; Christ, with an expression of +suffering, holds in his left hand a crystal cross; and they sustain +between them a crown which they are about to place on the head of the +Virgin. Their golden throne is adorned with gems, and over it is a +glory of seraphim, with hair, faces, and plumage, all of a glowing +red. The lower part of this picture and the compartments on each side +are filled with a vast assemblage of saints, and martyrs, and holy +confessors: conspicuous among them we find the saints most popular +in Flanders and Burgundy--St. Adrian, St. George, St. Sebastian, St. +Maurice, clad in coats of mail and crowned with laurel, with other +kingly and warlike personages; St. Philip, the patron of Philip the +Good; St. Andrew, in whose honour he instituted the order of the +Golden Fleece: and a figure in a blue mantle with a ducal crown, one +of the three kings of Cologne, is supposed to represent Duke Philip +himself. It is, impossible by any description to do justice to this +wonderful picture, as remarkable for its elaborate workmanship, the +mysticism of the conception, the quaint elegance of the details, +and portrait-like reality of the faces, as that of Angelico for its +spiritual, tender, imaginative grace. + +There is a "Coronation" by Vivarini (Acad. Venice), which may be +said to comprise in itself a whole system of theology. It is one +vast composition, not divided by compartments. In the centre is a +magnificent carved throne sustained by six pillars, which stand on +a lofty richly ornamented pedestal. On the throne are seated Christ +and the Virgin; he is crowned, and places with both hands a crown on +her head. Between them hovers the celestial Dove, and above them is +seen the Heavenly Father in likeness of "the Ancient of Days," who +paternally lays a hand on the shoulder of each. Around his head and +over the throne, are the nine choirs of angels, in separate groups. +First and nearest, hover the glowing seraphim and cherubim, winged, +but otherwise formless. Above these, the Thrones, holding the globe +of sovereignty; to the right, the Dominations, Virtues, and Powers; to +the left, the Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels. Below these, on each +side of the throne, the prophets and patriarchs of the Old Testament, +holding each a scroll. Below these the apostles on twelve thrones, six +on each side, each holding the Gospel. Below these, on each side, the +saints and martyrs. Below these, again, the virgins and holy women. +Under the throne, in the space formed by the pillars, is seen a +group of beautiful children (not angels), representing, I think, the +martyred Innocents. They bear the instruments of Christ's passion--the +cross, nails, spear, crown of thorns, &c. On the step below the +pedestal, and immediately in front, are seated the Evangelists and +doctors of the Church; on the right St. Matthew and St. Luke, and +behind them St. Ambrose and St. Augustine; on the left St. Mark and +St. John, and behind them St. Jerome and St. Gregory. (See "Sacred and +Legendary Art") Every part of this curious picture is painted with the +utmost care and delicacy: the children are exquisite, and the heads, +of which there are at least seventy without counting the angels, are +finished like miniatures. + +This simple, and altogether typical representation of the Virgin +crowned by the Trinity in human form, is in a French carving of the +fifteenth century, and though ill drawn, there is considerable naïveté +in the treatment. The Eternal Father wears, as is usual, the triple +tiara, the Son has the cross and the crown of thorns, and the Holy +Ghost is distinguished by the dove on his hand. All three sustain the +crown over the head of the kneeling Virgin, whose train is supported +by two angels. + +In a bas-relief over a door of the cathedral at Treves, the subject is +very simply treated; both Christ and the Virgin are standing, which +is unusual, and behind each is an angel, also standing and holding a +crown. + +Where not more than five or six saints are introduced as attendants +and accessories, they are usually the patron saints of the locality or +community, which may be readily distinguished. Thus, + +1. In a "Coronation" by Sandro Botticelli, we find below, St. John the +Evangelist, St. Augustine, St. John Gualberto, St. Bernardo Cardinale. +It was painted for the Vallombrosian monks. (Fl. Gal.) + +2. In a very fine example by Ghirlandajo, St. Dominick and St. Peter +Martyr are conspicuous: painted, of course, for the Dominicans. +(Paris, Louvre.) + +3. In another, by Pinturicchio, St. Francis is a principal figure, +with St. Bonaventura and St. Louis of Toulouse; painted for the +Franciscans, or at least for a Franciscan pope, Sixtus IV. (Rome, +Vatican.) + +4. In another, by Guido, the treatment differs from the early style. +The coronation above is small and seen as a vision; the saints below, +St. Bernard and St. Catherine, are life-size. It was painted for a +community of Bernardines, the monks of Monte Oliveto. (Bologna, Gal.) + +5. In a beautiful little altar-piece by Lorenzo di Credi[1], the +Virgin is kneeling above, while Christ, seated, places the crown on +her head. A glory of red seraphim surround the two figures. Below are +the famous patron saints of Central Italy, St. Nicholas of Bari and +St. Julian of Rimini, St. Barbara and St. Christina. The St. Francis +and St. Antony, in the predella, show it to have been painted for a +Franciscan church or chapel, probably for the same church at Cestello +for which Lorenzo painted the St. Julian and St. Nicholas now in the +Louvre. + +[Footnote 1: Once in the collection of Mr. Rogers; _v_. "Sacred and +Legendary Art."] + +The "Coronation of the Virgin" by Annibale Carracci is in a spirit +altogether different, magnificently studied.[1] On high, upon a lofty +throne which extends across the whole picture from side to side, the +Virgin, a noble majestic creature, in the true Carracci style, is +seated in the midst as the principal figure, her hands folded on her +bosom. On the right hand sits the Father, on the left the Son; they +hold a heavenly crown surmounted by stars above her head. The locality +is the Empyreum. The audience consists of angels only, who circle +within circle, filling the whole space, and melting into an abyss of +light, chant hymns of rejoicing and touch celestial instruments of +music. This picture shows how deeply Annibale Carracci had studied +Correggio, in the magical chiaro-oscuro, and the lofty but somewhat +mannered grace of the figures. + +[Footnote 1: This was also in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +One of the latest examples I can point to is also one of the most +simple and grand in conception. (Madrid Gal.) It is that by Velasquez, +the finest perhaps of the very few devotional subjects painted by +him. We have here the three figures only, as large as life, filling +the region of glory, without angels, witnesses, or accessories of any +kind, except the small cherubim beneath; and the symmetrical treatment +gives to the whole a sort of sublime effect. But the heads have the +air of portraits: Christ has a dark, earnest, altogether Spanish +physiognomy; the Virgin has dark hair; and the _Padre Eterno_, with +a long beard, has a bald head,--a gross fault in taste and propriety; +because, though the loose beard and flowing white hair may serve to +typify the "Ancient of Days," baldness expresses not merely age, but +the infirmity of age. + +Rubens, also, painted a "Coronation" with all his own lavish +magnificence of style for the Jesuits at Brussels. After the time +of Velasquez and Rubens, the "Immaculate Conception" superseded the +"Coronation." + + * * * * * + +To enter further into the endless variations of this charming and +complex subject would lead us through all the schools of art from +Giotto to Guido. I have said enough to render it intelligible +and interesting, and must content myself with one or two closing +_memoranda_. + +1. The dress of the Virgin in a "Coronation" is generally splendid, +too like the coronation robes of an earthly queen,--it is a "raiment +of needlework,"--"a vesture of gold wrought about with divers +colours"--generally blue, crimson, and white, adorned with gold, gems, +and even ermine. In the "Coronation" by Filippo Lippi, at Spoleto, she +wears a white robe embroidered with golden suns. In a beautiful little +"Coronation" in the Wallerstein collection (Kensington Pal.) she wears +a white robe embroidered with suns and moons, the former red with +golden rays, the latter blue with coloured rays,--perhaps in allusion +to the text so often applied in reference to her, "a woman clothed +with the _sun_," &c. (Rev. xii. 1, or Cant. vi. 10.) + +2. In the set of cartoons for the tapestries of the Sistine Chapel +(Kugler's Handbook, ii. 394), as originally prepared by Raphael, +we have the foundation, the heaven-bestowed powers, the trials and +sufferings of the early Church, exhibited in the calling of St. Peter, +the conversion of St. Paul, the acts and miracles of the apostles, the +martyrdom of St. Stephen; and the series closed with the Coronation +of the Virgin, placed over the altar, as typical of the final triumph +of the Church, the completion and fulfilment of all the promises made +to man, set forth in the exaltation and union of the mortal with the +immortal, when the human Mother and her divine Son are reunited and +seated on the same throne. Raphael placed on one side of the celestial +group, St. John the Baptist, representing sanctification through the +rite of baptism; and on the other, St. Jerome, the general symbol of +sanctification through faith and repentance. The cartoon of this grand +symbolical composition, in which all the figures were colossal, is +unhappily lost; the tapestry is missing from the Vatican collection; +two old engravings, however, exist, from which some idea may be formed +of the original group. (Passavant's Rafael, ii. 258.) + +3. It will be interesting to remember that the earliest existing +impression taken from an engraved metal plate, is a "Coronation of the +Virgin." Maso Finiguerra, a skilful goldsmith and worker in niello, +living at Florence in 1434, was employed to execute a pix (the small +casket in which the consecrated wafer of the sacrament is deposited), +and he decorated it with a representation of the Coronation in +presence of saints and angels, in all about thirty figures, minutely +and exquisitely engraved on the silver face. Whether Finiguerra was +the first worker in niello to whom it occurred to fill up the lines +cut in the silver with a black fluid, and then by laying on it a piece +of damp paper, and forcibly rubbing it, take off the fac-simile of his +design and try its effect before the final process,--this we can not +ascertain; we only know that the impression of his "Coronation" is +the earliest specimen known to exist, and gave rise to the practice +of cutting designs on plates of copper (instead of silver), for the +purpose of multiplying impressions of them. The pix finished by Maso +in 1452 is now in the Florence Gallery in the "Salle des Bronzes." The +invaluable print, first of its species, exists in the National Library +at Paris. There is a very exact fac-simile of it in Otley's "History +of Engraving," Christ and the Virgin are here seated together on +a lofty architectural throne: her hands are crossed on her bosom, +and she bends her meek veiled head to receive the crown, which her +Son, who wears a triple tiara, places on her brow. The saints most +conspicuous are St. John the Baptist, patron of Florence and of the +church for which the pix was executed, and a female saint, I believe +St. Reparata, both standing; kneeling in front are St. Cosmo and St. +Damian, the patrons of the Medici family, then paramount at Florence. +(Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +4. In an illuminated "Office of the Virgin," I found a version of +this subject which must be rare, and probably confined to miniatures. +Christ is seated on a throne and the Virgin kneels before him; he +bends forwards, and tenderly takes her clasped hands in both his own. +An empty throne is at the right hand of Christ, over which hovers +an angel bearing a crown. This is the moment which _precedes_ +the Coronation, as the group already described in the S. +Maria-in-Trastevere exhibits the moment which _follows_ the +Coronation. + +5. Finally, we must bear in mind that those effigies in which the +Madonna is holding her Child, while angels place a crown upon her +head, do not represent THE CORONATION properly so called, but merely +the Virgin honoured as Mother of Christ and Queen of Heaven (_Mater +Christi, Regina Coeli_); and that those representations of the +Coronation which conclude a series of the life of the Virgin, and +surmount her death-bed or her tomb, are historical and dramatic rather +than devotional and typical. Of this historical treatment there are +beautiful examples from Cimabue down to Raphael, which will be noticed +hereafter in their proper place. + + + + +THE VIRGIN OF MERCY. + + +Our Lady of Succour. _Ital._ La Madonna di Misericordia. _Fr._ Nôtre +Dame de Miséricorde. _Ger._ Maria Mutter des Erbarmens. _Sp._ Nuestra +Señora de Grazia. + +When once the Virgin had been exalted and glorified in the celestial +paradise, the next and the most natural result was, that she should be +regarded as being in heaven the most powerful of intercessors, and on +earth a most benign and ever-present protectress. In the mediæval idea +of Christ, there was often something stern; the Lamb of God who died +for the sins of the world, is also the inexorable Judge of the quick +and the dead. When he shows his wounds, it is as if a vindictive +feeling was supposed to exist; as if he were called upon to remember +in judgment the agonies and the degradation to which he had been +exposed below for the sake of wicked ungrateful men. In a Greek "Day +of Judgment," cited by Didron, Moses holds up a scroll, on which is +written, "Behold Him whom ye crucified," while the Jews are dragged +into everlasting fire. Everywhere is the sentiment of vengeance; +Christ himself is less a judge than an avenger. Not so the Virgin; +she is represented as all mercy, sympathy, and benignity. In some of +the old pictures of the Day of Judgment, she is seated by the side +of Christ, on an equality with him, and often in an attitude of +deprecation, as if adjuring him, to relent: or her eyes are turned on +the redeemed souls, and she looks away from the condemned as if unable +to endure the sight of their doom. In other pictures she is lower than +Christ, but always on his right hand, and generally seated; while St. +John the Baptist, who is usually placed opposite to her on the left +of Christ, invariably stands or kneels. Instead of the Baptist, it is +sometimes, but rarely, John the Evangelist, who is the pendant of the +Virgin. + +In the Greek representations of the Last Judgment, a river of fire +flows from under the throne of Christ to devour and burn up the +wicked.[1] In western art the idea is less formidable,--Christ is +not at once judge and executioner; but the sentiment is always +sufficiently terrible; "the angels and all the powers of heaven +tremble before him." In the midst of these terrors, the Virgin, +whether kneeling, or seated, or standing, always appears as a gentle +mediator, a, supplicant for mercy. In the "Day of Judgment," as +represented in the "Hortus Deliciarum," [2] we read inscribed under +her figure the words "_Maria, Filio suo pro Ecclesia supplicat_." +In a very fine picture by Martin Schoen (Schleissheim Gal.), it is +the Father, who, with a sword and three javelins in his hand, sits +as the avenging judge; near him Christ; while the Virgin stands in +the foreground, looking up to her Son with an expression of tender +supplication, and interceding, as it appears, for the sinners kneeling +round her, and whose imploring looks are directed to _her_. In the +well-known fresco by Andrea Ortagna (Pisa, Campo Santo), Christ and +the Virgin sit throned above, each in a separate aureole, but equally +glorified. Christ, pointing with one hand to the wound in his side, +raises the other in a threatening attitude, and his attention is +directed to the wicked, whom he hurls into perdition. The Virgin, +with one hand pressed to her bosom, looks to him with an air of +supplication. Both figures are regally attired, and wear radiant +crowns; and the twelve apostles attend them, seated on each side. + +[Footnote 1: Didron, "Iconographie Chrétienne;" and in the mosaic of +the Last Judgment, executed by Byzantine artists, in the cathedral at +Torcello.] + +[Footnote 2: A celebrated illuminated MS. (date about 1159 to 1175), +preserved in the Library at Strasburg.] + + * * * * * + +In the centre group of Michael Angelo's "Last Judgment," we have the +same leading _motif_, but treated in a very different feeling. Christ +stands before us in figure and mien like a half-naked athlete; his +left hand rejects, his right hand threatens, and his whole attitude +is as utterly devoid of dignity as of grace. I have often wondered +as I have looked at this grand and celebrated work, what could be +Michael Angelo's idea of Christ. He who was so good, so religious, +so pure-minded, and so high-minded, was deficient in humility and +sympathy; if his morals escaped, his imagination was corrupted by the +profane and pagan influences of his time. His conception of Christ is +here most unchristian, and his conception of the Virgin is not much +better. She is grand in form, but the expression is too passive. +She looks down and seems to shrink; but the significance of the +attitude,--the hand pressed to the maternal bosom,--given to her by +the old painters, is lost. + +In a "Last Judgment" by Rubens, painted for the Jesuits of Brussels +(Brussels; Musée), the Virgin extends her robe over the world, as if +to shield mankind from the wrath of her Son; pointing, at the same +time, significantly to her bosom, whence He derived his earthly life. +The daring bad taste, and the dramatic power of this representation, +are characteristic alike of the painter, the time, and the community +for which the picture was painted. + + * * * * * + +More beautiful and more acceptable to our feelings are those graceful +representations of the Virgin as dispenser of mercy on earth; as +protectress and patroness either of all Christendom, or of some +particular locality, country, or community. In such pictures she +stands with outstretched arms, crowned with a diadem, or in some +instances simply veiled, her ample robe, extended on each side, is +held up by angels, while under its protecting folds are gathered +worshippers and votaries of all ranks and ages--men, women, +children,--kings, nobles, ecclesiastics,--the poor, the lame, the +sick. Or if the picture be less universal in its significance, +dedicated perhaps by some religious order or charitable brotherhood, +we see beneath her robe an assemblage of monks and nuns, or a troop of +young orphans or redeemed prisoners. Such a representation is styled a +_Misericordia_. + +In a picture by Fra Filippo Lippi (Berlin Gal.), the Madonna of Mercy +extends her protecting mantle over thirty-five kneeling figures, +the faces like portraits, none elevated or beautiful, but the whole +picture as an example of the subject most striking. + +A very beautiful and singular representation of the Virgin of Mercy +without the Child, I found in the collection of Herr v. Quandt, of +Dresden. She stands with hands folded over her bosom, and wrapped in +ample white drapery, without ornament of any kind; over her head, a +veil of transparent gauze of a brown colour, such as, from various +portraits of the time, appears to have been then a fashion. The +expression of the face is tender and contemplative, almost sad; and +the whole figure, which is life-size, is inexpressibly refined and +dignified. The following inscription is on the dark background to the +right of the Virgin:-- + + IMAGO + BEATÆ MARIÆ VIRGINIS + QUÆ + MENS. AUGUST. MDXXXIII. + APPARUIT + MIRACULOR. OPERATIONE + CONCURSU POP. + CELEBERRIM. + +This beautiful picture was brought from Brescia to Vienna by a +picture-dealer, and purchased by Herr v. Quandt. It was painted by +Moretto of Brescia, of whom Lanzi truly says that his sacred subjects +express _la compunzione, la pietà, la carità istessa_; and this +picture is an instance. But by whom dedicated, for what especial +mercy, or in what church, I could not ascertain.[1] + +[Footnote 1: I possess a charming drawing of the head by Fraulein +Louise Seidler of Weimar, whose feeling for early religious art is +shown in her own works, as well as in the beautiful copies she has +made of others.] + + * * * * * + +It is seldom that the Madonna di Misericordia appears without the +Child in her arms; her maternity is supposed to be one element in her +sympathy with suffering humanity. I will add, however, to the examples +already given, one very celebrated instance. + +The picture entitled the "Misericordia di Lucca" is famous in the +history of art. (Lucca. S. Romano.) It is the most important work +of Fra Bartolomeo, and is dated 1515, two years before his death. +The Virgin, a grand and beautiful figure, stands alone on a raised +platform, with her arms extended, and looking up to heaven. The ample +folds of her robe are held open by two angels. Beneath and round her +feet are various groups in attitudes of supplication, who look up to +her, as she looks up to heaven. On one side the donor of the picture +is presented by St. Dominick. Above, in a glory, is the figure of +Christ surrounded by angels, and seeming to bend towards his mother. +The expression in the heads, the dignified beneficence of the Virgin, +the dramatic feeling in the groups, particularly the women and +children, justify the fame of this picture as one of the greatest of +the productions of mind.[1] + +[Footnote 1: According to the account in Murray's "Handbook," +this picture was dedicated by the noble family of Montecanini, and +represents the Virgin interceding for the Lucchesi during the wars +with Florence. But I confess I am doubtful of this interpretation, and +rather think it refers to the pestilence, which, about 1512, desolated +the whole of the north of Italy. Wilkie, who saw this picture in 1825, +speaks of the workmanship with the enthusiasm of a workman.] + + * * * * * + +There is yet another version of this subject, which deserves notice +from the fantastic grace of the conception. As in early Christian Art, +our Saviour was frequently portrayed as the Good Shepherd, so, among +the later Spanish fancies, we find his Mother represented as the +Divine Shepherdess. In a picture painted by Alonzo Miguel de Tobar +(Madrid Gal. 226), about the beginning of the eighteenth century, +we find the Virgin Mary seated under a tree, in guise of an Arcadian +pastorella, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, encircled by a glory, a crook +in her hand, while she feeds her flock with the mystical roses. The +beauty of expression in the head of the Virgin is such as almost to +redeem the quaintness of the religious conceit; the whole picture is +described as worthy of Murillo. It was painted for a Franciscan church +at Madrid, and the idea became so popular, that we find it multiplied +and varied in French and German prints of the last century; the +original picture remains unequalled for its pensive poetical grace; +but it must be allowed that the idea, which at first view strikes from +its singularity, is worse than questionable in point of taste, and +will hardly bear repetition. + +There are some ex-voto pictures of the Madonna of Mercy, which record +individual acts of gratitude. One, for instance, by Nicolò Alunno +(Rome, Pal. Colonna), in which the Virgin, a benign and dignified +creature, stretches forth her sceptre from above, and rebukes the ugly +fiend of Sin, about to seize a boy. The mother kneels on one side, +with eyes uplifted, in faith and trembling supplication. The same idea +I have seen repeated in a picture by Lanfranco. + + * * * * * + +The innumerable votive pictures which represent the Madonna di +Misericordia with the Child in her arms, I shall notice hereafter. +They are in Catholic countries the usual ornaments of charitable +Institutions and convents of the Order of Mercy; and have, as I cannot +but think, a very touching significance. + + + + +THE MATER DOLOROSA. + + +_Ital._ La Madre di Dolore. L' Addolorata. _Fr._ Nôtre Dame da Pitié. +La Vierge de Douleur. _Sp_. Nuestra Señora de Dolores _Ger._ Die +Schmerzhafte Mutter. + +One of the most important of these devotional subjects proper to the +Madonna is the "Mourning Mother," the _Mater Dolorosa_, in which her +character is that of the mother of the crucified Redeemer; the mother +of the atoning Sacrifice; the queen of martyrs; the woman whose bosom +was pierced with a sharp sword; through whose sorrow the world was +saved, whose anguish was our joy, and to whom the Roman Catholic +Christians address their prayers as consoler of the afflicted, because +she had herself tasted of the bitterest of all earthly sorrow, the +pang of the agonized mother for the loss of her child. + +In this character we have three distinct representations of the +Madonna. + +MATER DOLOROSA. In the first she appears alone, a seated or standing +figure, often the head or half length only; the hands clasped, the +head bowed in sorrow, tears streaming from the heavy eyes, and the +whole expression intensely mournful. The features are properly +those of a woman in middle age; but in later times the sentiment of +beauty predominated over that of the mother's agony; and I have seen +the sublime Mater Dolorosa transformed into a merely beautiful and +youthful maiden, with such an air of sentimental grief as might serve +for the loss of a sparrow. + +Not so with the older heads; even those of the Carracci and the +Spanish school have often a wonderful depth of feeling. + +It is common in such representations to represent the Virgin with a +sword in her bosom, and even with _seven_ swords in allusion to +the _seven_ sorrows. This very material and palpable version of the +allegorical prophecy (Luke ii, 35) has been found extremely effective +as an appeal to the popular feelings, so that there are few Roman +Catholic churches without such a painful and literal interpretation +of the text. It occurs perpetually in prints, and there is a fine +example after Vandyck; sometimes the swords are placed round her head; +but there is no instance of such a figure from the best period of +religious art, and it must be considered as anything but artistic: in +this case, the more materialized and the more matter of fact, the more +_unreal_. + + * * * * * + +STABAT MATER. A second representation of the _Madre di Dolore_ is that +figure of the Virgin which, from the very earliest times, was placed +on the right of the Crucifix, St. John the Evangelist being invariably +on the left. I am speaking here of the _crucifix_ as a wholly ideal +and mystical emblem of our faith in a crucified Saviour; not of +the _crucifixion_ as an event, in which the Virgin is an actor and +spectator, and is usually fainting in the arms of her attendants. In +the ideal subject she is merely an ideal figure, at once the mother +of Christ, and the personified Church. This, I think, is evident from +those very ancient carvings, and examples in stained glass, in which +the Virgin, as the Church, stands on one side of the cross, trampling +on a female figure which personifies Judaism or the synagogue. Even +when the allegory is less palpable, we feel that the treatment is +wholly religious and poetical. + +The usual attitude of the _Mater Dolorosa_ by the crucifix is that of +intense but resigned sorrow; the hands clasped, the head declined and +shaded by a veil, the figure closely wrapped in a dark blue or violet +mantle. In some instances a more generally religious and ideal cast is +given to the figure; she stands with outspread arms, and looking up; +not weeping, but in her still beautiful face a mingled expression of +faith and anguish. This is the true conception of the sublime hymn, + + "Stabat Mater Dolorosa + Juxta crucem lachrymosa + Dum pendebat filius." + +LA PIETÀ. The third, and it is the most important and most beautiful +of all as far as the Virgin is concerned, is the group called the +PIETÀ, which, when strictly devotional, consists only of the Virgin +with her dead Son in her arms, or on her lap, or lying at her feet; +in some instances with lamenting angels, but no other personages. +This group has been varied in a thousand ways; no doubt the two most +perfect conceptions are those of Michael Angelo and Raphael; the first +excelling in sublimity, the latter in pathos. The celebrated marble +group by Michael Angelo stands in the Vatican in a chapel to the +right as we enter. The Virgin is seated; the dead Saviour lies across +the knees of his mother; she looks down on him in mingled sorrow +and resignation, but the majestic resignation predominates. The +composition of Raphael exists only as a print; but the flimsy paper, +consecrated through its unspeakable beauty, is likely to be as lasting +as the marble. It represents the Virgin, standing with outstretched +arms, and looking up with an appealing agonized expression towards +heaven; before her, on the earth, lies extended the form of the +Saviour. In tenderness, dignity, simplicity, and tragic pathos, +nothing can exceed this production; the head of the Virgin in +particular is regarded as a masterpiece, so far exceeding in delicacy +of execution every other work of Marc Antonio, that some have thought +that Raphael himself took the burin from his hand, and touched himself +that face of quiet woe. + +Another example of wonderful beauty is the Pietà by Francia, in +our National Gallery. The form of Christ lies extended before his +mother; a lamenting angel sustains the head, another is at the feet: +the Virgin, with eyes red and heavy with weeping, looks out of the +picture. There needs no visible sword in her bosom to tell what +anguish has pierced that maternal heart. + +There is another Pietà, by Michael Angelo, quite a different +conception. The Virgin sits at the foot of the cross; before her, and +half-sustained by her knees, lies the form of the dead Saviour, seen +in front; his arms are held up by two angels (unwinged, as is usual +with Michael Angelo). The Virgin looks up to heaven with an appealing +expression; and in one engraving of this composition the cross is +inscribed with the words, "Tu non pensi quanta sangue costa." There is +no painting by Michael Angelo himself, but many copies and engravings +of the drawing. A beautiful small copy, by Marcello Venusti, is in the +Queen's Gallery. + +There is yet another version of the Pietà, quite mystical and +devotional in its significance,--but, to my feeling, more painful and +material than poetical. It is variously treated; for example:--1. +The dead Redeemer is seen half-length within the tomb; his hands are +extended to show his wounds; his eyes are closed, his head declined, +his bleeding brow encircled by thorns. On one side is the Virgin, on +the other St. John the Evangelist, in attitudes of profound grief +and commiseration. 2. The dead form, half emerging from the tomb, is +sustained in the arms of the Mater Dolorosa. St. John the Evangelist +on the other side. There are sometimes angels. + +The Pietà thus conceived as a purely religious and ideal impersonation +of the atoning Sacrifice, is commonly placed over the altar of +the sacrament, and in many altar-pieces it forms the centre of the +predella, just in front where the mass is celebrated, or on the door +of the tabernacle, where the Host is deposited. + +When, with the Mater Dolorosa and St. John, Mary Magdalene is +introduced with her dishevelled hair, the group ceases to be properly +a Pietà, and becomes a representation rather than a symbol. + + * * * * * + +There are also examples of a yet more complex but still perfectly +ideal and devotional treatment, in which the Mourning Mother is +attended by saints. + +A most celebrated instance of this treatment is the Pietà by Guido. +(Bologna Gal.) In the upper part of the composition, the figure of the +dead Redeemer lies extended on a white shroud; behind him stands the +Virgin-mother, with her eyes raised to heaven, and sad appealing face, +touched with so divine a sorrow--so much of dignity in the midst of +infinite anguish, that I know nothing finer in its way. Her hands +are resignedly folded in each other, not raised, not clasped, but +languidly drooping. An angel stands at the feet of Christ looking on +with a tender adoring commiseration; another, at his head, turns away +weeping. A kind of curtain divides this group from the lower part +of the picture, where, assembled on a platform, stand or kneel the +guardian saints of Bologna: in the centre, the benevolent St. Charles +Borromeo, who just about that time had been canonized and added to +the list of the patrons of Bologna by a decree of the senate; on the +right, St. Dominick and St. Petronius; on the left, St. Proculus +and St. Francis. These sainted personages look up as if adjuring the +Virgin, even by her own deep anguish, to intercede for the city; she +is here at once our Lady of Pity, of Succour, and of Sorrow. This +wonderful picture was dedicated, as an act of penance and piety, by +the magistrates of Bologna, in 1616, and placed in their chapel in the +church of the "Mendicanti," otherwise S. Maria-della-Pietà. It hung +there for two centuries, for the consolation of the afflicted; it +is now placed in the Academy of Bologna for the admiration of +connoisseurs. + + + + +OUR LADY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. + + +_Ital._ La Madonna Purissima. _Lat._ Regina sine labe originali +concepta. _Spa._ Nuestra Señora sin peccado concepida. La Concepcion. +_Fr._ La Conception de la Vierge Marie. _Ger._ Das Geheimniss der +unbefleckten Empfängniss Mariä. Dec. 8. + +The last and the latest subject in which the Virgin appears alone +without the Child, is that entitled the "Immaculate Conception of the +Blessed Virgin;" and sometimes merely "THE CONCEPTION." There is no +instance of its treatment in the earlier schools of art; but as one of +the most popular subjects of the Italian and Spanish painters of the +seventeenth century, and one very frequently misunderstood, it is +necessary to go into the history of its origin. + +In the early ages of Christianity, it was usual to celebrate, as +festivals of the Church, the Conception of Jesus Christ, and the +Conception of his kinsman and precursor John the Baptist; the latter +as miraculous, the former as being at once divine and miraculous. In +the eleventh century it was proposed to celebrate the Conception of +the Virgin Mother of the Redeemer. + +From the time that the heresy of Nestorius had been condemned, and +that the dignity of the Virgin as mother of the _Divinity_ had become +a point of doctrine, it was not enough to advocate her excelling +virtue and stainless purity as a mere human being. It was contended, +that having been predestined from the beginning as the Woman, through +whom the divine nature was made manifest on earth, she must be +presumed to be exempt from all sin, even from that original taint +inherited from Adam. Through the first Eve, we had all died; through +the second Eve, we had all been "made alive." It was argued that +God had never suffered his earthly temple to be profaned; had even +promulgated in person severe ordinances to preserve its sanctuary +inviolate. How much more to him was that temple, that _tabernacle_ +built by no human hands, in which he had condescended to dwell. +Nothing was impossible to God; it lay, therefore, in his power to +cause his Mother to come absolutely pure and immaculate into the +world: being in his power, could any earnest worshipper of the Virgin +doubt for a moment that for one so favoured it would not be done? Such +was the reasoning of our forefathers; and the premises granted, who +shall call it illogical or irreverent? + +For three or four centuries, from the seventh to the eleventh, these +ideas had been gaining ground. St. Ildefonso of Seville distinguished +himself by his writings on this subject; and how the Virgin +recompensed his zeal, Murillo has shown us, and I have related in +the life of that saint. (Legends of the Monastic Orders.) But the +first mention of a festival, or solemn celebration of the Mystery of +the Immaculate Conception, may be traced to an English monk of the +eleventh century, whose name is not recorded, (v. Baillet, vol. xii.) +When, however, it was proposed to give the papal sanction to this +doctrine as an article of belief, and to institute a church office for +the purpose of celebrating the Conception of Mary, there arose strong +opposition. What is singular, St. Bernard, so celebrated for his +enthusiastic devotion to the Virgin, was most strenuous and eloquent +in his disapprobation. He pronounced no judgment against those who +received the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, he rather leaned +towards it; but he opposed the institution of the festival as an +innovation not countenanced by the early fathers of the Church. After +the death of St. Bernard, for about a hundred years, the dispute +slept; but the doctrine gained ground. The thirteenth century, so +remarkable for the manifestation of religious enthusiasm in all its +forms, beheld the revival of this celebrated controversy. A certain +Franciscan friar, Duns Scotus (John Scott of Dunse), entered the lists +as champion for the Virgin. He was opposed by the Dominicans and their +celebrated polemic Thomas Aquinas, who, like St. Bernard, was known +for his enthusiastic reverence for the Virgin; but, like him, and on +the same grounds, objected to the introduction of new forms. Thus the +theological schools were divided. + +During the next two hundred years the belief became more and more +general, the doctrine more and more popular; still the Church, while +it tolerated both, refused to ratify either. All this time we find +no particular representation of the favourite dogma in art, for until +ratified by the authority of the Church, it could not properly enter +into ecclesiastical decoration. We find, however, that the growing +belief in the pure Conception and miraculous sanctification of +the Virgin multiplied the representations of her coronation and +glorification, as the only permitted expression of the popular +enthusiasm on this point. For the powerful Order of the Franciscans, +who were at this time and for a century afterwards the most ardent +champions of the Immaculate Conception, were painted most of the +pictures of the Coronation produced during the fourteenth century. + +The first papal decree touching the "Immaculate Conception" as an +article of faith, was promulgated in the reign of Sixtus IV., who +had been a Franciscan friar, and he took the earliest opportunity of +giving the solemn sanction of the Church to what had ever been the +favourite dogma of his Order; but the celebration of the festival, +never actually forbidden, had by this time become so usual, that +the papal ordinance merely sanctioned without however rendering it +obligatory. An office was composed for the festival, and in 1496 +the Sorbonne declared in favour of it Still it remained a point of +dispute; still there were dissentient voices, principally among the +Dominican theologians; and from 1500 to 1600 we find this controversy +occupying the pens of the ecclesiastics, and exciting the interest and +the imagination of the people. In Spain the "Immaculate Conception +of the Virgin," owing perhaps to the popularity and power of the +Franciscans in that country, had long been "the darling dogma of the +Spanish Church." Villegas, in the "Flos Sanctorum," while admitting +the modern origin of the opinion, and the silence of the Church, +contended that, had this great fact been made manifest earlier and +in less enlightened times, it might possibly have led to the error of +worshipping the Virgin as an actual goddess. (Stirling's Artists of +Spain, p. 905.) To those who are conversant with Spanish theology +and art, it may seem that the distinction drawn in theory is not very +definite or perceptible in practice. + +At length, in July, 1615, Paul V. formally instituted the office +commemorating the Immaculate Conception, and in 1617 issued a bull +forbidding any one to teach or preach a contrary opinion. "On the +publication of this bull, Seville flew into a frenzy of religious +joy." The archbishop performed a solemn service in the Cathedral. +Cannon roared, and bull fights, tournaments, and banquets celebrated +this triumph of the votaries of the Virgin. Spain and its dependencies +were solemnly placed under the protection of the "Immaculate +Conception," thus personifying an abstract idea; and to this day, a +Spaniard salutes his neighbour with the angelic "Ave Maria purissima!" +and he responds "Sin peccado concepida!"[1] + +[Footnote 1: In our own days we have seen this curious controversy +revived. One of the latest, if not the last, writer on the subject was +Cardinal Lambruschini; and the last papal ordinance was promulgated by +Pio Mono, and dated from Gaeta, 1849.] + + * * * * * + +I cannot find the date of the earliest picture of the Immaculate +Conception; but the first writer on the art who makes allusion to the +subject, and lays down specific rules from ecclesiastical authority +for its proper treatment, is the Spaniard Pacheco, who must have been +about forty years of age when the bull was published at Seville in +1618. It is soon after this time that we first hear of pictures of the +Immaculate Conception. Pacheco subsequently became a familiar of the +Inquisition, and wielded the authority of the holy office as inspector +of sacred pictures; and in his "Arte de la Pintura," published in +1649, he laid down those rules for the representation which had been +generally, though not always, exactly followed. + +It is evident that the idea is taken from the woman in the Apocalypse, +"clothed with the sun, having the moon under her feet, and on her head +a crown of twelve stars." The Virgin is to be portrayed in the first +spring and bloom of youth as a maiden of about twelve or thirteen +years of age; with "grave sweet eyes;" her hair golden; her features +"with all the beauty painting can express;" her hands are to be folded +on her bosom or joined in prayer. The sun is to be expressed by a +flood of light around her. The moon under her feet is to have the +horns pointing downwards, because illuminated from above, and the +twelve stars are to form a crown over her head. The robe must be +of spotless white; the mantle or scarf blue. Round her are to hover +cherubim bearing roses, palms, and lilies; the head of the bruised and +vanquished dragon is to be under her feet. She ought to have the cord +of St. Francis as a girdle, because in this guise she appeared to +Beatriz de Silva, a noble Franciscan nun, who was favoured by a +celestial vision of the Madonna in her beatitude. Perhaps the good +services of the Franciscans as champions of the Immaculate Conception +procured them the honour of being thus commemorated. + +All these accessories are not absolutely and rigidly required; +and Murillo, who is entitled _par excellence_ the painter of the +Conception, sometimes departed from the letter of the law without +being considered as less orthodox. With him the crescent moon, is +sometimes the full moon, or when a crescent the horns point upwards +instead of downwards. He usually omits the starry crown, and, in spite +of his predilection for the Capuchin Order, the cord of St. Francis +is in most instances dispensed with. He is exact with regard to the +colours of the drapery, but not always in the colour of the hair. On +the other hand, the beauty and expression of the face and attitude, +the mingled loveliness, dignity, and purity, are given with exquisite +feeling; and we are never, as in his other representations of the +Madonna, reminded of commonplace homely, often peasant, portraiture; +here all is spotless grace, ethereal delicacy, benignity, refinement, +repose,--the very apotheosis of womanhood. + +I must go back to observe, that previous to the promulgation of +the famous bull of Pope Paul V., the popular ideas concerning the +Immaculate Conception had left their impress on art. Before the +subject had taken an express and authorized form, we find pictures +which, if they do not represent it, relate to it, I remember two which +cannot be otherwise interpreted, and there are probably others. + +The first Is a curious picture of the early Florentine School. (Berlin +Gal.) In the centre is original sin, represented by Eve and the +Serpent; on the right stand St. Ambrose, St. Hilarius, St. Anselm, +and St. Bernard; on the left St. Cyril, Origen, St. Augustine, and St. +Cyprian; and below are inscribed passages from the writings of these +fathers relating to the immaculate Conception of the Virgin: all of +them had given to her in their works the title of Immaculate, most +pure; but they differed as to the period of her sanctification, as to +whether it was in the moment of conception or at the moment of birth. + +The other picture is in the Dresden Gallery, and one of the finest +productions of that extraordinary Ferrarese painter Dosso Dossi. In +the lower part of the picture are the four Latin Fathers, turning over +their great books, or in deep meditation; behind them, the Franciscan +Bernardino of Siena. Above, in a glory of light, the Virgin, clothed, +not in spotless white, but a richly embroidered regal mantle, "wrought +about with divers colours," kneels at the feet of the Almighty, who +extends his hand in benediction. I find no account in the catalogue +whence this picture was taken, but it was evidently painted for the +Franciscans. + + * * * * * + +In 1617, when the Bull of Paul V. was formally expedited, Guido was +attached to the papal court in quality of painter and an especial +favourite with his Holiness. Among the earliest accredited pictures of +the Immaculate Conception, are four of his finest works. + +1. The cupola of the private chapel of the Quirinal represents the +Almighty meditating the great miracle of the Immaculate Conception, +and near him, within the same glory of light, is the Virgin in her +white tunic, and in an attitude of adoration. This was painted about +1610 or 1611, when Pope Paul V. was meditating the promulgation of his +famous ordinance. + +2. The great picture, also painted for Paul V., represents the +doctors of the Church arguing and consulting their great books for the +authorities on the subject of the Conception.[1] Above, the Virgin is +seated in glory, arrayed in spotless white, her hands crossed over her +bosom, and her eyes turned towards the celestial fountain of light. +Below are six doctors, consulting their books; they are not well +characterized, being merely so many ideal heads in a mannered style; +but I believe they represent the four Latin Fathers, with St. John +Damascene and St. Ildefonso, who were especial defenders of the +doctrine. + +[Footnote 1: Petersburg Imp. Gal. There is a fine engraving.] + +3. The next in point of date was painted for the Infanta of Spain, +which I believe to be the same now in the possession of Lord +Ellesmere. The figure of the Virgin, crowned with the twelve stars, +and relieved from a background of golden light, is standing on a +crescent sustained by three cherubs beneath; she seems to float +between heaven and earth; on either side is a seraph, with hands +folded and looks upraised in adoration. The whole painted in his +silvery tone, with such an extreme delicacy and transparency +of effect, that it might be styled "a vision of the Immaculate +Conception." + +4. The fourth was painted for the chapel of the Immaculate Conception, +in the church of San Biagio, at Forli, and is there still. + + * * * * * + +Just as the Italian schools of painting were on the decline, the +Spanish school of art arose in all its glory, and the "Conception" +became, from the popularity of the dogma, not merely an +ecclesiastical, but a popular subject. Not only every church, but +almost every private house, contained the effigy either painted or +carved, or both, of our Lady "_sin peccado concepida_;" and when the +academy of painting was founded at Seville, in 1660, every candidate +for admission had to declare his orthodox belief in _the most pure +Conception of our Lady_. + +The finest Spanish "Conception" before the time of Murillo, is by +Roelas, who died in 1625; it is in the academy at Seville, and is +mentioned by Mr. Ford as "equal to Guido."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Handbook of Spain. A very fine picture of this subject, +by Roelas, was sold out of the Soult Collection.] + +One of the most beautiful and characteristic, as well as earliest, +examples of this subject I have seen, is a picture in the Esterhazy +Gallery at Vienna. The Virgin is in the first bloom of girlhood; she +looks not more than nine or ten years old, with dark hair, Spanish +features, and a charming expression of childlike simplicity and +devotion. She stands amid clouds, with her hands joined, and the +proper white and blue drapery: there are no accessories. This picture +is attributed to an obscure painter, Lazaro Tavarone, of whom I can +learn nothing more than that he was employed in the Escurial about +1590. + +The beautiful small "Conception" by Velasquez, in the possession +of Mr. Frere, is a departure from the rules laid down by Pacheco in +regard to costume; therefore, as I presume, painted before he entered +the studio of the artist-inquisitor, whose son-in-law he became before +he was three and twenty. Here the Virgin is arrayed in a pale violet +robe, with a dark blue mantle. Her hands are joined, and she looks +down. The solemnity and depth of expression in the sweet girlish face +is very striking; the more so, that it is not a beautiful face, and +has the air of a portrait. Her long hair flows over her shoulders. The +figure is relieved against a bright sun, with fleecy clouds around; +and the twelve stars are over her head. She stands on the round moon, +of which the upper half is illumined. Below, on earth, and through +the deep shadow, are seen several of the emblems of the Virgin--the +fountain, the temple, the olive, the cypress, and the garden enclosed +in a treillage of roses.[1] This picture is very remarkable; it is in +the earliest manner of Velasquez, painted in the bold free style of +his first master, Herrara, whose school he quitted when he was about +seventeen or eighteen, just at the period when the Pope's ordinance +was proclaimed at Seville. + +[Footnote 1: v. Introduction: "The Symbols and Attributes of the +Virgin."] + + * * * * * + +Of twenty-five pictures of this subject, painted by Murillo, there are +not two exactly alike; and they are of all sizes, from the colossal +figure called the "Great Conception of Seville," to the exquisite +miniature representation in the possession of Lord Overston, not more +than fifteen inches in height. Lord Lansdowne has also a beautiful +small "Conception," very simply treated. In those which have dark +hair, Murillo is said to have taken his daughter Francisca as a model. +The number of attendant angels varies from one or two, to thirty. They +bear the palm, the olive, the rose, the lily, the mirror; sometimes +a sceptre and crown. I remember but few instances in which he has +introduced the dragon-fiend, an omission which Pacheco is willing to +forgive; "for," as he observes, "no man ever painted the devil with +good-will." + +In the Louvre picture (No. 1124), the Virgin is adored by three +ecclesiastics. In another example, quoted by Mr. Stirling (Artists +of Spain, p. 839), a friar is seen writing at her feet: this figure +probably represents her champion, the friar Duns Scotus. There is +at Hampton Court a picture, by Spagnoletto, of this same Duns Scotus +writing his defence of the Immaculate Conception. Spagnoletto was +painting at Naples, when, in 1618, "the Viceroy solemnly swore, in +presence of the assembled multitude, to defend with his life the +doctrine of the Immaculate Conception;" and this picture, curious +and striking in its way, was painted about the same time. + + * * * * * + +In Italy, the decline of Art in the seventeenth century is nowhere +more apparent, nor more offensive, than in this subject. A finished +example of the most execrable taste is the mosaic in St. Peter's, +after Pietro Bianchi. There exists, somewhere, a picture of the +Conception, by Le Brun, in which the Virgin has no other drapery +than a thin, transparent gauze, and has the air of a Venus Meretrix. +In some old French prints, the Virgin is surrounded by a number of +angels, defending her with shield and buckler against demons who are +taking aim at her with fiery arrows. Such, and even worse, vagaries +and perversities, are to be found in the innumerable pictures of this +favourite subject, which inundated the churches between 1640 and 1720. +Of these I shall say no more. The pictures of Guido and Murillo, and +the carved figures of Alonzo Cano, Montanez, and Hernandez, may +be regarded as authorized effigies of "Our Lady of the most pure +Conception;" in other words, as embodying, in the most attractive, +decorous, and intelligible form, an abstract theological dogma, which +is in itself one of the most curious, and, in its results, one of the +most important of the religions phenomena connected with the artistic +representations of the Virgin.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We often find on pictures and prints of the Immaculate +Conception, certain scriptural texts which the theologians of the +Roman Church have applied to the Blessed Virgin; for instance, from +Ps. xliv. _Omnis gloria ejus filiæ regis ab intus_--"The king's +daughter is all glorious within;" or from the Canticles, iv. 7, _Tota +pulchra es amica mea, et macula non est in te_,--"Thou art all fair, +my love, there is no spot in thee." I have also seen the texts, Ps. +xxii. 10, and Prov. viii. 22, 28, xxxi. 29, thus applied, as well as +other passages from the very poetical office of the Virgin _In Festo +Immaculatæ Conceptionis_.] + +We must be careful to discriminate between the Conception, so +styled by ecclesiastical authority, and that singular and mystical +representation which is sometimes called the "Predestination of Mary," +and sometimes the "Litanies of the Virgin." Collectors and writers +on art must bear in mind, that the former, as a subject, dates only +from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the latter from +the beginning of the sixteenth. Although, as representations, so +very similar, yet the intention and meaning are different. In the +Conception it is the sinless Virgin in her personal character, who +is held up to reverence, as the purest, wisest, holiest, of created +beings. The earlier theme involves a yet more recondite signification. +It is, undoubtedly, to be regarded as an attempt on the part of the +artist to express, in a visible form, the idea or promise of the +redemption of the human race, as existing in the Sovereign Mind before +the beginning of things. They do not personify this idea under the +image of Christ,--for they conceived that, as the second person of the +Trinity, he could not be his own instrument,--but by the image of Mary +surrounded by those attributes which were afterwards introduced into +the pictures of the Conception: or setting her foot, as second Eve, on +the head of the prostrate serpent. Not seldom, in a series of subjects +from the Old Testament, the _pendant_ to Eve holding the apple is Mary +crushing the head of the fiend; and thus the "bane and antidote are +both before us." This is the proper interpretation of those effigies, +so prevalent in every form of art during the sixteenth century, and +which are often, but erroneously, styled the Immaculate Conception. + +The numerous heads of the Virgin which proceeded from the later +schools of Italy and Spain, wherein she appears neither veiled nor +crowned, but very young, and with flowing hair and white vesture, are +intended to embody the popular idea of the _Madonna purissima_, of +"the Virgin most pure, conceived without sin," in an abridged form. +There is one by Murillo, in the collection of Mr. Holford; and another +by Guido, which will give an idea of the treatment. + +Before quitting the subject of the Immaculate Conception. I must +refer to a very curious picture[1] called an Assumption, but certainly +painted at least one hundred years before the Immaculate Conception +was authorized as a Church subject. + +[Footnote 1: Once in the collection of Mr. Solly, and now in the +possession of Mr. Bromley of Wootten.] + +From the year 1496, when Sixtus IV. promulgated his Bull, and the +Sorbonne put forth their famous decree,--at a time when there was +less of faith and religious feeling in Italy than ever before,--this +abstract dogma became a sort of watchword with theological disputants; +not ecclesiastics only, the literati and the reigning powers took +an interest in the controversy, and were arrayed on one side or the +other. The Borgias, for instance, were opposed to it. Just at this +period, the singular picture I allude to was painted by Girolamo da +Cotignola. It is mentioned by Lanzi, but his account of it is not +quite correct. + +Above, in glory, is seen the _Padre Eterno_, surrounded by cherubim +bearing a scroll, on which is inscribed, "_Non enim pro te sed pro +omnibus hec lex constitutura est._"[1] Lower down the Virgin stands +on clouds, with hands joined, and attired in a white tunic embroidered +with gold, a blue mantle lined with red, and, which is quite singular +and unorthodox, _black shoes_. Below, on the earth, and to the +right, stands a bishop without a glory, holding a scroll, on which +is inscribed, "_Non puto verè esse amatorem Virginis qui respuit +celebrare Festum suæ Conceptionis_;" on the left is St. Jerome. In +the centre are three kneeling figures: on one side St. Catherine (or +perhaps Caterina Sforza in the character of St. Catherine, for the +head looks like a portrait); on the other an elderly woman, Ginevra +Tiepolo, widow of Giovanni Sforza, last prince of Pesaro; [2] between +them the little Costanzo Sforza, looking up with a charming devout +expression. [3] Underneath is Inscribed, "JUNIPERA SFOSTIA PATRIA +A MARITO RECEPTA. EXVOTO MCCCCCXII." Giovanni Sforza had been +dispossessed of his dominions by the Borgias, after his divorce from +Lucrezia, and died in 1501. The Borgias ceased to reign in 1512; and +Ginevra, apparently restored to her country, dedicated this picture, +at once a memorial of her gratitude and of her faith. It remained over +the high-altar of the Church of the Serviti, at Pesaro, till acquired +by Mr. Solly, from whom it was purchased by Mr. Bromley. [4] + +[Footnote 1: From the Office of the Blessed Virgin.] + +[Footnote 2: This Giovanni was the first husband of Lucrezia Borgia.] + +[Footnote 3: Lanzi calls this child Costanzo II., prince of Pesaro. +Very interesting memoirs of all the personages here referred to may be +found in Mr. Dennistoun's "Dukes of Urbino."] + +[Footnote 4: Girolamo Marchesi da Cotignola, was a painter of the +Francia school, whose works date from about 1508 to 1550. Those of +his pictures which I have seen are of very unequal merit, and, with +much feeling and expression in the heads, are often mannered and +fantastic as compositions. This agrees with what Vasari says, that his +excellence lay in portraiture, for which reason he was summoned, after +the battle of Ravenna, to paint the portrait of Caston de Foix, as +he lay dead. (See Vasari, _Vita di Bagnacavallo_; and in the English +trans., vol. iii. 331.) The picture above described, which has a sort +of historical interest, is perhaps the same mentioned in Murray's +Handbook (Central Italy, p. 110.) as an _enthroned_ Madonna, dated +1513, and as being in 1843 in its original place over the altar in the +Serviti at Pesaro; if so, it is there no longer.] + + + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART II. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. + +1. LA VERGINE MADRE DI DIO. 2. LA MA DRE AMABILE. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED. + +_Lat._ Sancta Dei Genitrix. Virgo Deipara. _Ital._ La Santissima +Vergine, Madre di Dio. _Fr._ La Sainte Vierge, Mère de Dieu. _Ger._ +Die Heilige Mutter Gottes. + + +The Virgin in her maternal character opens upon us so wide a field +of illustration, that I scarce know where to begin or how to find my +way, amid the crowd of associations which press upon me. A mother +holding her child in her arms is no very complex subject; but like a +very simple air constructed on a few expressive notes, which, when +harmonized, is susceptible of a thousand modulations, and variations, +and accompaniments, while the original _motif_ never loses its power +to speak to the heart; so it is with the MADONNA AND CHILD;--a +subject so consecrated by its antiquity, so hallowed by its profound +significance, so endeared by its associations with the softest and +deepest of our human sympathies, that the mind has never wearied of +its repetition, nor the eye become satiated with its beauty. Those who +refuse to give it the honour due to a religious representation, yet +regard it with a tender half-unwilling homage; and when the glorified +type of what is purest, loftiest, holiest in womanhood, stands before +us, arrayed in all the majesty and beauty that accomplished Art, +inspired by faith and love, could lend her, and bearing her divine +Son, rather enthroned than sustained on her maternal bosom, "we look, +and the heart is in heaven!" and it is difficult, very difficult, to +refrain from an _Ora pro Nobis_. But before we attempt to classify +these lovely and popular effigies, in all their infinite variety, +from the enthroned grandeur of the Queen of Heaven, the SANCTA +DEI GENITRIX, down to the peasant mother, swaddling or suckling +her infant; or to interpret the innumerable shades of significance +conveyed by the attendant accessories, we must endeavour to trace the +representation itself to its origin. + +This is difficult. There exists no proof, I believe, that the effigies +of the Virgin with the infant Christ in her arms, which existed before +the end of the fifth century, were placed before Christian worshippers +as objects of veneration. They appear to have been merely groups +representing a particular incident of the New Testament, namely, +the adoration of the Magi; for I find no other in which the mother +is seated with the infant Christ, and this is an historical subject +of which we shall have to speak hereafter. From the beginning of +the fourth century, that is, from the time of Constantine and the +condemnation of Arius, the popular reverence for the Virgin, the +Mother of Christ, had been gaining ground; and at the same time the +introduction of images and pictures into the places of worship and +into the houses of Christians, as ornaments on glass vessels and even +embroidered on garments and curtains, became more and more diffused, +(v. Neander's Church History.) + +The earliest effigies of the Virgin and Child may be traced +to Alexandria, and to Egyptian influences; and it is as easily +conceivable that the time-consecrated Egyptian myth of Isis and +Horus may have suggested the original type, the outward form and the +arrangement of the maternal group, as that the classical Greek types +of the Orpheus and Apollo should have furnished the early symbols of +the Redeemer as the Good Shepherd; a fact which does not rest upon +supposition, but of which the proofs remain to us in the antique +Christian sculptures and the paintings in the catacombs. + +The most ancient Greek figures of the Virgin and Child have perished; +but, as far as I can learn, there is no evidence that these effigies +were recognized by the Church as sacred before the beginning of the +sixth century. It was the Nestorian schism which first gave to the +group of the Mother bearing her divine Son that religious importance +and significance which it has ever since retained in Catholic +countries. + +The divinity of Christ and his miraculous conception, once established +as articles of belief, naturally imparted to Mary, his mother, a +dignity beyond that of other mothers her Son was God; therefore the +title of MOTHER OF GOD was assigned to her. When or by whom first +brought into use, does not appear; but about the year 400 it became +a popular designation. + +Nestorias, patriarch of Constantinople in 428, had begun by +persecuting the Arians; but while he insisted that in Jesus were +combined two persons and two natures, he insisted that the Virgin Mary +was the mother of Christ considered as _man_, but not the mother of +Christ considered as _God_; and that, consequently, all those who gave +her the title of _Dei Genitrix_, _Deipara_,[1] were in error. There +were many who adopted these opinions, but by a large portion of the +Church they were repudiated with horror, as utterly subverting the +doctrine of the mystery of the Incarnation. Cyril of Alexandria +opposed Nestorius and his followers, and defended with zealous +enthusiasm the claims of the Virgin to all the reverence and +worship due to her; for, as he argued, the two natures being one and +indivisible from the moment of the miraculous conception, it followed +that Mary did indeed bring forth God,--was, in fact, the mother of +God; and, all who took away from her this dignity and title were in +error, and to be condemned as heretics. + +[Footnote 1: The inscription on the Greek and Byzantine pictures is +actually [Greek: MAeR ThU] ([Greek: Mhaetaer Theos]).] + +I hope I shall not be considered irreverent in thus plainly and simply +stating the grounds of this celebrated schism, with reference to its +influence on Art; an influence incalculable, not only at the time, +but ever since that time; of which the manifold results, traced +from century to century down to the present hour, would remain quite +unintelligible, unless we clearly understood the origin and the issue +of the controversy. + +Cyril, who was as enthusiastic and indomitable as Nestorius, and had +the advantage of taking the positive against the negative side of the +question, anathematized the doctrines of his opponent, in a synod held +at Alexandria in 430, to which Pope Celestine II gave the sanction of +his authority. The emperor Theodosius II then called a general council +at Ephesus in 431, before which Nestorius refused to appear, and was +deposed from his dignity of patriarch by the suffrages of 200 bishops. +But this did not put an end to the controversy; the streets of Ephesus +were disturbed by the brawls and the pavement of the cathedral was +literally stained with the blood of the contending parties Theodosius +arrested both the patriarchs; but after the lapse of only a few days, +Cyril triumphed over his adversary: with him triumphed the cause of +the Virgin. Nestorius was deposed and exiled; his writings condemned +to the flames; but still the opinions he had advocated were adopted by +numbers, who were regarded as heretics by those who called themselves +"the Catholic Church." + +The long continuance of this controversy, the obstinacy of the +Nestorians, the passionate zeal of those who held the opposite +doctrines, and their ultimate triumph when the Western Churches of +Rome and Carthage declared in their favour, all tended to multiply and +disseminate far and wide throughout Christendom those images of the +Virgin which exhibited her as Mother of the Godhead. At length the +ecclesiastical authorities, headed by Pope Gregory the Great, stamped +them as orthodox: and as the cross had been the primeval symbol which +distinguished the Christian from the Pagan, so the image of the Virgin +Mother with her Child now became the symbol which distinguished the +Catholic Christian from the Nestorian Dissenter. + +Thus it appears that if the first religious representations of the +Virgin and Child were not a consequence of the Nestorian schism, yet +the consecration of such effigies as the visible form of a theological +dogma to the purposes of worship and ecclesiastical decoration +must date from the Council of Ephesus in 431; and their popularity +and general diffusion throughout the western Churches, from the +pontificate of Gregory in the beginning of the seventh century. + +In the most ancient of these effigies which remain, we have clearly +only a symbol; a half figure, veiled, with hands outspread, and +the half figure of a child placed against her bosom, without any +sentiment, without even the action of sustaining him. Such was the +formal but quite intelligible sign; but it soon became more, it became +a representation. As it was in the East that the cause of the Virgin +first triumphed, we might naturally expect to find the earliest +examples in the old Greek churches; but these must have perished +in the furious onslaught made by the Iconoclasts on all the sacred +images. The controversy between the image-worshippers and the +image-breakers, which distracted the East for more than a century +(that is, from 726 to 840), did not, however, extend to the west of +Europe. We find the primeval Byzantine type, or at least the exact +reproduction of it, in the most ancient western churches, and +preserved to us in the mosaics of Rome, Ravenna, and Capua. These +remains are nearly all of the same date, much later than the single +figures of Christ as Redeemer, and belonging unfortunately to a lower +period and style of art. The true significance of the representation +is not, however, left doubtful; for all the earliest traditions and +inscriptions are in this agreed, that such effigies were intended as +a confession of faith; an acknowledgment of the dignity of the Virgin +Mary, as the "SANCTA DEI GENITRIX;" as a visible refutation of "the +infamous, iniquitous, and sacrilegious doctrines of Nestorius the +Heresiarch."[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Mostrando quod ipsa Deipara esset contra impiam Nestorii +Heresium quam talem esse iste Heresiareo negabat_ Vide Ciampini, and +Munter's "Sinnbilder."] + + * * * * * + +As these ancient mosaic figures of the Virgin, enthroned with her +infant Son, were the precursors and models of all that was afterwards +conceived and executed in art, we must examine them in detail before +proceeding further. + +The mosaic of the cathedral of Capua represents in the highest place +the half figure of Christ in the act of benediction. In one of the +spandrels, to the right, is the prophet Isaiah, bearing a scroll, on +which is inscribed, _Ecce Dominus in fortitudine veniet, et brachium +ejus dominibatur_,--"The Lord God will come with strong hand, and his +arm shall rule for him." (Isaiah, ch. xl. v. 10.) On the left stands +Jeremiah, also with a scroll and the words, _Fortissime, magne, et +patens Dominus exercituum nomen tibi_,--"The great, the mighty God, +the Lord of hosts is his name." (Jeremiah, ch. xxxii. v. 18.) In the +centre of the vault beneath, the Virgin is seated on a rich throne, +a footstool under her feet; she wears a crown over her veil. Christ, +seated on her knee, and clothed, holds a cross in his left hand; the +right is raised is benediction. On one side of the throne stand St. +Peter and St. Stephen; on the other St. Paul and St. Agatha, to whom +the church is dedicated. The Greek monogram of the Virgin is inscribed +below the throne. + +The next in date which remains visible, is the group in the apsis of +S. Maria-della-Navicella (Rome), executed about 820, in the time of +Paschal I, a pontiff who was very remarkable for the zeal with which +he rebuilt and adorned the then half-ruined churches of Rome. The +Virgin, of colossal size, is seated on a throne; her robe and veil +are blue; the infant Christ, in a gold-coloured vest, is seated in her +lap, and raises his hand to bless the worshippers. On each side of the +Virgin is a group of adoring angels; at her feet kneels the diminutive +figure of Pope Paschal. + +In the Santa Maria-Nova (called also, "Santa Francesca," Rome), the +Virgin is seated on a throne wearing a rich crown, as queen of heaven. +The infant Christ stands upon her knee; she has one hand on her bosom +and sustains him with the other. + +On the façade of the portico of the S. Maria-in-Trastevere at Rome, +the Virgin is enthroned, and crowned, and giving her breast to the +Child. This mosaic is of later date than that in the apsis, but is +one of the oldest examples of a representation which was evidently +directed against the heretical doubts of the Nestorians: "How," said +they, pleading before the council of Ephesus, "can we call him God +who is only two or three months old; or suppose the Logos to have +been _suckled_ and to increase in wisdom?" The Virgin in the act +of suckling her Child, is a _motif_ often since repeated when the +original significance was forgotten. + +In the chapel of San Zeno (Rome), the Virgin is enthroned; the Child +is seated on her knee. He holds a scroll, on which are the words +_Ego sum lux mundi_, "I am the light of the world;" the right hand is +raised in benediction. Above is the monogram [Greek: M-R ThU], MARIA +MATER DEI. In the mosaics, from the eighth to the eleventh century, +we find Art at a very low ebb. The background is flat gold, not a blue +heaves with its golden stars, as in the early mosaics of the fifth and +sixth centuries. The figures are ill-proportioned; the faces consist +of lines without any attempt at form or expression. The draperies, +however, have a certain amplitude; "and the character of a few +accessories, for example, the crown on the Virgin's heads instead of +the invariable Byzantine veil, betrays," says Kugler, "a northern and +probably a Frankish influence." The attendant saints, generally St. +Peter and St. Paul, stand, stiff and upright on each side. + +But with all their faults, these grand, formal, significant groups--or +rather not groups, for there was as yet no attempt either at +grouping or variety of action, for that would have been considered +irreverent--but these rows of figures, were the models of the early +Italian painters and mosaic-workers in their large architectural +mosaics and altar-pieces set up in the churches during the revival +of Art, from the period of Cimabue and Andrea Tafi down to the +latter half of the thirteenth century: all partook of this lifeless, +motionless character, and were, at the same time, touched with +the same solemn religious feeling. And long afterwards, when the +arrangement became less formal and conventional, their influence may +still be traced in those noble enthroned Madonnas, which represent +the Virgin as queen of heaven and of angels, either alone, or with +attendant saints, and martyrs, and venerable confessors waiting round +her state. + +The general disposition of the two figures varies but little in the +earliest examples which exist for us in painting, and which are, in +fact, very much alike. The Madonna seated on a throne, wearing a red +tunic and a blue mantle, part of which is drawn as a veil over her +head, holds the infant Christ, clothed in a red or blue tunic. She +looks straight out of the picture with her head a little declined to +one side. Christ has the right hand raised in benediction, and the +other extended. Such were the simple, majestic, and decorous effigies, +the legitimate successors of the old architectural mosaics, and +usually placed over the high altar of a church or chapel. The earliest +examples which have been preserved are for that reason celebrated in +the history of Art. + +The first is the enthroned Virgin of Guido da Siena, who preceded +Cimabue by twenty or thirty years. In this picture, the Byzantine +conception and style of execution are adhered to, yet with a softened +sentiment, a touch of more natural, life-like feeling, particularly +in the head of the Child. The expression in the face of the Virgin +struck me as very gentle and attractive; but it has been, I am afraid, +retouched, so that we cannot be quite sure that we have the original +features. Fortunately Guido has placed a date on his work, MCCXXI., +and also inscribed on it a distich, which shows that he felt, with +some consciousness and self-complacency, his superiority to his +Byzantine models;-- + + "Me Guido de Senis diebus depinxit amoenis + Quem Christus lenis nullis velit angere poenis."[1] + +Next we may refer to the two colossal Madonnas by Cimabue, preserved +at Florence. The first, which was painted for the Vallombrosian monks +of the S. Trinità, is now in the gallery of the academy. It has all +the stiffness and coldness of the Byzantine manner. There are three +adoring angels on each side, disposed one above another, and four +prophets are placed below in separate niches, half figures, holding +in their hands their prophetic scrolls, as in the old mosaic at Capua, +already described. The second is preserved in the Ruccellai chapel, in +the S. Maria Novella, in its original place. In spite of its colossal +size, and formal attitude, and severe style, the face of this Madonna +is very striking, and has been well described as "sweet and unearthly, +reminding you of a sibyl." The infant Christ is also very fine. There +are three angels on each side, who seem to sustain the carved chair or +throne on which the Madonna is seated; and the prophets, instead, of +being below, are painted in small circular medallions down each side +of the frame. The throne and the background are covered with gold. +Vasari gives a very graphic and animated account of the estimation +in which this picture was held when first executed. Its colossal +dimensions, though familiar in the great mosaics, were hitherto +unknown in painting; and not less astonishing appeared the deviation, +though slight, from ugliness and lifelessness into grace and nature. +"And thus," he says, "it happened that this work was an object of +so much admiration to the people of that day, they having never seen +anything better, that it was carried in solemn procession, with the +sound of trumpets and other festal demonstrations, from the house of +Cimabue to the church, he himself being highly rewarded and honoured +for it. It is further reported, and may be read in certain records +of old painters, that, whilst Cimabue was painting this picture, in a +garden near the gate of San Pietro, King Charles the Elder, of Anjou, +passed through Florence, and the authorities of the city, among other +marks of respect, conducted him to see the picture of Cimabue. When +this work was thus shown to the King it had not before been seen +by any one; wherefore all the men and women of Florence hastened in +crowds to admire it, making all possible demonstrations of delight. +The inhabitants of the neighbourhood, rejoicing in this occurrence, +ever afterwards called that place _Borgo Allegri_; and this name +it has ever since retained, although in process of time it became +enclosed within the walls of the city." + +[Footnote 1: The meaning, for it is not easy to translate literally, +is "_Me, hath painted, in pleasant days, Guido of Siena, Upon whose +soul may Christ deign to have mercy!_"] + + * * * * * + +In the strictly devotional representations of the Virgin and Child, +she is invariably seated, till the end of the thirteenth century: and +for the next hundred years the innovation of a standing figure was +confined to sculpture. An early example is the beautiful statue by +Niccolà Pisano, in the Capella della Spina at Pisa; and others will be +found in Cicognara'a work (Storia della Scultura Moderna). The Gothic +cathedrals, of the thirteenth century, also exhibit some most graceful +examples of the Madonna in sculpture, standing on a pedestal, crowned +or veiled, sustaining on her left arm the divine Child, while in +her right she holds a sceptre or perhaps a flower. Such crowned or +sceptred effigies of the Virgin were placed on the central pillar +which usually divided the great door of a church into two equal parts; +in reference to the text, "I am the DOOR; by me if any man enter in, +he shall be saved." In Roman Catholic countries we find such effigies +set up at the corners of streets, over the doors of houses, and the +gates of gardens, sometimes rude and coarse, sometimes exceedingly +graceful, according to the period of art and skill of the local +artist. Here the Virgin appears in her character of Protectress--our +Lady of Grace, or our Lady of Succour. + + * * * * * + +In pictures, we rarely find the Virgin standing, before the end of +the fourteenth century. An almost singular example is to be found +in an old Greek Madonna, venerated as miraculous, in the Cathedral +of Orvieto, under the title of _La Madonna di San Brizio_, and to +which is attributed a fabulous antiquity. I may be mistaken, but my +impression, on seeing it, was, that it could not be older than the end +of the thirteenth century. The crowns worn by the Virgin and Christ +are even more modern, and out of character with the rest of the +painting. In Italy the pupils of Giotto first began to represent +the Virgin standing on a raised dais. There is an example by Puccio +Capanna, engraved in d'Agincourt's work; but such figures are very +uncommon. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries they occur more +frequently in the northern than in the Italian schools. + +In the simple enthroned Madonna, variations of attitude and sentiment +were gradually introduced. The Virgin, instead of supporting her +Son with both hands, embraces him with one hand, and with the other +points to him; or raises her right hand to bless the worshipper. Then +the Child caresses his mother,--a charming and natural idea, but a +deviation from the solemnity of the purely religious significance; +better imagined, however, to convey the relation between the mother +and child, than the Virgin suckling her infant, to which I have +already alluded in its early religious, or rather controversial +meaning. It is not often that the enthroned Virgin is thus occupied. +Mr. Rogers had in his collection an exquisite example where the +Virgin, seated in state on a magnificent throne under a Gothic canopy +and crowned as queen of heaven, offers her breast to the divine Infant +Then the Mother adores her Child. This is properly the _Madre Pia_ +afterwards so beautifully varied. He lies extended on her knee, and +she looks down upon him with hands folded in prayer: or she places +her hand under his foot, an attitude which originally implied her +acknowledgment of his sovereignty and superiority, but was continued +as a natural _motif_ when the figurative and religious meaning was no +longer considered. Sometimes the Child looks up in his mother's face +with his finger on his lip, expressing the _Verbum sum_, "I am the +Word." Sometimes the Child, bending forwards from his mother's knee, +looks down benignly on the worshippers, who are _supposed_ to be +kneeling at the foot of the altar. Sometimes, but very rarely he +sleeps; never in the earliest examples; for to exhibit the young +Redeemer asleep, where he is an object of worship, was then a species +of solecism. + +When the enthroned Virgin is represented holding a book, or reading, +while the infant Christ, perhaps, lays his hand upon it--a variation +in the first simple treatment not earlier than the end of the +fourteenth century, and very significant--she is then the _Virgo +Sapientissima_, the most Wise Virgin; or the Mother of Wisdom, _Mater +Sapientiæ_; and the book she holds is the Book of Wisdom.[1] This is +the proper interpretation, where the Virgin is seated on her throne. +In a most beautiful picture by Granacci (Berlin Gal.), she is thus +enthroned, and reading intently; while John the Baptist and St. +Michael stand on each side. + +[Footnote 1: L'Abbé Crosnier, "Iconographie Chrétienne;" but the book +as an attribute had another meaning, for which, see the Introduction.] + + * * * * * + +With regard to costume, the colours in which the enthroned +Virgin-Mother was arrayed scarcely ever varied from the established +rule: her tunic was to be red, her mantle blue; red, the colour of +love, and religious aspiration; blue, the colour of constancy and +heavenly purity. In the pictures of the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, and down to the early part of the fifteenth, these colours +are of a soft and delicate tint,--rose and pale azure; but afterwards, +when powerful effects of colour became a study, we have the intense +crimson, and the dark blue verging on purple. Sometimes the blue +mantle is brought over her head, sometimes she wears a white veil, in +other instances the queenly crown. Sometimes (but very rarely when she +is throned as the _Regina Coeli_) she has no covering or ornament on +her head; and her fair hair parted on her brow, flows down on either +side in long luxuriant tresses. + +In the Venetian and German pictures, she is often most gorgeously +arrayed; her crown studded with jewels, her robe covered with +embroidery, or bordered with gold and pearls. The ornamental parts of +her dress and throne were sometimes, to increase the magnificence of +the effect, raised in relief and gilt. To the early German painters, +we might too often apply the sarcasm of Apelles, who said of his +rival, that, "not being able to make Venus _beautiful_ he had made +her _fine_;" but some of the Venetian Madonnas are lovely as well as +splendid. Gold was often used, and in great profusion, in some of the +Lombard pictures even of a late date; for instance, by Carlo Crivelli: +before the middle of the sixteenth century, this was considered +barbaric. The best Italian painters gave the Virgin ample, well +disposed drapery, but dispensed with ornament. The star embroidered on +her shoulder, so often retained when all other ornament was banished, +expresses her title "Stella Maris." I have seen some old pictures, in +which she wears a ring on the third finger. This expresses her dignity +as the _Sposa_ as well as the Mother. + +With regard to the divine Infant, he is, in the early pictures, +invariably draped, and it is not till the beginning of the fifteenth +century that we find him first partially and then wholly undraped. +In the old representations, he wears a long tunic with full sleeves, +fastened with a girdle. It is sometimes of gold stuff embroidered, +sometimes white, crimson, or blue. This almost regal robe was +afterwards exchanged for a little semi-transparent shirt without +sleeves. In pictures of the throned Madonna painted expressly for +nunneries, the Child is, I believe, always clothed, or the Mother +partly infolds him in her own drapery. In the Umbrian pictures of the +fifteenth century, the Infant often wears a coral necklace, then and +now worn by children in that district, as a charm against the evil +eye. In the Venetian pictures he has sometimes a coronal of pearls. In +the carved and painted images set up in churches, he wears, like his +mother, a rich crown over a curled wig, and is hung round with jewels; +but such images must be considered as out of the pale of legitimate +art. + + * * * * * + +Of the various objects placed in the hand of the Child as emblems I +have already spoken, and of their sacred significance as such,--the +globe, the book, the bird, the flower, &c. In the works of the +ignorant secular artists of later times, these symbols of power, or +divinity, or wisdom, became mere playthings; and when they had become +familiar, and required by custom, and the old sacred associations +utterly forgotten, we find them most profanely applied and misused. +To give one example:--the bird was originally placed in the hand of +Christ as the emblem of the soul, or of the spiritual as opposed to +the earthly nature; in a picture by Baroccio, he holds it up before +a cat, to be frightened and tormented.[1] But to proceed. + +[Footnote 1: In the "History of Our Lord, as illustrated in the +Fine Arts," the devotional and characteristic effigies of the infant +Christ, and the accompanying attributes, will be treated at length.] + +The throne on which the Virgin is seated, is, in very early pictures, +merely an embroidered cushion on a sort of stool, or a carved Gothic +chair, such as we see in the thrones and stalls of cathedrals. It +is afterwards converted into a rich architectural throne, most +elaborately adorned, according to the taste and skill of the artist. +Sometimes, as in the early Venetian pictures, it is hung with garlands +of fruits and flowers, most fancifully disposed. Sometimes the +arabesque ornaments are raised in relief and gilt. Sometimes the +throne is curiously painted to imitate various marbles, and adorned +with medallions and bas-reliefs from those subjects of the Old +Testament which have a reference to the character of the Virgin and +the mission of her divine Child; the commonest of all being the Fall, +which rendered a Redeemer necessary. Moses striking the rock (the +waters of life)--the elevation of the brazen serpent--the gathering +of the manna--or Moses holding the broken tablets of the old law,--all +types of redemption, are often thus introduced as ornaments. In the +sixteenth century, when the purely religious sentiment had declined, +and a classical and profane taste had infected every department of +art and literature, we find the throne of the Virgin adorned with +classical ornaments and bas-reliefs from the antique remains; as, for +instance, the hunt of Theseus and Hippolyta. We must then suppose +her throned on the ruins of paganism, an idea suggested by the old +legends, which represent the temples and statues of the heathen gods +as falling into ruin on the approach of the Virgin and her Child; and +a more picturesque application of this idea afterwards became common +in other subjects. In Garofalo's picture the throne is adorned with +Sphinxes--_à l'antique_. Andrea del Sarto has placed harpies at the +corner of the pedestal of the throne, in his famous Madonna di San +Francesco (Florence Gal.),--a gross fault in that otherwise grand +and faultless picture; one of those desecrations of a religious +theme which Andrea, as devoid of religious feeling as he was weak and +dishonest, was in the habit of committing. + +But whatever the material or style of the throne, whether simple or +gorgeous, it is supposed to be a heavenly throne. It is not of the +earth, nor on the earth; and at first it was alone and unapproachable. +The Virgin-mother, thus seated in her majesty, apart from all human +beings, and in communion only with the Infant Godhead on her knee, or +the living worshippers who come to lay down their cares and sorrows +at the foot of her throne and breathe a devout "Salve Regina!"--is, +through its very simplicity and concentrated interest, a sublime +conception. The effect of these figures, in their divine quietude and +loveliness, can never be appreciated when hung in a gallery or room +with other pictures, for admiration, or criticism, or comparison. I +remember well suddenly discovering such a Madonna, in a retired chapel +in S. Francesco della Vigna at Venice,--a picture I had never heard +of, by a painter then quite unknown to me, Fra Antonio da Negroponte, +a Franciscan friar who lived in the fifteenth century. The calm +dignity of the attitude, the sweetness, the adoring love in the face +of the queenly mother as with folded hands she looked down on the +divine Infant reclining on her knee, so struck upon my heart, that I +remained for minutes quite motionless. In this picture, nothing can +exceed the gorgeous splendor of the Virgin's throne and apparel: +she wears a jewelled crown; the Child a coronal of pearls; while the +background is composed entirely of the mystical roses twined in a sort +of _treillage_. + +I remember, too, a picture by Carlo Crivelli, in which the Virgin is +seated on a throne, adorned, in the artist's usual style, with rich +festoons of fruit and flowers. She is most sumptuously crowned and +apparelled; and the beautiful Child on her knee, grasping her hand as +if to support himself, with the most _naïve_ and graceful action bends +forward and looks dawn benignly on the worshippers _supposed_ to be +kneeling below. + +When human personages were admitted within the same compartment, the +throne was generally raised by several steps, or placed on a lofty +pedestal, and till the middle of the fifteenth century it was always +in the centre of the composition fronting the spectator. It was a +Venetian innovation to place the throne at one side of the picture, +and show the Virgin in profile or in the act of turning round. +This more scenic disposition became afterwards, in the passion for +variety and effect, too palpably artificial, and at length forced and +theatrical. + +The Italians distinguish between the _Madonna in Trono_ and the +_Madonna in Gloria_. When human beings, however sainted and exalted +were admitted within the margin of the picture, the divine dignity +of the Virgin as _Madre di Dio_, was often expressed by elevating her +wholly above the earth, and placing her "in regions mild of calm and +serene air," with the crescent or the rainbow under her feet. This is +styled a "Madonna in Gloria." It is, in fact, a return to the antique +conception of the enthroned Redeemer, seated on a rainbow, sustained +by the "curled clouds," and encircled by a glory of cherubim. The +aureole of light, within which the glorified Madonna and her Child +when in a standing position are often placed, is of an oblong form, +called from its shape the _mandorla_, "the almond;"[1] but in general +she is seated above in a sort of ethereal exaltation, while the +attendant saints stand on the earth below. This beautiful arrangement, +though often very sublimely treated, has not the simple austere +dignity of the throne of state, and when the Virgin and Child, as in +the works of the late Spanish and Flemish painters, are formed out of +earth's most coarse and commonplace materials, the aërial throne of +floating fantastic clouds suggests a disagreeable discord, a fear lest +the occupants of heaven should fall on the heads of their worshippers +below. Not so the Virgins of the old Italians; for they look so +divinely ethereal that they seem uplifted by their own spirituality: +not even the air-borne clouds are needed to sustain them. They have no +touch of earth or earth's material beyond the human form; their proper +place is the seventh heaven; and there they repose, a presence and a +power--a personification of infinite mercy sublimated by innocence and +purity; and thence they look down on their worshippers and attendants, +while these gaze upwards "with looks commercing with the skies." + +[Footnote 1: Or the "Vescica Pisces," by Lord Lindsay and others.] + + * * * * * + +And now of these angelic and sainted accessories, however placed, we +must speak at length; for much of the sentiment and majesty of the +Madonna effigies depend on the proper treatment of the attendant +figures, and on the meaning they convey to the observer. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin is entitled, by authority of the Church, queen of angels, +of prophets, of apostles, of martyrs, of virgins, and of confessors; +and from among these her attendants are selected. + +ANGELS were first admitted, waiting Immediately round her chair +of state. A signal instance is the group of the enthroned Madonna, +attended by the four archangels, as we find it in the very ancient +mosaic in Sant-Apollinare-Novo, at Ravenna. As the belief in the +superior power and sanctity of the Blessed Virgin grew and spread, +the angels no longer attended her as princes of the heavenly host, +guardians, or councillors; they became, in the early pictures, +adoring angels, sustaining her throne on each side, or holding up +the embroidered curtain which forms the background. In the Madonna by +Cimabue, which, if it be not the earliest after the revival of art, +was one of the first in which the Byzantine manner was softened and +Italianized, we have six grand, solemn-looking angels, three on each +side of the throne, arranged perpendicularly one above another. +The Virgin herself is of colossal proportions, far exceeding them +in size, and looking out of her frame, "large as a goddess of the +antique world." In the other Madonna in the gallery of the academy, +we have the same arrangement of the angels. Giotto diversified this +arrangement. He placed the angels kneeling at the foot of the throne, +making music, and waiting on their divine Mistress as her celestial +choristers,--a service the more fitting because she was not only queen +of angels, but patroness of music and minstrelsy, in which character +she has St. Cecilia as her deputy and delegate. This accompaniment +of the choral angels was one of the earliest of the accessories, and +continued down to the latest times. They are most particularly lovely +in the pictures of the fifteenth century. They kneel and strike their +golden lutes, or stand and sound their silver clarions, or sit like +beautiful winged children on the steps of the throne, and pipe and +sing as if their spirits were overflowing with harmony as well as love +and adoration.[1] In a curious picture of the enthroned Madonna and +Child (Berlin Gal.), by Gentil Fabriano, a tree rises on each side +of the throne, on which little red seraphim are perched like birds, +singing and playing on musical instruments. In later times, they play +and sing for the solace of the divine Infant, not merely adoring, but +ministering: but these angels ministrant belong to another class of +pictures. Adoration, not service, was required by the divine Child +and his mother, when they were represented simply in their +divine character, and placed far beyond earthly wants and earthly +associations. + +[Footnote 1: As in the picture by Lo Spagna in our National Gallery, +No. 282.] + +There are examples where the angels in attendance bear, not harps +or lutes, but the attributes of the Cardinal Virtues, as in an +altar-piece by Taddeo Gaddi at Florence. (Santa Croce, Rinuccini +Chapel.) + +The patriarchs, prophets, and sibyls, all the personages, in fact, who +lived under the old law, when forming, in a picture or altar-piece, +part, of the _cortège_ of the throned Virgin, as types, or prophets, +or harbingers of the Incarnation, are on the _outside_ of that sacred +compartment wherein she is seated with her Child. This was the case +with _all_ the human personages down to the end of the thirteenth +century; and after that time, I find the characters of the Old +Testament still excluded from the groups immediately round her throne. +Their place was elsewhere allotted, at a more respectful distance. The +only exceptions I can remember, are King David and the patriarch +Job; and these only in late pictures, where David does not appear as +prophet, but as the ancestor of the Redeemer; and Job, only at Venice, +where he is a patron saint. + +The four evangelists and the twelve apostles are, in their collective +character in relation to the Virgin, treated like the prophets, +and placed around the altar-piece. Where we find one or more of the +evangelists introduced into the group of attendant "Sanctities" on +each side of her throne, it is not in their character of evangelists, +but rather as patron saints. Thus St. Mark appears constantly in the +Venetian pictures; but it is as the patron and protector of Venice. +St. John the Evangelist, a favourite attendant on the Virgin, is near +her in virtue of his peculiar relation to her and to Christ; and he is +also a popular patron saint. St. Luke and St. Matthew, unless they be +patrons of the particular locality, or of the votary who presents +the picture, never appear. It is the same with the apostles in their +collective character as such; we find them constantly, as statues, +ranged on each side of the Virgin, or as separate figures. Thus they +stand over the screen of St. Mark's, at Venice, and also on the carved +frames of the altar-pieces; but either from their number, or some +other cause, they are seldom grouped round the enthroned Virgin. + + * * * * * + +It is ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST who, next to the angels, seems to have +been the first admitted to a propinquity with the divine persons. In +Greek art, he is himself an angel, a messenger, and often represented +with wings. He was especially venerated in the Greek Church in +his character of precursor of the Redeemer, and, as such, almost +indispensable in every sacred group; and it is, perhaps, to the +early influence of Greek art on the selection and arrangement of the +accessory personages, that we owe the preëminence of John the Baptist. +One of the most graceful, and appropriate, and familiar of all the +accessory figures grouped with the Virgin and Child, is that of the +young St. John (called in Italian _San Giovannino_, and in Spanish +_San Juanito_.) When first introduced, we find him taking the place +of the singing or piping angels in front of the throne. He generally +stands, "clad in his raiment of camel's hair, having a girdle round +his loins," and in his hand a reed cross, round which is bound a +scroll with the words "_Ecce Agnus Dei_" ("Behold the Lamb of God"), +while with his finger he points up to the enthroned group above him, +expressing the text from St. Luke (c. ii.), "And thou, CHILD shalt +be called the Prophet of the Highest," as in Francia's picture in our +National Gallery. Sometimes he bears a lamb in his arms, the _Ecce +Agnus Dei_ in form instead of words. + +The introduction of the young St. John becomes more and more usual +from the beginning of the sixteenth century. In later pictures, a +touch of the dramatic is thrown into the arrangement: instead of being +at the foot of the throne, he is placed beside it; as where the Virgin +is throned on a lofty pedestal, and she lays one hand on the head of +the little St. John, while with the other she strains her Child to her +bosom; or where the infant Christ and St. John, standing at her knee, +embrace each other--a graceful incident in a Holy Family, but in the +enthroned Madonna it impairs the religious conception; it places St. +John too much on a level with the Saviour, who is here in that divine +character to which St. John bore witness, but which he did not share. +It is very unusual to see John the Baptist in his childish character +glorified in heaven among the celestial beings: I remember but one +instance, in a beautiful picture by Bonifazio. (Acad. Venice.) The +Virgin is seated in glory, with her Infant on her knee, and encircled +by cherubim; on one side an angel approaches with a basket of flowers +on his head, and she is in act to take these flowers and scatter +them on the saints below,--a new and graceful _motif_: on the other +side sits John the Baptist as a boy about twelve years of age. The +attendant saints below are St. Peter, St. Andrew, St. Thomas holding +the girdle,[1] St. Francis, and St. Clara, all looking up with +ecstatic devotion, except St. Clara, who looks down with a charming +modesty. + +[Footnote 1: St. Thomas is called in the catalogue, James, king of +Arragon.] + + * * * * * + +In early pictures, ST. ANNA, the mother of the Virgin, is very seldom +introduced, because in such sublime and mystical representations of +the _Vergine Dea_, whatever connected her with realities, or with her +earthly genealogy, is suppressed. But from the middle of the fifteenth +century, St. Anna became, from the current legends of the history +of the Virgin, an important saint, and when introduced into the +devotional groups, which, however, is seldom, it seems to have +embarrassed the painters how to dispose of her. She could not well be +placed below her daughter; she could not be placed above her. It is a +curious proof of the predominance of the feminine element throughout +these representations, that while ST. JOACHIM the father and ST. +JOSEPH the husband of the Virgin, are either omitted altogether, or +are admitted only in a subordinate and inferior position, St. Anna, +when she does appear, is on an equality with her daughter. There is +a beautiful example, and apt for illustration, in the picture by +Francia, in our National Gallery, where St. Anna and the Virgin are +seated together on the same throne, and the former presents the apple +to her divine Grandson. I remember, too, a most graceful instance +where St. Anna stands behind and a little above the throne, with her +hands placed affectionately on the shoulders of the Virgin, and raises +her eyes to heaven as if in thanksgiving to God, who through her had +brought salvation into the world. Where the Virgin is seated on the +knees of St. Anna, it is a still later innovation. There is such a +group in a picture in the Louvre, after a famous cartoon by Leonardo +da Vinci, which, in spite of its celebrity, has always appeared to me +very fantastic and irreverent in treatment. There is also a fine print +by Carraglio, in which the Virgin and Child are sustained on the +knees of St. Anna: under her feet lies the dragon. St. Roch and St. +Sebastian on each side, and the dead dragon, show that this is a +votive subject, an expression of thanksgiving after the cessation of +a plague. The Germans, who were fond of this group, imparted, even to +the most religious treatment, a domestic sentiment. + +The earliest instance I can point to of the enthroned Virgin attended +by both her parents, is by Vivarini (Acad. Venice): St. Anna is on the +right of the throne; St. Joachim, in the act of reverently removing +his cap, stands on the left; more in front is a group of Franciscan +saints. + +The introduction of St. Anna into a Holy Family, as part of the +domestic group, is very appropriate and graceful; but this of course +admits, and indeed requires, a wholly different sentiment. The same +remark applies to St. Joseph, who, in the earlier representations +of the enthroned Virgin, is carefully excluded; he appears, I think, +first in the Venetian pictures. There is an example in a splendid +composition by Paul Veronese. (Acad. Venice.) The Virgin, on a lofty +throne, holds the Child; both look down on the worshippers; St. +Joseph is partly seen behind leaning on his crutch. Round the throne +stand St. John the Baptist, St. Justina, as patroness of Venice, and +St. George; St. Jerome is on the other side in deep meditation. A +magnificent picture, quite sumptuous in colour and arrangement, and +yet so solemn and so calm![1] + +[Footnote 1: There is another example by Paul Veronese, similar in +character and treatment, in which St. John and St. Joseph are on the +throne with the Virgin and child, and St. Catherine and St. Antony +below.] + +The composition by Michael Angelo, styled a "Holy Family," is, +though singular in treatment, certainly devotional in character, +and an enthroned Virgin. She is seated in the centre, on a raised +architectural seat, holding a book; the infant Christ slumbers,--books +can teach him nothing, and to make him reading is unorthodox. In the +background on one side, St. Joseph leans over a balustrade, as if in +devout contemplation; a young St. John the Baptist leans on the other +side. The grand, mannered, symmetrical treatment is very remarkable +and characteristic. There are many engravings of this celebrated +composition. In one of them, the book held by the Virgin bears on one +side the text in Latin, "_Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is +the fruit of thy womb._" On the opposite page, "_Blessed be God, who +has regarded the low estate of his hand-maiden. For, behold, from +henceforth all generations shall call me blessed._" + +While the young St. John is admitted into' such close companionship +with the enthroned Madonna, his mother Elizabeth, so commonly and +beautifully introduced into the Holy Families, is almost uniformly +excluded. + +Next in order, as accessory figures, appear some one or two or more of +the martyrs, confessors, and virgin patronesses, with their respective +attributes, either placed in separate niches and compartments on each +side, or, when admitted within the sacred precincts where sits the +Queenly Virgin Mother and her divine Son, standing, in the manner +of councillors and officers of state on solemn occasions, round an +earthly sovereign, all reverently calm and still; till gradually this +solemn formality, this isolation of the principal characters, gave way +to some sentiment which placed them in nearer relation to each other, +and to the divine personages. Occasional variations of attitude and +action were introduced--at first, a rare innovation; ere long, a +custom, a fashion. For instance;--the doctors turn over the leaves +of their great books as if seeking for the written testimonies to the +truth of the mysterious Incarnation made visible in the persons of the +Mother and Child; the confessors contemplate the radiant group with +rapture, and seem ready to burst forth in hymns of praise; the martyrs +kneel in adoration; the virgins gracefully offer their victorious +palms: and thus the painters of the best periods of art contrived to +animate their sacred groups without rendering them too dramatic and +too secular. + +Such, then, was the general arrangement of that religious subject +which is technically styled "The Madonna enthroned and attended by +Saints." The selection and the relative position of these angelic and +saintly accessories were not, as I have already observed, matters of +mere taste or caprice; and an attentive observation of the choice and +disposition of the attendant figures will often throw light on the +original significance of such pictures, and the circumstances under +which they wore painted. + +Shall I attempt a rapid classification and interpretation of these +infinitely varied groups? It is a theme which might well occupy +volumes rather than pages, and which requires far more antiquarian +learning and historical research than I can pretend to; still by +giving the result of my own observations in some few instances, it may +be possible so to excite the attention and fancy of the reader, as +to lead him further on the same path than I have myself been able to +venture. + + * * * * * + +We can trace, in a large class of these pictures, a general +religious significance, common to all periods, all localities, all +circumstances; while in another class, the interest is not only +particular and local, but sometimes even personal. + +To the first class belongs the antique and beautiful group of the +Virgin and Child, enthroned between the two great archangels, St. +Michael and St. Gabriel. It is probably the most ancient of these +combinations: we find it in the earliest Greek art, in the carved +ivory diptychs of the eighth and ninth centuries, in the old +Greco-Italian pictures, in the ecclesiastical sculpture and stained +glass of from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. In the most +ancient examples, the two angels are seen standing on each side of +the Madonna, not worshipping, but with their sceptres and attributes, +as princes of the heavenly host, attending on her who is queen of +angels; St. Gabriel as the angel of birth and life, St. Michael as +the angel of Death, that is, in the Christian sense, of deliverance +and immortality. There is an instance of this antique treatment in a +small Greek picture in the Wallerstein collection. (Now at Kensington +Palace.) + +In later pictures, St. Gabriel seldom appears except as the _Angela +Annunziatore_; but St. Michael very frequently. Sometimes, as +conqueror over sin and representative of the Church militant, +he stands with his foot on the dragon with a triumphant air; or, +kneeling, he presents to the infant Christ the scales of eternal +justice, as in a famous picture by Leonardo da Vinci. It is not only +because of his popularity as a patron saint, and of the number of +churches dedicated to him, that he is so frequently introduced into +the Madonna pictures; according to the legend, he was by Divine +appointment the guardian of the Virgin and her Son while they +sojourned on earth. The angel Raphael leading Tobias always expresses +protection, and especially protection to the young. Tobias with his +fish was an early type of baptism. There are many beautiful examples. +In Raphael's "Madonna dell' Pesce" (Madrid Gal.) he is introduced as +the patron saint of the painter, but not without a reference to more +sacred meaning, that of the guardian spirit of all humanity. The +warlike figure of St. Michael, and the benign St. Raphael, are +thus represented as celestial guardians in the beautiful picture by +Perugino now in our National Gallery. (No. 288.) + +There are instances of the three archangels all standing together +below the glorified Virgin: St. Michael in the centre with his foot +on the prostrate fiend; St. Gabriel on the right presents his lily; +and, on the left, the protecting angel presents his human charge, and +points up to the source of salvation. (In an engraving after Giulio +Romano.) + + * * * * * + +The Virgin between St. Peter and St. Paul is also an extremely ancient +and significant group. It appears in the old mosaics. As chiefs of the +apostles and joint founders of the Church, St. Peter and St. Paul are +prominent figures in many groups and combinations, particularly in +the altar-pieces of the Roman churches, and those painted for the +Benedictine communities. + +The Virgin, when supported on each side by St. Peter and St. Paul, +must be understood to represent the personified Church between her +two great founders and defenders; and this relation is expressed, +in a very poetical manner, when St. Peter, kneeling, receives the +allegorical keys from the hand of the infant Saviour. There are some +curious and beautiful instances of this combination of a significant +action with the utmost solemnity of treatment; for example, in +that very extraordinary Franciscan altar-piece, by Carlo Crivelli, +lately purchased by Lord Ward, where St. Peter, having deposited his +papal tiara at the foot of the throne, kneeling receives the great +symbolical keys. And again, in a fine picture by Andrea Meldula, where +the Virgin and Child are enthroned, and the infant Christ delivers +the keys to Peter, who stands, but with a most reverential air; on the +other side of the throne is St. Paul with his book and the sword held +upright. There are also two attendant angels. On the border of the +mantle of the Virgin is inscribed "_Ave Maria gratia plena_."[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the collection of Mr. Bromley, of Wootton. This +picture is otherwise remarkable as the only authenticated work of a +very rare painter. It bears his signature, and the style indicates the +end of the fifteenth century as the probable date.] + +I do not recollect any instance in which the four evangelists as such, +or the twelve apostles in their collective character, wait round the +throne of the Virgin and Child, though one or more of the evangelists +and one or more of the apostles perpetually occur. + +The Virgin between St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, +is also a very significant and beautiful combination, and one very +frequently met with. Though both these saints were as children +contemporary with the child Christ, and so represented in the Holy +Families, in these solemn ideal groups they are always men. The first +St. John expresses regeneration by the rite of baptism the second St. +John, distinguished as _Theologus_, "the Divine," stands with his +sacramental cup, expressing regeneration by faith. The former was the +precursor of the Saviour, the first who proclaimed him to the world as +such; the latter beheld the vision in Patmos, of the Woman in travail +pursued by the dragon, which is interpreted in reference to the +Virgin and her Child. The group thus brought into relation is full +of meaning, and, from the variety and contrast of character, full of +poetical and artistic capabilities. St. John the Baptist is usually +a man about thirty, with wild shaggy hair and meagre form, so draped +that his vest of camel's hair is always visible; he holds his reed +cross. St. John the Evangelist is generally the young and graceful +disciple; but in some instances he is the venerable seer of Patmos, + + "Whose beard descending sweeps his aged breast." + +There is an example in one of the finest pictures by Perugino. The +Virgin is throned above, and surrounded by a glory of seraphim, with +many-coloured wings. The Child stands on her knee. In the landscape +below are St. Michael, St. Catherine, St. Apollonia, and. St. John +the Evangelist as the aged prophet with white flowing beard. (Bologna +Acad.) + + * * * * * + +The Fathers of the Church, as interpreters and defenders of the +mystery of the Incarnation, are very significantly placed near the +throne of the Virgin and Child. In Western art, the Latin doctors, St. +Jerome, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St. Gregory, have of course +the preëminence. (v Sacred and Legend. Art.) + +The effect produced by these aged, venerable, bearded dignitaries, +with their gorgeous robes and mitres and flowing beards, in contrast +with the soft simplicity of the divine Mother and her Infant, is, +in the hands of really great artists, wonderfully fine. There is a +splendid example, by Vivarini (Venice Acad.); the old doctors stand +two on each side of the throne, where, under a canopy upborne by +angels, sits the Virgin, sumptuously crowned and attired, and looking +most serene and goddess-like; while the divine Child, standing on +her knee, extends his little hand in the act of benediction. Of this +picture I have already given a very detailed description. (Sacred and +Legend. Art.) Another example, a grand picture by Moretto, now in the +Museum at Frankfort, I have also described. There is here a touch of +the dramatic sentiment;--the Virgin is tenderly caressing her Child, +while two of the old doctors, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, stand +reverently on each side of her lofty throne; St. Gregory sits on the +step below, reading, and St. Jerome bends over and points to a page in +his book. The Virgin is not sufficiently dignified; she has too much +the air of a portrait; and the action of the Child is, also, though +tender, rather unsuited to the significance of the rest of the group; +but the picture is, on the whole, magnificent. There is another fine +example of the four doctors attending on the Virgin, in the Milan +Gallery.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In a native picture of the Milanese School, dedicated by +Ludovico Sforza _Il Moro_.] + +Sometimes not four, but two only of these Fathers, appear in +combination with other figures, and the choice would depend on the +locality and other circumstances. But, on the whole, we rarely find +a group of personages assembled round the throne of the Virgin which +does not include one or more of these venerable pillars of the Church. +St. Ambrose appears most frequently in the Milanese pictures: St. +Augustine and St. Jerome, as patriarchs of monastic orders, are +very popular: St. Gregory, I think, is more seldom met with than the +others. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin, with St. Jerome and St. Catherine, the patron saints +of theological learning, is a frequent group in all monasteries, +but particularly in the churches and houses of the Jeronimites. A +beautiful example is the Madonna, by Francia. (Borghese Palace. +Rome.) St. Jerome, with Mary Magdalene, also a frequent combination, +expresses theological learning in union with religious penitence and +humility. Correggio's famous picture is an example, where St. Jerome +on one side presents his works in defence of the Church, and his +translation of the Scriptures; while, on the other, Mary Magdalene, +bending down devoutly, kisses the feet of the infant Christ. (Parma.) + +Of all the attendants on the Virgin and Child, the most popular is, +perhaps, St. Catherine; and the "Marriage of St. Catherine," as a +religious mystery, is made to combine with the most solemn and formal +arrangement of the other attendant figures. The enthroned Virgin +presides over the mystical rite. This was, for intelligible reasons, +a favourite subject in nunneries.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a detailed account of the legendary marriage of St. +Catherine and examples of treatment, see Sacred and Legendary Art.] + +In a picture by Garofalo, the Child, bending from his mother's knee, +places a golden crown on the head of St. Catherine as _Sposa_; on each +side stand St. Agnes and St. Jerome. + +In a picture by Carlo Maratti, the nuptials take place in heaven, the +Virgin and Child being throned in clouds. + +If the kneeling _Sposa_ be St. Catherine of Siena, the nun, and not +St. Catherine of Alexandria, or if the two are introduced, then we may +be sure that the picture was painted for a nunnery of the Dominican +order.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Legends of the Monastic Orders. A fine example of +this group "the Spozulizio of St. Catherine of Siena," has lately been +added to our National Gallery; (Lorenzo di San Severino, No. 249.)] + +The great Madonna _in Trono_ by the Dominican Fra Bartolomeo, wherein +the queenly St. Catherine of Alexandria witnesses the mystical +marriage of her sister saint, the nun of Siena, will occur to every +one who has been at Florence; and there is a smaller picture by the +same painter in the Louvre;--a different version of the same subject. +I must content myself with merely referring to these well-known +pictures which have been often engraved, and dwell more in detail +on another, not so well known, and, to my feeling, as preëminently +beautiful and poetical, but in the early Flemish, not the Italian +style--a poem in a language less smooth and sonorous, but still a +_poem_. + +This is the altar-piece painted by Hemmelinck for the charitable +sisterhood of St. John's Hospital at Bruges. The Virgin is seated +under a porch, and her throne decorated with rich tapestry; two +graceful angels hold a crown over her head. On the right, St. +Catherine, superbly arrayed as a princess, kneels at her side, and +the beautiful infant Christ bends forward and places the bridal ring +on her finger. Behind her a charming angel, playing on the organ, +celebrates the espousals with hymns of joy; beyond him stands St. +John the Baptist with his lamb. On the left of the Virgin kneels St. +Barbara, reading intently; behind her an angel with a book; beyond him +stands St. John the Evangelist, youthful, mild, and pensive. Through +the arcades of the porch is seen a landscape background, with +incidents picturesquely treated from the lives of the Baptist and +the Evangelist. Such is the central composition. The two wings +represent--on one side, the beheading of St. John the Baptist; on +the other, St. John the Evangelist, in Patmos, and the vision of the +Apocalypse. In this great work there is a unity and harmony of design +which blends the whole into an impressive poem. The object was to do +honour to the patrons of the hospital, the two St. Johns, and, at +the same time, to express the piety of the Charitable Sisters, who, +like St. Catherine (the type of contemplative studious piety), were +consecrated and espoused to Christ, and, like St. Barbara (the type of +active piety), were dedicated to good works. It is a tradition, that +Hemmelinck painted this altar-piece as a votive offering in gratitude +to the good Sisters, who had taken him in and nursed him when +dangerously wounded: and surely if this tradition be true, never was +charity more magnificently recompensed. + +In a very beautiful picture by Ambrogio Borgognone (Dresden, +collection of M. Grahl) the Virgin is seated on a splendid throne; +on the right kneels St. Catherine of Alexandria, on the left St. +Catherine of Siena: the Virgin holds a hand of each, which she +presents to the divine Child seated on her knee, and to each he +presents a ring. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin and Child between St. Catherine and St. Barbara is one of +the most popular, as well as one of the most beautiful and expressive, +of these combinations; signifying active and contemplative life, +or the two powers between which the social state was divided in the +middle ages, namely, the ecclesiastical and the military, learning and +arms (Sacred and Legend. Art); St. Catherine being the patron of the +first, and St. Barbara of the last. When the original significance had +ceased to be understood or appreciated, the group continued to be a +favourite one, particularly in Germany; and examples are infinite. + +The Virgin between St. Mary Magdalene and St. Barbara, the former as +the type of penance, humility, and meditative piety, the latter as the +type of fortitude and courage, is also very common. When between St. +Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine, the idea suggested is learning, with +penitence and humility; this is a most popular group. So is St. Lucia +with one of these or both: St. Lucia with her _lamp_ or her _eyes_, is +always expressive of _light_, the light of divine wisdom. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin between St. Nicholas and St. George is a very expressive +group; the former as the patron saint of merchants, tradesmen, and +seamen, the popular saint of the bourgeoisie; the latter as the patron +of soldiers, the chosen saint of the aristocracy. These two saints +with St. Catherine are pre-eminent in the Venetian pictures; for all +three, in addition to their poetical significance, were venerated as +especial protectors of Venice. + + * * * * * + +St. George and St. Christopher both stand by the throne of the Virgin +of Succour as protectors and deliverers in danger. The attribute of +St. Christopher is the little Christ on his shoulder; and there are +instances in which Christ appears on the lap of his mother, and also +on the shoulder of the attendant St. Christopher. This blunder, if it +may be so called, has been avoided, very cleverly I should think in +his own opinion, by a painter who makes St. Christopher kneel, while +the Virgin places the little Christ on his shoulders; a _concetto_ +quite inadmissible in a really religious group. + + * * * * * + +In pictures dedicated by charitable communities, we often find +St. Nicholas and St. Leonard as the patron saints of prisoners and +captives. Wherever St. Leonard appears he expresses deliverance +from captivity. St. Omobuono, St. Martin, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, +St. Roch, or other beneficent saints, waiting round the Virgin with +kneeling beggars, or the blind, the lame, the sick, at their feet, +always expressed the Virgin as the mother of mercy, the _Consolatrix +afflictorum_. Such pictures were commonly found in hospitals, and +the chapels and churches of the Order of Mercy, and other charitable +institutions. The examples are numerous. I remember one, a striking +picture, by Bartolomeo Montagna, where the Virgin and Child are +enthroned in the centre as usual. On her right the good St. Omobuono, +dressed as a burgher, in a red gown and fur cap, gives alms to a poor +beggar; on the left, St. Francis presents a celebrated friar of his +Order, Bernardino da Feltri, the first founder of a _mont-de-piété_, +who kneels, holding the emblem of his institution, a little green +mountain with a cross at the top. + + * * * * * + +Besides these saints, who have a _general_ religious character and +significance, we have the national and local saints, whose presence +very often marks the country or school of art which produced the +picture. + +A genuine Florentine Madonna is distinguished by a certain elegance +and stateliness, and well becomes her throne. As patroness of +Florence, in her own right, the Virgin bears the title of Santa Maria +del Fiore, and in this character she holds a flower, generally a rose, +or is in the act of presenting it to the Child. She is often attended +by St. John the Baptist, as patron of Florence; but he is everywhere +a saint of such power and importance as an attendant on the divine +personages, that his appearance in a picture does not stamp it as +Florentine. St. Cosmo and St. Damian are Florentine, as the protectors +of the Medici family; but as patrons of the healing art, they have +a significance which renders them common in the Venetian and other +pictures. It may, however, be determined, that if St. John the +Baptist, St. Cosmo and St. Damian, with St. Laurence (the patron of +Lorenzo the Magnificent), appear together in attendance on the Virgin, +that picture is of the Florentine school. The presence of St. Zenobio, +or of St. Antonino, the patron archbishops of Florence, will set the +matter at rest, for these are exclusively Florentine. In a picture by +Giotto, angels attend on the Virgin bearing vases of lilies in their +hands. (Lilies are at once the emblem of the Virgin and the _device_ +of Florence.) On each side kneel St. John the Baptist and St. +Zenobio.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We now possess in our National Gallery a very interesting +example of a Florentine enthroned Madonna, attended by St. John the +Baptist and St. Zenobio as patrons of Florence.] + +A Siena Madonna would naturally be attended by St. Bernardino and St. +Catherine of Siena; if they seldom appear together, it is because they +belong to different religious orders. + +In the Venetian pictures we find a crowd of guardian saints; first +among them, St. Mark, then St. Catherine, St. George, St. Nicholas, +and St. Justina: wherever these appear together, that picture is +surely from the Venetian school. + +All through Lombardy and Piedmont, St. Ambrose of Milan and St. +Maurice of Savoy are favourite attendants on the Virgin. + + * * * * * + +In Spanish and Flemish art, the usual attendants on the queenly +Madonna are monks and nuns, which brings us to the consideration of +a large and interesting class of pictures, those dedicated by the +various religious orders. When we remember that the institution of +some of the most influential of these communities was coeval with the +revival of art; that for three or four centuries, art in all its forms +had no more powerful or more munificent patrons; that they counted +among their various brotherhoods some of the greatest artists the +world has seen; we can easily imagine how the beatified members of +these orders have become so conspicuous as attendants on the celestial +personages. To those who are accustomed to read the significance of +a work of art, a single glance is often sufficient to decide for what +order it has been executed. + +St. Paul is a favourite saint of the Benedictine communities; and +there are few great pictures painted for them in which he does +not appear. When in companionship with St. Benedict, either in the +original black habit or the white habit of the reformed orders, with +St. Scholastica bearing her dove, with St. Bernard, St. Romualdo, +or other worthies of this venerable community, the interpretation is +easy. + +Here are some examples by Domenico Puligo. The Virgin not seated, but +standing on a lofty pedestal, looks down on her worshippers; the Child +in her arms extends the right hand in benediction; with his left he +points to himself, "I am the Resurrection and the Life." Around are +six saints, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John the Baptist as protector of +Florence, St. Matthew, St. Catherine; and St. Bernard, in his ample +white habit, with his keen intellectual face, is about to write in a +great book, and looking up to the Virgin for inspiration. The picture +was originally painted for the Cistercians.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is now in the S. Maria-Maddalena de' Pazzi at +Florence. Engraved in the "Etruria Pittrice," xxxv.] + +The Virgin and Child enthroned between St. Augustine and his mother +St. Monica, as in a fine picture by Florigerio (Venice Acad.), would +show the picture to be painted for one of the numerous branches of the +Augustine Order. St. Antony the abbot is a favourite saint in pictures +painted for the Augustine hermits. + +In the "Madonna del Baldachino" of Raphael, the beardless saint +who stands in a white habit on one side of the throne is usually +styled St. Bruno; an evident mistake. It is not a Carthusian, but +a Cistercian monk, and I think St. Bernard, the general patron of +monastic learning. The other attendant saints are St. Peter, St. +James, and St. Augustine. The picture was originally painted for the +church of San Spirito at Florence, belonging to the Augustines. + +But St. Augustine is also the patriarch of the Franciscans and +Dominicans, and frequently takes an influential place in their +pictures, as the companion either of St. Francis or of St. Dominick, +as in a picture by Fra Angelico. (Florence Gal.) + +Among the votive Madonnas of the mendicant orders, I will mention a +few conspicuous for beauty and interest, which will serve as a key to +others. + +1. The Virgin and Child enthroned between Antony of Padua and St. +Clara of Assisi, as in a small elegant picture by Pellegrino, must +have been dedicated in a church of the Franciscans. (Sutherland Gal.) + +2. The Virgin blesses St. Francis, who looks up adoring: behind him +St. Antony of Padua; on the other side, John the Baptist as a man, and +St. Catherine. A celebrated but not an agreeable picture, painted by +Correggio for the Franciscan church at Parma. (Dresden Gal.) + +3. The Virgin is seated in glory; on one side St. Francis, on the +other St. Antony of Padua, both placed in heaven, and almost on +an equality with the celestial personages. Around are seven female +figures, representing the seven cardinal virtues, bearing their +respective attributes. Below are seen the worthies of the Franciscan +Order; to the right of the Virgin, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, St. Louis +of France, St. Bonaventura; to the left, St. Ives of Bretagne, St. +Eleazar, and St. Louis of Toulouse.[1] Painted for the Franciscans by +Morone and Paolo Cavazzolo of Verona. This is a picture of wonderful +beauty, and quite poetical in the sentiment and arrangement, and the +mingling of the celestial, the allegorical, and the real personages, +with a certain solemnity and gracefulness quite indescribable. +The virtues, for instance, are not so much allegorical persons as +spiritual appearances, and the whole of the ripper part of the picture +is like a vision. + +[Footnote 1: For these Franciscan saints, v. Legends of the Monastic +Orders.] + +4. The Virgin, standing on the tree of Site, holds the Infant: rays +of glory proceed from them on every side. St. Francis, kneeling at the +foot of the tree, looks up in an ecstasy of devotion, while a snake +with a wounded and bleeding head is crawling away. This strange +picture, painted for the Franciscans, by Carducho, about 1625, is a +representation of an abstract dogma (redemption from original sin), +in the most real, most animated form--all over life, earthly breathing +life--and made me start back: in the mingling of mysticism and +materialism, it is quite Spanish.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Esterhazy Gal., Vienna. Mr. Stirling tells us that the +Franciscan friars of Valladolid possessed two pictures of the Virgin +by Mateo de Cerezo "in one of which she was represented sitting in a +cherry-tree and adored by St. Francis. This unusual throne may perhaps +have been introduced by Cerezo as a symbol of his own devout feelings, +his patronymic being the Castilian word for cherry-tree."--_Stirling's +Artists of Spain_, p. 1033. There are, however, many prints and +pictures of the Virgin and Child seated in a tree. It was one of the +fantastic conceptions of an unhealthy period of religion and art.] + +5. The Virgin and Child enthroned. On the right of the Virgin, St. +John the Baptist and St. Zenobio, the two protectors of Florence. The +latter wears his episcopal cope richly embroidered with figures. On +the left stand St. Peter and St. Dominick, protectors of the company +for whom the picture was painted. In front kneel St. Jerome and St. +Francis. This picture was originally placed in San Marco, a church +belonging to the Dominicans.[1] + +[Footnote 1: I saw and admired this fine and valuable picture in +the Rinuccini Palace at Florence in 1847; it was purchased for our +National Gallery in 1855.] + +6. When the Virgin or the Child holds the Rosary, it is then a +_Madonna del Rosario_, and painted for the Dominicans. The Madonna by +Murillo, in the Dulwich Gallery, is an example. There is an instance +in which the Madonna and Child enthroned are distributing rosaries to +the worshippers, and attended by St. Dominick and St. Peter Martyr, +the two great saints of the Order. (Caravaggio, Belvedere Gal., +Vienna.) + + * * * * * + +7. Very important in pictures is the Madonna as more particularly the +patroness of the Carmelites, under her well-known title of "Our Lady +of Mount Carmel," or _La Madonna del Carmine_. The members of this +Order received from Pope Honorius III. the privilege of styling +themselves the "Family of the Blessed Virgin," and their churches are +all dedicated to her under the title of _S. Maria del Carmine_. She +is generally represented holding the infant Christ, with her robe +outspread, and beneath its folds the Carmelite brethren and their +chief saints.[1] There is an example in a picture by Pordenone which +once belonged to Canova. (Acad. Venice.) The Madonna del Carmine is +also portrayed as distributing to her votaries small tablets on which +is a picture of herself. + +[Footnote 1: v. Legends of the Monastic Orders, "The Carmelites".] + +8. The Virgin, as patroness of the Order of Mercy, also distributes +tablets, but they bear the badge of the Order, and this distinguishes +"Our Lady of Mercy," so popular in Spanish, art, from "Our Lady of +Mount Carmel." (v. Monastic Orders.) + +A large class of these Madonna pictures are votive offerings for +public or private mercies. They present some most interesting +varieties of character and arrangement. + +A votive Mater Misericordiæ, with the Child, in her arms, is often +standing with her wide ample robe extended, and held up on each side +by angels. Kneeling at her feet are the votaries who have consecrated +the picture, generally some community or brotherhood instituted for +charitable purposes, who, as they kneel, present the objects of +their charity--widows, orphans, prisoners, or the sick and infirm. +The Child, in her arms, bends forward, with the hand raised in +benediction. I have already spoken of the Mater Misericordiæ _without_ +the Child. The sentiment is yet more beautiful and complete where +the Mother of Mercy holds the infant Redeemer, the representative and +pledge of God's infinite mercy, in her arms. + +There is a "Virgin of Mercy," by Salvator Rosa, which is singular and +rather poetical in the conception. She is seated in heavenly glory; +the infant Christ, on her knee, bends benignly forward. Tutelary +angels are represented as pleading for mercy, with eager outstretched +arms; other angels, lower down, are liberating the souls of repentant +sinners from torment. The expression in some of the heads, the +contrast between the angelic pitying spirits and the anxious haggard +features of the "_Anime del Purgatorio_" are very fine and animated. +Here the Virgin is the "Refuge of Sinners," _Refugium Peccatorum_. +Such pictures are commonly met with in chapels dedicated to services +for the dead. + + * * * * * + +Another class of votive pictures are especial acts of +thanksgiving:--1st. For victory, as _La Madonna della Vittoria, Notre +Dame des Victoires._ The Virgin, on her throne, is then attended +by one or more of the warrior saints, together with the patron or +patroness of the victors. She is then our Lady of Victory. A very +perfect example of these victorious Madonnas exists in a celebrated +picture by Andrea Mantegna. The Virgin is seated on a lofty throne, +embowered by garlands of fruit, leaves, and flowers, and branches +of coral, fancifully disposed as a sort of canopy over her head. +The Child stands on her knee, and raises his hand in the act of +benediction. On the right of the Virgin appear the warlike saints, St. +Michael and St. Maurice; they recommend to her protection the Marquis +of Mantua, Giovan Francesco Gonzaga, who kneels in complete armour.[1] +On the left stand St. Andrew and St. Longinus, the guardian saints +of Mantua; on the step of the throne, the young St. John the Baptist, +patron of the Marquis; and more in front, a female figure, seen +half-length, which some have supposed to be St. Elizabeth, the mother +of the Baptist, and others, with more reason, the wife of the Marquis, +the accomplished Isabella d'Este.[2] This picture was dedicated in +celebration of the victory gained by Gonzaga over the French, near +Fornone, in 1495.[3] There is something exceedingly grand, and, at +the same time, exceedingly fantastic and poetical, in the whole +arrangement; and besides its beauty and historical importance, it is +the most important work of Andrea Mantegna. Gonzaga, who is the hero +of the picture, was a poet as well as a soldier. Isabella d'Este +shines conspicuously, both for virtue and talent, in the history of +the revival of art during the fifteenth century. She was one of the +first who collected gems, antiques, pictures, and made them available +for the study and improvement of the learned. Altogether, the picture +is most interesting in every point of view. It was carried off by the +French from Milan in 1797; and considering the occasion on which it +was painted, they must have had a special pleasure in placing it in +their Louvre, where it still remains. + +[Footnote 1: "Qui rend grâces du _prétendu_ succès obtenu sur Charles +VIII. à la bataille de Fornone," as the French catalogue expresses +it.] + +[Footnote 2: Both, however, may be right; for St. Elizabeth was +the patron saint of the Marchesana: the head has quite the air of a +portrait, and may be Isabella in likeness of a saint.] + +[Footnote 3: "Si les soldats avaient mieux secondé la bravoure de +leur chef, l'armie de Charles VIII. était perdue sans ressource--Ils +se disperserent pour piller et laissèrent aux Français le temps de +continuer leur route."] + +There is a very curious and much more ancient Madonna of this class +preserved at Siena, and styled the "Madonna del Voto." The Sienese +being at war with Florence, placed their city under the protection of +the Virgin, and made a solemn vow that, if victorious, they would make +over their whole territory to her as a perpetual possession, and hold +it from her as her loyal vassals. After the victory of Arbia, which +placed Florence itself for a time in such imminent danger, a picture +was dedicated by Siena to the Virgin _della Vittoria_. She is +enthroned and crowned, and the infant Christ, standing on her knee, +holds in his hand the deed of gift. + + * * * * * + +2dly. For deliverance from plague and pestilence, those scourges of +the middle ages. In such pictures the Virgin is generally attended by +St. Sebastian, with St. Roch or St. George; sometimes, also, by St. +Cosmo and St. Damian, all of them protectors and healers in time of +sickness and calamity. These intercessors are often accompanied by the +patrons of the church or locality. + +There is a remarkable picture of this class by Matteo di Giovanni +(Siena Acad.), in which the Virgin and Child are throned between St. +Sebastian and St. George, while St. Cosmo and St. Damian, dressed as +physicians, and holding their palms, kneel before the throne. + +In a very famous picture by Titian. (Rome, Vatican), the Virgin and +Child are seated in heavenly glory. She has a smiling and gracious +expression, and the Child holds a garland, while angels scatter +flowers. Below stand St. Sebastian, St. _Nicholas_, St. Catherine, St. +Peter, and St. _Francis_. The picture was an offering to the Virgin, +after the cessation of a pestilence at Venice, and consecrated in a +church of the _Franciscans_ dedicated to St. _Nicholas_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: San Nicolo de' Frari, since destroyed, and the picture +has been transferred to the Vatican.] + +Another celebrated votive picture against pestilence is Correggio's +"Madonna di San Sebastiano." (Dresden Gal.) She is seated in heavenly +glory, with little angels, not so much adoring as sporting and +hovering round her; below are St. Sebastian and St. Roch, the latter +asleep. (There would be an impropriety in exhibiting St. Roch sleeping +but for the reference to the legend, that, while he slept, an angel +healed him, which lends the circumstance a kind of poetical beauty.) +St. Sebastian, bound, looks up on the other side. The introduction of +St. Geminiano, the patron of Modena, shows the picture to have been +painted for that city, which had been desolated by pestilence in 1512. +The date of the picture is 1515. + +We may then take it for granted, that wherever the Virgin and Child +appear attended by St. Sebastian and St. Roch, the picture has been a +votive offering against the plague; and there is something touching in +the number of such memorials which exist in the Italian churches. (v. +Sacred and Legendary Art.) The brotherhoods instituted in most of the +towns of Italy and Germany, for attending the sick and plague-stricken +in times of public calamity, were placed under the protection of +the Virgin of Mercy, St. Sebastian, and St. Roch; and many of these +pictures were dedicated by such communities, or by the municipal +authorities of the city or locality. There is a memorable example in a +picture by Guido, painted, by command of the Senate of Bologna, after +the cessation of the plague, which desolated the city in 1830. (Acad. +Bologna.) The benign Virgin, with her Child, is seated in the skies: +the rainbow, symbol of peace and reconciliation, is under her feet. +The infant Christ, lovely and gracious, raises his right hand in +the act of blessing; in the other he holds a branch of olive: angels +scatter flowers around. Below stand the guardian saints, the "_Santi +Protettori_" of Bologna;--St. Petronius, St. Francis, St. Dominick; +the warrior-martyrs, St. Proculus and St. Florian, in complete armour; +with St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier. Below these is seen, as +if through a dark cloud and diminished, the city of Bologna, where +the dead are borne away in carts and on biers. The upper part of +this famous picture is most charming for the gracious beauty of the +expression, the freshness and delicacy of the colour. The lower part +is less happy, though the head of St. Francis, which is the portrait +of Guido's intimate friend and executor, Saulo Guidotti, can hardly +be exceeded for intense and life-like truth. The other figures are +deficient in expression and the execution hurried, so that on the +whole it is inferior to the votive Pietà already described. Guido, it +is said, had no time to prepare a canvas or cartoons, and painted the +whole on a piece of white silk. It was carried in grand procession, +and solemnly dedicated by the Senate, whence it obtained the title by +which it is celebrated in the history of art, "Il Pallione del Voto." + +3dly. Against inundations, flood, and fire, St. George is the great +protector. This saint and St. Barbara, who is patroness against +thunder and tempest, express deliverance from such calamities, when in +companionship. + +The "Madonna di San Giorgio" of Correggio (Dresden Gal.) is a votive +altar-piece dedicated on the occasion of a great inundation of the +river Secchia. She is seated on her throne, and the Child looks +down on the worshippers and votaries. St. George stands in front +victorious, his foot on the head of the dragon. The introduction of +St. Geminiano tells us that the picture was painted for the city of +Modena; the presence of St. John the Baptist and St. Peter Martyr show +that it was dedicated by the Dominicans, in their church of St. John. +(See Legends of the Monastic Orders.) + + * * * * * + +Not less interesting are those votive Madonnas dedicated by the piety +of families and individuals. In the family altar-pieces, the votary is +often presented on one side by his patron saint, and his wife by her +patron on the other. Not seldom a troop of hopeful sons attend the +father, and a train of gentle, demure-looking daughters kneel behind +the mother. Such memorials of domestic affection and grateful piety +are often very charming; they are pieces of family biography:[1] we +have celebrated examples both in German and Italian art. + +[Footnote 1: Several are engraved, as illustrations, in Litta's great +History of the Italian Families.] + +1. The "Madonna della Famiglia Bentivoglio" was painted by Lorenzo +Costa, for Giovanni II., lord or tyrant of Bologna from 1462 to 1506, +The history of this Giovanni is mixed up in an interesting manner with +the revival of art and letters; he was a great patron of both, and +among the painters in his service were Francesco Francia and Lorenzo +Costa. The latter painted for him his family chapel in the church of +San Giacomo at Bologna; and, while the Bentivogli have long since been +chased from their native territory, their family altar still remains +untouched, unviolated. The Virgin, as usual, is seated on a lofty +throne bearing her divine Child; she is veiled, no hair seen, and +simply draped; she bends forward with mild benignity. To the right of +the throne kneels Giovanni with his four sons; on the left his wife, +attended by six daughters: all are portraits, admirable studies for +character and costume. Behind the daughters, the head of an old woman +is just visible,--according to tradition the old nurse of the family. + +2. Another most interesting family Madonna is that of Ludovico Sforza +il Moro, painted for the church of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan.[1] The +Virgin sits enthroned, richly dressed, with long fair hair hanging +down, and no veil or ornament; two angels hold a crown over her head. +The Child lies extended on her knee. Round her throne are the four +fathers, St. Ambrose, St. Gregory, St. Jerome, and St. Augustine. In +front of the throne kneels Ludovico il Moro, Duke of Milan, in a rich +dress and unarmed; Ambrose, as protector of Milan, lays his hand upon +his shoulder. At his side kneels a boy about five years old. Opposite +to him is the duchess, Beatrice d'Este, also kneeling; and near her +a little baby in swaddling clothes, holding up its tiny hands in +supplication, kneels on a cushion. The age of the children shows the +picture to have been painted about 1496. The fate of Ludovico il +Moro is well known: perhaps the blessed Virgin deemed a traitor and +an assassin unworthy of her protection. He died in the frightful +prison of Loches after twelve years of captivity; and both his sons, +Maximilian and Francesco, were unfortunate. With them the family of +Sforza and the independence of Milan were extinguished together in +1535. + +[Footnote 1: By an unknown painter of the school of Lionardo, and now +in the gallery, of the Brera.] + +3. Another celebrated and most precious picture of this class is the +Virgin of the Meyer family, painted by Holbein for the burgomaster +Jacob Meyer of Basle.[1] According to a family tradition, the youngest +son of the burgomaster was sick even to death, and, through the +merciful intercession of the Virgin, was restored to his parents, who, +in gratitude, dedicated this offering. She stands on a pedestal in a +richly ornamented niche; over her long fair hair, which falls down +her shoulders to her waist, she wears a superb crown; and her robe +of a dark greenish blue is confined by a crimson girdle. In purity, +dignity, humility, and intellectual grace, this exquisite Madonna has +never been surpassed; not even by Raphael; the face, once seen, haunts +the memory. The Child in her arms is generally supposed to be the +infant Christ. I have fancied, as I look on the picture, that it may +be the poor sick child recommended to her mercy, for the face is very +pathetic, the limbs not merely delicate but attenuated, while, on +comparing it with the robust child who stands below, the resemblance +and the contrast are both striking. To the right of the Virgin +kneels the burgomaster Meyer with two of his sons, one of whom holds +the little brother who is restored to health, and seems to present +him to the people. On the left kneel four females--the mother, the +grandmother, and two daughters. All these are portraits, touched +with that homely, vigorous truth, and finished with that consummate +delicacy, which characterized Holbein in his happiest efforts; and, +with their earnest but rather ugly and earthly faces, contrasting with +the divinely compassionate and refined being who looks down on them +with an air so human, so maternal, and yet so unearthly. + +[Footnote 1: Dresden Gal. The engraving by Steinle is justly +celebrated.] + + * * * * * + +Sometimes it is a single votary who kneels before the Madonna. In the +old times he expressed his humility by placing himself in a corner and +making himself so diminutive as to be scarce visible afterwards, the +head of the votary or donor is seen life-size, with hands joined in +prayer, just above the margin at the foot of the throne; care being +taken to remove him from all juxtaposition with the attendant saints. +But, as the religious feeling in art declined, the living votaries +are mingled with the spiritual patrons--the "human mortals" with the +"human immortals,"--with a disregard to time and place, which, if +it be not so lowly in spirit, can be rendered by a great artist +strikingly poetical and significant. + +1. The renowned "Madonna di Foligno," one of Raphael's masterpieces, +is a votive picture of this class. It was dedicated by Sigismund Conti +of Foligno; private secretary to Pope Julius II., and a distinguished +man in other respects, a writer and a patron of learning. It +appears that Sigismund having been in great danger from a meteor +or thunderbolt, vowed an offering to the blessed Virgin, to whom he +attributed his safety, and in fulfilment of his vow consecrated this +precious picture. In the upper part of the composition sits the Virgin +in heavenly glory; by her side the infant Christ, partly sustained +by his mother's veil, which is drawn round his body: both look down +benignly on the votary Sigismund Conti, who, kneeling below, gazes up +with an expression of the most intense gratitude and devotion. It is +a portrait from the life, and certainly one of the finest and most +life-like that exists in painting. Behind him stands St. Jerome, who, +placing his hand upon the head of the votary, seems to present him +to his celestial protectress. On the opposite side John the Baptist, +the meagre wild-looking prophet of the desert, points upward to the +Redeemer. More in front kneels St. Francis, who, while he looks up +to heaven with trusting and imploring love, extends his right hand +towards the worshippers, supposed to be assembled in the church, +recommending them also to the protecting grace of the Virgin. In the +centre of the picture, dividing these two groups, stands a lovely +angel-boy holding in his hand a tablet, one of the most charming +figures of this kind Raphael ever painted; the head, looking up, has +that sublime, yet perfectly childish grace, which strikes us in those +awful angel-boys in the "Madonna di San Sisto." The background is a +landscape, in which appears the city of Foligno at a distance; it is +overshadowed by a storm-cloud, and a meteor is seen falling; but above +these bends a rainbow, pledge of peace and safety. The whole picture +glows throughout with life and beauty, hallowed by that profound +religious sentiment which suggested the offering, and which the +sympathetic artist seems to have caught from the grateful donor. It +was dedicated in the church of the Ara-Coeli at Rome, which belongs +to the Franciscans; hence St. Francis is one of the principal figures. +When I was asked, at Rome, why St. Jerome had been introduced into the +picture, I thought it might be thus accounted for:--The patron saint +of the donor, St. Sigismund, was a king and a warrior, and Conti +might possibly think that it did not accord with his profession, as +an humble ecclesiastic, to introduce him here. The most celebrated +convent of the Jeronimites in Italy is that of St. Sigismund near +Cremona, placed under the special protection of St. Jerome, who +is also in a general sense the patron of all ecclesiastics; hence, +perhaps, he figures here as the protector of Sigismund Conti. The +picture was painted, and placed over the high altar of the Ara-Coeli +in 1511, when Raphael was in his twenty-eighth year. Conti died +in 1512, and in 1565 his grandniece, Suora Anna Conti, obtained +permission to remove it to her convent at Foligno, whence it was +carried off by the French in 1792. Since the restoration of the works +of art in Italy, in 1815, it has been placed among the treasures of +the Vatican. + + * * * * * + +2. Another perfect specimen of a votive picture of this kind, in a +very different style, I saw in the museum at Rouen, attributed there +to Van Eyck. It is, probably, a fine work by a later master of the +school, perhaps Hemmelinck. In the centre, the Virgin is enthroned; +the Child, seated on her knee, holds a bunch of grapes, symbol of +the eucharist. On the right of the Virgin is St. Apollonia; then two +lovely angels in white raiment, with lutes in their hands; and then +a female head, seen looking from behind, evidently a family portrait. +More in front, St. Agnes, splendidly dressed in green and sable, her +lamb at her feet, turns with a questioning air to St. Catherine, +who, in queenly garb of crimson and ermine seems to consult her book. +Behind her another member of the family, a man with a very fine face; +and more in front St. Dorothea, with a charming expression of modesty, +looks down on her basket of roses. On the left of the Virgin is St. +Agatha; then two angels in white with viols; then St. Cecilia; and +near her a female head, another family portrait; next St. Barbara +wearing a beautiful head-dress, in front of which is worked her tower, +framed like an ornamental jewel in gold and pearls; she has a missal +in her lap. St. Lucia next appears; then another female portrait. +All the heads are about one fourth of the size of life. I stood in +admiration before this picture--such miraculous finish in all the +details, such life, such spirit, such delicacy in the heads and hands, +such brilliant colour in the draperies! Of its history I could learn +nothing, nor what family had thus introduced themselves into celestial +companionship. The portraits seemed to me to represent a father, a +mother, and two daughters. + + * * * * * + +I must mention some other instances of votive Madonnas, interesting +either from their beauty or their singularity. + +3. Réné, Duke of Anjou, and King of Sicily and Jerusalem, the father +of our Amazonian queen, Margaret of Anjou, dedicated, in the church +of the Carmelites, at Aix, the capital of his dominions, a votive +picture, which is still to be seen there. It is not only a monument +of his piety, but of his skill; for, according to the tradition of the +country, he painted it himself. The good King Réné was no contemptible +artist; but though he may have suggested the subject, the hand of a +practised and accomplished painter is too apparent for us to suppose +it his own work. + +This altar-piece in a triptychon, and when the doors are closed +it measures twelve feet in height, and seven feet in width. On the +outside of the doors is the Annunciation: to the left, the angel +standing on a pedestal, under a Gothic canopy; to the right, the +Virgin standing with her book, under a similar canopy: both graceful +figures. On opening the doors, the central compartment exhibits the +Virgin and her Child enthroned in a burning bush; the bush which +burned with fire, and was not consumed, being a favourite type of the +immaculate purity of the Virgin. Lower down, in front, Moses appears +surrounded by his flocks, and at the command of an angel is about to +take off his sandals. The angel is most richly dressed, and on the +clasp of his mantle is painted in miniature Adam and Eve tempted +by the serpent. Underneath this compartment, is the inscription, +"_Rubum quem viderat Moyses, incombustum, conservatam agnovimus tuam +laudabilem Virginitatem, Sancta Dei Genitrix[1]_." On the door to +the right of the Virgin kneels King Réné himself before an altar, on +which lies an open book and his kingly crown. He is dressed in a robe +trimmed with ermine, and wears a black velvet cap. Behind him, Mary +Magdalene (the patroness of Provence), St. Antony, and St. Maurice. +On the other door, Jeanne de Laval, the second wife of Réné, kneels +before an open book; she is young and beautiful, and richly attired; +and behind her stand St. John (her patron saint), St. Catherine +(very noble and elegant), and St. Nicholas. I saw this curious and +interesting picture in 1846. It is very well preserved, and painted +with great finish and delicacy in the manner of the early Flemish +school. + +[Footnote 1: For the relation of Moses to the Virgin (as attribute) v. +the Introduction.] + +4. In a beautiful little picture by Van Eyck (Louvre, No. 162. Ecole +Allemande), the Virgin is seated on a throne, holding in her arms the +infant Christ, who has a globe in his left hand, and extends the right +in the act of benediction. The Virgin is attired as a queen, in a +magnificent robe falling in ample folds around her, and trimmed with +jewels; an angel, hovering with outspread wings, holds a crown over +her head. On the left of the picture, a votary, in the dress of a +Flemish burgomaster, kneels before a Prie-Dieu, on which is an open +book, and with clasped hands adores the Mother and her Child. The +locality represents a gallery or portico paved with marble, and +sustained by pillars in a fantastic Moorish style. The whole picture +is quite exquisite for the delicacy of colour and execution. In the +catalogue of the Louvre, this picture, is entitled "St. Joseph adoring +the Infant Christ,"--an obvious mistake, if we consider the style of +the treatment and the customs of the time. + +5. All who have visited the church of the Frari at Venice will +remember--for once seen, they never can forget--the ex-voto +altar-piece which adorns the chapel of the Pesaro family. The +beautiful Virgin is seated on a lofty throne to the right of the +picture, and presses to her bosom the _Dio Bambinetto_, who turns from +her to bless the votary presented by St. Peter. The saint stands on +the steps of the throne, one hand on a book; and behind him kneels one +of the Pesaro family, who was at once bishop of Paphos and commander +of the Pope's galleys: he approaches to consecrate to the Madonna +the standards taken from the Turks, which are borne by St. George, as +patron of Venice. On the other side appear St. Francis and St. Antony +of Padua, as patrons of the church in which the picture is dedicated. +Lower down, kneeling on one side of the throne, is a group of various +members of the Pesaro family, three of whom are habited in crimson +robes, as _Cavalieri di San Marco_; the other, a youth about fifteen, +looks out of the picture, astonishingly _alive_, and yet sufficiently +idealized to harmonize with the rest. This picture is very remarkable +for several reasons. It is a piece of family history, curiously +illustrative of the manners of the time. The Pesaro here commemorated +was an ecclesiastic, but appointed by Alexander VI. to command the +galleys with which he joined the Venetian forces against the Turks in +1503. It is for this reason that St. Peter--as representative here of +the Roman pontiff--introduces him to the Madonna, while St. George, +as patron of Venice, attends him. The picture is a monument of the +victory gained by Pesaro, and the gratitude and pride of his family. +It is also one of the finest works of Titian; one of the earliest +instances in which a really grand religious composition assumes almost +a dramatic and scenic form, yet retains a certain dignity and symmetry +worthy of its solemn destination.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We find in the catalogue of pictures which belonged to +our Charles I. one which represented "a pope preferring a general of +his navy to St. Peter." It is Pope Alexander VI. presenting this very +Pesaro to St. Peter; that is, in plain unpictorial prose, giving him +the appointment of admiral of the galleys of the Roman states. This +interesting picture, after many vicissitudes, is now in the Museum at +Antwerp. (See the _Handbook to the Royal Galleries_, p. 201.)] + +6. I will give one more instance. There is in our National Gallery +a Venetian picture which is striking from its peculiar and +characteristic treatment. On one side, the Virgin with her Infant is +seated on a throne; a cavalier, wearing armour and a turban, who looks +as if he had just returned from the eastern wars, prostrates himself +before her: in the background, a page (said to be the portrait of the +painter) holds the horse of the votary. The figures are life-size, +or nearly so, as well as I can remember, and the sentimental dramatic +treatment is quite Venetian. It is supposed to represent a certain +Duccio Constanzo of Treviso, and was once attributed to Giorgione: it +is certainly of the school of Bellini. (Nat. Gal. Catalogue, 234.) + + * * * * * + +As these enthroned and votive Virgins multiplied, as it became more +and more a fashion to dedicate them as offerings in churches, want +of space, and perhaps, also, regard to expense, suggested the idea of +representing the figures half-length. The Venetians, from early time +the best face painters in the world, appear to have been the first +to cut off the lower part of the figure, leaving the arrangement +otherwise much the same. The Virgin is still a queenly and majestic +creature, sitting there to be adored. A curtain or part of a carved +chair represents her throne. The attendant saints are placed to the +right and to the left; or sometimes the throne occupies one side of +the picture, and the saints are ranged on the other. From the shape +and diminished size of these votive pictures the personages, seen +half-length, are necessarily placed very near to each other, and the +heads nearly on a level with that of the Virgin, who is generally +seen to the knees, while the Child is always full-length. In such +compositions we miss the grandeur of the entire forms, and the +consequent diversity of character and attitude; but sometimes +the beauty and individuality of the heads atone for all other +deficiencies. + + * * * * * + +In the earlier Venetian examples, those of Gian Bellini particularly, +there is a solemn quiet elevation which renders them little inferior, +in religious sentiment, to the most majestic of the enthroned and +enskied Madonnas. + + * * * * * + +There is a sacred group by Bellini, in the possession of Sir Charles +Eastlake, which has always appeared to me a very perfect specimen of +this class of pictures. It is also the earliest I know of. The Virgin, +pensive, sedate, and sweet, like all Bellini's Virgins, is seated in +the centre, and seen in front. The Child, on her knee, blesses with +his right hand, and the Virgin places hers on the head of a votary, +who just appears above the edge of the picture, with hands joined in +prayer; he is a fine young man with an elevated and elegant profile. +On the right are St. John the Baptist pointing to the Saviour, and +St. Catherine; on the left, St. George with his banner, and St. Peter +holding his book. A similar picture, with Mary Magdalene and St. +Jerome on the right, St. Peter and St. Martha on the left, is in the +Leuchtenberg Gallery at Munich. Another of exquisite beauty is in the +Venice Academy, in which the lovely St. Catherine wears a crown of +myrtle. + +Once introduced, these half-length enthroned Madonnas became very +common, spreading from the Venetian states through the north of Italy; +and we find innumerable examples from the best schools of art in +Italy and Germany, from the middle of the fifteenth to the middle of +the sixteenth century. I shall particularize a few of these, which +will be sufficient to guide the attention of the observer; and we +must carefully discriminate between the sentiment proper to these +half-length enthroned Madonnas, and the pastoral or domestic sacred +groups and Holy Families, of which I shall have to treat hereafter. + +Raphael's well-known Madonna _della Seggiola_ and Madonna _della +Candelabra_, are both enthroned Virgins in the grand style, though +seen half-length. In fact, the air of the head ought, in the higher +schools of art, at once to distinguish a Madonna, _in trono_, even +where only the head is visible. + + * * * * * + +In a Milanese picture, the Virgin and Child appear between St. +Laurence and St. John. The mannered and somewhat affected treatment +is contrasted with the quiet, solemn simplicity of a group by Francia, +where the Virgin and Child appear as objects of worship between St. +Dominick and St. Barbara. + +The Child, standing or seated on a table or balustrade in front, +enabled the painter to vary the attitude, to take the infant +Christ out of the arms of the Mother, and to render his figure more +prominent. It was a favourite arrangement with the Venetians; and +there is an instance in a pretty picture in our National Gallery, +attributed to Perugino. + +Sometimes, even where the throne and the attendant saints and angels +show the group to be wholly devotional and exalted, we find the +sentiment varied by a touch of the dramatic,--by the introduction +of an action; but it must be one of a wholly religious significance, +suggestive of a religious feeling, or the subject ceases to be +properly _devotional_ in character. + +There is a picture by Botticelli, before which, in walking up the +corridor of the Florence Gallery, I used, day after day, to make an +involuntary pause of admiration. The Virgin, seated in a chair of +state, but seen only to the knees, sustains her divine Son with one +arm; four angels are in attendance, one of whom presents an inkhorn, +another holds before her an open book, and she is in the act of +writing the Magnificat, "My soul doth magnify the Lord!" The head of +the figure behind the Virgin is the portrait of Lorenzo de' Medici +when a boy. There is absolutely no beauty of feature, either in +the Madonna, or the Child, or the angels, yet every face is full of +dignity and character. + +In a beautiful picture by Titian (Bel. Gal., Vienna. Louvre, No. +458), the Virgin is enthroned on the left, and on the right appear St. +George and St. Laurence as listening, while St. Jerome reads from his +great book. A small copy of this picture is at Windsor. + + * * * * * + +The old German and Flemish painters, in treating the enthroned +Madonna, sometimes introduced accessories which no painter of the +early Italian school would have descended to; and which tinge with a +homely sentiment their most exalted conceptions. Thus, I have seen +a German Madonna seated on a superb throne, and most elaborately +and gorgeously arrayed, pressing her Child to her bosom with a truly +maternal air; while beside her, on a table, is a honeycomb, some +butter, a dish of fruit, and a glass of water. (Bel. Gal., Vienna.) +It is possible that in this case, as in the Virgin suckling her Child, +there may be a religious allusion:--"_Butter and honey shall he eat_," +&c. + + + + +THE MATER AMABILIS. + + +_Ital._ La Madonna col Bambino. La Madonna col celeste suo figlio. +_Fr._ La Vierge et l'enfant Jesus. _Ger._ Maria mit dem Kind. + + +There is yet another treatment of the Madonna and Child, in which the +Virgin no longer retains the lofty goddess-like exaltation given to +her in the old time. She is brought nearer to our sympathies. She +is not seated in a chair of state with the accompaniments of earthly +power; she is not enthroned on clouds, nor glorified and star-crowned +in heaven; she is no longer so exclusively the VERGINE DEA, nor the +VIRGO DEI GENITRIX; but she is still the ALMA MATER REDEMPTORIS, the +young, and lovely, and most pure mother of a divine Christ. She is +not sustained in mid-air by angels; she dwells lowly on earth; but +the angels leave their celestial home to wait upon her. Such effigies, +when conceived in a strictly ideal and devotional sense, I shall +designate as the MATER AMABILIS. + +The first and simplest form of this beautiful and familiar subject, we +find in those innumerable half-length figures of the Madonna, holding +her Child in her arms, painted chiefly for oratories, private or +way-side chapels, and for the studies, libraries, and retired chambers +of the devout, as an excitement to religious feeling, and a memorial +of the mystery of the Incarnation, where large or grander subjects, +or more expensive pictures, would be misplaced. Though unimportant in +comparison with the comprehensive and magnificent church altar-pieces +already described, there is no class of pictures so popular and so +attractive, none on which the character of the time and the painter +is stamped more clearly and intelligibly, than on these simple +representations. + +The Virgin is not here the dispenser of mercy; she is simply the +mother of the Redeemer. She is occupied only by her divine Son. She +caresses him, or she gazes on him fondly. She presents him to the +worshipper. She holds him forth with a pensive joy as the predestined +offering. If the profound religious sentiment of the early masters was +afterwards obliterated by the unbelief and conventionalism of later +art, still this favourite subject could not be so wholly profaned by +degrading sentiments and associations, as the mere portrait heads of +the Virgin alone. No matter what the model for the Madonna, might +have been,--a wife, a mistress, a _contadina_ of Frascati, a Venetian +_Zitella_, a _Madchen_ of Nuremberg, a buxom Flemish _Frau_,--for the +Child was there; the baby innocence in her arms consecrated her into +that "holiest thing alive," a mother. The theme, however inadequately +treated as regarded its religious significance, was sanctified in +itself beyond the reach of a profane thought. Miserable beyond the +reach of hope, dark below despair, that moral atmosphere which the +presence of sinless unconscious infancy cannot for a moment purify +or hallow! + +Among the most ancient and most venerable of the effigies of the +Madonna, we find the old Greek pictures of the _Mater Amabilis_, if +that epithet can be properly applied to the dark-coloured, sad-visaged +Madonnas generally attributed to St. Luke, or transcripts of those +said to be painted by him, which exist in so many churches, and are, +or were, supposed by the people to possess a peculiar sanctity. These +are almost all of oriental origin, or painted to imitate the pictures +brought from the East in the tenth or twelfth century. There are a few +striking and genuine examples of these ancient Greek Madonnas in the +Florentine Gallery, and, nearer at hand, in the Wallerstein collection +at Kensington Palace. They much resemble each other in the general +treatment. + +The infinite variety which painters have given to this most simple +_motif_, the Mother and the Child only, without accessories or +accompaniments of any kind, exceeds all possibility of classification, +either as to attitude or sentiment. Here Raphael shone supreme: +the simplicity, the tenderness, the halo of purity and virginal +dignity, which he threw round the _Mater Amabilis_ have, never been +surpassed--in his best pictures, never equalled. The "Madonna del +Gran-Duca," where the Virgin holds the Child seated on her arm; the +"Madonna Tempi," where she so fondly presses her check to his,--are +perhaps the most remarkable for simplicity. The Madonna of the +Bridgewater Gallery, where the Infant lies on her knees, and the +Mother and Son look into each other's eyes; the little "Madonna +Conestabile," where she holds the book, and the infant Christ, with +a serious yet perfectly childish grace, bends to turn over the +leaf,--are the most remarkable for sentiment. + +Other Madonnas by Raphael, containing three or more figures, do not +belong to this class of pictures. They are not strictly devotional, +but are properly Holy Families, groups and scenes from the domestic +life of the Virgin. + +With regard, to other painters before or since his time, the examples +of the _Mater Amabilis_ so abound la public and private galleries, and +have been so multiplied in prints, that comparison is within the reach +of every observer. I will content myself with noticing a few of the +most remarkable for beauty or characteristic treatment. Two painters, +who eminently excelled in simplicity and purity of sentiment, are Gian +Bellini of Venice, and Bernardino Luini of Milan. Squarcione, though +often fantastic, has painted one or two of these Madonnas, remarkable +for simplicity and dignity, as also his pupil Mantegna; though in +both the style of execution is somewhat hard and cold. In the one by +Fra Bartolomeo, there is such a depth of maternal tenderness in the +expression and attitude, we wonder where the good monk found his +model. In his own heart? in his dreams? A _Mater Amabilis_ by one of +the Caracci or by Vandyck is generally more elegant and dignified than +tender. The Madonna, for instance, by Annibal, has something of the +majestic sentiment of an enthroned Madonna. Murillo excelled in this +subject; although most of his Virgins have a portrait air of common +life, they are redeemed by the expression. In one of these, the +Child, looking out of the picture with extended arms and eyes full +of divinity, seems about to spring forth to fulfil his mission. In +another he folds his little hands, and looks up to Heaven, as if +devoting himself to his appointed suffering, while the Mother looks +down upon him with a tender resignation. (Leuchtenberg Gal.) In a +noble Madonna by Vandyck (Bridgewater Gal.), it is she herself who +devotes him to do his Father's will; and I still remember a picture +of this class, by Carlo Cignani (Belvedere Gal., Vienna), which made +me start, with the intense expression: the Mother presses to her the +Child, who holds a cross in his baby hand; she looks up to heaven with +an appealing look of love and anguish,--almost of reproach. Guido +did not excel so much in children, as in the Virgin alone. Poussin, +Carlo Dolce, Sasso Ferrato, and, in general, all the painters of the +seventeenth century, give us pretty women and pretty children. We may +pass them over. + +A second version of the Mater Amabilis, representing the Virgin +and Child full-length, but without accessories, has been also very +beautifully treated. She is usually seated in a landscape, and +frequently within the mystical enclosure (_Hortus clausus_), which is +sometimes in the German pictures a mere palisade of stakes or boughs. + +Andrea Mantegna, though a fantastic painter, had generally some +meaning in his fancies. There is a fine picture of his in which the +Virgin and Child are seated in a landscape, and in the background is +a stone-quarry, where a number of figures are seen busily at work; +perhaps hewing the stone to build the new temple of which our Saviour +was the corner-stone. (Florence Gal.) In a group by Cristofano Allori, +the Child places a wreath of flowers on the brow of his Mother, +holding in his other hand his own crown of thorns: one of the +_fancies_ of the later schools of art. + +The introduction of the little St. John into the group of the Virgin +and Child lends it a charming significance and variety, and is very +popular; we must, however, discriminate between the familiarity of +the domestic subject and the purely religious treatment. When the +Giovannino adores with folded hands, as acknowledging in Christ a +superior power, or kisses his feet humbly, or points to him exulting, +then it is evident that we have the two Children in their spiritual +character, the Child, Priest and King, and the Child, Prophet. + +In a picture by Lionardo da Vinci (Coll. of the Earl of Suffolk), +the Madonna, serious and beautiful, without either crown or veil, and +adorned only by her long fair hair, is seated on a rock. On one side, +the little Christ, supported in the arms of an angel, raises his hand +in benediction; on the other side, the young St. John, presented by +the Virgin, kneels in adoration. + +Where the Children are merely embracing each other, or sporting at +the feet of the Virgin, or playing with the cross, or with a bird, or +with the lamb, or with flowers, we might call the treatment domestic +or poetical; but where St. John is taking the cross from the hand of +Christ, it is clear, from the perpetual repetition of the theme, that +it is intended to express a religious allegory. It is the mission of +St. John as Baptist and Prophet. He receives the symbol of faith ere +he goes forth to preach and to convert, or as it has been interpreted, +he, in the sense used by our Lord, "takes up the cross of our Lord." +The first is, I think, the meaning when the cross is enwreathed with +the _Ecce Agnus Dei_; the latter, when it is a simple cross. + +In Raphael's "Madonna della Famiglia Alva," (now in the Imp. Gal., St. +Petersburg), and in his Madonna of the Vienna Gallery, Christ gives +the cross to St. John. In a picture of the Lionardo school in the +Louvre we have the same action; and again in a graceful group by +Guido, which, in the engraving, bears this inscription, "_Qui non +accipit crucem suam non est me dignus_." (Matt. x. 38.) This, of +course, fixes the signification. + +Another, and, as I think, a wholly fanciful interpretation, has been +given to this favourite group by Treck and by Monckton Milnes. The +Children contend for the cross. The little St. John begs to have it. + + "Give me the cross, I pray you, dearest Jesus. + O if you knew how much I wish to have it, + You would not hold it in your hand so tightly. + Something has told me, something in my breast here, + Which I am sure is true, that if you keep it, + If you will let no other take it from you, + Terrible things I cannot bear to think of + Must fall upon you. Show me that you love me: + Am I not here to be your little servant, + Follow your steps, and wait upon your wishes?" + +But Christ refuses to yield the terrible plaything, and claims his +privilege to be the elder "in the heritage of pain." + +In a picture by Carlo Maratti, I think this action is evident--Christ +takes the cross, and St. John yields it with reluctance. + +A beautiful version of the Mater Amabilis is the MADRE PIA, where the +Virgin in her divine Infant acknowledges and adores the Godhead. We +must be careful to distinguish this subject from the Nativity, for +it is common, in the scene of the birth of the Saviour at Bethlehem, +to represent the Virgin adoring her new-born Child. The presence of +Joseph--the ruined shed or manger--the ox and ass,--these express the +_event_. But in the MADRE PIA properly so called, the locality, and +the accessories, if any, are purely ideal and poetical, and have +no reference to time or place. The early Florentines, particularly +Lorenzo di Credi, excelled in this charming subject. + +There is a picture by Filippino Lippi, which appears to me eminently +beautiful and poetical. Here the mystical garden is formed of a +balustrade, beyond which is seen a hedge all in a blush with roses. +The Virgin kneels in the midst, and adores her Infant, who has his +finger on his lip (_Verbum sum!_); an angel scatters rose-leaves +over him, while the little St. John also kneels, and four angels, +in attitudes of adoration, complete the group. + +But a more perfect example is the Madonna by Francia in the Munich +Gallery, where the divine Infant lies on the flowery turf; and the +mother, standing before him and looking down on him, seems on the +point of sinking on her knees in a transport of tenderness and +devotion. This, to my feeling, is one of the most perfect pictures in +the world; it leaves nothing to be desired. With all the simplicity of +the treatment it is strictly devotional. The Mother and her Child are +placed within the mystical garden enclosed in a treillage of roses, +alone with each other, and apart from all earthly associations, all +earthly communion. + +The beautiful altar-piece by Perugino in our National Gallery is +properly a Madre Pia; the child seated on a cushion is sustained by an +angel, the mother kneels before him. + +The famous Correggio in the Florentine Gallery is also a Madre Pia. +It is very tender, sweet, and maternal. The Child lying on part of +his mother's blue mantle, so arranged that while she kneels and bends +over him, she cannot change her attitude without disturbing him, is +a _concetto_ admired by critics in sentiment and Art; but it appears +to me very inferior and commonplace in comparison to the Francia at +Munich. + +In a group by Botticelli, angels sustain the Infant, while the mother, +seated, with folded hands, adores him: and in a favourite composition +by Guido he sleeps. + +And, lastly, we have the Mater Amabilis in a more complex, and +picturesque, though still devotional, form. The Virgin, seen at full +length, reclines on a verdant bank, or is seated under a tree. She +is not alone with her Child. Holy personages, admitted to a communion +with her, attend around her, rather sympathizing than adoring. The +love of varied nature, the love of life under all its aspects, became +mingled with the religious conception. Instead of carefully avoiding +whatever may remind us of her earthly relationship, the members of her +family always form a part of her _cortège_. This pastoral and dramatic +treatment began with the Venetian and Paduan schools, and extended to +the early German schools, which were allied to them in feeling, though +contrasted with them in form and execution. + +The perpetual introduction of St. Joseph, St. Elizabeth, and other +relatives of the Virgin (always avoided in a Madonna dell Trono), +would compose what is called a Holy Family, but that the presence +of sainted personages whose existence and history belong to a +wholly different era--St. Catherine, St. George, St. Francis, or +St. Dominick--takes the composition out of the merely domestic and +historical, and lifts it at once into the ideal and devotional line +of art. Such a group cannot well be styled a _Sacra Famiglia_; it is a +_Sacra Conversazione_ treated in the pastoral and lyrical rather than +the lofty epic style. + +In this subject the Venetians, who first introduced it, excel all +other painters. There is no example by Raphael. The German and Flemish +painters who adopted this treatment were often coarse and familiar; +the later Italians became flippant and fantastic. The Venetians alone +knew how to combine the truest feeling for nature with a sort of +Elysian grace. + +I shall give a few examples. + +1. In a picture by Titian (Dresden Gal.), the Virgin is seated on +a green bank enamelled with flowers. She is simply dressed like a +_contadina_, in a crimson tunic, and a white veil half shading her +fair hair. She holds in her arms her lovely Infant, who raises his +little hand in benediction. St. Catherine kneels before him on one +side; on the other, St. Barbara. St. John the Baptist, not as a child, +and the contemporary of our Saviour, but in likeness of an Arcadian +shepherd, kneels with his cross and his lamb--the _Ecce Agnus Dei_, +expressed, not in words, but in form. St. George stands by as a +guardian warrior. And St. Joseph, leaning on his stick behind, +contemplates the group with an air of dignified complacency. + +2. There is another instance also from Titian. In a most luxuriant +landscape thick with embowering trees, and the mountains of Cadore in +the background, the Virgin is seated on a verdant bank; St. Catherine +has thrown herself on her knees, and stretches out her arms to the +divine Child in an ecstasy of adoration, in which there is nothing +unseemly or familiar. At a distance St. John the Baptist approaches +with his Lamb. + +3. In another very similar group, the action of St. Catherine is +rather too familiar,--it is that of an eider sister or a nurse: the +young St. John kneels in worship. + +4. Wonderfully fine is a picture of this class by Palma, now in the +Dresden Gallery. The noble, serious, sumptuous loveliness of the +Virgin; the exquisite Child, so thoughtful, yet so infantine; the +manly beauty of the St. John; the charming humility of the St. +Catherine as she presents her palm, form one of the most perfect +groups in the world. Childhood, motherhood, maidenhood, manhood, +were never, I think, combined in so sweet a spirit of humanity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: When I was at Dresden, in 1860, I found Steinle, so +celebrated for his engravings of the Madonna di San Sisto and the +Holbein Madonna, employed on this picture; and, as far as his +art could go, transferring to his copper all the fervour and the +_morbidezza_ of the original.] + +5. In another picture by Palma, in the same gallery, we have the same +picturesque arrangement of the Virgin and Child, while the _little_ +St. John adores with folded hands, and St. Catherine sits by in tender +contemplation. + +This Arcadian sentiment is carried as far as could well be allowed in +a picture by Titian (Louvre, 459), known as the _Vierge au Lapin_. The +Virgin holds a white rabbit, towards which the infant Christ, in the +arms of St. Catherine, eagerly stretches his hand. In a picture by +Paris Bordone it is carried, I think, too far. The Virgin reclines +under a tree with a book in her hand; opposite to her sits St. Joseph +holding an apple; between them, St. John the Baptist, as a bearded +man, holds in his arms the infant Christ, who caressingly puts one arm +round his neck, and with the other clings to the rough hairy raiment +of his friend. + + * * * * * + +It will be observed, that in these Venetian examples St. Catherine, +the beloved protectress of Venice, is seldom omitted. She is not +here the learned princess who confounded tyrants and converted +philosophers, but a bright-haired, full-formed Venetian maiden, +glowing with love and life, yet touched with a serious grace, +inexpressibly charming. + +St. Dorothea is also a favourite saint in these sacred pastorals. +There is an instance in which she is seated by the Virgin with her +basket of fruits and flowers; and St. Jerome, no longer beating +his breast in penance, but in likeness of a fond old grandfather, +stretches out his arms to the Child. Much finer is a picture now in +the possession of Sir Charles Eastlake. The lovely Virgin is seated +under a tree: on one side appears the angel Raphael, presenting Tobit; +on the other, St. Dorothea, kneeling, holds up her basket of celestial +fruit, gathered for her in paradise.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Sacred and legendary Art, for the beautiful Legend of +St. Dorothea] + +When St. Ursula, with her standard, appears in these Venetian +pastorals, we may suppose the picture to have been painted for the +famous brotherhood (_Scuola di Sant' Orsola_) which bears her name. +Thus, in a charming picture by Palma, she appears before the Virgin, +accompanied by St. Mark a protector of Venice. (Vienna, Belvedere +Gal.) + +Ex-voto pictures in this style are very interesting, and the votary, +without any striking impropriety, makes one of the Arcadian group. +Very appropriate, too, is the marriage of St. Catherine, often treated +in this poetical style. In a picture by Titian, the family of the +Virgin attend the mystical rite, and St. Anna places the hand of St. +Catherine in that of the Child. + +In a group by Signorelli, Christ appears as if teaching St. Catherine; +he dictates, and she, the patroness of "divine philosophy," writes +down his words. + +When the later painters in their great altar-pieces imitated this +idyllic treatment, the graceful Venetian conception became in their +hands heavy, mannered, tasteless,--and sometimes worse. The monastic +saints or mitred dignitaries, introduced into familiar and irreverent +communion with the sacred and ideal personages, in spite of the +grand scenery, strike us as at once prosaic and fantastic "we marvel +how they got there." Parmigiano, when he fled from the sack of Rome +in 1527, painted at Bologna, for the nuns of Santa Margherita, an +altar-piece which has been greatly celebrated. The Madonna, holding +her Child, is seated in a landscape under a tree, and turns her head +to the Bishop St. Petronius, protector of Bologna. St. Margaret, +kneeling and attended by her great dragon, places one hand, with a +free and easy air, on the knee of the Virgin, and with the other seems +to be about to chuck the infant Christ under the chin. In a large +picture by Giacomo Francia, the Virgin, walking in a flowery meadow +with the infant Christ and St. John, and attended by St. Agnes and +Mary Magdalene, meets St. Francis and St. Dominick, also, apparently, +taking a walk. (Berlin Gal. No. 281.) And again;--the Madonna and St. +Elizabeth meet with their children in a landscape, while St. Peter, +St. Paul, and St. Benedict stand behind in attitudes of attention +and admiration. Now, such pictures may be excellently well painted, +greatly praised by connoisseurs, and held in "_somma venerazione_," +but they are offensive as regards the religious feeling, and, are, in +point of taste, mannered, fantastic, and secular. + + * * * * * + + +Here we must end our discourse concerning the Virgin and Child as +a devotional subject. Very easily and delightfully to the writer, +perhaps not painfully to the reader, we might have gone on to the end +of the volume; but my object was not to exhaust the subject, to point +out every interesting variety of treatment, but to lead the lover +of art, wandering through a church or gallery, to new sources of +pleasure; to show him what infinite shades of feeling and character +may still be traced in a subject which, with all its beauty and +attractiveness, might seem to have lost its significant interest, +and become trite from endless repetition; to lead the mind to some +perception of the intention of the artist in his work,--under what +aspect he had himself contemplated and placed before the worshipper +the image of the mother of Christ,--whether crowned and enthroned as +the sovereign lady of Christendom; or exalted as the glorious empress +of heaven and all the spiritual world; or bending benignly over us, +the impersonation of sympathizing womanhood, the emblem of relenting +love, the solace of suffering humanity, the maid and mother, dear and +undefiled-- + + "Created beings all in lowliness + Surpassing, as in height above them all." + +It is time to change the scene,--to contemplate the Virgin, as she +has been exhibited to us in the relations of earthly life, as the mere +woman, acting and suffering, loving, living, dying, fulfilling the +highest destinies in the humblest state, in the meekest spirit. So +we begin her history as the ancient artists have placed it before us, +with that mingled _naïveté_ and reverence, that vivid dramatic power, +which only faith, and love, and genius united, could impart. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART I. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM HER BIRTH TO HER MARRIAGE WITH +JOSEPH. + + 1. THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + 2. THE NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. + 3. THE DEDICATION IN THE TEMPLE. + 4. THE MARRIAGE WITH JOSEPH. + + +THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + +_Ital._ La Leggenda di Sant' Anna Madre della Gloriosa Vergine Maria, +e di San Gioacchino. + + +Of the sources whence are derived the popular legends of the life of +the Virgin Mary, which, mixed up with the few notices in Scripture, +formed one continuous narrative, authorized by the priesthood, and +accepted and believed in by the people, I have spoken at length in the +Introduction. We have now to consider more particularly the scenes and +characters associated with her history; to show how the artists of the +Middle Ages, under the guidance and by the authority of the Church, +treated in detail these favourite themes in ecclesiastical decoration. + +In early art, that is, up to the end of the fifteenth century, Joachim +and Anna, the parents of the Virgin, never appear except in the series +of subjects from her life. In the devotional groups and altar-pieces, +they are omitted. St. Bernard, the great theological authority of +those times, objects to the invocation of any saints who had lived +before the birth of Christ, consequently to their introduction +into ecclesiastical edifices in any other light than as historical +personages. Hence, perhaps, there were scruples relative to the +representations of St. Anna, which, from the thirteenth to the +fifteenth century, placed the artists under certain restrictions. + +Under the name of Anna, the Church has honoured, from remote times, +the memory of the mother of the Virgin. The Hebrew name, signifying +_Grace_, or _the Gracious_, and all the traditions concerning her, +came to us from the East, where she was so early venerated as a +saint, that a church was dedicated to her by the Emperor Justinian, +in 550. Several other churches were subsequently dedicated to her in +Constantinople during the sixth and seventh centuries, and her remains +are said to have been deposited there in 710. In the West, she first +became known in the reign of Charlemagne; and the Greek apocryphal +gospels, or at least stories and extracts from them, began to be +circulated about the same period. From these are derived the historic +scenes and legendary subjects relating to Joachim and Anna which +appear in early art. It was about 1500, in the beginning of the +sixteenth century, that the increasing veneration for the Virgin Mary +gave to her parents, more especially to St. Anna, increased celebrity +as patron saints; and they became, thenceforward, more frequent +characters in the sacred groups. The feast of St. Anna was already +general and popular throughout Europe long before it was rendered +obligatory in 1584.[1] The growing enthusiasm for the doctrine of +the Immaculate Conception gave, of course, additional splendour and +importance to her character. Still, it is only in later times that we +find the effigy of St. Anna separated from that of the Virgin. There +is a curious picture by Cesi (Bologna Gal.), in which St. Anna kneels +before a vision of her daughter before she is born--the Virgin of the +Immaculate Conception. A fine model of a bearded man was now sometimes +converted into a St. Joachim reading or meditating, instead of a +St. Peter or a St. Jerome, as heretofore. In the Munich Gallery are +two fine ancient-looking figures of St. Joachim the father, and St. +Joseph the husband, of the Virgin, standing together; but all these +as separate representations, are very uncommon; and, of those which +exhibit St. Anna devotionally, as enthroned with the Virgin and Child, +I have already spoken. Like St. Elizabeth, she should be an elderly, +but not a _very_ old woman. Joachim, in such pictures, never appears +but as an attendant saint, and then very rarely; always very old, and +sometimes in the dress of a priest, which however, is a mistake on the +part of the artist. + +[Footnote 1: In England we have twenty-eight churches dedicated in the +name of St. Anna.] + + * * * * * + +A complete series of the history of the Blessed Virgin, as imaged +forth by the early artists, always begins with the legend of Joachim +and Anna, which is thus related. + +"There was a man of Nazareth, whose name was Joachim, and he had for +his wife a woman of Bethlehem, whose name was Anna, and both were of +the royal race of David. Their lives were pure and righteous, and they +served the Lord with singleness of heart. And being rich, they divided +their substance into three portions, one for the service of the +temple, one for the poor and the strangers, and the third for their +household. On a certain feast day, Joachim brought double offerings to +the Lord according to his custom, for he said, 'Out of my superfluity +will I give for the whole people, that I may find favour in the sight +of the Lord, and forgiveness for my sins.' And when the children of +Israel brought their gifts, Joachim also brought his; but the high +priest Issachar stood over against him and opposed him, saying, 'It is +not lawful for thee to bring thine offering, seeing that thou hast not +begot issue in Israel.' And Joachim was exceeding sorrowful, and went +down to his house; and he searched through all the registers of the +twelve tribes to discover if he alone had been childless in Israel. +And he found that all the righteous men, and the patriarchs who had +lived before him, had been the fathers of sons and daughters. And he +called to mind his father Abraham, to whom in his old age had been +granted a son, even Isaac. + +"And Joachim was more and more sorrowful; and he would not be seen by +his wife, but avoided her, and went away into the pastures where were +the shepherds and the sheep-cotes. And he built himself a hut, and +fasted forty days and forty nights; for he said 'Until the Lord God +look upon me mercifully, prayer shall be my meat and my drink.' + +"But his wife Anna remained lonely in her house, and mourned with a +twofold sorrow, for her widowhood and for her barrenness. + +"Then drew near the last day of the feast of the Lord; and Judith +her handmaid said to Anna, 'How long wilt thou thus afflict thy soul? +Behold the feast of the Lord is come, and it is not lawful for thee +thus to mourn. Take this silken fillet, which was bestowed on me by +one of high degree whom I formerly served, and bind it round thy head, +for it is not fit that I who am thy handmaid should wear it, but it is +fitting for thee, whose brow is as the brow of a crowned queen.' And +Anna replied, 'Begone! such things are not for me, for the Lord hath +humbled me. As for this fillet, some wicked person hath given it to +thee; and art thou come to make me a partaker in thy sin?' And Judith +her maid answered, 'What evil shall I wish thee since thou wilt not +hearken to my voice? for worse I cannot wish thee than that with which +the Lord hath afflicted thee, seeing that he hath shut up thy womb, +that thou shouldst not be a mother in Israel.' + +"And Anna hearing these words was sorely troubled. And she laid aside +her mourning garments, and she adorned her head, and put on her bridal +attire; and at the ninth hour she went forth into her garden, and +sat down under a laurel tree and prayed earnestly. And looking up to +heaven, she saw within the laurel bush a sparrow's nest; and mourning +within herself she said, 'Alas! and woe is me! who hath begotten me? +who hath brought me forth? that I should be accursed in the sight of +Israel, and scorned and shamed before my people, and cast out of the +temple of the Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? I cannot be +likened to the fowls of heaven, for the fowls of heaven are fruitful +in thy sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to +the unreasoning beasts of the earth, for they are fruitful in thy +sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to these +waters, for they are fruitful in thy sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what +shall I be likened? Not unto the earth, for the earth bringeth forth +her fruit in due season, and praiseth thee, O Lord!' + +"And behold an angel of the Lord stood by her and said, 'Anna, thy +prayer is heard, thou shalt bring forth, and thy child shall be +blessed throughout the whole world.' And Anna said, 'As the Lord +liveth, whatever I shall bring forth, be it a man-child or a maid, +I will present it an offering to the Lord.' And behold another angel +came and said to her, 'See, thy husband Joachim is coming with his +shepherds;' for an angel had spoken to him also, and had comforted him +with promises. And Anna went forth to meet her husband, and Joachim +came from the pasture with his herds, and they met at the golden gate; +and Anna ran and embraced her husband, and hung upon his neck, saying, +'Now know I that the Lord hath blessed me. I who was a widow am no +longer a widow; I who was barren shall become a joyful mother.' + +"And they returned home together. + +"And when her time was come, Anna brought forth a daughter; and she +said, 'This day my soul magnifieth the Lord.' And she laid herself +down in her bed; and she called, the name of her child Mary, which +in the Hebrew is Miriam." + + * * * * * + +With the scenes of this beautiful pastoral begins the life of the +Virgin. + +1. We have first Joachim rejected from the temple. He stands on the +steps before the altar holding a lamb; and the high priest opposite +to him, with arm upraised, appears to refuse his offering. Such is +the usual _motif_; but the incident has been variously treated--in +the earlier and ruder examples, with a ludicrous want of dignity; for +Joachim is almost tumbling down the steps of the temple to avoid the +box on the ear which Issachar the priest is in the act of bestowing in +a most energetic fashion. On the other hand, the group by Taddeo Gaddi +(Florence, Baroncelli Chapel, S. Croce), though so early in date, +has not since been excelled either in the grace or the dramatic +significance of the treatment. Joachim turns away, with his lamb +in his arms, repulsed, but gently, by the priest. To the right are +three personages who bring offerings, one of whom, prostrate on his +knees, yet looks up at Joachim with a sneering expression--a fine +representation of the pharisaical piety of one of the elect, rejoicing +in the humiliation of a brother. On the other side are three persons +who appear to be commenting on the scene. In the more elaborate +composition by Ghirlandajo (Florence, S. Maria Novella), there is +a grand view into the interior of the temple, with arches richly +sculptured. Joachim is thrust forth by one of the attendants, while in +the background the high priest accepts the offering of a more favoured +votary. On each side are groups looking on, who express the contempt +and hatred they feel for one, who, not having children, presumes to +approach the altar. All these, according to the custom of Ghirlandajo, +are portraits of distinguished persons. The first figure on the right +represents the painter Baldovinetti; next to him, with his hand on +his side, Ghirlandajo himself; the third, with long black hair, +is Bastiano Mainardi, who painted the Assumption in the Baroncelli +Chapel, in the Santa Croce; and the fourth, turning his back, is David +Ghirlandajo. These real personages are so managed, that, while they +are not themselves actors, they do not interfere with the main action, +but rather embellish and illustrate it, like the chorus in a Greek +tragedy. Every single figure in this fine fresco is a study for manly +character, dignified attitude, and easy grand drapery. + +In the same scene by Albert Durer,[1] the high priest, standing behind +a table, rejects the offering of the lamb, and his attendant pushes +away the doves. Joachim makes a gesture of despair, and several +persons who bring offerings look at him with disdain or with sympathy. + +[Footnote 1: In the set of wood-cuts of the Life of the Virgin.] + +The same scene by Luini (Milan, Brera) is conceived with much pathetic +as well as dramatic effect. But as I have said enough to reader the +subject easily recognized, we proceed. + + * * * * * + +2. "Joachim herding his sheep on the mountain, and surrounded by his +shepherds, receives the message of the angel." This subject may so +nearly resemble the Annunciation to the Shepherds in St. Luke's Gospel, +that we must be careful to distinguish them, as, indeed, the best of +the old painters have done with great taste and feeling. + +Is the fresco by Taddeo Gaddi (in the Baroncelli Chapel), Joachim +is seated on a rocky mountain, at the base of which his sheep are +feeding, and turns round to listen to the voice of the angel. In the +fresco by Giotto in the Arena at Padua, the treatment is nearly the +same.[1] In the series by Luini, a stream runs down the centre of +the picture: on one side is Joachim listening to the angel, on the +other, Anna is walking in her garden. This incident is omitted by +Ghirlandajo. In Albert Durer's composition, Joachim is seen in the +foreground kneeling, and looking up at an angel, who holds out in +both hands a sort of parchment roll looking like a diploma with seals +appended, and which we may suppose to contain the message from on +high (if it be not rather the emblem of the _sealed book_, so often +introduced, particularly by the German masters). A companion of +Joachim also looks up with amazement, and farther in the distance are +sheep and shepherds. + +[Footnote 1: The subject will be found in the set of wood-cuts +published by the Arundel Society.] + +The Annunciation to St. Anna may be easily mistaken for the +Annunciation to the Virgin Mary;--we must therefore be careful to +discriminate, by an attention to the accessories. Didron observes that +in Western art the annunciation to St. Anna usually takes place in a +chamber. In the East it takes place in a garden, because there "_on +vit feu dans les maisons et beaucoup en plein air_;" but, according +to the legend, the locality ought to be a garden, and under a laurel +tree, which is not always attended to. + +3. The altercation between St. Anna and her maid Judith I have never +met with but once, in the series by Luini, where the disconsolate +figure and expression of St. Anna are given with infinite grace and +sentiment. (Milan, Brera.) + + * * * * * + +4. "The meeting of Joachim and Anna before the golden gate." This is +one of the most important subjects. It has been treated by the very +early artists with much _naïveté_, and in the later examples with +infinite beauty and sentiment; and, which is curious, it has been +idealized into a devotional subject, and treated apart. The action is +in itself extremely simple. The husband and wife affectionately and +joyfully embrace each other. In the background is seen a gate, richly +ornamented. Groups of spectators and attendants are sometimes, not +always, introduced. + +In the composition of Albert Durer nothing can be more homely, hearty, +and conjugal. A burly fat man, who looks on with a sort of wondering +amusement in his face, appears to be a true and animated transcript +from nature, as true as Ghirlandajo's attendant figures--but how +different! what a contrast between the Florentine citizen and the +German burgher! In the simpler composition by Taddeo Gaddi, St. Anna +is attended by three women, among whom the maid Judith is conspicuous, +and behind Joachim is one of his shepherds[1]. + +[Footnote 1: In two compartments of a small altar-piece (which +probably represented in the centre the Nativity of the Virgin), I +found on one side the story of St. Joachim, on the other the story of +St. Anna.--_Collection of Lord Northwick, No. 513, in his Catalogue_.] + +The Franciscans, those enthusiastic defenders of the Immaculate +Conception, were the authors of a fantastic idea, that the birth of +the Virgin was not only _immaculate_, but altogether _miraculous_, and +that she owed her being to the joyful kiss which Joachim gave his wife +when they met at the gate. Of course the Church gave no countenance to +this strange poetical fiction, but it certainly modified some of the +representations; for example, there is a picture by Vittore Carpaccio, +wherein St. Joachim and Anna tenderly embrace. On one side stands +St. Louis of Toulouse as bishop; on the other St. Ursula with her +standard, whose presence turns the incident into a religious mystery. +In another picture, painted by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, we have a still +more singular and altogether mystical treatment. In the centre St. +Joachim and St. Anna embrace; behind St. Joachim stands St. Joseph +with his lily wand and a book; behind St. Anna, the Virgin Mary (thus +represented as existing before she was born[1]), and beyond her St. +Laurence; in the corner is seen the head of the votary, a Servite +monk; above all, the Padre Eterno holds an open book with the _Alpha_ +and _Omega_. This singular picture was dedicated and placed over the +high altar of the Conception in the church of the Servi, who, under +the title of _Serviti di Maria_, were dedicated to the especial +service of the Virgin Mary. (v. Legends of the Monastic Orders.) + +[Footnote 1: Prov. viii 22, 23. These texts are applied to the +Madonna.] + + + + +THE NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. + +_Ital._ La Nascità della B. Vergine. _Fr._ La Naissance de la S. +Vierge. _Ger._ Die Geburt Maria. + + +This is, of course, a very important subject. It is sometimes treated +apart as a separate scene; and a series of pictures dedicated to the +honour of the Virgin, and comprising only a few of the most eventful +scenes in her history, generally begins with her Nativity. The +primitive treatment is Greek, and, though varied in the details and +the sentiment, it has never deviated much from the original _motif_. + +St. Anna reclines on a couch covered with drapery, and a pillow under +her head; two handmaids sustain her; a third fans her, or presents +refreshments; more in front a group of women are busied about the +new-born child. It has been the custom, I know not on what authority, +to introduce neighbours and friends, who come to congratulate the +parents. The whole scene thus treated is sure to come home to the +bosom of the observer. The most important event in the life of a +woman, her most common and yet most awful experience, is here so +treated as to be at once ennobled by its significance and endeared +by its thoroughly domestic character. + +I will give some examples. 1. The first is by an unknown master of the +Greco-Italian school, and referred by d'Agincourt to the thirteenth +century, but it is evidently later, and quite in the style of the +Gaddi. + +2. There is both dignity and simplicity in the fresco by Taddeo +Gaddi. (Florence, Baroncelli Chapel.) St. Anna is sitting up in bed; +an attendant pours water over her hands. In front, two women are +affectionately occupied with the child a lovely infant with a glory +round its head. Three other attendants are at the foot of the bed. + +3. We have next in date, the elegant composition by Ghirlandajo. As +Joachim and Anna were "exceedingly rich," he has surrounded them with +all the luxuries of life. The scene is a chamber richly decorated; a +frieze of angelic boys ornaments the alcove; St. Anna lies on a couch. +Vasari says "certain women are ministering to her." but in Lasinio's +engraving they are not to be found. In front a female attendant pours +water into a vase; two others seated hold the infant. A noble lady, +habited in the elegant Florentine costume of the fifteenth century, +enters with four others--all portraits, and, as is usual with +Ghirlandajo, looking on without taking any part in the action. The +lady in front is traditionally said to be Ginevra Benci, celebrated +for her beauty. + +4. The composition by Albert Durer[1] gives us an exact transcript +of antique German life, quite wonderful for the homely truth of the +delineation, but equally without the simplicity of a scriptural or +the dignity of an historical scene. In an old-fashioned German chamber +lies St. Anna in an old-fashioned canopied bedstead. Two women bring +her a soup and something to drink, while the midwife, tired with her +exertions, leans her head on the bedside and has sank to sleep. A +crowd of women fill up the foreground, one of whom attends to the +new-born child: others, who appear to have watched through the night, +as we may suppose from the nearly extinguished candles, are intent on +good cheer; they congratulate each other; they eat, drink, and repose +themselves. It would be merely a scene of German _commérage_, full +of nature and reality, if an angel hovering above, and swinging a +censer, did not remind us of the sacred importance of the incident +represented. + +[Footnote 1: In the set of wood-cuts of the "Life of the Virgin +Mary."] + +5. In the strongest possible contrast to the homely but animated +conception of Albert Durer, is the grand fresco by Andrea del Sarto, +in the church of the Nunziata at Florence. The incidents are nearly +the same: we have St. Anna reclining in her bed and attended by her +women; the nurses waiting on the lovely new-born child; the visitors +who enter to congratulate; but all, down to the handmaidens who bring +refreshments, are noble and dignified, and draped in that magnificent +taste which distinguished Andrea, Angels scatter flowers from above +and, which is very uncommon, Joachim is seen, after the anxious night +reposing on a couch. Nothing in fresco can exceed the harmony and +brilliancy of the colouring, and the softness of the execution. It +appeared to me a masterpiece as a picture. Like Ghirlandajo, Andrea +has introduced portraits; and in the Florentine lady who stands in the +foreground we recognize the features of his worthless wife Lucrezia, +the original model of so many of his female figures that the ignoble +beauty of her face has become quite familiar. + + + + +THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN. + +_Ital._ La Presentazione, ove nostra Signora piccioletta sale i gradi +del Tempio. _Ger._ Joachim und Anna weihen ihre Tochter Maria im +Tempel. Die Vorstellung der Jungfrau im Tempel. Nov. 21. + + +In the interval between the birth of Mary and her consecration in the +temple, there is no incident which I can remember as being important +or popular as a subject of art. + +It is recorded with what tenderness her mother Anna watched over +her, "how she made of her bedchamber a holy place, allowing nothing +that was common or unclean to enter in;" and called to her "certain +daughters of Israel, pure and gentle," whom she appointed to attend +on her. In some of the early miniature illustrations of the Offices of +the Virgin, St. Anna thus ministers to her child; for instance, in a +beautiful Greek MS. in the Vatican, she is tenderly putting her into +a little bed or cradle and covering her up. (It is engraved in +d'Agincourt.) + +It is not said anywhere that St. Anna instructed her daughter. It has +even been regarded as unorthodox to suppose that the Virgin, enriched +from her birth, and before her birth, with all the gifts of the Holy +Spirit, required instruction from any one. Nevertheless, the subject +of the "Education of the Virgin" has been often represented in later +times. There is a beautiful example by Murillo; while Anna teaches her +child to read, angels hover over them with wreaths of roses. (Madrid +Gal.) Another by Rubens, in which, as it is said, he represented his +young wife, Helena Forman. (Musée, Antwerp.) There is also a picture +in which St. Anna ministers to her daughter, and is intent on braiding +and adorning her long golden hair, while the angels look on with +devout admiration. (Vienna, Lichtenstein Gal.) In all these examples +Mary is represented as a girl of ten or twelve years old. Now, as the +legend expressly relates that she was three years old when she became +an inmate of the temple, such representations must be considered as +incorrect. + + * * * * * + +The narrative thus proceeds:-- + +"And when the child was _three years old_, Joachim said, 'Let us +invite the daughters of Israel, and they shall take each a taper or +a lamp, and attend on her, that the child may not turn back from the +temple of the Lord.' And being come to the temple, they placed her on +the first step, and she ascended alone all the steps to the altar: +and the high priest received her there, kissed her, and blessed her, +saying, 'Mary, the Lord hath magnified thy name to all generations, +and in thee shall be made known the redemption of the children of +Israel.' And being placed before the altar, she danced with her feet, +so that all the house of Israel rejoiced with her, and loved her. Then +her parents returned home, blessing God because the maiden had not +turned back from the temple." + + * * * * * + +Such is the incident, which, in artistic representation, is sometimes +styled the "Dedication," but more generally "THE PRESENTATION OF THE +VIRGIN." + +It is a subject of great importance, not only as a principal incident +in a series of the Life of the Virgin, but because this consecration +of Mary to the service of the temple being taken in a general sense, +it has often been given in a separate form, particularly for the +nunneries. Hence it has happened that we find "The Presentation of the +Virgin" among some of the most precious examples of ancient and modern +art. + +The _motif_ does not vary. The child Mary, sometimes in a blue, but +oftener in a white vesture, with long golden hair, ascends the steps +which lead to the porch of the temple, which steps are always fifteen +in number. She ought to be an infant of three years of age; but in +many pictures she is represented older, veiled, and with a taper in +her hand instead of a lamp, like a young nun; but this is a fault. The +"fifteen steps" rest on a passage in Josephus, who says, "between the +wall which separated the men from the women, and the great porch of +the temple, were fifteen steps;" and these are the steps which Mary +is supposed to ascend. + +1. It is sometimes treated with great simplicity; for instance, in +the bas-relief by Andrea Orcagna, there are only three principal +figures--the Virgin in the centre (too old, however), and Joachim and +Anna stand on each side. (Florence, Or San Michele.) + +2. In the fresco by Taddeo Gaddi we have the same artless grace, the +same dramatic grouping, and the same faults of drawing and perspective +as in the other compartments of the series. (Florence, Baroncelli +Chapel.) + +3. The scene is represented by Ghirlandajo with his usual luxury of +accessories and accompaniments. (Florence, S. Maria Novella.) The +locality is the court of the temple; on the right a magnificent porch; +the Virgin, a young girl of about nine or ten years old, is seen +ascending the steps with a book in her hand; the priest stretches out +his arms to receive her; behind him is another priest; and "the young +virgins who were to be her companions" are advancing joyously to +receive her. (Adducentur Regi Virgines post eam. Ps. xlv.) At the +foot of the steps are St. Anna and St. Joachim, and farther off a +group of women and spectators, who watch the event in attitudes of +thanksgiving and joyful sympathy. Two venerable, grand-looking Jews, +and two beautiful boys fill the foreground; and the figure of the +pilgrim resting on the steps is memorable in art as one of the +earliest examples of an undraped figure, accurately and gracefully +drawn. The whole composition is full of life and character, and that +sort of _elegance_ peculiar to Ghirlandajo. + +4. In the composition of Albert Durer we see the entrance of the +temple on the left, and the child Mary with flowing hair ascending the +steps; behind her stand her parents and other personages, and in front +are venders of provisions, doves, &c., which are brought as offerings. + +5. The scene, as given by Carpaccio, appears to me exceedingly +graceful. The perfectly childish figure of Mary with her light +flowing tresses, the grace with which she kneels on the steps, and the +disposition of the attendant figures, are all beautifully conceived. +Conspicuous in front is a page holding a unicorn, the ancient emblem +of chastity, and often introduced significantly into pictures of the +Virgin. (Venice Academy.) + +6. But the most celebrated example is the Presentation by Titian, +in the academy at Venice, originally painted for the church of the +brotherhood of charity (_Scuola della Carità_), and still to be seen +there--the Carità being now the academy of art. + +In the general arrangement, Titian seems to have been indebted to +Carpaccio; but all that is simple and poetical in the latter becomes +in Titian's version sumptuous and dramatic. Here Mary does not +kneel, but, holding up her light-blue drapery, ascends the steps with +childish grace and alacrity. The number of portrait-heads adds to the +value and interest of the picture. Titian himself is looking up, and +near him stands his friend, Andrea de' Franceschi, grand-chancellor +of Venice,[1] robed as a _Cavaliero di San Marco_. In the fine +bearded head of the priest, who stands behind the high-priest, we may +recognize, I think, the likeness of Cardinal Bembo. In the foreground, +instead of the poetical symbol of the unicorn, we have an old woman +selling eggs and fowls, as in Albert Durer's print, which must have +been well known to Titian. Albert Durer published his Life of the +Virgin in 1520, and Titian painted his picture about 1550. (Venice +Academy.) + +[Footnote 1: "_Amorevolissime del Pittare_," says Ridolfi. It is the +same person whom Titian introduced, with himself, in the picture at +Windsor; there, by a truly unpardonable mistake, called "Titian and +Aretino."] + + * * * * * + +From the life of the Virgin in the temple, we have several beautiful +pictures. As she was to be placed before women as an example of every +virtue, so she was skilled in all feminine accomplishments; she was +as studious, as learned, as wise, as she was industrious, chaste, and +temperate. + +She is seen surrounded by her young companions, the maidens who were +brought up in the temple with her, in a picture by Agnolo Gaddi. +(Florence, Carmine.) She is instructing her companions, in a charming +picture by Luini: here she appears as a girl of seven or eight years +old, seated on a sort of throne, dressed in a simple light-blue tunic, +with long golden hair; while the children around her look up and +listen with devout faces. (Milan, Brera.) + + * * * * * + +Some other scenes of her early life, which, in the Protevangelion, are +placed after her marriage with Joseph, in pictures usually precede it. +Thus, she is chosen by lot to spin the fine purple for the temple, +to weave and embroider it. Didron mentions a fine antique tapestry at +Rheims, in which Mary is seated at her embroidery, while two unicorns +crouching on each side look up in her face. + + * * * * * + +I remember a fine drawing, in which the Virgin is seated at a large +tapestry frame. Behind her are two maidens, one of whom is reading; +the other, holding a distaff, lays her hand on the shoulder of the +Virgin, as if about to speak. The scene represents the interior of the +temple with rich architecture. (Vienna, Col. of Archduke Charles.) + +In a small but very pretty picture by Guido, the Virgin, as a young +girl, sits embroidering a _yellow_ robe. (Lord Ellesmere's Gal.) She +is attended by four angels, one of whom draws aside a curtain It is +also related that among the companions of Mary in the temple was +Anna the prophetess; and that this aged and holy woman, knowing by +inspiration of the Holy Spirit the peculiar grace vouchsafed to Mary, +and her high destiny, beheld her with equal love and veneration; +and, notwithstanding the disparity of age, they become true and dear +friends. + +In an old illumination, the Virgin is seated spinning, with an angel +by her side. (Office of the Virgin, 1408. Oxford, Bodleian.) + + * * * * * + +It is recorded that the angels daily ministered to her, and fed her +with celestial food. Hence in some early specimens of art an angel +brings her a loaf of bread and a pitcher of water,--the _bread of +life_ and the _water of life_ from Paradise. In this subject, as we +find it carved on the stalls of the cathedral of Amiens, Mary holds a +book, and several books are ranged on a shelf in the background: there +is, besides, a clock, such as was in use in the fifteenth century, to +indicate the studious and regular life led by Mary in the temple. + + * * * * * + +St. Evode, patriarch of Antioch, and St. Germanus, assert as +an indubitable tradition of the Greek Church, that Mary had the +privilege--never granted to one of her sex before or since--of +entering the Holy of Holies, and praying before the ark of the +covenant. Hence, in some of the scenes from her early life, the ark is +placed in the background. We must also bear in mind that the ark was +one of the received types of her who bore the Logos within her bosom. + + * * * * * + +In her fourteenth year, Mary was informed by the high priest that it +was proper that she should be married; but she modestly replied that +her parents had dedicated her to the service of the Lord, and that, +therefore, she could not comply. But the high-priest, who had received +a revelation from an angel concerning the destiny of Mary, informed +her thereof, and she with all humility submitted herself to the divine +will. This scene between Mary and the high-priest has been painted by +Luini, and it is the only example with which I am acquainted. + +Pictures of the Virgin in her girlhood, reading intently the Book of +Wisdom, while angels watch over her, are often of great beauty. + + + + +THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN + +_Ital._ Il Sposalizio. _Fr._ Le Mariage de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die +Trauung Mariä. Jan. 23. + + +This, as an artistic subject, is of great consequence, from the beauty +and celebrity of some of the representations, which, however, are +unintelligible without the accompanying legends. And it is worth +remarking, that while the incident is avoided in early Greek art, +it became very popular with the Italian and German painters from the +fourteenth century. + +In the East, the prevalence of the monastic spirit, from the fourth +century, had brought marriage into disrepute; by many of the ascetic +writers of the West it was considered almost in the light of a +necessary evil. This idea, that the primal and most sacred ordinance +of God and nature was incompatible with the sanctity and purity +acceptable to God, was the origin of the singular legends of the +Marriage of the Virgin. One sees very clearly that, if possible, it +would have been denied that Mary had ever been married at all; but, +as the testimony of the Gospel was too direct and absolute to be +set aside, it became necessary, in the narrative, to give to this +distasteful marriage the most recondite motives, and in art, to +surround it with the most poetical and even miraculous accessories. + +But before we enter on the treatment of the subject, it is necessary +to say a few words on the character of Joseph, wonderfully selected to +be the husband and guardian of the consecrated mother of Christ, and +foster-father of the Redeemer; and so often introduced into all the +pictures which refer to the childhood of our Lord. + +From the Gospels we learn nothing of him but that he was of the tribe +of Judah and the lineage of David; that he was a _just_ man; that he +followed the trade of a carpenter, and dwelt in the little city of +Nazareth. We infer from his conduct towards Mary, that he was a mild, +and tender, and pure-hearted, as well as an upright man. Of his age +and personal appearance nothing is said. These are the points on which +the Church has not decided, and on which artists, left to their own +devices, and led by various opinions, have differed considerably. + +The very early painters deemed it right to represent Joseph as very +old, almost decrepit with age, and supported by a crutch. According +to some of the monkish authorities, he was a widower, and eighty-four +years old when he was espoused to Mary. On the other hand, it was +argued, that such a marriage would have been quite contrary to the +custom of the Jews; and that to defend Mary, and to provide for her +celestial Offspring, it was necessary that her husband should be a +man of mature age, but still strong and robust, and able to work +at his trade; and thus, with more propriety and better taste, the +later painters have represented him. In the best Italian and Spanish +pictures of the Holy Family, he is a man of about forty or fifty, +with a mild, benevolent countenance, brown hair, and a short, curled +beard: the crutch, or stick, however, is seldom omitted; it became a +conventional attribute. + +In the German pictures, Joseph is not only old, but appears almost in +a state of dotage, like a lean, wrinkled mendicant, with a bald head, +a white beard, a feeble frame, and a sleepy or stupid countenance. +Then, again, the later Italian painters have erred as much on the +other side; for I have seen pictures in which St. Joseph is not only a +young man not more than thirty, but bears a strong resemblance to the +received heads of our Saviour. + +It is in the sixteenth century that we first find Joseph advanced to +the dignity of a saint in his own right; and in the seventeenth he +became very popular, especially in Spain, where St. Theresa had chosen +him for her patron saint, and had placed her powerful order of the +reformed Carmelites under his protection. Hence the number of pictures +of that time, which represent Joseph, as the foster-father of Christ, +carrying the Infant on his arm and caressing him, while in the other +hand he bears a lily, to express the sanctity and purity of his +relations with the Virgin. + + * * * * * + +The legend of "the Marriage of Joseph and Mary" is thus given in the +Protevangelion and the History of Joseph the Carpenter:-- + + "When Mary was fourteen years old, the priest Zacharias (or + Abiathar, as he is elsewhere called) inquired of the Lord + concerning her, what was right to be done; and an angel came + to him and said, 'Go forth, and call together all the widowers + among the people, and let each bring his rod (or wand) in his + hand, and he to whom the Lord shall show a sign, let him be + the husband of Mary. And Zacharias did as the angel commanded, + and made proclamation accordingly. And Joseph the carpenter, a + righteous man, throwing down his axe, and taking his staff in + his hand, ran out with the rest. When he appeared before the + priest, and presented his rod, lo! a dove issued out of it--a + dove dazzling white as the snow,--and after settling on his + head, flew towards heaven. Then the high priest said to him, + 'Thou art the person chosen to take the Virgin of the Lord, + and to keep her for him.' And Joseph was at first afraid, and + drew back, but afterwards he took her home to his house, and + said to her, 'Behold, I have taken thee from the temple of + the Lord, and now I will leave thee in my house, for I must + go and follow my trade of building. I will return to thee, + and meanwhile the Lord be with thee and watch over thee.' So + Joseph left her, and Mary remained in her house." + +There is nothing said of any marriage ceremony, some have even +affirmed that Mary was only betrothed to Joseph, but for conclusive +reasons it remains an article of faith that she was married to him. + +I must mention here an old tradition cited by St. Jerome, and which +has been used as a text by the painters. The various suitors who +aspired to the honour of marrying the consecrated "Virgin of the +Lord," among whom was the son of the high-priest, deposited their +wands in the temple over night,[1] and next morning the rod of Joseph +was found, like the rod of Aaron, to have budded forth into leaves +and flowers. The other suitors thereupon broke their wands in rage and +despair; and one among them, a youth of noble lineage, whose name was +Agabus, fled to Mount Carmel, and became an anchorite, that is to say, +a Carmelite friar. + +[Footnote 1: The suitors kneeling with their wands before the altar in +the Temple, is one of the series by Giotto in the Arena at Padua.] + +According to the Abbé Orsini, who gives a long description of the +espousals of Mary and Joseph, they returned after the marriage +ceremony to Nazareth, and dwelt in the house of St. Anna. + + * * * * * + +Now, with regard to the representations, we find that many of the +early painters, and particularly the Italians, have carefully attended +to the fact, that, among the Jews, marriage was a civil contract, +not a religious rite. The ceremony takes place in the open air, in a +garden, or in a landscape, or in front of the temple. Mary, as a meek +and beautiful maiden of about fifteen, attended by a train of virgins, +stands on the right; Joseph, behind whom are seen the disappointed +suitors, is on the left. The priest joins their hands, or Joseph is +in the act of placing the ring on the finger of the bride. This is the +traditional arrangement from Giotto down to Raphael. In the series by +Giotto, in the Arena at Padua, we have three scenes from the marriage +legend. 1. St. Joseph and the other suitors present their wands to the +high-priest. 2. They kneel before the altar, on which their wands are +deposited, waiting for the promised miracle. 3. The marriage ceremony. +It takes place before an altar, in the _interior_ of the temple. The +Virgin, a most graceful figure, but rather too old, stands attended +by her maidens; St. Joseph holds his wand with the flower and the holy +Dove resting on it: one of the disappointed suitors is about to strike +him; another breaks his wand against his knee. Taddeo Gaddi, Angelico, +Ghirlandajo, Perugino, all followed this traditional conception of the +subject, except that they omit the altar, and place the locality in +the open air, or under a portico. Among the relics venerated in the +Cathedral of Perugia, is the nuptial ring of the blessed Virgin; and +for the altar of the sacrament there, Perugino painted the appropriate +subject of the Marriage of the Virgin.[1] Here the ceremony takes +place under the portico of the temple, and Joseph of course puts the +ring on her finger. It is a beautiful composition, which has been +imitated more or less by the painters of the Perugino school, and +often repeated in the general arrangement. + +[Footnote 1: It was carried off from the church by the French, sold in +France, and is now to be seen in the Musée at Caen.] + +But in this subject, Raphael, while yet a youth, excelled his +master and all who had gone before him. Every one knows the famous +"SPOSALIZIO of the Brera."[1] It was painted by Raphael in his +twenty-first year, for the church of S. Francesco, in Città di +Castello; and though he has closely followed the conception of +his master, it is modified by that ethereal grace which even then +distinguished him. Here Mary and Joseph stand in front of the temple, +the high-priest joins their hands, and Joseph places the ring on the +finger of the bride; he is a man of about thirty, and holds his wand, +which has blossomed into a lily, but there is no Dove upon it. Behind +Mary is a group of the virgins of the temple; behind Joseph the group +of disappointed suitors; one of whom, in the act of breaking his wand +against his knee, a singularly graceful figure, seen more in front +and richly dressed, is perhaps the despairing youth mentioned in the +legend.[2] With something of the formality of the elder schools, the +figures are noble and dignified; the countenances of the principal +personages have a characteristic refinement and beauty, and a +soft, tender, enthusiastic melancholy, which lends a peculiar and +appropriate charm to the subject. In fact, the whole scene is here +idealized; It is like a lyric poem, (Kugler's Handbook, 2d edit.) + +[Footnote 1: At Milan. The fine engraving by Longhi is well known.] + +[Footnote 2: In the series by Giotto at Padua, we have the youth +breaking his wand across his knee.] + +In Ghirlandajo's composition (Florence, S. Maria Novella), Joseph +is an old man with a bald head; the architecture is splendid; the +accessory figures, as is usual with Ghirlandajo, are numerous and +full of grace. In the background are musicians playing on the pipe +and tabor, an incident which I do not recollect to have seen in other +pictures. + +The Sposalizio by Girolamo da Cotignola (Bologna Gal.), painted for +the church of St. Joseph, is treated quite in a mystical style. Mary +and Joseph stand before an altar, on the steps of which are seated, on +one side a prophet, on the other a sibyl. + + * * * * * + +By the German painters the scene is represented with a characteristic +homely neglect of all historic propriety. The temple is a Gothic +church; the altar has a Gothic altar-piece; Joseph looks like an old +burgher arrayed in furs and an embroidered gown; and the Virgin is +richly dressed in the costume of the fifteenth century. The suitors +are often knights and cavaliers with spurs and tight hose. + + * * * * * + +It is not said anywhere that St. Anna and St. Joachim were present at +the marriage of their daughter; hence they are supposed to have been +dead before it took place. This has not prevented some of the old +German artists from introducing them, because, according to their +ideas of domestic propriety, they _ought_ to have been present. + + * * * * * + +I observe that the later painters who treated the subject, Rubens and +Poussin for instance, omit the disappointed suitors. + + * * * * * + +After the marriage, or betrothal, Joseph conducts his wife to his +house. The group of the returning procession has been beautifully +treated in Giotto's series at Padua;[1] still more beautifully by +Luigi in the fragment of fresco now in the Brera at Milan. Here Joseph +and Mary walk together hand in hand. He looks at her, just touching +her fingers with an air of tender veneration; she looks down, serenely +modest. Thus they return together to their humble home; and with this +scene closes the first part of the life of the Virgin Mary. + +[Footnote 1: Cappella dell' Arena, engraved for the Arundel Society.] + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART II + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE RETURN FROM +EGYPT. + +1. THE ANNUNCIATION. 2. THE SALUTATION OF ELIZABETH. 3. THE JOUBNEY TO +BETHLEHEM. 4. THE NATIVITY. 6. THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. 6. +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. 7. THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 8. THE +FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. 9. THE RIPOSO. 10. THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION. + +_Ital._ L' Annunciazione. La B. Vergine Annunziata. _Fr._ +L'Annonciation. La Salutation Angélique. _Ger._ Die Verkündi gung. Der +Englische Gruss. March 25. + + +The second part of the life of the Virgin Mary begins with the +Annunciation and ends with the Crucifixion, comprising all those +scriptural incidents which connect her history with that of her divine +Son. + +But to the scenes narrated in the Gospels the painters did not confine +themselves. Not only were the simple scripture histories coloured +throughout by the predominant and enthusiastic veneration paid to the +Virgin--till the life of Christ was absolutely merged in that of His +mother, and its various incidents became "the seven joys and the seven +sorrows of Mary,"--but we find the artistic representations of her +life curiously embroidered and variegated by the introduction of +traditional and apocryphal circumstances, in most cases sanctioned +by the Church authorities of the time. However doubtful or repulsive +some of these scenes and incidents, we cannot call them absolutely +unmeaning or absurd; on the contrary, what was _supposed_ grew up very +naturally, in the vivid and excited imaginations of the people, out of +what was _recorded_; nor did they distinguish accurately between what +they were allowed and what they were commanded to believe. Neither can +it be denied that the traditional incidents--those at least which we +find artistically treated--are often singularly beautiful, poetical, +and instructive. In the hands of the great religions artists, who +worked in their vocation with faith and simplicity, objects and scenes +the most familiar and commonplace became sanctified and glorified by +association with what we deem most holy and most venerable. In the +hands of the later painters the result was just the reverse--what +was most spiritual, most hallowed, most elevated, became secularized, +materialized, and shockingly degraded. + +No subject has been more profoundly felt and more beautifully handled +by the old painters, nor more vilely mishandled by the moderns, than +the ANNUNCIATION, of all the scenes in the life of Mary the most +important and the most commonly met with. Considered merely as an +artistic subject, it is surely eminently beautiful: it places before +us the two most graceful forms which the hand of man was ever called +on to delineate;--the winged spirit fresh from paradise; the woman +not less pure, and even more highly blessed--the chosen vessel of +redemption, and the personification of all female loveliness, all +female excellence, all wisdom, and all purity. + + * * * * * + +We find the Annunciation, like many other scriptural incidents, +treated in two ways--as a mystery, and as an event. Taken in the +former sense, it became the expressive symbol of a momentous article +of faith, _The Incarnation of the Deity_. Taken in the latter sense, +it represented the announcement of salvation to mankind, through the +direct interposition of miraculous power. In one sense or the other, +it enters into every scheme of ecclesiastical decoration; but +chiefly it is set before us as a great and awful mystery, of which +the two figures of Gabriel, the angel-messenger, and Mary the +"highly-favoured," placed in relation to each other, became the +universally accepted symbol, rather than the representation. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION AS A MYSTERY. + + +Considering the importance given to the Annunciation in its mystical +sense, it is strange that we do not find it among the very ancient +symbolical subjects adopted in the first ages of Christian art. It +does not appear on the sarcophagi, nor in the early Greek carvings and +diptychs, nor in the early mosaics--except once, and then as a part of +the history of Christ, not as a symbol; nor can we trace the mystical +treatment of this subject higher than the eleventh century, when +it first appears in the Gothic sculpture and stained glass. In the +thirteenth, and thenceforward, the Annunciation appears before +us, as the expression in form of a theological dogma, everywhere +conspicuous. It became a primal element in every combination of sacred +representations; the corner-stone, as it were, of every architectural +system of religious decoration. It formed a part of every altar-piece, +either in sculpture or painting. Sometimes the Virgin stands on +one side of the altar, the angel on the other, carved in marble or +alabaster, or of wood richly painted and gilt; or even, as I have +seen in some instances, of solid silver. Not seldom, we find the two +figures placed in niches against the pillars, or on pedestals at the +entrance of the choir. It was not necessary, when thus symbolically +treated, to place the two figures in proximity to signify their +relation to each other; they are often divided by the whole breadth +of the chancel. + +Whatever the subject of the altar-piece--whether the Nativity, or the +Enthroned Madonna, or the Coronation, or the Crucifixion, or the +Last Supper,--the Annunciation almost invariably formed part of the +decoration, inserted either into the spandrels of the arches above, or +in the predella below; or, which is very common, painted or carved on +the doors of a tabernacle or triptychon. + +If the figures are full-length, a certain symmetry being required, +they are either both standing or both kneeling; it is only in later +times that the Virgin sits, and the angel kneels. When disposed in +circles or semicircles, they are often merely busts, or half-length +figures, separated perhaps by a framework of tracery, or set on each +side of the principal subject, whatever that may be. Hence it is +that we so often find in galleries and collections, pictures of the +Annunciation in two separate parts, the angel in one frame, the +Virgin in another; and perhaps the two pictures, thus disunited, +may have found their way into different countries and different +collections,--the Virgin being in Italy and the angel in England. + +Sometimes the Annunciation--still as a mystical subject--forms an +altar-piece of itself. In many Roman Catholic churches there is +a chapel or an altar dedicated expressly to the mystery of the +Annunciation, the subject forming of course the principal decoration. +At Florence there is a church--one of the most splendid and +interesting of its many beautiful edifices--dedicated to the +Annunciation, or rather to the Virgin in her especial character and +dignity, as the Instrument of the Incarnation, and thence styled +the church _della Santissima Nunziata_. The fine mosaic of the +Annunciation by Ghirlandajo is placed over the principal entrance. Of +this church, and of the order of the Servi, to whom it belongs, I have +already spoken at length. Here, in the first chapel on the left, as +we enter, is to be found the miraculous picture of the Annunciation, +formerly held in such veneration, not merely by all Florence, but +all Christendom:--found, but not seen--for it is still concealed from +profane eyes, and exhibited to the devout only on great occasions. The +name of the painter is disputed; but, according to tradition, it is +the work of a certain Bartolomeo; who, while he sat meditating on the +various excellences and perfections of our Lady, and most especially +on her divine beauty, and thinking, with humility, how inadequate were +his own powers to represent her worthily, fell asleep; and on awaking, +found the head of the Virgin had been wondrously completed, either by +the hand of an angel, or by that of St. Luke, who had descended from +heaven on purpose. Though this curious relic has been frequently +restored, no one has presumed to touch the features of the Virgin, +which are, I am told--for I have never been blessed with a sight +of the original picture--marvellously sweet and beautiful. It is +concealed by a veil, on which is painted a fine head of the Redeemer, +by Andrea del Sarto; and forty-two lamps of silver burn continually +round it. There is a copy in the Pitti Palace, by Carlo Dolce. + +It is evident that the Annunciation, as a mystery, admits of a style +of treatment which would not be allowable in the representation of +an event. In the former case, the artist is emancipated from all +considerations of locality or circumstance. Whether the background +be of gold, or of blue, or star-bespangled sky,--a mere curtain, or a +temple of gorgeous architecture; whether the accessories be the most +simple or the most elaborate, the most real or the most ideal; all +this is of little moment, and might be left to the imagination of the +artist, or might be modified according to the conditions imposed by +the purpose of the representation and the material employed, so long +as the chief object is fulfilled--the significant expression of an +abstract dogma, appealing to the faith, not to the senses or the +understanding, of the observer. + +To this class, then, belong all those church images and pictures of +the Annunciation, either confined to the two personages, with just +sufficient of attitude and expression to place them in relation to +each other, or with such accompaniments as served to carry out the +mystical idea, still keeping it as far as possible removed from the +region of earthly possibilities. In the fifteenth century--that age of +mysticism--we find the Annunciation, not merely treated as an abstract +religious emblem, but as a sort of divine allegory or poem, which +in old French and Flemish art is clothed in the quaintest, the most +curious forms. I recollect going into a church at Breslau, and +finding over one of the altars a most elaborate carving in wood of +the Annunciation. Mary is seated within a Gothic porch of open tracery +work; a unicorn takes refuge in her bosom: outside, a kneeling angel +winds a hunting horn; three or four dogs are crouching near him. I +looked and wondered. At first I could make nothing of this singular +allegory; but afterwards found the explanation, in a learned French +work on the "Stalles d'Amiens." I give the original passage, for it +will assist the reader to the comprehension of many curious works of +art; but I do not venture to translate it. + +"On sait qu'an XVI siècle, le mystère de l'Incarnation étoit souvent +représenté par une allegorie ainsi conçue: Une licorne se réfugiant +au sein d'une vierge pure, quatre lévriers la pressant d'une course +rapide, un veneur ailé sonnant de la trompette. La science de la +zoologie mystique du temps aide à en trouver l'explication; le +fabuleux animal dont l'unique corne ne blessait que pour purger de +tout venin l'endroit du corps qu'elle avoit touché, figuroit Jésus +Christ, médecin et sauveur des âmes; on donnait aux lévriers agiles +les noms de Misericordia, Veritas, Justitia, Pax, les quatre raisons +qui ont pressé le Verbe éternel de sortir de son repos mais comme +c'étoit par la Vierge Marie qu'il avoit voulu descendre parmi les +hommes et se mettre en leur puissance, on croyoit ne pouvoir mieux +faire que de choisir dans la fable, le fait d'une pucelle pouvant +seule servir de piége à la licorne, en l'attirant par le charme +et le parfum de son sein virginal qu'elle lui présentoit; enfin +l'ange Gabriel concourant au mystère étoit bien reconnoissable sous +les traits du venenr ailé lançant les lévriers et embouchant la +trompette." + + * * * * * + +It appears that this was an accepted religious allegory, as familiar +in the sixteenth century as those of Spenser's "Fairy Queen" or the +"Pilgrim's Progress" are to us. I have since found it frequently +reproduced in the old French and German prints: there is a specimen +in the British Museum; and there is a picture similarly treated in the +Musée at Amiens. I have never seen it in an Italian picture or print; +unless a print after Guido, wherein a beautiful maiden is seated under +a tree, and a unicorn has sought refuge in her lap, be intended to +convey the same far-fetched allegory. + +Very common, however, in Italian art, is a less fantastic, but still +wholly poetical version of the Annunciation, representing, in fact, +not the Annunciation, but the Incarnation. Thus, in a picture by +Giovanni Sanzio (the father of Raphael) (Brera, Milan), Mary stands +under a splendid portico; she appears as if just risen from her seat +her hands are meekly folded over her bosom; her head declined. The +angel kneels outside the portico, holding forth his lily; while above, +in the heavens, the Padre Eterno sends forth the Redeemer, who, in +form of the infant Christ bearing his cross, floats downwards towards +the earth, preceded by the mystic Dove. This manner of representing +the Incarnation is strongly disapproved of by the Abbé Méry (v. +Théologie des Peintres), as not only an error, but a heresy: yet it +was frequently repeated in the sixteenth century. + +The Annunciation is also a mystery when certain emblems are introduced +conveying a certain signification; as when Mary is seated on a throne, +wearing a radiant crown of mingled gems and flowers, and receives the +message of the angel with all the majesty that could be expressed by +the painter; or is seated, in a garden enclosed by a hedge of roses +(the _Hortus clausus_ or _conclusus_ of the Canticles); or where the +angel holds in his hands the sealed book, as in the famous altar-piece +at Cologne. + +In a picture by Simone Memmi, the Virgin seated on a Gothic throne +receives, as the higher and superior being, yet with a shrinking +timidity, the salutation of the angel, who comes as the messenger +of peace, olive-crowned, and bearing a branch of olive in his hand. +(Florence Gal.) This poetical version is very characteristic of the +early Siena school, in which we often find a certain fanciful and +original way of treating well known subjects. Taddeo Bartoli, another +Sienese, and Martin Schoen, the most poetical of the early Germans, +also adopted the olive-symbol; and we find it also in the tabernacle +of King Réné, already described. + +The treatment is clearly devotional and ideal where attendant +saints and votaries stand or kneel around, contemplating with devout +gratitude or ecstatic wonder the divine mystery. Thus, in a remarkable +and most beautiful picture by Fra Bartolomeo, the Virgin is seated on +her throne; the angel descends from on high bearing his lily: around +the throne attend St. John the Baptist and St. Francis, St. Jerome, +St. Paul, and St. Margaret. (Bologna Gal.) Again, in a very beautiful +picture by Francia, Mary stands in the midst of an open landscape; her +hands, folded over each other, press to her bosom a book closed and +clasped: St. Jerome stands on the right, John the Baptist on the left; +both look up with a devout expression to the angel descending from +above. In both these examples Mary is very nobly and expressively +represented as the chosen and predestined vehicle of human redemption. +It is not here the Annunciation, but the "_Sacratissima Annunziata_" +we see before us. In a curious picture by Francesco da Cotignola, +Mary stands on a sculptured pedestal, in the midst of an architectural +decoration of many-coloured marbles, most elaborately painted: through +an opening is seen a distant landscape, and the blue sky; on her +right stands St. John the Baptist, pointing upwards; on her left St. +Francis, adoring; the votary kneels in front. (Berlin Gal.) Votive +pictures of the Annunciation were frequently expressive offerings from +those who desired, or those who had received, the blessing of an heir; +and this I take to be an instance. + +In the following example, the picture is votive in another sense, +and altogether poetical. The Virgin Mary receives the message of the +angel, as usual; but before her, at a little distance, kneels the +Cardinal Torrecremata, who presents three young girls, also kneeling, +to one of whom the Virgin gives a purse of money. This curious and +beautiful picture becomes intelligible, when we find that it was +painted for a charitable community, instituted by Torrecremata, +for educating and endowing poor orphan girls, and styled the +"_Confraternità dell' Annunziatà_."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Benozzo Gozzoli, in S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome.] + +In the charming Annunciation by Angelico, the scene is in the cloister +of his own convent of St. Mark. A Dominican (St. Peter Martyr) +stands in the background with hands folded in prayer. I might add +many beautiful examples from Fra Bartolomeo, and in sculpture from +Benedetto Maiano, Luca della Robbia, and others, but have said enough +to enable the observer to judge of the intention of the artist. The +Annunciation by Sansovino among the bas-reliefs, which cover the +chapel at Loretto is of great elegance. + +I must, however, notice one more picture. Of six Annunciations +painted by Rubens, five represent the event; the sixth is one of his +magnificent and most palpable allegories, all glowing with life and +reality. Here Mary kneels on the summit of a flight of steps; a dove, +encompassed by cherubim, hovers over her head. Before her kneels +the celestial messenger; behind him Moses and Aaron, with David and +other patriarchal ancestors of Christ. In the clouds above is seen +the heavenly Father; on his right are two female figures, Peace and +Reconciliation; on his left, angels bear the ark of the covenant. In +the lower part of the picture, stand Isaiah and Jeremiah, with four +sibyls:--thus connecting the prophecies of the Old Testament, and +the promises made to the Gentile nations through the sibyls, with the +fulfilment of both in the message from on high. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION AS AN EVENT. + + +Had the Annunciation to Mary been merely mentioned as an awful and +incomprehensible vision, it would have been better to have adhered to +the mystical style of treatment, or left it alone altogether; but the +Scripture history, by giving the whole narration as a simple fact, a +real event, left it free for representation as such; and, as such, the +fancy of the artist was to be controlled and limited only by the words +of Scripture as commonly understood and interpreted, and by those +proprieties of time, place, and circumstance, which would be required +in the representation of any other historical incident or action. + +When all the accompaniments show that nothing more was in the mind +of the artist than the aim to exhibit an incident in the life of the +Virgin, or an introduction to that of our Lord, the representation is +no longer mystical and devotional, but historical. The story was to be +told with all the fidelity, or at least all the likelihood, that was +possible; and it is clear that, in this case, the subject admitted, +and even required, a more dramatic treatment, with such accessories +and accompaniments as might bring the scene within the sphere of the +actual. In this sense it is not to be mistaken. Although the action is +of itself so very simple, and the actors confined to two persons, it +is astonishing to note the infinite variations of which this favourite +theme has been found susceptible. Whether all these be equally +appropriate and laudable, is quite another question; and in how far +the painters have truly interpreted the Scriptural narration, is now +to be considered. + +And first, with regard to the time, which is not especially mentioned. +It was presumed by the Fathers and early commentators on Scripture, +that the Annunciation must have taken place in early spring-time, at +eventide, soon after sunset, the hour since consecrated as the "Ave +Maria," as the bell which announces it is called the "Angelus;"[1] +but other authorities say that it was rather at midnight, because +the nativity of our Lord took place at the corresponding hour in the +following December. This we find exactly attended to by many of the +old painters, and indicated either by the moon and stars in the sky, +or by a taper or a lamp burning near. + +[Footnote 1: So Lord Byron:-- + + "Ave Maria! blessed be the hour! + The time, the clime, the spot, where I so oft + Have felt that moment in its fullest power + Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, + While swung the deep bell in the distant tower, + Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft, + And not a breath crept through the rosy air, + And yet the forest leaves seem'd stirr'd with prayer"] + + * * * * * + +With regard to the locality, we are told by St. Luke that the angel +Gabriel was sent from God, and that "he came _in_ to Mary" (Luke i. +28), which seems to express that she was _within_ her house. + +In describing the actual scene of the interview between the angel and +Mary, the legendary story of the Virgin adheres very closely to the +scriptural text. But it also relates, that Mary went forth at evening +to draw water from the fountain; that she heard a voice which said, +"Hail thou that art full of grace!" and thereupon being troubled, she +looked to the right and to the left, and seeing no one, returned to +her _house_, and sat down to her work, (Protevangelion, ix. 7.) Had +any exact attention been paid to oriental customs, Mary might have +been working or reading or meditating on the roof of her house; but +this has not suggested itself in any instance that I can remember. We +have, as the scene of the interview, an interior which is sometimes +like an oratory, sometimes a portico with open arcades; but more +generally a bedroom. The poverty of Joseph and Mary, and their humble +condition in life, are sometimes attended to, but not always; for, +according to one tradition, the house at Nazareth was that which Mary +had inherited from her parents, Joachim and Anna, who were people of +substance. Hence, the painters had an excuse for making the chamber +richly furnished, the portico sustained by marble pillars, or +decorated with sculpture. In the German and Flemish pictures, the +artist, true to the national characteristic of _naïve_ and literal +illustration, gives us a German or a Gothic chamber, with a lattice +window of small panes of glass, and a couch with pillows, or a +comfortable four-post bedstead, furnished with draperies, thus +imparting to the whole scene an air of the most vivid homely reality. + +As for the accessories, the most usual, almost indispensable, is the +pot of lilies, the symbolical _Fleur de Marie_, which I have already +explained at length. There is also a basket containing needle work and +implements of female industry, as scissors, &c.; not merely to express +Mary's habitual industry, but because it is related that when she +returned to her house, "she took the purple linen, and sat down to +work it." The work-basket is therefore seldom omitted. Sometimes a +distaff lies at her feet, as in Raphael's Annunciation. In old German +pictures we have often a spinning-wheel. To these emblems of industry +is often added a basket, or a dish, containing fruit; and near it a +pitcher of water to express the temperance of the blessed Virgin. + +There is grace and meaning in the introduction of birds, always +emblems of the spiritual. Titian places a tame partridge at the feet +of Mary, which expresses her tenderness; but the introduction of a +cat, as in Barroccio's picture, is insufferable. + + * * * * * + +The archangel Gabriel, "one of those who stand continually in the +presence of God," having received his mission, descends to earth. +In the very earliest representation of the Annunciation, as an event +(Mosaic, S. Maria Maggiore), we have this descent of the winged spirit +from on high; and I have seen other instances. There is a small and +beautiful sketch by Garofalo (Alton Towers), in which, from amidst +a flood of light, and a choir of celestial spirits, such as Milton +describes as adoring the "divine sacrifice" proclaimed for sinful man +(Par. Lost, b. iii.), the archangel spreads his lucid wings, and seems +just about to take his flight to Nazareth. He was accompanied, says +the Italian legend, by a train of lower angels, anxious to behold +and reverence their Queen; these remained, however, at the door, or +"before the gate," while Gabriel entered. + +The old German masters are fond of representing him as entering by +a door in the background, while the serene Virgin, seated in front, +seems aware of his presence without seeing him. + +In some of the old pictures, he comes in flying from above, or he is +upborne by an effulgent cloud, and surrounded by a glory which lights +the whole picture,--a really _celestial_ messenger, as in a fresco +by Spinello Aretino. In others, he comes gliding in, "smooth sliding +without step;" sometimes he enters like a heavenly ambassador, and +little angels hold up his train. In a picture by Tintoretto, he comes +rushing in as upon a whirlwind, followed by a legion of lesser angels; +while on the outside of the building, Joseph the carpenter is seen +quietly at his work. (Venice, School of S. Rocco.) + +But, whether walking or flying, Gabriel bears, of course, the +conventional angelic form, that of the human creature, winged, +beautiful, and radiant with eternal youth, yet with a grave and +serious mien, in the later pictures, the drapery given to the angel is +offensively scanty; his sandals, and bare arms, and fluttering robe, +too much _à l'antique_; he comes in the attitude of a flying Mercury, +or a dancer in a ballet. But in the early Italian pictures his dress +is arranged with a kind of solemn propriety: it is that of an acolyte, +white and full, and falling in large folds over his arms, and in +general concealing his feet. In the German pictures, he often wears +the priestly robe, richly embroidered, and clasped in front by a +jewel. His ambrosial curls fall over this cope in "hyacinthine +flow." The wings are essential, and never omitted. They are white, or +many-coloured, eyed like the peacock's train, or bedropped with gold. +He usually bears the lily in his hand, but not always. Sometimes it is +the sceptre, the ancient attribute of a herald; and this has a scroll +around it, with the words, "Ave Maria gratia plena!" The sceptre or +wand is, occasionally surmounted by a cross. + +In general, the palm is given to the angel who announces the death of +Mary. In one or two instances only I have seen the palm given to the +angel Gabriel, as in a predella by Angelico; for which, however, the +painter had the authority of Dante, or Dante some authority earlier +still. He says of Gabriel, + + "That he bore the _palm_ + Down unto Mary when the Son of God + Vouchsafed to clothe him in terrestrial weeds." + +The olive-bough has a mystical sense wherever adopted: it is the +symbol of _peace_ on earth. Often the angel bears neither lily, nor +sceptre, nor palm, nor olive. His hands are folded on his bosom; or, +with one hand stretched forth, and the other pointing upwards, he +declares his mission from on high. + +In the old Greek pictures, and in the most ancient Italian examples, +the angel stands; as in the picture by Cimabue, wherein the Greek +model is very exactly followed. According to the Roman Catholic +belief, Mary is Queen of heaven, and of angels--the superior being; +consequently, there is propriety in making the angel deliver his +message kneeling: but even according to the Protestant belief the +attitude would not be unbecoming, for the angel, having uttered +his salutation, might well prostrate himself as witness of the +transcending miracle, and beneath the overshadowing presence of +the Holy Spirit. + +Now, as to the attitude and occupation of Mary at the moment the +angel entered, authorities are not agreed. It is usual to exhibit her +as kneeling in prayer, or reading with a large book open on a desk +before her. St. Bernard says that she was studying the book of the +prophet Isaiah, and as she recited the verse, "Behold, a Virgin shall +conceive, and bear a son," she thought within her heart, in her great +humility, "How blessed the woman of whom these words are written! +Would I might be but her handmaid to serve her, and allowed, to kiss +her feet!"--when, in the same instant, the wondrous vision burst +upon her, and the holy prophecy was realized in herself. (Il perfetto +Legendario.) + +I think it is a manifest fault to disturb the sublime tenor of the +scene by representing Mary as starting up in alarm; for, in the first +place, she was accustomed, as we have seen, to the perpetual ministry +of angels, who daily and hourly attended on her. It is, indeed, said +that Mary was troubled; but it was not the presence, but the "saying" +of the angel which troubled her--it was the question "how this should +be?" (Luke i. 29.) The attitude, therefore, which some painters have +given to her, as if she had started from her seat, not only in terror, +but in indignation, is altogether misplaced. A signal instance is +the statue of the Virgin by Mocchi in the choir of the cathedral at +Orvieto, so grand in itself, and yet so offensive as a devotional +figure. Misplaced is also, I think, the sort of timid shrinking +surprise which is the expression in some pictures. The moment is +much too awful, the expectance much too sublime, for any such human, +girlish emotions. If the painter intend to express the moment in which +the angel appears and utters the salutation, "Hail!" then Mary may be +standing, and her looks directed towards him, as in a fine majestic +Annunciation of Andrea del Sarto. Standing was the antique attitude +of prayer; so that if we suppose her to have been interrupted in her +devotions, the attitude is still appropriate. But if that moment +be chosen in which she expressed her submission to the divine will, +"Behold the handmaid of the Lord! let it be unto me according to thy +word!" then she might surely kneel with bowed bead, and folded hands, +and "downcast eyes beneath th' almighty Dove." No attitude could be +too humble to express that response; and Dante has given us, as the +most perfect illustration of the virtue of humility, the sentiment and +attitude of Mary when submitting herself to the divine will. (Purg. +x., Cary's Trans.) + + "The angel (who came down to earth + With tidings of the peace to many years + Wept for in vain, that op'd the heavenly gates + From their long interdict) before us seem'd + In a sweet act so sculptur'd to the life, + He look'd no silent image. One had sworn + He had said 'Hail!' for SHE was imag'd there, + By whom the key did open to God's love; + And in her act as sensibly imprest + That word, 'Behold the handmaid of the Lord,' + As figure seal'd on wax." + +And very beautifully has Flaxman transferred the sculpture "divinely +wrought upon the rock of marble white" to earthly form. + + * * * * * + +The presence of the Holy Spirit in the historical Annunciations is to +be accounted for by the words of St. Luke, and the visible form of the +Dove is conventional and authorized. In many pictures, the celestial +Dove enters by the open casement. Sometimes it seems to brood +immediately over the head of the Virgin; sometimes it hovers towards +her bosom. As for the perpetual introduction of the emblem of the +Padre Eterno, seen above the sky, under the usual half-figure of a +kingly ancient man, surrounded by a glory of cherubim, and sending +forth upon a beam of light the immaculate Dove, there is nothing to +be said but the usual excuse for the mediæval artists, that certainly +there was no _conscious_ irreverence. The old painters, great as they +were in art, lived in ignorant but zealous times--in times when +faith was so fixed, so much a part of the life and soul, that it was +not easily shocked or shaken; as it was not founded in knowledge or +reason, so nothing that startled the reason could impair it. Religion, +which now speaks to us through words, then spoke to the people through +visible forms universally accepted; and, in the fine arts, we accept +such forms according to the feeling which _then_ existed in men's +minds, and which, in its sincerity, demands our respect, though now we +might not, could not, tolerate the repetition. We must also remember +that it was not in the ages of ignorance and faith that we find +the grossest materialism in art. It was in the learned, half-pagan +sixteenth and the polished seventeenth century, that this materialized +theology became most offensive. Of all the artists who have sinned +in the Annunciation--and they are many--Nicolò Poussin is perhaps +the worst. Yet he was a good, a pious man, as well as a learned and +accomplished painter. All through the history of the art, the French +show themselves as the most signal violators of good taste, and what +they have invented a word for--_bienséance_. They are worse than the +old Germans; worse than the modern Spaniards--and that is saying much. + +In Raphael's Annunciation, Mary is seated in a reclining attitude, +leaning against the side of her couch, and holding a book. The angel, +whose attitude expresses a graceful _empressement_, kneels at some +distance, holding the lily. + + * * * * * + +Michael Angelo gives us a most majestic Virgin standing on the steps +of a prie-Dieu, and turning with hands upraised towards the angel, who +appears to have entered by the open door; his figure is most clumsy +and material, and his attitude unmeaning and ungraceful. It is, I +think, the only instance in which Michael Angelo has given wings to +an angelic being: for here they could not be dispensed with. + +In a beautiful Annunciation by Johan Van Eyck (Munich Gal., Cabinet +iii. 35), the Virgin kneels at a desk with a book before her. She has +long fair hair, and a noble intellectual brow. Gabriel, holding his +sceptre, stands in the door-way. The Dove enters by the lattice. A +bed is in the background, and in front a pot of lilies. In another +Annunciation by Van Eyck, painted on the Ghent altar-piece, we have +the mystic, not the historical, representation, and a very beautiful +effect is produced by clothing both the angel and Mary in robes of +pure white. (Berlin Gal., 520, 521.) + +In an engraving after Rembrandt, the Virgin kneels by a fountain, +and the angel kneels on the opposite side. This seems to express the +legendary scene. + +These few observations on the general arrangement of the theme, +whether mystical or historical, will, I hope, assist the observer in +discriminating for himself. I must not venture further, for we have a +wide range of subjects before us. + + + + +THE VISITATION. + +_Ital._ La Visitazione di Maria. _Fr._ La Visitation de la Vierge +_Ger._ Die Heimsuchung Mariä. July 2. + + +After the Annunciation of the angel, the Scripture goes on to relate +how "Mary arose and went up into the hill country with haste, to +the house of her cousin Elizabeth, and saluted her." This meeting +of the two kinswomen is the subject styled in art the "Visitation," +and sometimes the "Salutation of Elizabeth." It is of considerable +importance, in a series of the life of the Virgin, as an event; and +also, when taken separately in its religious significance, as being +the first recognition of the character of the Messiah. "Whence is this +to me," exclaims Elizabeth, "that the mother of my Lord should come to +me?" (Luke i. 43); and as she spoke this through the influence of the +Holy Spirit, and not through knowledge, she is considered in the light +of a prophetess. + +Of Elizabeth I must premise a few words, because in many +representations relating to the life of the Virgin, and particularly +in those domestic groups, the Holy Families properly so called, she +is a personage of great importance, and we ought to be able, by some +preconceived idea of her bearing and character, to test the propriety +of that impersonation usually adopted by the artists. We must remember +that she was much older than her cousin, a woman "well stricken +in years;" but it is a, great mistake to represent her as old, as +wrinkled and decrepit, as some painters have done. We are told that +she was righteous before the Lord, "walking in all his commandments +blameless:" the manner in which she received the visit of Mary, +acknowledging with a glad humility the higher destinies of her young +relative, show her to have been free from all envy and jealousy. +Therefore all pictures of Elizabeth should exhibit her as an elderly, +but not an aged matron; a dignified, mild, and gracious creature; one +selected to high honour by the Searcher of hearts, who, looking down +on hers, had beheld it pure from any secret taint of selfishness, even +as her conduct had been blameless before man.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a full account of the legends relating to Elizabeth, +the mother of the Baptist, see the fourth series of Sacred and +Legendary Art.] + + * * * * * + +Such a woman as we believe Mary to have been must have loved and +honoured such a woman as Elizabeth. Wherefore, having heard that +Elizabeth had been exalted to a miraculous motherhood, she made haste +to visit her, not to ask her advice,--for being graced with all good +gifts of the Holy Spirit, and herself the mother of Wisdom, she could +not need advice,--but to sympathize with her cousin and reveal what +had happened to herself. + +Thus then they met, "these two mothers of two great princes, of whom +one was pronounced the greatest born of woman, and the other was his +Lord:" happiest and most exalted of all womankind before or since, +"needs must they have discoursed like seraphim and the most ecstasied +order of Intelligences!" Such was the blessed encounter represented in +the Visitation. + + * * * * * + +The number of the figures, the locality and circumstances, vary +greatly. Sometimes we have only the two women, without accessories +of any kind, and nothing interferes with the high solemnity of that +moment in which Elizabeth confesses the mother of her Lord. The better +to express this willing homage, this momentous prophecy, she is often +kneeling. Other figures are frequently introduced, because it could +not be supposed that Mary made the journey from Nazareth to the +dwelling of Zacharias near Jerusalem, a distance of fifty miles, +alone. Whether her husband Joseph accompanied her, is doubtful; +and while many artists have introduced him, others have omitted him +altogether. According to the ancient Greek formula laid down for the +religious painters, Mary is accompanied by a servant or a boy, who +carries a stick across his shoulder, and a basket slung to it. The old +Italians who followed the Byzantine models seldom omit this attendant, +but in some instances (as in the magnificent composition of Michael +Angelo, in the possession of Mr. Bromley, of Wootten) a handmaid +bearing a basket on her head is substituted for the boy. In many +instances Joseph, attired as a traveller, appears behind the Virgin, +and Zacharias, in his priestly turban and costume, behind Elizabeth. + +The locality is often an open porch or a garden in front of a house; +and this garden of Zacharias is celebrated in Eastern tradition. It is +related that the blessed Virgin, during her residence with her cousin +Elizabeth, frequently recreated herself by walking in the garden +of Zacharias, while she meditated on the strange and lofty destiny +to which she was appointed; and farther, that happening one day to +touch a certain flower, which grew there, with her most blessed hand, +from being inodorous before, it became from that moment deliciously +fragrant. The garden therefore was a fit place for the meeting. + + * * * * * + +1. The earliest representation of the Visitation to which I can refer +is a rude but not ungraceful drawing, in the Catacombs at Rome, of two +women embracing. It is not of very high antiquity, perhaps the seventh +or eighth century, but there can be so doubt about the subject. +(Cemetery of Julius, v. Bosio, Roma sotterana.) + +2. Cimabue has followed the Greek formula, and his simple group +appears to me to have great feeling and simplicity. + +3. More modern instances, from the date of the revival of art, abound +in every form. Almost every painter who has treated subjects from the +life of the Virgin has treated the Visitation. In the composition by +Raphael (Madrid Gal.) there are the two figures only; and I should +object to this otherwise perfect picture, the bashful conscious look +of the Virgin Mary. The heads are, however, eminently beautiful and +dignified. In the far background is seen the Baptism of Christ--very +happily and significantly introduced, not merely as expressing the +name of the votary who dedicated the picture, _Giovan-Battista_ +Branconio, but also as expressing the relation between the two unborn +Children--the Christ and his Prophet. + +4. The group by Sebastian del Piombo is singularly grand, showing in +every part the influence of Michael Angelo, but richly coloured in +Sebastian's best manner. The figures are seen only to the knees. In +the background, Zacharias is seen hurrying down some steps to receive +the Virgin.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, 1224. There is, in the Louvre, another Visitation +of singular and characteristic beauty by D. Ghirlandajo.] + +5. The group by Pinturicchio, with the attendant angels, is remarkable +for its poetic grace; and that by Lucas v. Leyden is equally +remarkable for affectionate sentiment. + +6. Still more beautiful, and more dramatic and varied, is another +composition by Pinturicchio in the Sala Borgia. (Vatican, Rome.) The +Virgin and St. Elizabeth, in the centre, take each other's hands. +Behind the Virgin is St. Joseph, a maiden with a basket on her head, +and other attendants. Behind St. Elizabeth, we have a view into the +interior of her house, through arcades richly sculptured; and within, +Zacharias is reading, and the handmaids of Elizabeth, are spinning and +sewing. This elegant fresco was painted for Alexander VI. + +7. There is a fine picture of this subject, by Andrea Sabattini of +Salerno, the history of which is rather curious. "It was painted at +the request of the Sanseverini, princes of Salerno, to be presented to +a nunnery, in which one of that noble family had taken the veil. Under +the form of the blessed Virgin, Andrea represented the last princess +of Salerno, who was of the family of Villa Marina; under that of St. +Joseph, the prince her husband; an old servant of the family figures +as St. Elizabeth; and in the features of Zacharias we recognize those +of Bernardo Tasso, the father of Torquato Tasso, and then secretary +to the prince of Salerno. After remaining for many years over the high +altar of the church, it was removed through the scruples of one of +the Neapolitan archbishops, who was scandalized by the impropriety of +placing the portraits of well-known personages in such a situation." +The picture, once removed from its place, disappeared, and by some +means found its way to the Louvre. Andrea, who was one of the most +distinguished of the scholars of Raphael, died in 1545.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture is thus described in the old catalogues of +the Louvre (No. 1207); but is not to be found in that of Villot.] + +8. The composition by Rubens has all that scenic effect and dramatic +movement which was characteristic of the painter. The meeting takes +place on a flight of steps leading to the house of Zacharias. The +Virgin wears a hat, as one just arrived from a journey; Joseph +and Zacharias greet each other; a maiden with a basket on her head +follows; and in the foreground a man unloads the ass. + +I will mention two other example, each perfect in its way, in two most +opposite styles of treatment. + +9. The first is the simple majestic composition of Albertinelli. +(Florence Gal.) The two women, standing alone under a richly +sculptured arch, and relieved against the bright azure sky, embrace +each other. There are no accessories. Mary is attired in dark-blue +drapery, and Elizabeth wears an ample robe of a saffron or rather +amber colour. The mingled grandeur, power, and grace, and depth of +expression in these two figures, are quite extraordinary; they look +like what they are, and worthy to be mothers of the greatest of kings +and the greatest of prophets. Albertinelli has here emulated his +friend Bartolomeo--his friend, whom he so loved, that when, after the +horrible execution of Savonarola, Bartolomeo, broken-hearted, threw +himself into the convent of St. Mark, Albertinelli became almost +distracted and desperate. He would certainly, says Vasari, have gone +into the same convent, but for the hatred be bore the monks, "of whom +he was always saying the most injurious things." + +Through some hidden influence of intense sympathy, Albertinelli, +though in point of character the very antipodes of his friend, often +painted so like him, that his pictures--and this noble picture more +particularly--might be mistaken for the work of the Frate. + + * * * * * + +10. We will now turn to a conception altogether different, and equally +a masterpiece; it is the small but exquisitely finished composition +by Rembrandt. (Grosvenor Gal.) The scene is the garden in front of +the house of Zacharias; Elizabeth is descending the steps in haste +to receive and embrace with outstretched arms the Virgin Mary, who +appears to have just alighted from her journey. The aged Zacharias, +supported by a youth, is seen following Elizabeth to welcome their +guest. Behind Mary stands a black female attendant, in the act of +removing a mantle from her shoulders; in the background a servant, +or (as I think) Joseph, holds the ass on which Mary has journeyed; a +peacock with a gem-like train, and a hen with a brood of chickens (the +latter the emblem of maternity), are in the foreground. Though the +representation thus conceived appears like a scene of every-day life, +nothing can be more poetical than the treatment, more intensely true +and noble than the expression of the diminutive figures, more masterly +and finished than the execution, more magical and lustrous than the +effect of the whole. The work of Albertinelli, in its large and solemn +beauty and religious significance, is worthy of being placed over an +altar, on which we might offer up the work of Rembrandt as men offer +incense, gems, and gold. + +As the Visitation is not easily mistaken, I have said enough of it +here; and we pass to the next subject,--The Dream of Joseph. + + * * * * * + +Although the feast of the Visitation is fixed for the 2d of July, it +was, and is, a received opinion, that Mary began her journey to the +hill country but a short time, even a few days, after the Annunciation +of the angel. It was the sixth month with Elizabeth, and Mary +sojourned with her three months. Hence it is supposed, by many +commentators, that Mary must have been present at the birth of John +the Baptist. It may seem surprising that the early painters should not +have made use of this supposition. I am not aware that there exists +among the numerous representations of the birth of St. John, any +instance of the Virgin being introduced; it should seem that the lofty +ideas entertained of the Mater Dei rendered it impossible to place her +in a scene where she would necessarily take a subordinate position: +this I think sufficiently accounts for her absence.[1] Mary then +returned to her own dwelling at Nazareth; and when Joseph (who in +these legendary stories is constantly represented as a house-carpenter +and builder, and travelling about to exercise his trade in various +places) also came back to his home, and beheld his wife, the +suspicion entered his mind that she was about to become a mother, +and very naturally his mind was troubled "with sorrow and insecure +apprehensions; but being a just man, that is, according to the +Scriptures and other wise writers, a good, a charitable man, he would +not openly disgrace her, for he found it more agreeable to justice to +treat an offending person with the easiest sentence, than to render +her desperate, and without remedy, and provoked by the suffering of +the worst of what she could fear. No obligation to justice can force +a man to be cruel; pity, and forbearance, and long-suffering, and +fair interpretation, and excusing our brother" (and our sister), "and +taking things in the best sense, and passing the gentlest sentence, +are as certainly our duty, and owing to every person who _does_ offend +and _can_ repent, as calling men to account can be owing to the law." +(v. Bishop Taylor's Life of Christ.) Thus says the good Bishop Taylor, +praising Joseph, that he was too truly just to call furiously for +justice, and that, waiving the killing letter of the law, he was +"minded to dismiss his wife privily;" and in this he emulated the +mercy of his divine foster-Son, who did not cruelly condemn the woman +whom he knew to be guilty, but dismissed her "to repent and sin no +more." But while Joseph was pondering thus in his heart, the angel +of the Lord, the prince of angels, even Gabriel, appeared to him in a +dream, saying, "Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee +Mary thy wife!" and he awoke and obeyed that divine voice. + +[Footnote 1: There is, however, in the Liverpool Museum, a very +exquisite miniature of the birth of St. John the Baptist, in which the +female figure standing near represents, I think, the Virgin Mary. It +was cut out of a choral book of the Siena school.] + +This first vision of the angel is not in works of art easily +distinguished from the second vision but there is a charming fresco by +Luini, which can bear no other interpretation. Joseph is seated by the +carpenter's bench, and leans his head on his hand slumbering. (Milan, +Brera.) An angel stands by him pointing to Mary who is seen at a +window above, busied with needlework. + +On waking from this vision, Joseph, says the legend, "entreated +forgiveness of Mary for having wronged her even in thought." This is +a subject quite unknown, I believe, before the fifteenth century, and +not commonly met with since, but there are some instances. On one of +the carved stalls of the Cathedral of Amiens it is very poetically +treated. (Stalles d'Amiens, p. 205.) Mary is seated on a throne under +a magnificent canopy; Joseph, kneeling before her and presented by two +angels, pleads for pardon. She extends one hand to him; in the other +is the volume of the Holy Scriptures. There is a similar version of +the text in sculpture over one of the doors of Notre-Dame at Paris. +There is also a picture by Alessandro Tiarini (Le repentir de Saint +Joseph, Louvre, 416), and reckoned by Malvasia, his finest work, +wherein Joseph kneels before the Virgin, who stands with a dignified +air, and, while she raises him with one hand, points with the other +up to heaven. Behind is seen the angel Gabriel with his finger on +his lip, as commanding silence, and two other angels. The figures are +life-size, the execution and colour very fine; the whole conception in +the grand but mannered style of the Guido school. + + + + +THE NATIVITY. + +_Ital._ Il Presepio. Il Nascimento del Nostro Signore. _Fr._ La +Nativité. _Ger._ Die Geburt Christi. Dec. 25. + + +The birth of our Saviour is related with characteristic simplicity +and brevity in the Gospels; but in the early Christian traditions this +great event is preceded and accompanied by several circumstances +which have assumed a certain importance and interest in the artistic +representations. + +According to an ancient legend, the Emperor Augustus Cæsar repaired +to the sibyl Tiburtina, to inquire whether he should consent to allow +himself to be worshipped with divine honours, which the Senate had +decreed to him. The sibyl, after some days of meditation, took the +Emperor apart, and showed him an altar; and above the altar, in the +opening heavens, and in a glory of light, he beheld a beautiful Virgin +holding an Infant in her arms, and at the same time a voice was heard +saying, "This is the altar of the Son of the living God;" whereupon +Augustus caused an altar to be erected on the Capitoline Hill, with +this inscription, _Ara primogeniti Dei_; and on the same spot, in +later times, was built the church called the _Ara-Coeli_, well known, +with its flight of one hundred and twenty-four marble steps, to all +who have visited Rome. + +Of the sibyls, generally, in their relation to sacred art, I have +already spoken.[1] This particular prophecy of the Tiburtine sibyl +to Augustus rests on some very antique traditions, pagan as well as +Christian. It is supposed to have suggested the "Pollio" of Virgil, +which suggested the "Messiah" of Pope. It is mentioned by writers of +the third and fourth centuries, and our own divines have not wholly +rejected it, for Bishop Taylor mentions the sibyl's prophecy among +"the great and glorious accidents happening about the birth of Jesus." +(Life of Jesus Christ, sec. 4.) + +[Footnote 1: Introduction. The personal character and history of the +Sibyls will be treated in detail in the fourth series of Sacred and +Legendary Art.] + +A very rude but curious bas-relief preserved in the church of the +Ara-Coeli is perhaps the oldest representation extant. The Church +legend assigns to it a fabulous antiquity; but it must be older than +the twelfth century, as it is alluded to by writers of that period. +Here the Emperor Augustus kneels before the Madonna and Child and at +his side is the sibyl, Tiburtina, pointing upwards. + +Since the revival of art, the incident has been frequently treated. It +was painted by Cavallini, about 1340, on the vault of the choir of +the Ara-Coeli. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it became +a favourite subject. It admitted of those classical forms, and that +mingling of the heathen and the Christian in style and costume, which +were calculated to please the churchmen and artists of the time, and +the examples are innumerable. + +The most celebrated, I believe, is the fresco by Baldassare Peruzzi, +in which the figure of the sibyl is certainly very majestic, but +the rest of the group utterly vulgar and commonplace. (Siena, Fonte +Giusta.) Less famous, but on the whole preferable in point of taste, +is the group by Garofalo, in the palace of the Quirinal; and there +is another by Titian, in which the scene is laid in a fine landscape +after his manner. Vasari mentions a cartoon of this subject, painted +by Rosso for Francis I., "among the best things Rosso ever produced," +and introducing the King and Queen of France, their guards, and a +concourse of people, as spectators of the scene. In some instances the +locality is a temple, with an altar, before which kneels the Emperor, +having laid upon it his sceptre and laurel crown: the sibyl points to +the vision seen through a window above. I think it is so represented +in a large picture at Hampton Court, by Pietro da Cortona. + + * * * * * + +The sibylline prophecy is supposed to have occurred a short tune +before the Nativity, about the same period when the decree went forth +"that all the world should be taxed." Joseph, therefore, arose and +saddled his ass, and set his wife upon it, and went up from Nazareth +to Bethlehem. The way was long, and steep, and weary; "and when Joseph +looked back, he saw the face of Mary that it was sorrowful, as of one +in pain; but when he looked back again, she smiled. And when they, +were come to Bethlehem, there was no room for them in the inn, because +of the great concourse of people. And Mary said to Joseph, "Take me +down for I suffer." (Protevangelion.) + +The journey to Bethlehem, and the grief and perplexity of Joseph, have +been often represented. 1. There exists a very ancient Greek carving +in ivory, wherein Mary is seated on the ass, with an expression of +suffering, and Joseph tenderly sustains her; she has one arm round his +neck, leaning on him: an angel leads the ass, lighting the way with +a torch. It is supposed that this curious relic formed part of the +ornaments of the ivory throne of the Exarch of Ravenna, and that it is +at least as old as the sixth century.[1] 2. There is an instance more +dramatic in an engraving after a master of the seventeenth century. +Mary, seated on the ass, and holding the bridle, raises her eyes to +heaven with an expression of resignation; Joseph, cap in hand, humbly +expostulates with the master of the inn, who points towards the +stable; the innkeeper's wife looks up at the Virgin with a strong +expression of pity and sympathy. 3. I remember another print of the +same subject, where, in the background, angels are seen preparing the +cradle in a cave. + +[Footnote 1: It is engraved in Gori's "Thesaurus," and described in +Münter's "Sinnbilder."] + +I may as well add that the Virgin, in this character of mysterious, +and religious, and most pure maternity, is venerated under the title +of _La Madonna del Parto_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Every one who has visited Naples will remember the +church on the Mergellina, dedicated to the _Madonna del Parto_, where +lies, beneath his pagan tomb, the poet Sannazzaro. Mr. Hallam, in +a beautiful passage of his "History of the Literature of Europe," +has pointed out the influence of the genius of Tasso on the whole +school of Bolognese painters of that time. Not less striking was the +influence of Sannazzaro and his famous poem on the Nativity (_De Partû +Virginis_), on the contemporary productions of Italian art, and more +particularly as regards the subject under consideration: I can trace +it through all the schools of art, from Milan to Naples, during the +latter half of the sixteenth century. Of Sannazzaro's poem, Mr. +Hallam says, that "it would be difficult to find its equal for purity, +elegance, and harmony of versification." It is not the less true, that +even its greatest merits as a Latin poem exercised the most perverse +influence on the religious art of that period. It was, indeed, only +_one_ of the many influences which may be said to have demoralized the +artists of the sixteenth century, but it was one of the greatest.] + +The Nativity of our Saviour, like the Annunciation, has been treated +in two ways, as a mystery and as an event, and we must be careful to +discriminate between them. + + +THE NATIVITY AS A MYSTERY. + +In the first sense the artist has intended simply to express the +advent of the Divinity on earth in the form of an Infant, and the +_motif_ is clearly taken from a text in the Office of the Virgin, +_Virgo quem genuit, adoravit._ In the beautiful words of Jeremy +Taylor, "She blessed him, she worshipped him, and she thanked him that +he would be born of her;" as, indeed, many a young mother has done +before and since, when she has hung in adoration over the cradle of +her first-born child;--but _here_ the child was to be a descended +God; and nothing, as it seems to me, can be more graceful and more +profoundly suggestive than the manner in which some of the early +Italian artists have expressed this idea. When, in such pictures, the +locality is marked by the poor stable, or the rough rocky cave, it +becomes "a temple full of religion, full of glory, where angels are +the ministers, the holy Virgin the worshipper, and Christ the Deity." +Very few accessories are admitted, merely such as serve to denote that +the subject is "a Nativity," properly so called, and not the "Madre +Pia," as already described. The divine Infant lies in the centre of +the picture, sometimes on a white napkin, sometimes with no other +bed than the flowery turf; sometimes his head rests on a wheat-sheaf, +always here interpreted as "the bread of life." He places his finger +on his lip, which expresses the _Verbum sum_ (or, _Vere Verbum hoc +est abbreviatum_), "I am the word," or "I am the bread of life" (_Ego +sum panis ille vitæ._ John vi. 48), and fixes his eyes on the heavens +above, where the angels are singing the _Gloria in excelsis._ In +one instance, I remember, an angel holds up the cross before him; in +another, he grasps it in his hand; or it is a nail, or the crown of +thorns, anticipative of his earthly destiny. The Virgin kneels on one +side; St. Joseph, when introduced, kneels on the other; and frequently +angels unite with them in the act of adoration, or sustain the +new-born Child. In this poetical version of the subject, Lorenzo +di Credi, Perugino, Francia, and Bellini, excelled all others[1]. +Lorenzo, in particular, became quite renowned for the manner in which +he treated it, and a number of beautiful compositions from his hand +exist in the Florentine and other galleries. + +[Footnote 1: There are also most charming examples in sculpture by +Luca della Robbia, Donatello, and other masters of the Florentine +school.] + +There are instances in which attendant saints and votaries are +introduced as beholding and adoring this great mystery. 1. For +instance, in a picture by Cima, Tobit and the angel are introduced +on one side, and St. Helena and St. Catherine on the other. 2. In a +picture by Francia (Bologna Gal.), the Infant, reclining upon a white +napkin, is adored by the kneeling Virgin, by St. Augustine, and by two +angels also kneeling. The votary, Antonio Galeazzo Bentivoglio, for +whom the picture was painted, kneels in the habit of a pilgrim.[1] He +had lately returned from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, thus +poetically expressed in the scene of the Nativity, and the picture was +dedicated as an act of thanksgiving as well as of faith. St. Joseph +and St. Francis stand on one side; on the other is a shepherd crowned +with laurel. Francia, according to tradition, painted his own portrait +as St. Francis; and his friend the poet, Girolamo Casio de' Medici, +as the shepherd. 3. In a large and famous Nativity by Giulio Romano +(Louvre, 293), which once belonged to our Charles I., St. John the +Evangelist, and St. Longinus (who pierced our Saviour's side with his +lance), are standing on each side as two witnesses to the divinity of +Christ;--here strangely enough placed on a par: but we are reminded +that Longinus had lately been inaugurated as patron of Mantua, (v. +Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +[Footnote 1: "An excellent likeness," says Vasari. It is engraved as +such in Litta's Memorials of the Bentivogli. Girolamo Casio received +the laurel crown from the hand of Clement VII. in 1523. A beautiful +votive Madonna, dedicated by Girolamo Casio and his son Giacomo, and +painted by Beltraffio, is in the Louvre.] + +In a triptych by Hans Hemling (Berlin Gal.) we have in the centre the +Child, adored, as usual, by the Virgin mother and attending angels, +the votary also kneeling: in the compartment on the right, we find the +manifestation of the Redeemer to the _west_ exhibited in the prophecy +of the sibyl to Augustus; on the left, the manifestation of the +Redeemer to the _east_ is expressed by the journey of the Magi, and +the miraculous star--"we have seen his star _in the east_." + +But of all these ideal Nativities, the most striking is one by Sandro +Botticelli, which is indeed a comprehensive poem, a kind of hymn on +the Nativity, and might be set to music. In the centre is a shed, +beneath which the Virgin, kneeling, adores the Child, who has +his finger on his lip. Joseph is seen a little behind, as if in +meditation. On the right hand, the angel presents three figures +(probably the shepherds) crowned with olive; on the left is a similar +group. On the roof of the shed, three angels, with olive-branches in +their hands, sing the _Gloria in excelsis_. Above these are twelve +angels dancing or floating round in a circle, holding olive-branches +between them. In the foreground, in the margin of the picture, +three figures rising out of the flames of purgatory are received and +embraced by angels. With all its quaint fantastic grace and dryness of +execution, the whole conception is full of meaning, religious as well +as poetical. The introduction of the olive, and the redeemed, souls, +may express "peace on earth, good will towards men;" or the olive may +likewise refer to that period of universal peace in which the _Prince +of Peace_ was born into the world.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This singular picture, formerly in the Ottley collection, +was, when I saw it, in the possession of Mr. Fuller Maitland, of +Stensted Park.] + +I must mention one more instance for its extreme beauty. In a picture +by Lorenzo di Credi (Florence, Pal. Pitti) the Infant Christ lies on +the ground on a part of the veil of the Virgin, and holds in his hand +a bird. In the background, the miraculous star sheds on the earth a +perpendicular blaze of light, and farther off are the shepherds. On +the other side, St. Jerome, introduced, perhaps, because he made his +abode at Bethlehem, is seated beside his lion. + + +THE NATIVITY AS AN EVENT. + +We now come to the Nativity historically treated, in which time, +place, and circumstance, have to be considered as in any other actual +event. + +The time was the depth of winter, at midnight; the place a poor +stable. According to some authorities, this stable was the interior +of a cavern, still shown at Bethlehem as the scene of the Nativity, in +front of which was a ruined house, once inhabited by Jesse, the father +of David, and near the spot where David pastured his sheep: but the +house was now a shed partly thatched, and open at that bitter mason to +all the winds of heaven. Here it was that the Blessed Virgin "brought +forth her first-born Son, wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid +him in a manger." + +We find in the early Greek representations, and in the early Italian +painters who imitated the Byzantine models, that in the arrangement +a certain pattern was followed: the locality is a sort of +cave--literally a hole in a rock; the Virgin Mother reclines on a +couch; near her lies the new-born Infant wrapped in swaddling clothes. +In one very ancient example (a miniature of the ninth century in a +Greek Menologium), an attendant is washing the Child. + +But from the fourteenth century we find this treatment discontinued. +It gave just offence. The greatest theologians insisted that the birth +of the Infant Christ was as pure and miraculous as his conception; and +it was considered little less than heretical to portray Mary reclining +on a couch as one exhausted by the pangs of childbirth (Isaiah lxvi. +7), or to exhibit assistants as washing the heavenly Infant. "To her +alone," says St. Bernard, "did not the punishment of Eve extend." "Not +in sorrow," says Bishop Taylor, "not in pain, but in the posture and +guise of worshippers (that is, kneeling), and in the midst of glorious +thoughts and speculations, did Mary bring her Son into the world." + +We must seek for the accessories and circumstances usually introduced +by the painters in the old legendary traditions then accepted and +believed. (Protevangelion, xiv.) Thus one legend relates that +Joseph went to seek a midwife, and met a woman coming down from the +mountains, with whom he returned to the stable. But when they entered +it was filled with light greater than the sun at noonday; and as the +light decreased and they were able to open their eyes, they beheld +Mary sitting there with her Infant at her bosom. And the Hebrew woman +being amazed said, "Can this be true?" and Mary answered, "It is true; +as there is no child like unto my son, so there is no woman like unto +his mother." + + * * * * * + +These circumstances we find in some of the early representations, +more or less modified by the taste of the artist. I have seen, for +instance, an old German print, in which the Virgin "in the posture +and guise of worshippers," kneels before her Child as usual; while the +background exhibits a hilly country, and Joseph with a lantern in his +hand is helping a woman over a stile. Sometimes there are two women, +and then the second is always Mary Salome, who, according to a passage +in the same popular authority, visited the mother in her hour of +travail. + +The angelic choristers in the sky, or upon the roof of the stable, +sing the _Gloria in excelsis Deo_; they are never, I believe, omitted, +and in early pictures are always three in number; but in later +pictures, the mystic _three_ become a chorus of musicians Joseph is +generally sitting by, leaning on his staff in profound meditation, or +asleep as one overcome by fatigue; or with a taper or a lantern in his +hand, to express the night-time. + +Among the accessories, the ox and the ass are indispensable. The +introduction of these animals rests on an antique tradition mentioned +by St. Jerome, and also on two texts of prophecy: "The ox knoweth his +owner, and the ass his master's crib" (Isaiah i. 3); and Habakkuk iii. +4, is rendered, in the Vulgate, "He shall lie down between the ox and +the ass." From the sixth century, which is the supposed date of +the earliest extant, to the sixteenth century, there was never any +representation of the Nativity without these two animals; thus in the +old carol so often quoted-- + + "Agnovit bos et asinus + Quod Puer erat Dominus!" + +In some of the earliest pictures the animals kneel, "confessing the +Lord." (Isaiah xliii. 20.) In some instances they stare into the +manger with a most _naïve_ expression of amazement at what they find +there. One of the old Latin hymns, _De Nativitate Domini_, describes +them, in that wintry night, as warming the new-born Infant with their +breath; and they have always been interpreted as symbols, the ox as +emblem of the Jews, the ass of the Gentiles. + +I wonder if it has ever occurred to those who have studied the +inner life and meaning of these old representations,--owed to them, +perhaps, homilies of wisdom, as well as visions of poetry,--that the +introduction of the ox and the ass, those symbols of animal servitude +and inferiority, might be otherwise translated;--that their pathetic +dumb recognition of the Saviour of the world might be interpreted +as extending to them also a participation in his mission of love and +mercy;--that since to the lower creatures it was not denied to be +present at that great manifestation, they are thus brought nearer to +the sympathies of our humanity, as we are, thereby, lifted to a nearer +communion with the universal spirit of love;--but this is "considering +too deeply," perhaps, for the occasion. Return we to our pictures. +Certainly we are not in danger of being led into any profound or +fanciful speculations by the ignorant painters of the later schools of +art. In their "Nativities," the ox and ass are not, indeed, omitted; +they must be present by religious and prescriptive usage; but they +are to be made picturesque, as if they were in the stable by right, +and as if it were only a stable, not a temple hallowed to a diviner +significance. The ass, instead of looking devoutly into the cradle, +stretches out his lazy length in the foreground; the ox winks his eyes +with a more than bovine stupidity. In some of the old German pictures, +while the Hebrew ox is quietly chewing the cud, the Gentile ass "lifts +up his voice" and brays with open mouth, as if in triumph. + +One version of this subject, by Agnolo Gaddi, is conceived with much +simplicity and originality. The Virgin and Joseph are seen together +within a rude and otherwise solitary building. She points expressively +to the manger where lies the divine Infant, while Joseph leans on his +staff and appears lost in thought. + +Correggio has been much admired for representing in his famous +Nativity the whole picture as lighted by the glory which proceeds from +the divine Infant, as if the idea had been new and original. ("_La +Notte_," Dresden Gal.) It occurs frequently before and since his time, +and is founded on the legendary story quoted above, which describes +the cave or stable filled with a dazzling and supernatural light. + + * * * * * + +It is not often we find the Nativity represented as an historical +event without the presence of the shepherds; nor is the supernatural +announcement to the shepherds often treated as a separate subject: it +generally forms part of the background of the Nativity; but there are +some striking examples. + +In a print by Rembrandt, he has emulated, in picturesque and poetical +treatment, his famous Vision of Jacob, in the Dulwich Gallery. The +angel (always supposed to be Gabriel) appears in a burst of radiance +through the black wintry midnight, surrounded by a multitude of the +heavenly host. The shepherds fall prostrate, as men amazed and "sore +afraid;" the cattle flee different ways in terror (Luke ii. 9.) I do +not say that this is the most elevated way of expressing the scene; +but, as an example of characteristic style, it is perfect. + + + + +THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. + +_Ital._ L' Adorazione del Pastori. _Fr._ L'Adoration des Bergers. +_Ger._ Die Anbetung der Hirten. + + +The story thus proceeds:--When the angels were gone away into heaven, +the shepherds came with haste, "and found Mary, and Joseph, and the +young Child lying in a manger." + +Being come, they present their pastoral offerings--a lamb, or doves, +or fruits (but these, considering the season, are misplaced); they +take off their hats with reverence, and worship in rustic fashion. +In Raphael's composition, the shepherds, as we might expect from him, +look as if they had lived in Arcadia. In some of the later Italian +pictures, they pipe and sing. It is the well-known custom in Italy +for the shepherds of the Campagna, and of Calabria, to pipe before the +Madonna and Child at Christmas time; and these _Piffereri_, with their +sheepskin jackets, ragged hats, bagpipes, and tabors, were evidently +the models reproduced in some of the finest pictures of the Bolognese +school; for instance, in the famous Nativity by Annibale Caracci, +where a picturesque figure in the corner is blowing into the bagpipes +with might and main. In the Venetian pictures of the Nativity, the +shepherds are accompanied by their women, their sheep, and even their +dogs. According to an old legend, Simon and Jude, afterwards apostles, +were among these shepherds. + +When the angels scatter flowers, as in compositions by Raphael and +Ludovico Caracci, we must suppose that they were not gathered on +earth, but in heaven. + +The Infant is sometimes asleep:--so Milton sings-- + + "But see the Virgin blest + Hath laid her Babe to rest!" + +In a drawing by Raphael, the Child slumbers, and Joseph raises the +coverlid, to show him to a shepherd. We have the same idea in several +other instances. In a graceful composition by Titian, it is the Virgin +Mother who raises the veil from the face of the sleeping Child. + + * * * * * + +From the number of figures and accessories, the Nativity thus treated +as an historical subject becomes capable of almost endless variety; +but as it is one not to be mistaken, and has a universal meaning and +interest, I may now leave it to the fancy and discrimination of the +observer. + + + + +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. + +_Ital._ L' Adorazione de' Magi. L' Epifania. _Fr._ L'Adoration des +Rois Mages. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der Weisen aus dem Morgenland. Die +heiligen drei Könige. Jan. 6. + + +This, the most extraordinary incident in the early life of our +Saviour, rests on the authority of one evangelist only. It is +related by St. Matthew so briefly, as to present many historical and +philosophical difficulties. I must give some idea of the manner in +which these difficulties were elucidated by the early commentators, +and of the notions which prevailed in the middle ages relative to the +country of the Three Kings, before it will be possible to understand +or to appreciate the subject as it has been set before us in every +style of art, in every form, in every material, from the third century +to the present time. + +In the first place, who were these Magi, or these kings, as they are +sometimes styled? "To suppose," says the antique legend, "that they +were called Magi because they were addicted to magic, or exercised +unholy or forbidden arts, would be, heaven save us! a rank heresy." +No! Magi, in the Persian tongue, signifies "wise men." They were, +in their own country, kings or princes, as it is averred by all the +ancient fathers; and we are not to be offended at the assertion, +that they were at once princes and _wise_ men,--"Car à l'usage de ce +temps-là les princes et les rois etoient très sages!"[1] + +[Footnote 1: Quoted literally from the legend in the old French +version of the _Flos Sanctorum_.] + +They came from the eastern country, but from what country is not +said; whether from the land of the Arabians, or the Chaldeans, or the +Persians, or the Parthians. + +It is written in the Book of Numbers, that when Balaam, the son of +Beor, was called upon to curse the children of Israel, he, by divine +inspiration, uttered a blessing instead of a curse. And he took up +this parable, and said, "I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold +him, but not nigh: there shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre +shall rise out of Israel." And the people of that country, though +they were Gentiles, kept this prophecy as a tradition among them, and +waited with faith and hope for its fulfilment. When, therefore, their +princes and wise men beheld a star different in its appearance and +movement from those which they had been accustomed to study (for they +were great astronomers), they at once knew its import, and hastened +to follow its guidance. According to an ancient commentary on St. +Matthew, this star, on its first appearance, had the form of a radiant +child bearing a sceptre or cross. In a fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, it is +thus figured; and this is the only instance I can remember. But to +proceed with our story. + +When the eastern sages beheld this wondrous and long-expected star, +they rejoiced greatly; and they arose, and taking leave of their lands +and their vassals, their relations and their friends, set forth on +their long and perilous journey across vast deserts and mountains, +and broad rivers, the star going before them, and arrived at length at +Jerusalem, with a great and splendid train of attendants. Being come +there, they asked at once, "Where is he who is born king of the Jews?" +On hearing this question, King Herod was troubled, and all the city +with him; and he inquired of the chief priests where Christ should +be born. And they said to him, "in Bethlehem of Judea." Then Herod +privately called the wise men, and desired they would go to Bethlehem, +and search for the young child (he was careful not to call him +_King_), saying, "When ye have found him, bring me word, that I may +come and worship him also." So the Magi departed, and the star which +they had seen in the east went before them, until it stood over the +place where the young child was--he who was born King of kings. They +had travelled many a long and weary mile; "and what had they come for +to see?" Instead of a sumptuous palace, a mean and lowly dwelling; in +place of a monarch surrounded by his guards and ministers and all the +terrors of his state, an infant wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid +upon his mother's knee, between the ox and the ass. They had come, +perhaps, from some far-distant savage land, or from some nation +calling itself civilized, where innocence had never been accounted +sacred, where society had as yet taken no heed of the defenceless +woman, no care for the helpless child; where the one was enslaved, +and the other perverted: and here, under the form of womanhood +and childhood, they were called upon to worship the promise of +that brighter future, when peace should inherit the earth, and +righteousness prevail over deceit, and gentleness with wisdom reign +for ever and ever! How must they have been amazed! How must they have +wondered in their souls at such a revelation!--yet such was the faith +of these wise men and excellent kings, that they at once prostrated +themselves, confessing in the glorious Innocent who smiled upon them +from his mother's knee, a greater than themselves--the image of a +truer divinity than they had ever yet acknowledged. And having bowed +themselves down--first, as was most fit, offering _themselves_,--they +made offering of their treasure, as it had been written in ancient +times, "The kings of Tarshish and the isles shall bring presents, +and the kings of Sheba shall offer gifts." And what were these gifts? +Gold, frankincense, and myrrh; by which symbolical oblation they +protested a threefold faith;--by gold, that he was king; by incense, +that he was God; by myrrh, that he was man, and doomed to death. In +return for their gifts, the Saviour bestowed upon them others of more +matchless price. For their gold he gave them charity and spiritual +riches; for their incense, perfect faith; and for their myrrh, perfect +truth and meekness: and the Virgin, his mother, also bestowed on them +a precious gift and memorial, namely, one of those linen bands in +which she had wrapped the Saviour, for which they thanked her with +great humility, and laid it up amongst their treasures. When they had +performed their devotions and made their offerings, being warned in a +dream to avoid Herod, they turned back again to their own dominions; +and the star which had formerly guided them to the west, now went +before them towards the east, and led them safely home. When they were +arrived there, they laid down their earthly state; and in emulation of +the poverty and humility in which they had found the Lord of all power +and might, they distributed their goods and possessions to the poor, +and went about in mean attire, preaching to their people the new king +of heaven and earth, the CHILD-KING, the Prince of Peace. We are not +told what was the success of their mission; neither is it anywhere +recorded, that from that time forth, every child, as it sat on +its mother's knee, was, even for the sake of that Prince of Peace, +regarded as sacred--as the heir of a divine nature--as one whose tiny +limbs enfolded a spirit which was to expand into the man, the king, +the God. Such a result was, perhaps, reserved for other times, when +the whole mission of that divine Child should be better understood +than it was then, or is _now_. But there is an ancient oriental +tradition, that about forty years later, when St. Thomas the apostle +travelled into the Indies, he found these Wise Men there, and did +administer to them the rite of baptism; and that afterwards, in +carrying the light of truth into the far East, they fell among +barbarous Gentiles, and were put to death; thus each of them receiving +in return for the earthly crowns they had cast at the feet of the +Saviour, the heavenly crown of martyrdom and of everlasting life. + +Their remains, long afterwards discovered, were brought to +Constantinople by the Empress Helena; thence in the time of the first +Crusade they were transported to Milan, whence they were carried off +by the Emperor Barbarossa, and deposited in the cathedral at Cologne, +where they remain to this day, laid in a shrine of gold and gems; and +have performed divers great and glorious miracles. + + * * * * * + +Such, in few words, is the church legend of the Magi of the East, +the "three Kings of Cologne," as founded on the mysterious Gospel +incident. Statesmen and philosophers, not less than ecclesiastics, +have, as yet, missed the whole sense and large interpretation of the +mythic as well as the scriptural story; but well have the artists +availed themselves of its picturesque capabilities! In their hands +it has gradually expanded from a mere symbol into a scene of the +most dramatic and varied effect and the most gorgeous splendour. As a +subject it is one of the most ancient in the whole range of Christian +art. Taken in the early religions sense, it signified the calling +of the Gentiles; and as such we find it carved in bas-relief on +the Christian sarcophagi of the third and fourth centuries, and +represented with extreme simplicity. The Virgin mother is seated on a +chair, and holds the Infant upright on her knee. The Wise Men, always +three in number, and all alike, approach in attitudes of adoration. +In some instances they wear Phrygian caps, and their camels' heads +are seen behind them, serving to express the land whence they came, +the land of the East, as well as their long journey; as on one of the +sarcophagi in the Christian Museum of the Vatican. The star in these +antique sculptures is generally omitted; but in one or two instances +it stands immediately over the chair of the Virgin. On a sarcophagus +near the entrance of the tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna, they are +thus represented. + +The mosaic in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome, is somewhat +later in date than these sarcophagi (A.D. 440), and the representation +is very peculiar and interesting. Here the Child is seated alone on a +kind of square pedestal, with his hand raised in benediction; behind +the throne stand two figures, supposed to be the Virgin and Joseph; on +each side, two angels. The kings approach, dressed as Roman warriors, +with helmets on their heads. + +In the mosaic in the church of Sant' Appollinare-Novo, at Ravenna +(A.D. 534), the Virgin receives them seated on a throne, attended +by the archangels; they approach, wearing crowns on their heads, +and bending in attitudes of reverence: all three figures are exactly +alike, and rather less in proportion than the divine group. + + * * * * * + +Immediately on the revival of art we find the Adoration of the Kings +treated in the Byzantine style, with few accessories. Very soon, +however, in the early Florentine school, the artists began to avail +themselves of that picturesque variety of groups of which the story +admitted. + +In the legends of the fourteenth century, the kings had become +distinct personages, under the names of Caspar (or Jasper), Melchior, +and Balthasar: the first being always a very aged man, with a long +white beard; the second, a middle-aged man; the third is young, and +frequently he is a Moor or Negro, to express the King of Ethiopia +or Nubia, and also to indicate that when the Gentiles were called +to salvation, all the continents and races of the earth, of whatever +complexion, were included. The difference of ages is indicated in +the Greek formula; but the difference of complexion is a modern +innovation, and more frequently found in the German than in the +Italian schools. In the old legend of the Three Kings, as inserted in +Wright's "Chester Mysteries," Jasper, or Caspar, is King of Tarsus, +the land of merchants; he makes the offering of gold. Melchior, the +King of Arabia and Nubia, offers frankincense; and Balthasar, King of +Saba,--"the land of spices and all manner of precious gums,"--offers +myrrh.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The names of the Three Kings appear for the first time in +a piece of rude sculpture over the door of Sant' Andrea at Pistoia, to +which is assigned the date 1166. (_Vide_ D'Agincourt, _Scultura_, pl. +xxvii.)] + +It is very usual to find, in the Adoration of the Magi, the angelic +announcement to the shepherds introduced into the background; or, more +poetically, the Magi approaching on one side, and the shepherds on the +other. The intention is then to express a double signification; it is +at once the manifestation to the Jews, and the manifestation to the +Gentiles. + +The attitude of the Child varies. In the best pictures he raises his +little hand in benediction. The objection that he was then only an +infant of a few days old is futile: for he was from his birth the +CHRIST. It is also in accordance with the beautiful and significant +legend which describes him as dispensing to the old wise men the +spiritual blessings of love, meekness, and perfect faith, in return +for their gifts and their homage. It appears to me bad taste, +verging on profanity, to represent him plunging his little hand into +the coffer of gold, or eagerly grasping one of the gold pieces. +Neither should he be wrapped up in swaddling clothes, nor in any +way a subordinate figure in the group; for it is the Epiphany, the +Manifestation of a divine humanity to Jews and Gentiles, which is +to be expressed; and there is meaning as well as beauty in those +compositions which represent the Virgin at lifting a veil and showing +him to the Wise Man. + +The kingly character of the adorers, which became in the thirteenth +century a point of faith, is expressed by giving them all the +paraphernalia and pomp of royalty according to the customs of the +time in which the artist lived. They are followed by a vast train +of attendants, guards, pages, grooms, falconers with hawks; and, in +a picture by Gaudenzio Ferrari, we have the court-dwarf, and, in a +picture by Titian, the court-fool, both indispensable appendages of +royal state in those times. The Kings themselves wear embroidered +robes, crowns, and glittering weapons, and are booted and spurred as +if just alighted from a long journey; even on one of the sarcophagi +they are seen in spurs. + +The early Florentine and Venetian painters profited by the commercial +relations of their countries with the Levant, and introduced all kinds +of outlandish and oriental accessories to express the far country +from which the strangers had arrived; thus we have among the presents, +apes, peacocks, pheasants, and parrots. The traditions of the crusades +also came in aid, and hence we have, the plumed and jewelled turbans, +the armlets and the scymitars, and, in the later pictures, even +umbrellas and elephants. I remember, in an old Italian print of this +subject, a pair of hunting leopards or _chetas_. + +It is a question whether Joseph was present--whether he _ought_ to +have been present: in one of the early legends, it is asserted that +he hid himself and would not appear, out of his great humility, and +because it should not be supposed that he arrogated any relationship +to the divine Child. But this version of the scene is quite +inconsistent with the extreme veneration afterwards paid to Joseph; +and in later times, that is, from the fifteenth century, he is seldom +omitted. Sometimes he is seen behind the chair of the Virgin, leaning +on his stick, and contemplating the scene with a quiet admiration. +Sometimes he receives the gifts offered to the Child, acting the part +of a treasurer or chamberlain. In a picture by Angelico one of the +Magi grasps his hand as if in congratulation. In a composition by +Parmigiano one of the Magi embraces him. + +It was not uncommon for pious votaries to have themselves painted +in likeness of one of the adoring Kings. In a picture by Sandro +Botticelli, Cosmo de' Medici is thus introduced; and in a large and +beautifully arranged composition by Leonardo da Vinci, which unhappily +remains as a sketch only, the three Medici of that time, Cosmo, +Lorenzo, and Giuliano, are figured as the three Kings. (Both these +pictures are in the Florence Gal.) + +A very remarkable altar-piece, by Jean Van Eyck, represents the +worship of the Magi. In the centre, Mary and her Child are seated +within a ruined temple; the eldest of the three Kings kneeling, does +homage by kissing the hand of the Child: it is the portrait of Philip +the Good, Duke of Burgundy. The second, prostrate behind him with a +golden beaker in his hand, is supposed to be one of the great officers +of his household. The third King exhibits the characteristic portrait +of Charles the Bold; there is no expression of humility or devotion +either in his countenance or attitude; he stands upright, with a lofty +disdainful air, as if he were yet unresolved whether he would kneel +or not. On the right of the Virgin, a little in the foreground, stands +Joseph in a plain red dress, holding his hat in his hand, and looking +with as air of simple astonishment at his magnificent guests. All the +accessories in this picture, the gold and silver vessels, the dresses +of the three Kings sparking with jewels and pearls, the velvets, +silks, and costly furs, are painted with the most exquisite finish and +delicacy, and exhibit to us the riches of the court of Burgundy, in +which Van Eyck then resided. (Munich Gal, 45.) + +In Raphael's composition, the worshippers wear the classical, not the +oriental costume; but an elephant with a monkey on his back is seen +in the distance, which at once reminds us of the far East. (Rome, +Vatican.) + +Ghirlandajo frequently painted the Adoration of the Magi, and shows +in his management of the accessories much taste and symmetry. In one +of his compositions, the shed forms a canopy in the centre; two of +the Kings kneel in front. The country of the Ethiopian King is not +expressed by making him of a black complexion, but by giving him +a Negro page, who is in the act of removing his master's crown. +(Florence, Pitti Pal.) + +A very complete example of artificial and elaborate composition may be +found in the drawing by Baldassare Peruzzi in our National Gallery. +It contains at least fifty figures; in the centre, a magnificent +architectural design; and wonderful studies of perspective to the +right and left, in the long lines of receding groups. On the whole, +it is a most skilful piece of work; but to my taste much like a +theatrical decoration,--pompous without being animated. + +A beautiful composition by Francia I must not pass over.[1] Here, to +the left of the picture, the Virgin is seated on the steps of a ruined +temple, against which grows a fig-tree, which, though it be December, +is in full leaf. Joseph kneels at her side, and behind her are two +Arcadian shepherds, with the ox and the ass. The Virgin, who has +a charming air of modesty and sweetness, presents her Child to the +adoration of the Wise Men: the first of these kneels with joined +hands; the second, also kneeling, is about to present a golden vase; +the Negro King, standing, has taken off his cap, and holds a censer +in his hand; and the divine infant raises his hand in benediction. +Behind the Kings are three figures on foot, one a beautiful youth in +an attitude of adoration. Beyond these are five or six figures on +horseback, and a long train upon horses and camels is seen approaching +in the background. The landscape is very beautiful and cheerful: the +whole picture much in the style of Francia's master, Lorenzo Costa. I +should at the first glance have supposed it to be his, but the head of +the Virgin is unmistakably Francia. + +[Footnote 1: Dresden Gal. Arnold, the well-known print-seller at +Dresden, has lately published a very beautiful and finished engraving +of this fine picture; the more valuable, because engravings after +Francia are very rare.] + +There are instances of this subject idealized into a mystery; for +example, in a picture by Palma Vecchio (Milan, Brera), St. Helena +stands behind the Virgin, in allusion to the legend which connects +her with the history of the Kings. In a picture by Garofalo, the star +shining above is attended by angels bearing the instruments of the +Passion, while St. Bartholomew, holding his skin, stands near the +Virgin and Child: it was painted for the abbey of St. Bartholomew, at +Ferrara. + +Among the German examples, the picture by Albert Durer, in the tribune +of the Florence Gallery; and that of Mabuse, in the collection of Lord +Carlisle, are perhaps the most perfect of their kind. + +In the last-named picture the Virgin, seated, in a plain dark-blue +mantle, with the German physiognomy, but large browed, and with a very +serious, sweet expression, holds the Child. The eldest of the Kings, +as usual, offers a vase of gold, out of which Christ has taken a +piece, which be holds in his hand. The name of the King, JASPER, is +inscribed on the vase; a younger King behind holds a cup. The black +Ethiopian king, Balthasar, is conspicuous on the left; he stands, +crowned and arrayed in gorgeous drapery, and, as if more fully to mark +the equality of the races--at least in spiritual privileges--his train +is borne by a white page. An exquisite landscape is seen through the +arch behind, and the shepherds are approaching in the middle distance. +On the whole, this is one of the most splendid pictures of the early +Flemish school I have ever seen; for variety of character, glow of +colour, and finished execution, quite unsurpassed. + +In a very rich composition by Lucas van Leyden, Herod is seen in the +background, standing in the balcony of his palace, and pointing out +the scene to his attendants. + +As we might easily imagine, the ornamental painters of the Venetian +and Flemish schools delighted in this subject, which allowed them full +scope for their gorgeous colouring, and all their scenic and dramatic +power. Here Paul Veronese revelled unreproved in Asiatic magnificence: +here his brocaded robes and jewelled diadems harmonized with his +subject; and his grand, old, bearded, Venetian senators figured, +not unsuitably, as Eastern Kings. Here Rubens lavished his ermine +and crimson draperies, his vases, and ewers, and censers of flaming +gold;--here poured over his canvas the wealth "of Ormuz and of Ind." +Of fifteen pictures of this subject, which he painted at different +times, the finest undoubtedly is that in the Madrid Gallery. Another, +also very fine, is in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster. +In both these, the Virgin, contrary to all former precedent, is +not seated, but _standing_, as she holds up her Child for worship. +Afterwards we find the same position of the Virgin in pictures by +Vandyck, Poussin, and other painters of the seventeenth century. It is +quite an innovation on the old religious arrangement; but in the utter +absence of all religious feeling, the mere arrangement of the figures, +except in an artistic point of view, is of little consequence. + +As a scene of oriental pomp, heightened by mysterious shadows and +flashing lights, I know nothing equal to the Rembrandt in the +Queen's Gallery; the procession of attendants seen emerging from the +background through the transparent gloom is quite awful; but in this +miraculous picture, the lovely Virgin Mother is metamorphosed into a +coarse Dutch _vrow_, and the divine Child looks like a changeling imp. + +In chapels dedicated to the Nativity or the Epiphany, we frequently +find the journey of the Wise Men painted round the walls. They +are seen mounted on horseback, or on camels, with a long train of +attendants, here ascending a mountain, there crossing a river; here +winding through a defile, there emerging from a forest; while the +miraculous star shines above, pointing out the way. Sometimes we have +the approach of the Wise Men on one side of the chapel, and their +return to their own country on the other. On their homeward journey +they are, in some few instances, embarking in a ship: this occurs in +a fresco by Lorenzo Costa, and in a bas-relief in the cathedral of +Amiens. The allusion is to a curious legend mentioned by Arnobius the +Younger, in his commentary on the Psalms (fifth century). He says, +in reference to the 48th Psalm, that when Herod found that the three +Kings had escaped from him "in ships of Tarsus," in his wrath he +burned all the vessels in the port. + +There is a beautiful fresco of the journey of the Magi in the Riccardi +Chapel at Florence, painted by Benozzo Gozzoli for the old Cosmo de' +Medici. + +"The Baptism of the Magi by St. Thomas," is one of the compartments +of the Life of the Virgin, painted by Taddeo Gaddi, in the Baroncelli +Chapel at Florence, and this is the only instance I can refer to. + + * * * * * + +Before I quit this subject--one of the most interesting in the whole +range of art--I must mention a picture by Giorgione in the Belvedere +Gallery, well known as one of the few undoubted productions of that +rare and fascinating painter, and often referred to because of its +beauty. Its signification has hitherto escaped all writers on art, as +far as I am acquainted with them, and has been dismissed as one of his +enigmatical allegories. It is called in German, _Die Feldmässer_ (the +Land Surveyors), and sometimes styled in English the _Geometricians_, +or the _Philosophers_, or the _Astrologers_. It represents a wild, +rocky landscape, in which are three men. The first, very aged, in as +oriental costume, with a long gray beard, stands holding in his hand +an astronomical table; the next, a man in the prime of life, seems +listening to him; the third, a youth, seated and looking upwards, +holds a compass. I have myself no doubt that this beautiful picture +represents the "three wise men of the East," watching on the Chaldean +hills the appearance of the miraculous star, and that the light +breaking in the far horizon, called in the German description the +rising sun, is intended to express the rising of the star of Jacob.[1] +In the sumptuous landscape, and colour, and the picturesque rather +than religious treatment, this picture is quite Venetian. The +interpretation here suggested I leave to the consideration of the +observer; and without allowing myself to be tempted on to further +illustration, will only add, in conclusion, that I do not remember +any Spanish picture of this subject remarkable either for beauty or +originality.[2] + +[Footnote 1: There is also a print by Giulio Bonasoni, which appears +to represent the wise men watching for the star. (_Bartsch_, xv. +156.)] + +[Footnote 2: In the last edition of the Vienna Catalogue, this picture +has received its proper title.] + + + + +THE PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN, THE PRESENTATION, AND THE CIRCUMCISION +OF CHRIST. + +_Ital._ La Purificazione della B. Vergine. _Ger._ Die Darbringung im +Tempel. Die Beschneidung Christi. + + +After the birth of her Son, Mary was careful to fulfil all the +ceremonies of the Mosaic law. As a first-born son, he was to be +redeemed by the offering of five shekels, or a pair of young pigeons +(in memory of the first-born of Egypt). But previously, being born +of the children of Abraham, the infant Christ was submitted to the +sanguinary rite which sealed the covenant of Abraham, and received +the name of JESUS--"that name before which every knee was to bow, +which was to be set above the powers of magic, the mighty rites +of sorcerers, the secrets of Memphis, the drugs of Thessaly, the +silent and mysterious murmurs of the wise Chaldees, and the spells +of Zoroaster; that name which we should engrave on our hearts, and +pronounce with our most harmonious accents, and rest our faith on, and +place our hopes in, and love with the overflowing of charity, joy, and +adoration." (v. Bishop Taylor's Life of Christ.) + +The circumcision and the naming of Christ have many times been painted +to express the first of the sorrows of the Virgin, being the first of +the pangs which her Son was to suffer on earth. But the Presentation +in the Temple has been selected with better taste for the same +purpose; and the prophecy of Simeon, "Yea, a sword shall pierce +through thy own soul also," becomes the first of the Seven Sorrows. +It is an undecided point whether the Adoration of the Magi took +place thirteen days, or one year and thirteen days after the birth of +Christ. In a series of subjects artistically arranged, the Epiphany +always precedes, in order of time, that scene in the temple which +is sometimes styled the Purification, sometimes the Presentation and +sometimes the _Nunc Dimitis_. They are three distinct incidents; but, +as far as I can judge, neither the painters themselves, nor those who +have named pictures, have been careful to discriminate between them. +On a careful examination of various compositions, some of special +celebrity, which are styled, in a general way, the Presentation in +the Temple, it will appear, I think, that the idea uppermost in the +painter's mind has been to represent the prophecy of Simeon. + +No doubt, in later times, the whole scene, as a subject of art, was +considered in reference chiefly to the Virgin, and the intention was +to express the first of her Seven Sorrows. But in ancient art, and +especially in Greek art, the character of Simeon assumed a singular +significance and importance, which so long as modern art was +influenced by the traditional Byzantine types, modified, in some +degree, the arrangement and sentiment of this favourite subject. + +It is related that when Ptolemy Philadelphus about 260 years before +Christ, resolved to have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into +Greek, for the purpose of placing them in his far-famed library, +he despatched messengers to Eleazar, the High Priest of the Jews, +requiring him to send scribes and interpreters learned in the Jewish +law to his court at Alexandria. Thereupon Eleazar selected six of +the most learned Rabbis from each of the twelve tribes of Israel, +seventy-two persons in all, and sent them to Egypt, in obedience to +the commands of King Ptolemy, and among these was Simeon, a priest, +and a man full of learning. And it fell to the lot of Simeon to +translate the book of the prophet Isaiah. And when he came to that +verse where it is written, "Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bear +a son," he began to misdoubt, in his own mind, how this could be +possible; and, after long meditation, fearing to give scandal and +offence to the Greeks, he rendered the Hebrew word _Virgin_ by a Greek +word which signifies merely a _young woman_; but when he had written +it down, behold an angel effaced it, and substituted the right word. +Thereupon he wrote it again and again; and the same thing happened +three times; and he remained astonished and confounded. And while he +wondered what this should mean, a ray of divine light penetrated his +soul; it was revealed to him that the miracle which, in his human +wisdom he had presumed to doubt, was not only possible, but that he, +Simeon, "should not see death till he had seen the Lord's Christ." +Therefore he tarried on earth, by the divine will, for nearly three +centuries, till that which he had disbelieved had come to pass. He was +led by the Spirit to the temple on the very day when Mary came there +to present her Son, and to make her offering, and immediately, taking +the Child in his arms, he exclaimed, "Lord, _now_ lettest thou thy +servant depart in peace, according to thy word." And of the Virgin +Mother, also, he prophesied sad and glorious things. + +Anna the Prophetess, who was standing by, also testified to the +presence of the theocratic King: but she did not take him in her arms, +as did Simeon. (Luke ii. 82.) Hence, she was early regarded as a +type of the synagogue, which prophesied great things of the Messiah, +but, nevertheless, did not embrace him when he appeared, as did the +Gentiles. + +That these curious legends relative to Simeon and Anna, and their +symbolical interpretation, were well known to the old painters, there +can be no doubt; and both were perhaps in the mind of Bishop Taylor +when he wrote his eloquent chapter on the Presentation. "There be +some," he says, "who wear the name of Christ on their heads, to make +a show to the world; and there be some who have it always in their +mouths; and there be some who carry Christ on their shoulders, as +if he were a burthen too heavy to bear; and there be some--who is +me!--who trample him under their feet, but _he_ is the true Christian +who, _like Simeon_, embraces Christ, and takes him to his heart." + +Now, it seems to me that it is distinctly the acknowledgment of +Christ by Simeon,--that is, Christ received by the Gentiles,--which +is intended to be placed before us in the very early pictures of the +Presentation, or the _Nunc dimittis_, as it is always styled in Greek +art. The appearance of an attendant, bearing the two turtle-doves, +shows it to be also the so-called Purification of the Virgin. In +an antique formal Greek version we have the Presentation exactly +according to the pattern described by Didron. The great gold censer is +there; the cupola, at top; Joseph carrying the two young pigeons, and +Anna behind Simeon. + + * * * * * + +In a celebrated composition by Fra Bartolomeo, there is the same +disposition of the personages, but an additional female figure. This +is not Anna, the mother of the Virgin (as I have heard it said), but +probably Mary Salome, who had always attended on the Virgin ever since +the Nativity at Bethlehem. + +The subject is treated with exquisite simplicity by Francia; we have +just the same personages as in the rude Greek model, but disposed with +consummate grace. Still, to represent the Child as completely undraped +has been considered as a solecism. He ought to stretch out his hands +to his mother and to look as if he understood the portentous words +which foretold his destiny. Sometimes the imagination is assisted by +the choice of the accessories; thus Fra Bartolomeo has given us, in +the background of his group, Moses holding the _broken_ table of the +old law; and Francia represents in the same manner the sacrifice +of Abraham; for thus did Mary bring her Son as an offering. In many +pictures Simeon raises his eyes to heaven in gratitude; but those +painters who wished to express the presence of the Divinity in the +person of Christ, made Simeon looking at the Child, and addressing +_him_ as "Lord." + + + + +THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. + +_Ital._ La Fuga in Egitto. _Fr._ La Fuite de la Sainte Famille en +Egypte. _Ger._ Die Flucht nach Ægypten. + + +The wrath of Herod against the Magi of the East who had escaped from +his power, enhanced by his fears of the divine and kingly Infant, +occasioned the massacre of the Innocents, which led to the flight +of the Holy Family into Egypt. Of the martyred children, in their +character of martyrs, I have already spoken, and of their proper place +in a scheme of ecclesiastical decoration. There is surely something +very pathetic in that feeling which exalted these infant victims into +objects of religious veneration, making them the cherished companions +in heavenly glory of the Saviour for whose sake they were sacrificed +on earth. He had said, "Suffer little children to come unto me;" +and to these were granted the prerogatives of pain, as well as the +privileges of innocence. If, in the day of retribution, they sit at +the feet of the Redeemer, surely they will appeal against us, then and +there;--against us who, in these days, through our reckless neglect, +slay, body and soul, legions of innocents,--poor little unblest +creatures, "martyrs by the pang without the palm,"--yet dare to call +ourselves Christians. + + * * * * * + +The Massacre of the Innocents, as an event, belongs properly to the +life of Christ: it is not included in a series of the life of the +Virgin, perhaps from a feeling that the contrast between the most +blessed of women and mothers, and those who wept distracted for their +children, was too painful, and did not harmonize with the general +subject. In pictures of the Flight into Egypt, I have seen it +introduced allusively into the background; and in the architectural +decoration of churches dedicated to the Virgin Mother, as Notre Dame +de Chartres, it finds a place, but not often a conspicuous place;[1] +it is rather indicated than represented. I should pass over the +subject altogether, best pleased to be spared the theme, but +that there are some circumstances connected with it which require +elucidation, because we find them introduced incidentally into +pictures of the Flight and the _Riposo_. + +[Footnote 1: It is conspicuous and elegantly treated over the door of +the Lorenz Kirche at Nuremberg.] + +Thus, it is related that among the children whom Herod was bent on +destroying, was St. John the Baptist; but his mother Elizabeth fled +with him to a desert place, and being pursued by the murderers, "the +rock opened by a miracle, and close upon Elizabeth and her child;" +which means, as we may presume, that they took refuge in a cavern, +and were concealed within it until the danger was over. Zacharias, +refusing to betray his son, was slain "between the temple and the +altar," (Matt, xxiii. 35.) Both these legends are to be met with +in the Greek pictures, and in the miniatures of the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries.[1] + +[Footnote 1: They will be found treated at length in the artistic +subjects connected with St. John the Baptist.] + +From the butchery which made so many mothers childless, the divine +Infant and his mother were miraculously saved; for an angel spoke to +Joseph in a dream, saying, "Arise, and take the young child and his +mother, and flee into Egypt." This is the second of the four angelic +visions which are recorded of Joseph. It is not a frequent subject +in early art, but is often met with in pictures of the later schools. +Joseph is asleep in his chair, the angel stands before him, and, with +a significant gesture, points forward--"arise and flee!" + +There is an exquisite little composition by Titian, called a _Riposo_, +which may possibly represent the preparation for the Flight. Here Mary +is seated under a tree nursing her Infant, while in the background is +a sort of rude stable, in which Joseph is seen saddling the ass, while +the ox is on the outside. + +In a composition by Tiarini, we see Joseph holding the Infant, while +Mary, leaning one hand on his shoulder, is about to mount the ass. + +In a composition by Poussin, Mary, who has just seated herself on the +ass, takes the Child from the arms of Joseph. Two angels lead the ass, +a third kneels in homage, and two others are seen above with a curtain +to pitch a tent. + + * * * * * + +I must notice here a tradition that both the ox and the ass who stood +over the manger at Bethlehem, accompanied the Holy Family into Egypt. +In Albert Durer's print, the ox and the ass walk side by side. It is +also related that the Virgin was accompanied by Salome, and Joseph by +three of his sons. This version of the story is generally rejected +by the painters; but in the series by Giotto in the Arena at Padua, +Salome and the three youths attend on Mary and Joseph; and I remember +another instance, a little picture by Lorenzo Monaco, in which Salome, +who had vowed to attend on Christ and his mother as long as she lived, +is seen following the ass, veiled, and supporting her steps with a +staff. + +But this is a rare exception. The general treatment confines the group +to Joseph, the mother, and the Child. To Joseph was granted, in those +hours of distress and danger, the high privilege of providing for +the safety of the Holy Infant--a circumstance much enlarged upon in +the old legends, and to express this more vividly, he is sometimes +represented in early Greek art as carrying the Child in his arms, or +on his shoulder, while Mary follows on the ass. He is so figured +on the sculptured doors of the cathedral of Beneventum, and in the +cathedral of Monreale, both executed by Greek artists.[1] But we are +not to suppose that the Holy Family was left defenceless on the long +journey. The angels who had charge concerning them were sent to guide +them by day, to watch over them by night, to pitch their tent before +them, and to refresh them with celestial fruit and flowers. By the +introduction of these heavenly ministers the group is beautifully +varied. + +[Footnote 1: 11th century. Also at Città di Castello; same date.] + +Joseph, says the Gospel story, "arose by night;" hence there is both +meaning and propriety in those pictures which represent the Flight +as a night-scene, illuminated by the moon and stars, though I believe +this has been done more to exhibit the painter's mastery over effects +of dubious light, than as a matter of biblical accuracy. Sometimes an +angel goes before, carrying a torch or lantern, to light them on the +way; sometimes it is Joseph who carries the lantern. + +In a picture by Nicolo Poussin, Mary walks before, carrying the +Infant; Joseph follows, leading the ass; and an angel guides them. + +The journey did not, however, comprise one night only. There is, +indeed, an antique tradition, that space and time were, on this +occasion, miraculously shortened to secure a life of so much +importance; still, we are allowed to believe that the journey extended +over many days and nights; consequently it lay within the choice of +the artist to exhibit the scene of the Flight either by night or by +day. + +In many representations of the Flight into Egypt, we find in the +background men sowing or cutting corn. This is in allusion to the +following legend:-- + +When it was discovered that the Holy Family had fled from Bethlehem, +Herod sent his officers in pursuit of them. And it happened that when +the Holy Family had travelled some distance, they came to a field +where a man was sowing wheat. And the Virgin said to the husbandman, +"If any shall ask you whether we have passed this way, ye shall +answer, 'Such persons passed this way when I was sowing this corn.'" +For the holy Virgin was too wise and too good to save her Son by +instructing the man to tell a falsehood. But behold, a miracle! For +by the power of the Infant Saviour, in the space of a single night, +the seed sprung up into stalk, blade, and ear, fit for the sickle. +And next morning the officers of Herod came up, and inquired of the +husbandman, saying, "Have you seen an old man with a woman and a Child +travelling this way?" And the man, who was reaping his wheat, in great +wonder and admiration, replied "Yes." And they asked again, "How long +is it since?" And he answered. "When I was sowing this wheat." Then +the officers of Herod turned back, and left off pursuing the Holy +Family. + +A very remarkable example of the introduction of this legend occurs +in a celebrated picture by Hans Hemling (Munich Gal., Cabinet iv. 69), +known as "Die Sieben Freuden Mariä." In the background, on the left, +is the Flight into Egypt; the men cutting and reaping corn, and the +officers of Herod in pursuit of the Holy Family. By those unacquainted +with the old legend, the introduction of the cornfield and reapers +is supposed to be merely a decorative landscape, without any peculiar +significance. + + * * * * * + +In a very beautiful fresco by Pinturicchio, (Rome, St. Onofrio), the +Holy Family are taking their departure from Bethlehem. The city, +with the massacre of the Innocents, is seen in the background. In the +middle distance, the husbandman cutting corn; and nearer, the palm +tree bending down. + + * * * * * + +It is supposed by commentators that Joseph travelled from Bethlehem +across the hilly country of Judea, taking the road to Joppa, and then +pursuing the way along the coast. Nothing is said in the Gospel of the +events of this long and perilous journey of at least 400 miles, which, +in the natural order of things, must have occupied five or six weeks; +and the legendary traditions are very few. Such as they are, however, +the painters have not failed to take advantage of them. + +We are told that on descending from the mountains, they came down +upon a beautiful plain enamelled with flowers, watered by murmuring +streams, and shaded by fruit trees. In such a lovely landscape have +the painters delighted to place some of the scenes of the Flight into +Egypt. On another occasion, they entered a thick forest, a wilderness +of trees, in which they must have lost their way, had they not been +guided by an angel. Here we encounter a legend which has hitherto +escaped, because, indeed, it defied, the art of the painter. As the +Holy Family entered this forest, all the trees bowed themselves down +in reverence to the Infant God; only the aspen, in her exceeding pride +and arrogance, refused to acknowledge him, and stood upright. Then the +Infant Christ pronounced a curse against her, as he afterwards cursed +the barren fig tree; and at the sound of his words the aspen began to +tremble through all her leaves, and has not ceased to tremble even to +this day. + +We know from Josephus the historian, that about this time Palestine +was infested by bands of robbers. There is an ancient tradition, that +when the Holy Family travelling through hidden paths and solitary +defiles, had passed Jerusalem, and were descending into the plains of +Syria, they encountered certain thieves who fell upon them; and one +of them would have maltreated and plundered them, but his comrade +interfered, and said, "Suffer them, I beseech thee, to go in peace, +and I will give thee forty groats, and likewise my girdle;" which +offer being accepted, the merciful robber led the Holy Travellers +to his stronghold on the rock, and gave them lodging for the night. +(Gospel of Infancy, ch. viii.) And Mary said to him, "The Lord God +will receive thee to his right hand, and grant thee pardon of thy +sins!" And it was so: for in after times these two thieves were +crucified with Christ, one on the right hand, and one on the left; +and the merciful thief went with the Saviour into Paradise. + +The scene of this encounter with the robbers, near Ramla, is still +pointed out to travellers, and still in evil repute as the haunt of +banditti. The crusaders visited the spot as a place of pilgrimage; +and the Abbé Orsini considers the first part of the story as +authenticated; but the legend concerning the good thief he admits +to be doubtful. (Vie de la Ste. Vierge.) + +As an artistic subject this scene has been seldom treated. I have seen +two pictures which represent it. One is a fresco by Giovanni di San +Giovanni, which, having been cut from the wail of some suppressed +convent, is now in the academy at Florence. The other is a composition +by Zuccaro. + +One of the most popular legends concerning the Flight into Egypt is +that of the palm or date tree, which at the command of Jesus bowed +down its branches to shade and refresh his mother; hence, in the scene +of the Flight, a palm tree became a usual accessory. In a picture by +Antonello Mellone, the Child stretches out his little hand and lays +hold of the branch: sometimes the branch is bent down by angel hands. +Sozomenes relates, that when the Holy Family reached the term of +their journey, and approached the city of Heliopolis in Egypt, a tree +which grew before the gates of the city, and was regarded with great +veneration as the seat of a god, bowed down its branches at the +approach of the Infant Christ. Likewise it is related (not in legends +merely, but by grave religious authorities) that all the idols of the +Egyptians fell with their faces to the earth. I have seen pictures of +the Flight into Egypt, in which broken idols lie by the wayside. + + * * * * * + +In the course of the journey the Holy Travellers had to cross rivers +and lakes; hence the later painters, to vary the subject, represented +them as embarking in a boat, sometimes steered by an angel. The first, +as I have reason to believe, who ventured on this innovation, was +Annibale Caracci. In a picture by Poussin, the Holy Family are about +to embark. In a picture by Giordano, an angel with one knee bent, +assists Mary to enter the boat. In a pretty little picture by Teniers, +the Holy Family and the ass are seen in a boat crossing a ferry by +moonlight; sometimes they are crossing a bridge. + +I must notice here a little picture by Adrian Vander Werff, in which +the Virgin, carrying her Child, holds by the hand the old decrepit +Joseph, who is helping her, or rather is helped by her, to pass a +torrent on some stepping-stones. This is quite contrary to the feeling +of the old authorities, which represent Joseph as the vigilant and +capable guardian of the Mother and her Child: but it appears to have +here a rather particular and touching significance; it was painted by +Vander Werff for his daughter in his old age, and intended to express +her filial duty and his paternal care. + +The most beautiful Flight into Egypt I have ever seen, is a +composition by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The Virgin is seated and sustained +on the ass with a quite peculiar elegance. The Infant, standing on her +knee, seems to point out the way; an angel leads the ass, and Joseph +follows with the staff and wallet. In the background the palm tree +inclines its branches. (At Varallo, in the church of the Minorites.) + +Claude has introduced the Flight of the Holy Family as a landscape +group into nine different pictures. + + + + +THE REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY. + +_Ital._ Il Riposo. _Fr._ Le Repos de la Sainte Famille. _Ger._ Die +Ruhe in Ægypten. + + +The subject generally styled a "Riposo" is one of the most graceful +and most attractive in the whole range of Christian art. It is not, +however, an ancient subject, for I cannot recall an instance earlier +than the sixteenth century; it had in its accessories that romantic +and pastoral character which recommended it to the Venetians and to +the landscape-painters of the seventeenth century, and among these we +must look for the most successful and beautiful examples. + +I must begin by observing that it is a subject not only easily +mistaken by those who have studied pictures; but perpetually +misconceived and misrepresented by the painters themselves. Some +pictures which erroneously bear this title, were never intended to +do so. Others, intended to represent the scene, are disfigured +and perplexed by mistakes arising either from the ignorance or the +carelessness of the artist. + +We must bear in mind that the Riposo, properly so called, is not +merely the Holy Family seated in a landscape; it is an episode of +the Flight into Egypt, and is either the rest on the journey, or at +the close of the journey; quite different scenes, though all go by +the same name. It is not an ideal religious group, but a reality, a +possible and actual scene; and it is clear that the painter, if he +thought at all, and did not merely set himself to fabricate a pretty +composition, was restricted within the limits of the actual and +possible, at least according to the histories and traditions of the +time. Some of the accessories introduced would stamp the intention at +once; as the date tree, and Joseph gathering dates; the ass feeding in +the distance; the wallet and pilgrim's staff laid beside Joseph; the +fallen idols; the Virgin scooping water from a fountain; for all these +are incidents which properly belong to the Riposo. + +It is nowhere recorded; either in Scripture or in the legendary +stories, that Mary and Joseph in their flight were accompanied by +Elizabeth and the little St. John; therefore, where either of these +are introduced, the subject is not properly a _Riposo_, whatever the +intention of the painter may have been: the personages ought to be +restricted to the Virgin, her Infant, and St. Joseph, with attendant +angels. An old woman is sometimes introduced, the same who is +traditionally supposed to have accompanied them in their flight. If +this old woman be manifestly St. Anna or St. Elizabeth, then it is not +a _Riposo_, but merely a _Holy Family_. + +It is related that the Holy Family finally rested, after their long +journey, in the village of Matarea, beyond the city of Hermopolis (or +Heliopolis), and took up their residence in a grove of sycamores, a +circumstance which gave the sycamore tree a sort of religions interest +in early Christian times. The crusaders imported it into Europe; and +poor Mary Stuart may have had this idea, or this feeling when she +brought from France, and planted in her garden, the first sycamores +which grew in Scotland. + +Near to this village of Matarea, a fountain miraculously sprung up +for the refreshment of the Holy Family. It still exists, as we +are informed by travellers, and is still styled by the Arabs, "The +Fountain of Mary."[1] This fountain is frequently represented, as in +the well-known Riposo by Correggio, where the Virgin is dipping a bowl +into the gushing stream, hence called the "Madonna _della Scodella_" +(Parma): in another by Baroccio (Grosvenor Gal.), and another by +Domenichino (Louvre, 491). + +[Footnote 1: The site of this fountain is about four miles N.E. of +Cairo.] + +In this fountain, says another legend, Mary washed the linen of the +Child. There are several pictures which represent the Virgin washing +linen in a fountain; for example, one by Lucio Massari, where, in a +charming landscape, the little Christ takes the linen out of a basket, +and Joseph hangs it on a line to dry. (Florence Gal.) + +The ministry of the angels is here not only allowable, but beautifully +appropriate; and never has it been more felicitously and more +gracefully expressed than in a little composition by Lucas Cranach, +where the Virgin and her Child repose under a tree, while the angels +dance in a circle round them. The cause of the Flight--the Massacre +of the Innocents--is figuratively expressed by two winged boys, who, +seated on a bough of the tree, are seen robbing a nest, and wringing +the necks of the nestlings, while the parent-birds scream and flutter +over their heads: in point of taste, this significant allegory had +been better omitted; it spoils the harmony of composition. There +is another similar group, quite as graceful, by David Hopfer. +Vandyck seems to have had both in his memory when he designed the +very beautiful Riposo so often copied and engraved (Coll. of Lord +Ashburton); here the Virgin is seated under a tree, in an open +landscape, and holds her divine Child; Joseph, behind, seems asleep; +in front of the Virgin, eight lovely angels dance in a round, while +others, seated in the sky, make heavenly music. + +In another singular and charming Riposo by Lucas Cranach, the Virgin +and Child are seated under a tree; to the left of the group is a +fountain, where a number of little angels appear to be washing linen; +to the right, Joseph approaches leading the ass, and in the act of +reverently removing his cap. + +There is a Riposo by Albert Durer which I cannot pass over. It is +touched with all that homely domestic feeling, and at the same time +all that fertility of fancy, which are so characteristic of that +extraordinary man. We are told that when Joseph took up his residence +at Matarea in Egypt, he provided for his wife and Child by exercising +his trade as a carpenter. In this composition he appears in the +foreground dressed as an artisan with an apron on, and with an axe in +his hand is shaping a plank of wood. Mary sits on one side spinning +with her distaff, and watching her Infant slumbering in its cradle. +Around this domestic group we have a crowd of ministering angels; some +of these little winged spirits are assisting Joseph, sweeping up the +chips and gathering them into baskets; others are merely "sporting at +their own sweet will." Several more dignified-looking angels, having +the air of guardian spirits, stand or kneel round the cradle, bending +over it with folded hands.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the famous set of wood cuts of the Life of the Virgin +Mary.] + +In a Riposo by Titian, the Infant lies on a pillow on the ground, and +the Virgin is kneeling before him, while Joseph leans on his pilgrim's +staff, to which is suspended a wallet. In another, two angels, +kneeling, offer fruits in a basket; in the distance, a little angel +waters the ass at a stream. (All these are engraved.) + +The angels, according to the legend, not only ministered to the Holy +Family, but pitched a tent nightly, in which they were sheltered. +Poussin, in an exquisite picture, has represented the Virgin and Child +reposing under a curtain suspended from the branches of a tree and +partly sustained by angels, while others, kneeling, offer fruit. +(Grosvenor Gal.) + +Poussin is the only painter who has attempted to express the locality. +In one of his pictures the Holy Family reposes on the steps of an +Egyptian temple; a sphinx and a pyramid are visible in the background. +In another Riposo by the same master, an Ethiopian boy presents fruits +to the Infant Christ. Joseph is frequently asleep, which is hardly +consonant with the spirit of the older legends. It is, however, a +beautiful idea to make the Child and Joseph both reposing, while the +Virgin Mother, with eyes upraised to heaven, wakes and watches, as +in a picture by Mola (Louvre, 269); but a yet more beautiful idea to +represent the Virgin and Joseph sunk in sleep, while the divine Infant +lying in his mother's arms wakes and watches for both, with his little +hands joined in prayer, and his eyes fixed on the hovering angels or +the opening skies above. + +In a Riposo by Rembrandt, the Holy Family rest by night, and are +illuminated only by a lantern suspended on the bough of a tree, the +whole group having much the air of a gypsy encampment. But one of +Rembrandt's imitators has in his own way improved on this fancy; the +Virgin sleeps on a bank with the Child on her bosom; Joseph, who looks +extremely like an old tinker, is doubling his fist at the ass, which +has opened its mouth to bray. + + * * * * * + +Before quitting the subject of the Riposo, I must mention a very +pretty and poetical legend, which I have met with in one picture only; +a description of it may, however, lead to the recognition of others. + +There is, in the collection of Lord Shrewsbury, at Alton Towers, a +Riposo attributed to Giorgione, remarkable equally for the beauty and +the singularity of the treatment. The Holy Family are seated in the +midst of a wild but rich landscape, quite in the Venetian style; +Joseph is asleep; the two children are playing with a lamb. The +Virgin, seated holds a book, and turns round, with an expression of +surprise and alarm, to a female figure who stands on the right. This +woman has a dark physiognomy, ample flowing drapery of red and white, +a white turban twisted round her head, and stretches out her hand with +the air of a sibyl. The explanation of this striking group I found +in an old ballad-legend. Every one who has studied the moral as well +as the technical character of the various schools of art, must have +remarked how often the Venetians (and Giorgione more especially) +painted groups from the popular fictions and ballads of the time; and +it has often been regretted that many of these pictures are becoming +unintelligible to us from our having lost the key to them, in losing +all trace of the fugitive poems or tales which suggested them. + +The religious ballad I allude to must have been popular in the +sixteenth century; it exists in the Provençal dialect, in German, +and in Italian; and, like the wild ballad of St. John Chrysostom, it +probably came in some form or other from the East. The theme is, in +all these versions, substantially the same. The Virgin, on her arrival +in Egypt, is encountered by a gypsy (Zingara or Zingarella), who +crosses the Child's palm after the gypsy manner, and foretells all the +wonderful and terrible things which, as the Redeemer of mankind, he +was destined to perform and endure on earth. + +An Italian version which lies before me is entitled, _Canzonetta +nuova, sopra la Madonna, quando si partò in Egitto col Bambino Gesù +e San Giuseppe_, "A new Ballad of our Lady, when she fled into Egypt +with the Child Jesus and St. Joseph." + +It begins with a conversation between the Virgin, who has just arrived +from her long journey, and the gypsy-woman, who thus salutes her:-- + + ZINGARELLA. + Dio ti salvi, bella Signora, + E ti dia buona ventura. + Ben venuto, vecchiarello, + Con questo bambino bello! + + MADONNA. + Ben trovata, sorella mia, + La sua grazia Dio ti dia. + Ti perdoni i tuoi peccati + L' infinità sua bontade. + + ZINGARELLA. + Siete stanchi e meschini, + Credo, poveri pellegrini + Che cercate d' alloggiare. + Vuoi, Signora, scavalcare? + + MADONNA. + Voi che siete, sorella mia, + Tutta piena di cortesia, + Dio vi renda la carità + Per l'infinità sua bontà. + Noi veniam da Nazaretta, + Siamo senza alcun ricetto, + Arrivati all' strania + Stanchi e lassi dalla via! + + GYPSY. + God save thee, fair Lady, and give thee good luck + Welcome, good old man, with this thy fair Child! + + MARY. + Well met, sister mine! God give thee grace, and of + his infinite mercy forgive thee thy sins! + + GYPSY. + Ye are tired and drooping, poor pilgrims, as I think, + seeking a night's lodging. Lady, wilt thou choose to alight? + + MARY. + + O sister mine! full of courtesy, God of his infinite goodness + reward thee for thy charity. We are come from + Nazareth, and we are without a place to lay our heads, + arrived in a strange land, all tired and weary with the way! + +The Zingarella then offers them a resting-place, and straw and fodder +for the ass, which being accepted, she asks leave to tell their +fortune, but begins by recounting, in about thirty stanzas, all the +past history of the Virgin pilgrim; she then asks to see the Child-- + + Ora tu, Signora mia. + Che sei piena di cortesia, + Mostramelo per favore + Lo tuo Figlio Redentore! + + And now, O Lady mine, that art full of courtesy, grant + me to look upon thy Son, the Redeemer! + +The Virgin takes him from the arms of Joseph-- + + Datemi, o caro sposo, + Lo mio Figlio grazioso! + Quando il vide sta meschina + Zingarella, che indovina! + + Give me, dear husband, my lovely boy, that this poor + gypsy, who is a prophetess, may look upon him. + +The gypsy responds with becoming admiration and humility, praises +the beauty of the Child, and then proceeds to examine his palm: which +having done, she breaks forth into a prophecy of all the awful future, +tells how he would be baptized, and tempted, scourged, and finally +hung upon a cross-- + + Questo Figlio accarezzato + Tu lo vedrai ammazzato + Sopra d'una dura croce, + Figlio bello! Figlio dolce! + +but consoles the disconsolate Mother, doomed to honour for the sake of +us sinners-- + + Sei arrivata a tanti onori + Per noi altri Peccatori! + +and ends by begging an alms-- + + Non ti vo' più infastidire, + Bella Signora; so chi hai a fare. + Dona la limosinella + A sta povera Zingarella +true repentance and eternal life. + + Vo' una vera contrizione + Per la tua intercezione, + Accio st' alma dopo morte + Tragga alle celesti porte! + +And so the story ends. + +There can be no doubt, I think, that we have here the original theme +of Giorgione's picture, and perhaps of others. + +In the Provençal ballad, there are three gypsies, men, not women, +introduced, who tell the fortune of the Virgin and Joseph, as well +as that of the Child, and end by begging alms "to wet their thirsty +throats." Of this version there is a very spirited and characteristic +translation by Mr. Kenyon, under the title of "a Gypsy Carol."[1] + +[Footnote 1: A Day at Tivoli, with other Verses, by John Kenyon, p. +149.] + + +THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + +According to some authorities, the Holy Family sojourned in Egypt +during a period of seven years, but others assert that they returned +to Judea at the end of two years. + +In general the painters have expressed the Return from Egypt by +exhibiting Jesus as no longer an infant sustained in his mother's +arms, but as a boy walking at her side. In a picture by Francesco +Vanni, he is a boy about two or three years old, and carries a little +basket full of carpenter's tools. The occasion of the Flight and +Return is indicated by three or four of the martyred Innocents, who +are lying on the ground. In a picture by Domenico Feti two of the +Innocents are lying dead on the roadside. In a very graceful, animated +picture by Rubens, Mary and Joseph lead the young Christ between them, +and the Virgin wears a large straw hat. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART III. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE SOJOURN IN EGYPT TO THE +CRUCIFIXION OF OUR LORD. + +1. THE HOLY FAMILY. 2. THE VIRGIN SEEKS HER SON. 3. THE DEATH OF +JOSEPH. 4. THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. 5. "LO SPASIMO." 6. THE CRUCIFIXION. +7. THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS. 8. THE ENTOMBMENT. + + +THE HOLY FAMILY. + +When the Holy Family under divine protection, had returned safely from +their sojourn in Egypt, they were about to repair to Bethlehem; but +Joseph hearing that Archelaus "did reign in Judea in the room of his +father Herod, he was afraid to go thither; and being warned of God +in a dream, he turned aside into Galilee," and came to the city of +Nazareth, which was the native place and home of the Virgin Mary. +Here Joseph dwelt, following in peace his trade of a carpenter, and +bringing up his reputed Son to the same craft: and here Mary nurtured +her divine Child; "and he grew and waxed strong in spirit, and the +grace of God was upon him." No other event is recorded until Jesus had +reached his twelfth, year. + + * * * * * + +This, then, is the proper place to introduce some notice of those +representations of the domestic life of the Virgin and the infancy +of the Saviour, which, in all their endless variety, pass under the +general title of THE HOLY FAMILY--the beautiful title of a beautiful +subject, addressed in the loveliest and most familiar form at once to +the piety and the affections of the beholder. + +These groups, so numerous, and of such perpetual recurrence, that they +alone form a large proportion of the contents of picture galleries +and the ornaments of churches, are, after all, a modern innovation in +sacred art. What may be called the _domestic_ treatment of the history +of the Virgin cannot be traced farther back than the middle of the +fifteenth century. It is, indeed, common to class all those pictures +as Holy Families which include any of the relatives of Christ grouped +with the Mother and her Child; but I must here recapitulate and +insist upon the distinction to be drawn between the _domestic_ and +the _devotional_ treatment of the subject; a distinction I have been +careful to keep in view throughout the whole range of sacred art, +and which, in this particular subject, depends on a difference in +sentiment and intention, more easily felt than set down in words. It +is, I must repeat, a _devotional_ group where the sacred personages +are placed in direct relation to the worshippers, and where their +supernatural character is paramount to every other. It is a _domestic_ +or an _historical_ group, a Holy Family properly so called, when the +personages are placed in direct relation to each other by some link +of action or sentiment, which expresses the family connection between +them, or by some action which has a dramatic rather than a religious +significance. The Italians draw this distinction in the title "_Sacra +Conversazione_" given to the first-named subject, and that of "_Sacra +Famiglia_" given to the last. For instance, if the Virgin, watching +her sleeping Child, puts her finger on her lip to silence the little +St. John; there is here no relation between the spectator and the +persons represented, except that of unbidden sympathy: it is a +family group; a domestic scene. But if St. John, looking out of the +picture, points to the Infant, "Behold the Lamb of God!" then the +whole representation changes its significance; St. John assumes the +character of precursor, and we, the spectators, are directly addressed +and called upon to acknowledge the "Son of God, the Saviour of +mankind." + +If St. Joseph, kneeling, presents flowers to the Infant Christ, while +Mary looks on tenderly (as in a group by Raphael), it is an act of +homage which expresses the mutual relation of the three personages; it +is a Holy Family: whereas, in the picture by Murillo, in our National +Gallery, where Joseph and Mary present the young Redeemer to the +homage of the spectator, while the form of the PADRE ETERNO, and +the Holy Spirit, with attendant angels, are floating above, we have +a devotional group, a "_Sacra Conversazione_:"--it is, in fact a +material representation of the Trinity; and the introduction of Joseph +into such immediate propinquity with the personages acknowledged +as divine is one of the characteristics of the later schools of +theological art. It could not possibly have occurred before the end +of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. + +The introduction of persons who could not have been contemporary, as +St. Francis or St. Catherine, renders the group ideal and devotional. +On the other hand, as I have already observed, the introduction of +attendant angels does not place the subject out of the domain of the +actual; for the painters literally rendered what in the Scripture text +is distinctly set down and literally interpreted, "He shall give his +angels charge concerning thee." Wherever lived and moved the Infant +Godhead, angels were always _supposed_ to be present; therefore it lay +within the province of an art addressed especially to our senses, to +place them bodily before us, and to give to these heavenly attendants +a visible shape and bearing worthy of their blessed ministry. + +The devotional groups, of which I have already treated most fully, +even while placed by the accessories quite beyond the range of actual +life, have been too often vulgarized and formalized by a trivial or +merely conventional treatment.[1] In these really domestic scenes, +where the painter sought unreproved his models in simple nature, and +trusted for his effect to what was holiest and most immutable in our +common humanity, he must have been a bungler indeed if he did not +succeed in touching some responsive chord of sympathy in the bosom of +the observer. This is, perhaps, the secret of the universal, and, in +general, deserved popularity of these Holy Families. + +[Footnote 1: See the "Mater Amabilis" and the "Pastoral Madonnas," p. +229, 239.] + + +TWO FIGURES. + +The simplest form of the family group is confined to two figures, +and expresses merely the relation between the Mother and the Child. +The _motif_ is precisely the same as in the formal, goddess-like, +enthroned Madonnas of the antique time; but here quite otherwise +worked out, and appealing to other sympathies. In the first instance, +the intention was to assert the contested pretensions of the human +mother to divine honours; here it was rather to assert the humanity of +her divine Son; and we have before us, in the simplest form, the first +and holiest of all the social relations. + +The primal instinct, as the first duty, of the mother, is the +nourishment of the life she has given. A very common subject, +therefore, is Mary in the act of feeding her Child from her bosom. I +have already observed that, when first adopted, this was a theological +theme; an answer, _in form_, to the challenge of the Nestorians, +"Shall we call him _God_, who hath sucked his mother's breast?" Then, +and for at least 500 years afterwards, the simple maternal action +involved a religious dogma, and was the visible exponent of a +controverted article of faith. All such controversy had long ceased, +and certainly there was no thought of insisting on a point of +theology in the minds of those secular painters of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, who have set forth the representation with such +an affectionate and delicate grace; nor yet in the minds of those who +converted the lovely group into a moral lesson. For example, we find +in the works of Jeremy Taylor (one of the lights of our Protestant +Church) a long homily "Of nursing children, in imitation of the +blessed Virgin Mother;" and prints and pictures of the Virgin thus +occupied often bear significant titles and inscriptions of the same +import; such as "Le prémier devoir d'une mère," &c. + +I do not find this _motif_ in any known picture by Raphael: but in +one of his designs, engraved by Marc Antonio, it is represented with +characteristic grace and delicacy. + +Goethe describes with delight a picture by Correggio, in which the +attention of the Child seems divided between the bosom of his mother, +and some fruit offered by an angel. He calls this subject "The Weaning +of the Infant Christ." Correggio, if not the very first, is certainly +among the first of the Italians who treated this _motif_ in the simple +domestic style. Others of the Lombard school followed him; and I know +not a more exquisite example than the maternal group by Solario, now +in the Louvre, styled _La Vierge à l'Oreiller verd_, from the colour +of the pillow on which the Child is lying. The subject is frequent in +the contemporary German and Flemish schools of the sixteenth century. +In the next century, there are charming examples by the Bologna +painters and the _Naturalisti_, Spanish, Italian, and Flemish. I would +particularly point to one by Agostino Caracci (Parma), and to another +by Vandyck (that engraved by Bartolozzi), as examples of elegance; +while in the numerous specimens by Rubens we have merely his own +wife and son, painted with all that coarse vigorous life, and homely +affectionate expression, which his own strong domestic feelings could +lend them. + +We have in other pictures the relation between the Mother and Child +expressed and varied in a thousand ways; as where she contemplates him +fondly--kisses him, pressing his cheeks to hers; or they sport with a +rose, or an apple, or a bird; or he presents it to his mother; these +originally mystical emblems being converted into playthings. In +another sketch she is amusing him by tinkling a bell:--the bell, +which has a religious significance, is here a plaything. One or more +attendant angels may vary the group, without taking it out of the +sphere of reality. In a quaint but charming picture in the Wallerstein +Collection, an angel is sporting with the Child at his mother's +feet--is literally his playfellow; and in a picture by Cambiaso, Mary, +assisted by an angel, is teaching her Child to walk. + + * * * * * + +To represent in the great enthroned Madonnas, the Infant Saviour of +the world asleep, has always appeared to me a solecism: whereas in +the domestic subject the Infant slumbering on his mother's knee, or +cradled in her arms, or on her bosom, or rocked by angels, is a most +charming subject. Sometimes angels are seen preparing his bed, or +looking on while he sleeps, with folded hands and overshadowing wings. +Sometimes Marry hangs over his pillow; "pondering in her heart" +the wondrous destinies of her Child. A poetess of our own time has +given us an interpretation worthy of the most beautiful of these +representations, in the address of the Virgin Mary to the Child +Jesus,--"Sleep, sleep, mine Holy One!" + + "And are thou come for saving, baby-browed + And speechless Being? art thou come for saving? + The palm that grows beside our door is bowed + By treadings of the low wind from the south, + A restless shadow through the chamber waving, + Upon its bough a bird sings in the sun. + But thou, with that close slumber on thy mouth, + Dost seem of wind and sun already weary, + Art come for saving, O my weary One? + + "Perchance this sleep that shutteth out the dreary + Earth-sounds and motions, opens on thy soul + High dreams on fire with God; + High songs that make the pathways where they roll + More bright than stars do theirs; and visions new + Of thine eternal nature's old abode. + Suffer this mother's kiss, + Best thing that earthly is, + To glide the music and the glory through, + Nor narrow in thy dream the broad upliftings + Of any seraph wing. + Thus, noiseless, thus!--Sleep, sleep, my dreaming One."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, vol. ii. p. 174.] + +Such high imaginings might be suggested by the group of Michael +Angelo,--his famous "Silenzio:" but very different certainly are the +thoughts and associations conveyed by some of the very lovely, but at +the same time familiar and commonplace, groups of peasant-mothers and +sleeping babies--the countless productions of the later schools--even +while the simplicity and truth of the natural sentiment go straight to +the heart. + +I remember reading a little Italian hymn composed for a choir of nuns, +and addressed to the sleeping Christ, in which he is prayed to awake +or if he will not, they threaten to pull him by his golden curls until +they rouse him to listen! + + * * * * * + +I have seen a graceful print which represents Jesus as a child +standing at his mother's knee, while she feeds him from a plate or cap +held by an angel; underneath is the text, "_Butter and honey shall he +eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the good_" And +in a print of the same period, the mother suspends her needlework +to contemplate the Child, who, standing at her side, looks down +compassionately on two little birds, which flutter their wings and +open their beaks expectingly; underneath is the test, "Are not two +sparrows sold for a farthing?" + +Mary employed in needlework, while her cradled Infant slumbers at her +side, is a beautiful subject. Rossini, in his _Storia della Pittura_, +publishes a group, representing the Virgin mending or making a little +coat, while Jesus, seated at her feet, without his coat, is playing +with a bird; two angels are hovering above. It appears to me that +there is here some uncertainty as regards both the subject and the +master. In the time of Giottino, to whom Rossini attributes the +picture, the domestic treatment of the Madonna and Child was unknown. +If it be really by him, I should suppose it to represent Hannah and +her son Samuel. + + * * * * * + +All these, and other varieties of action and sentiment connecting the +Mother and her Child, are frequently accompanied by accessory figures, +forming, in their combination, what is properly a Holy Family. The +personages introduced, singly or together, are the young St. John, +Joseph, Anna, Joachim, Elizabeth, and Zacharias. + + +THREE FIGURES. + +The group of three figures most commonly met with, is that of the +Mother and Child, with St. John. One of the earliest examples of the +domestic treatment of this group is a quaint picture by Botticelli, +in which Mary, bending down, holds forth the Child to be caressed by +St. John,--very dry in colour and faulty in drawing, but beautiful +for the sentiment. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) Perhaps the most perfect +example which could be cited from the whole range of art, is +Raphael's "Madonna del Cardellino" (Florence Gal.); another is his +"Belle Jardinière" (Louvre, 375); another, in which the figures are +half-length, is his "Madonna del Giglio" (Lord Garvagh's Coll.). As +I have already observed, where the Infant Christ takes the cross from +St. John, or presents it to him, or where St. John points to him as +the Redeemer, or is represented, not as a child, but as a youth or a +man, the composition assumes a devotional significance. + +The subject of the Sleeping Christ is beautifully varied by the +introduction of St. John; as where Mary lifts the veil and shows her +Child to the little St. John, kneeling with folded hands: Raphael's +well-known "Vierge à la Diademe" is an instance replete with grace and +expression.[1] Sometimes Mary, putting her finger to her lip, exhorts +St. John to silence, as in a famous and oft-repeated subject by +Annibale Caracci, of which there is a lovely example at Windsor. Such +a group is called in Italian, _Il Silenzio_, and in French _le Sommeil +de Jésus_. + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, 376. It is also styled _la Vierge au Linge_] + + * * * * * + +Another group of three figures consists of the Mother, the Child, and +St. Joseph as foster-father. This group, so commonly met with in the +later schools of art, dates from the end of the fifteenth century. +Gerson, an ecclesiastic distinguished at the Council of Constance for +his learning and eloquence, had written a poem of three thousand lines +in praise of St. Joseph, setting him up as the Christian, example +of every virtue; and this poem, after the invention of printing, was +published and widely disseminated. Sixtus IV. instituted a festival +in honour of the "Husband of the Virgin," which, as a novelty +and harmonizing with the tone of popular feeling, was everywhere +acceptable. As a natural consequence, the churches and chapels were +filled with pictures, which represented the Mother and her Child, +with Joseph standing or seated by, in an attitude of religious +contemplation or affectionate sympathy; sometimes leaning on his +stick, or with his tools lying beside him; and always in the old +pictures habited in his appropriate colours, the saffron-coloured robe +over the gray or green tunic. + +In the Madonna and Child, as a strictly devotional subject, the +introduction of Joseph rather complicates the idea; but in the +domestic Holy Family his presence is natural and necessary. It is +seldom that he is associated with the action, where there is one; +but of this also there are some beautiful examples. + + * * * * * + +1. In a well-known composition by Raphael (Grosvenor Gal.), the mother +withdraws the covering from the Child, who seems to have that moment +awaked, and, stretching out his little arms, smiles in her face: +Joseph looks on tenderly and thoughtfully. + +2. In another group by Raphael (Bridgewater Gal.), the Infant is +seated on the mother's knee, and sustained by part of her veil; +Joseph, kneeling, offers flowers to his divine foster-Son, who eagerly +stretches out his little hand to take them. + +In many pictures, Joseph is seen presenting cherries; as in the +celebrated _Vierge aux Cerises_ of Annibale Caracci. (Louvre.) The +allusion is to a quaint old legend, often introduced in the religious +ballads and dramatic mysteries of the time. It is related, that before +the birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary wished to taste of certain +cherries which hung upon a tree high above her head; she requested +Joseph to procure them for her, and he reaching to pluck them, the +branch bowed down to his hand. + +3. There is a lovely pastoral composition by Titian, in which Mary +is seated under some trees, with Joseph leaning on his staff, and the +Infant Christ standing between them: the little St. John approaches +with his lap full of cherries; and in the background a woman is seen +gathering cherries. This picture is called a Ripose; but the presence +of St. John, and the cherry tree instead of the date tree, point out a +different signification. Angels presenting cherries on a plate is also +a frequent circumstance, derived from the same legend. + +4. In a charming picture by Garofalo, Joseph is caressing the Child, +while Mary--a rather full figure, calm, matronly, and dignified, as is +usual with Garofalo--sits by, holding a book in her hand, from which +she has just raised her eyes. (Windsor Gal.) + +5. In a family group by Murillo, Joseph, standing, holds the Infant +pressed to his bosom; while Mary, seated near a cradle, holds out her +arms to take it from him: a carpenter's bench is seen behind. + +6. A celebrated picture by Rembrandt, known as _le Ménage du +Menuisier_, exhibits a rustic interior; the Virgin is seated with the +volume of the Scriptures open on her knees--she turns, and lifting +the coverlid of the cradle, contemplates the Infant asleep: in the +background Joseph is seen at his work; while angels hover above, +keeping watch over the Holy Family. Exquisite for the homely +natural sentiment, and the depth of the colour and chiaro-oscuro. +(Petersburg.) + +7. Many who read these pages will remember the pretty little picture +by Annibale Caracci, known as "le Raboteur."[1] It represents Joseph +planing a board, while Jesus, a lovely boy about six or seven years +old, stands by, watching the progress of his work. Mary is seated on +one side plying her needle. The great fault of this picture is the +subordinate and utterly commonplace character given to the Virgin +Mother: otherwise it is a very suggestive and dramatic subject, and +one which might be usefully engraved in a cheap form for distribution. + +[Footnote 1: In the Coll. of the Earl of Suffolk, at Charlton.] + + * * * * * + +Sometimes, in a Holy Family of three figures, the third figure is +neither St. John nor St. Joseph, but St. Anna. Now, according to +some early authorities, both Joachim and Anna died either before the +marriage of Mary and Joseph, or at least before the return from Egypt. +Such, however, was the popularity of these family groups, and the +desire to give them all possible variety, that the ancient version of +the story was overruled by the prevailing taste, and St. Anna became +an important personage. One of the earliest groups in which the mother +of the Virgin is introduced as a third personage, is a celebrated, +but to my taste not a pleasing, composition, by Lionardo da Vinci, +in which St. Anna is seated on a sort of chair, and the Virgin on her +knees bends down towards the Infant Christ, who is sporting with a +lamb. (Louvre, 481.) + + +FOUR FIGURES. + +In a Holy Family of four figures, we have frequently the Virgin, the +Child, and the infant St. John, with St. Joseph standing by. Raphael's +Madonna del Passeggio is an example. In a picture by Palma Vecchio, +St. John presents a lamb, while St. Joseph kneels before the Infant +Christ, who, seated on his mother's knee, extends his arms to his +foster-father. Nicole Poussin was fond of this group, and has repeated +it at least ten times with variations. + +But the most frequent group of four figures consists of the Virgin and +Child, with St. John and his mother, St. Elizabeth--the two mothers +and the two sons. Sometimes the children are sporting together, +or embracing each other, while Mary and Elizabeth look on with a +contemplative tenderness, or seem to converse on the future destinies +of their sons. A very favourite and appropriate action is that of St. +Elizabeth presenting St. John, and teaching him to kneel and fold his +hands, as acknowledging in his little cousin the Infant Saviour. We +have then, in beautiful contrast, the aged coifed head of Elizabeth, +with its matronly and earnest expression; the youthful bloom and soft +virginal dignity of Mary; and the different character of the boys, the +fair complexion and delicate proportions of the Infant Christ, and +the more robust and brown-complexioned John. A great painter will be +careful to express these distinctions, not by the exterior character +only, but will so combine the personages, that the action represented +shall display the superior dignity of Christ and his mother. + + +FIVE OR SIX FIGURES. + +The addition of Joseph as a fifth figure, completes the domestic +group. The introduction of the aged Zacharias renders, however, yet +more full and complete, the circle of human life and human affection. +We have then, infancy, youth, maturity, and age,--difference of sex +and various degrees of relationship, combined into one harmonious +whole; and in the midst, the divinity of innocence, the Child-God, +the brightness of a spiritual power, connecting our softest earthly +affections with our highest heavenward aspirations.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The inscription under a Holy Family in which the children +are caressing each other is sometimes _Delicæ meæ esse cum filiis +hominum_ (Prov. viii. 31, "My delights were with the sons of men").] + + * * * * * + +A Holy Family of more than six figures (the angels not included) is +very unusual. But there are examples of groups combining all those +personages mentioned in the Gospels as being related to Christ, +though the nature and the degree of this supposed relationship has +embarrassed critics and commentators, and is not yet settled. + +According to an ancient tradition, Anna, the mother of the Virgin +Mary, was three times married, Joachim being her third husband: the +two others were Cleophas and Salomé. By Cleophas she had a daughter, +also called Mary, who was the wife of Alpheus, and the mother +of Thaddeus, James Minor, and Joseph Justus. By Salomé she had a +daughter, also Mary, married to Zebedee, and the mother of James Major +and John the Evangelist. This idea that St. Anna was successively the +wife of three husbands, and the mother of three daughters, all of +the name of Mary, has been rejected by later authorities; but in the +beginning of the sixteenth century it was accepted, and to that period +may be referred the pictures, Italian and German, representing a +peculiar version of the Holy Family more properly styled "the Family +of the Virgin Mary." + +A picture by Lorenzo di Pavia, painted about 1513, exhibits a very +complete example of this family group. Mary is seated in the centre, +holding in her lap the Infant Christ; near her is St. Joseph. Behind +the Virgin stand St. Anna, and three men, with their names inscribed, +Joachim, Cleophas, and Salomé. On the right of the Virgin is Mary the +daughter of Cleophas, Alpheus her husband, and her children Thaddeus, +James Minor, and Joseph Justus. On the left of the Virgin is Mary the +daughter of Salome, her husband Zebedee, and her children James Major +and John the Evangelist.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture I saw in the Louvre some years ago, but it +is not in the New Catalogue by M. Villot.] + +A yet more beautiful example is a picture by Perugino in the Musée +at Marseilles, which I have already cited and described (Sacred and +Legendary Art): here also the relatives of Christ, destined to be +afterwards his apostles and the ministers of his word, are grouped +around him in his infancy. In the centre Mary is seated and holding +the child; St. Anna stands behind, resting her hands affectionately on +the shoulders of the Virgin. In front, at the feet of the Virgin, are +two boys, Joseph and Thaddeus; and near them Mary, the daughter of +Cleophas, holds the hand of her third son James Minor. To the right is +Mary Salomé, holding in her arms her son John the Evangelist, and at +her feet is her other son, James Major. Joseph, Zebedee, and other +members of the family, stand around. The same subject I have seen in +illuminated MSS., and in German prints. It is worth remarking that all +these appeared about the same time, between 1505 and 1520, and that +the subject afterwards disappeared; from which I infer that it was +not authorized by the Church; perhaps because the exact degree of +relationship between these young apostles and the Holy Family was +not clearly made out, either by Scripture or tradition. + +In a composition by Parmigiano, Christ is standing at his mother's +knee; Elizabeth presents St. John the Baptist; the other little St. +John kneels on a cushion. Behind the Virgin are St. Joachim and St. +Anna; and behind Elizabeth, Zebedee and Mary Salomé, the parents of +St. John the Evangelist. In the centre, Joseph looks on with folded +hands. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue _raisonnée_ of the Holy Families painted by distinguished +artists including from two to six figures would fill volumes: I +shall content myself with directing attention to some few examples +remarkable either for their celebrity, their especial beauty, or for +some peculiarity, whether commendable or not, in the significance or +the treatment. + +The strictly domestic conception may be said to have begun with +Raphael and Correggio; and they afford the most perfect examples +of the tender and the graceful in sentiment and action, the softest +parental feeling, the loveliest forms of childhood. Of the purely +natural and familiar treatment, which came into fashion in the +seventeenth century, the pictures of Guido, Rubens, and Murillo +afford the most perfect specimens. + +1. Raphael. (Louvre, 377.) Mary, a noble queenly creature, is seated, +and bends towards her Child, who is springing from his cradle to meet +her embrace; Elizabeth presents St. John; and Joseph, leaning on his +hand, contemplates the group: two beautiful angels scatter flowers +from above. This is the celebrated picture once supposed to have been +executed expressly for Francis I.; but later researches prove it to +have been painted for Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It appears from the correspondence relative to this +picture and the "St. Michael," that both pictures were painted by +order of this Lorenzo de' Medici, the same who is figured in Michael +Angelo's _Pensiero_, and that they were intended as presents to +Francis I. (See Dr. Gaye's _Carteggio_, ii. 146, and also the new +Catalogue of the Louvre by F. Villot.) I have mentioned this Holy +Family not as the finest of Raphael's Madonnas, but because there is +something peculiarly animated and dramatic in the _motif_, considering +the time at which it was painted. It was my intention to have given +here a complete list of Raphael's Holy Families; but this has been +so well done in the last English edition of Kugler's Handbook, that +it has become superfluous as a repetition. The series of minute +and exquisite drawings by Mr. George Scharf, appended to Kugler's +Catalogue, renders it easy to recognize all the groups described in +this and the preceding pages.] + +2. Correggio. Mary holds the Child upon her knee, looking down upon +him fondly. Styled, from the introduction of the work-basket, _La +Vierge au Panier_. A finished example of that soft, yet joyful, +maternal feeling for which Correggio was remarkable. (National Gal. +23.) + +3. Pinturicchio. In a landscape, Mary and Joseph are seated together; +near them are some loaves and a small cask of wine. More in front the +two children, Jesus and St. John, are walking arm in arm; Jesus holds +a book and John a pitcher, as if they were going to a well. (Siena +Acad.) + +4. Andrea del Sarto. The Virgin is seated on the ground, and holds the +Child; the young St. John is in the arms of St. Elizabeth, and Joseph +is seen behind. (Louvre, 439.) This picture, another by the same +painter in the National Gallery, a third in the collection of Lord +Lansdowne, and in general all the Holy Families of Andrea, may +be cited as examples of fine execution and mistaken or defective +character. No sentiment, no action, connects the personages either +with each other, or with the spectator. + +5. Michael Angelo. The composition, in the Florence Gallery, styled +a Holy Family, appears to me a signal example of all that should be +avoided. It is, as a conception, neither religious nor domestic; in +execution and character exaggerated and offensive, and in colour hard +and dry. + +Another, a bas-relief, in which the Child is shrinking from a +bird held up by St. John, is very grand in the forms: the mistake +in sentiment, as regards the bird, I have pointed out in the +Introduction. (Royal Academy.) A third, in which the Child leans +pensively on a book lying open on his mother's knee, while she looks +out on the spectator, is more properly a _Mater Amabilis_. + +There is an extraordinary fresco still preserved in the Casa +Buonarotti at Florence, where it was painted on the wall by Michael +Angelo, and styled a Holy Family, though the exact meaning of the +subject has been often disputed. It appears to me, however, very +clear, and one never before or since attempted by any other artist. +(This fresco is engraved in the _Etruria Pittrice_.) Mary is seated +in the centre; her Child is reclining on the ground between her knees; +and the little St. John holding his cross looks on him steadfastly. +A man coming forward seems to ask of Mary, "Whose son is this?" She +most expressively puts aside Joseph with her hand, and looks up, as +if answering, "Not the son of an earthly, but of a heavenly Father!" +There are five other figures standing behind, and the whole group is +most significant. + +6. Albert Durer. The Holy Family seated under a tree; the Infant is +about to spring from the knee of his mother into the outstretched arms +of St. Anna; Joseph is seen behind with his hat in his hand; and to +the left sits the aged Joachim contemplating the group. + +7. Mary appears to have just risen from her chair, the Child bends +from her arms, and a young and very little angel, standing on tiptoe, +holds up to him a flower--other flowers in his lap:--a beautiful old +German print. + +8. Giulio Romano. (_La Madonna del Bacino_.) (Dresden Gal.) The Child +stands in a basin, and the young St. John pours water upon him from +a vase, while Mary washes him. St. Elizabeth stands by, holding +a napkin; St. Joseph, behind, is looking on. Notwithstanding the +homeliness of the action, there is here a religious and mysterious +significance, prefiguring the Baptism. + +9. N. Poussin. Mary, assisted by angels, washes and dresses her Child. +(Gal. of Mr. Hope.) + +10. V. Salimbeni.--An Interior. Mary and Joseph are occupied by the +Child. Elizabeth is spinning. More in front St. John is carrying two +puppies in the lappet of his coat, and the dog is leaping up to him. +(Florence, Pitti Pal.) This is one out of many instances in which +the painter, anxious to vary the oft-repeated subject, and no longer +restrained by refined taste or religious veneration, has fallen into +a most offensive impropriety. + +11. Ippolito Andreasi. Mary, seated, holds the Infant Christ between +her knees; Elizabeth leans over the back of her chair; Joseph leans on +his staff behind the Virgin; the little St. John and an angel present +grapes, while four other angels are gathering and bringing them. +A branch of vine, loaded with grapes, is lying in the foreground. +Christ looks like a young Bacchus; and there is something mannered and +fantastic in the execution. (Louvre, 38.) With this domestic scene is +blended a strictly religious symbol, "_I am the vine_." + +12. Murilio. Mary is in the act of swaddling her Child (Luke ii, 7), +while two angels, standing near him, solace the divine Infant with +heavenly music. (Madrid Gal.) + +13. Rubens. Mary, seated on the ground, holds the Child with a +charming maternal expression, a little from her, gazing on him with +rapturous earnestness, while he looks up with responsive tenderness in +her face. His right hand rests on a cross presented by St. John, who +is presented by St. Elizabeth. Wonderful for the intensely natural and +domestic expression, and the beauty of the execution. (Florence, Pitti +Pal.) + +14. D. Hopfer. Within the porch of a building, Mary is seated on one +side, reading intently. St. Anna, on the other side, holds out her +arms to the Child, who is sitting on the ground between them; an angel +looks in at the open door behind. (Bartsch., viii. 483.) + +15. Rembrandt. (_Le Ménage du Menuisier_.) A rustic interior. Mary, +seated in the centre, is suckling her Child. St. Anna, a fat Flemish +grandame, has been reading the volume of the Scriptures, and bends +forward in order to remove the covering and look in the Infant's face. +A cradle is near. Joseph is seen at work in the background. (Louvre.) + +16. Le Brun. (_The Benedicite_.) Mary, the Child, and Joseph, are +seated at a frugal repast. Joseph is in the act of reverently saying +grace, which gives to the picture the title by which it is known.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, Ecole Française 57. There is a celebrated +engraving by Edelinck.] + + * * * * * + +It is distinctly related that Joseph brought up his foster-Son as a +carpenter, and that Jesus exercised the craft of his reputed father. +In the Church pictures, we do not often meet with this touching +and familiar aspect of the life of our Saviour. But in the small +decorative pictures painted for the rich ecclesiastics, and for +private oratories, and in the cheap prints which were prepared for +distribution among the people, and became especially popular during +the religious reaction of the seventeenth century, we find this +homely version of the subject perpetually, and often most pleasingly, +exhibited. The greatest and wisest Being who ever trod the earth was +thus represented, in the eyes of the poor artificer, as ennobling +and sanctifying labour and toil; and the quiet domestic duties +and affections were here elevated, and hallowed, by religious +associations, and adorned by all the graces of Art. Even where +the artistic treatment was not first-rate, was not such as the +painters--priests and poets as well as painters--of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries would have lent to such themes,--still if the +sentiment and significance were but intelligible to those especially +addressed, the purpose was accomplished, and the effect must have been +good. + +I have before me an example in a set of twelve prints, executed in the +Netherlands, exhibiting a sort of history of the childhood of Christ, +and his training under the eye of his mother. It is entitled _Jesu +Christi Del Domini Salvatoris nostri Infantia_, "The Infancy of our +Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ;" and the title-page is surrounded +by a border composed of musical instruments, spinning-wheels, +distaffs, and other implements, of female industry, intermixed with +all kinds of mason's and carpenter's tools. To each print is appended +a descriptive Latin verse; Latin being chosen, I suppose, because the +publication was intended for distribution in different countries, and +especially foreign missions, and to be explained by the priests to the +people. + +1. The figure of Christ is seen in a glory surrounded by cherubim, &c. + +2. The Virgin is seated on the hill of Sion. The Infant in her lap, +with outspread arms, looks up to a choir of angels, and is singing +with them. + +3. Jesus, slumbering in his cradle, is rocked by two angels, while +Mary sits by, engaged in needlework.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The Latin stanza beneath, is remarkable for its elegance, +and because it has been translated by Coleridge, who mentions that he +found the print and the verse under it in a little inn in Germany. + + Dormi, Jesu, mater ridet, + Quæ tam dulcem somnum videt, + Dormi, Jesu, blandule! + Si non dormis mater plorat, + Inter fila cantans orat, + Blande, veni, somnule! + + Sleep, sweet babe! my cares beguiling, + Mother sits beside thee smiling, + Sleep, my darling, tenderly! + If thou sleep not, mother mourneth, + Singing as her wheel she turneth" + Come, soft slumber, balmily!"] + +4. The interior of a carpenter's shop. Joseph is plying his work, +while Joachim stands near him. The Virgin is measuring linen, and St. +Anna looks on. Two angels are at play with the Infant Christ, who is +blowing soap-bubbles. + +5. While Mary is preparing the family meal, and watching a pot which +is boiling on the fire, Joseph is seen behind chopping wood: more +in front, Jesus is sweeping together the chips, and two angels are +gathering them up. + +6. Mary is reeling off a skein of thread; Joseph is squaring a plank; +Jesus is picking up the chips, assisted by two angels. + +7. Mary is seated at her spinning-wheel; Joseph, assisted by Jesus, is +sawing through a large beam; two angels looking on. + +8. Mary is spinning with a distaff; behind, Joseph is sawing a beam, +on which Jesus is standing above; and two angels are lifting a plank. + +9. Joseph is seen building up the framework of a house, assisted by an +angel; Jesus is boring a hole with a large gimlet: an angel helps him; +Mary is winding thread. + +10. Joseph is busy roofing in the house; Jesus, assisted by the +angels, is carrying a beam of wood up a ladder; below, in front, Mary +is carding wool or flax. + +11. Joseph is building a boat, assisted by Jesus, who has a hammer +and chisel in his hand: two angels help him. The Virgin is knitting +a stocking; and the new-built house is seen in the background. + +12. Joseph is erecting a fence round a garden; Jesus, assisted by +the angels, is fastening the palings together; while Mary is weaving +garlands of roses. + +Justin Martyr mentions, as a tradition of his time, that Jesus +assisted his foster-father in making yokes and ploughs. In +Holland, where these prints were published, the substitution of +the boat-building seems very natural. St. Bonaventura, the great +Franciscan theologian, and a high authority in all that relates to +the life and character of Mary, not only described her as a pattern +of female industry, but alludes particularly to the legend of the +distaff, and mentions a tradition, that, when in Egypt, the Holy +Family was so reduced by poverty, that Mary begged from door to door +the fine flax which she afterwards spun into a garment for her Child. + + * * * * * + +As if to render the circle of maternal duties, and thereby the +maternal example, more complete, there are prints of Mary leading her +Son to school. I have seen one in which he carries his hornbook in +his hand. Such representations, though popular, were condemned by the +highest church authorities as nothing less than heretical. The Abbé +Méry counts among the artistic errors "which endanger the faith +of good Christians," those pictures which represent Mary or Joseph +instructing the Infant Christ; as if all learning, all science, +divine and human, were not his by intuition, and without any earthly +teaching, (v. Théologie des Peintres.) A beautiful Holy Family, +by Schidone, is entitled, "The Infant Christ learning to read" +(Bridgewater Gal.); and we frequently meet with pictures in which the +mother holds a book, while the divine Child, with a serious intent +expression, turns over the leaves, or points to the letters: but I +imagine that these, and similar groups, represent Jesus instructing +Mary and Joseph, as he is recorded to have done. There is also a +very pretty legend, in which he is represented as exciting the +astonishment, of the schoolmaster Zaccheus by his premature wisdom. +On these, and other details respecting the infancy of our Saviour, I +shall have to say much more when treating of the History of Christ. + + + + +THE DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE. + +_Ital._ La Disputa nel Tempio. _Fr._ Jésus au milieu des Docteurs. + + +The subject which we call the Dispute in the Temple, or "Christ +among the Doctors," is a scene of great importance in the life of +the Redeemer (Luke ii. 41, 52). His appearance in the midst of the +doctors, at twelve years old, when he sat "hearing them and asking +them questions, and all who heard him were astonished at his +understanding and his answers," has been interpreted as the first +manifestation of his high character as teacher of men, as one come +to throw a new light on the prophecies,-- + + "For trailing clouds of glory had he come + From heaven, which was his home;" + +and also as instructing as that those who are to become teachers of +men ought, when young, to listen to the voice of age and experience; +and that those who have grown old may learn lessons of wisdom +from childish innocence. Such is the historical and scriptural +representation. But in the life of the Virgin, the whole scene changes +its signification. It is no longer the wisdom of the Son, it is the +sorrow of the Mother which is the principal theme. In their journey +home from Jerusalem, Jesus has disappeared; he who was the light of +her eyes, whose precious existence had been so often threatened, has +left her care, and gone, she knows not whither. "No fancy can imagine +the doubts, the apprehensions, the possibilities of mischief, the +tremblings of heart, which the holy Virgin-mother feels thronging in +her bosom. For three days she seeks him in doubt and anguish." (Jeremy +Taylor's "Life of Christ.") At length he is found seated in the temple +in the midst of the learned doctors, "hearing them, and asking them +questions." And she said unto him, "Son, why hast thou thus dealt with +us? behold, I and thy father have sought thee sorrowing." And he said +unto them, "How is it that ye sought me? Wise ye not that I must be +about my Father's business?" + +Now there are two ways of representing this scene. In all the earlier +pictures it is chiefly with reference to the Virgin Mother: it is one +of the sorrowful mysteries of the Rosary. The Child Jesus sits in the +temple, teaching with hand uplifted; the doctors round him turn over +the leaves of their great books, searching the law and the prophets. +Some look up at the young inspired Teacher--he who was above the law, +yet came to obey the law and fulfil the prophecies--with amazement. +Conspicuous in front, stand Mary and Joseph, and she is in act to +address to him the tender reproach, "I and thy father have sought +thee sorrowing." In the early examples she is a principal figure, but +in later pictures she is seen entering in the background; and where +the scene relates only to the life of Christ, the figures of Joseph +and Mary are omitted altogether, and the Child teacher becomes the +central, or at least the chief, personage in the group. + +In a picture by Giovanni da Udine, the subject is taken out of the +region of the actual, and treated altogether as a mystery. In the +centre sits the young Redeemer, his hand raised, and surrounded by +several of the Jewish doctors; while in front stand the four fathers +of the Church, who flourished in the interval between the fourth and +sixth centuries after Christ; and these, holding their books, point to +Jesus, or look to him, as to the source of their wisdom;--a beautiful +and poetical version of the true significance of the story, which +the critics of the last century would call a chronological mistake. +(Venice, Academy.) + +But those representations which come under our especial consideration +at present, are such as represent the moment in which Mary appears +before her Son. The earliest instance of this treatment is a group by +Giotto. Dante cites the deportment of the Virgin on this occasion, and +her mild reproach, "_con atto dolce di madre_," as a signal lesson of +gentleness and forbearance. (Purgatorio, c. xv.) It is as if he had +transferred the picture of Giotto into his Vision; for it is as a +picture, not an action, that it is introduced. Another, by Simon +Memmi, in the Roscoe Collection at Liverpool, is conceived in a +similar spirit. In a picture by Garofalo, Mary does not reproach her +Son, but stands listening to him with her hands folded on her bosom. +In a large and fine composition by Pinturicchio, the doctors throw +down their books before him, while the Virgin and Joseph are entering +on one side. The subject is conspicuous in Albert Durer's Life of +the Virgin, where Jesus is seated on high, as one having authority, +teaching from a chair like that of a professor in a university, and +surrounded by the old bearded doctors; and Mary stands before her Son +in an attitude of expostulation. + +After the restoration of Jesus to his parents, they conducted him +home; "but his mother kept all these sayings in her heart." The return +to Nazareth, Jesus walking humbly between Joseph and Mary, was painted +by Rubens for the Jesuit College at Antwerp, as a lesson to youth. +Underneath is the text, "And he was subject unto them."[1] + +[Footnote 1: It has been called by mistake "The Return from Egypt"] + + + + +THE DEATH OF JOSEPH. + +_Ital._ La Morte di San Giuseppe. _Fr._ La Mort de St. Joseph _Ger._ +Josef's Tod. + + +Between the journey to Jerusalem and the public appearance of Jesus, +chronologers place the death of Joseph, but the exact date is not +ascertained: some place it in the eighteenth year of the life of our +Saviour, and others in his twenty-seventh year, when, as they assert, +Joseph was one hundred and eleven years old. + +I have already observed, that the enthusiasm for the character of +Joseph, and his popularity as a saint and patron of power, date from +the fifteenth century; and late in the sixteenth century I find, for +the first time, the death of Joseph treated as a separate subject. It +appears that the supposed anniversary of his death (July 20) had long +been regarded in the East as a solemn festival, and that it was the +custom to read publicly, on this occasion, some homily relating to his +life and death. The very curious Arabian work, entitled "The History +of Joseph the Carpenter," is supposed to be one of these ancient +homilies, and, in its original form, as old as the fourth century.[1] +Here the death of Joseph is described with great detail, and with many +solemn and pathetic circumstances; and the whole history is put into +the mouth of Jesus, who is supposed to recite it to his disciples: +he describes the pious end of Joseph; he speaks of himself as being +present, and acknowledged by the dying man as "Redeemer and Messiah," +and he proceeds to record the grief of Mary:-- + +"And my mother, the Virgin, arose, and she came nigh to me and said, +'O my beloved Son now must the good old man die!' and I answered and +said unto her, 'O my most dear mother, needs must all created beings +die; and death will have his rights, even over thee, beloved mother; +but death to him and to thee is no death, only the passage to eternal +life; and this body I have derived from thee shall also undergo +death.'" + +[Footnote 1: The Arabic MS. in the library at Paris is of the year +1299, and the Coptic version as old as 1367. Extracts from these +were become current in the legends of the West, about the fifteenth +century.--See the "Neu Testamentlichen Apokryphen," edited in German +by Dr. K.F. Borberg.] + +And they sat, the Son and the mother, beside Joseph; and Jesus held +his hand, and watched the last breath of life trembling on his lips; +and Mary touched his feet, and they were cold; and the daughters and +the sons of Joseph wept and sobbed around in their grief; and then +Jesus adds tenderly, "I, and my mother Mary, we wept with them." + +Then follows a truly Oriental scene, of the evil angels rising up with +Death, and rejoicing in his power over the saint, while Jesus rebukes +them; and at his prayer God sends down Michael, prince of the angelic +host, and Gabriel, the herald of light, to take possession of the +departing spirit, enfold it in a robe of brightness thereby to +preserve it from the "dark angels," and carry it up into heaven. + +This legend of the death of Joseph was, in many forms, popular in +the sixteenth century; hence arose the custom of invoking him as +Intercessor to obtain a blessed and peaceful end, so that he became, +in some sort, the patron saint of death-beds; and it is at this time +we find the first representations of the death of Joseph, afterwards +a popular subject in the churches and convents of the Augustine canons +and Carmelite friars, who had chosen him for their patron saint; and +also in family chapels consecrated to the memory or the repose of the +dead. + +The finest example I have seen, is by Carlo Maratti, in the Vienna +Gallery. St. Joseph is on a couch; Christ is seated near him; and the +Virgin stands by with folded hands, in a sad, contemplative attitude. + + * * * * * + +I am not aware that the Virgin has ever been introduced into any +representation of the temptation or the baptism of our Saviour. These +subjects, so important and so picturesque, are reserved till we enter +upon the History of Christ. + + + + +THE MARRIAGE AT CANA IN GALILEE. + +_Ital._ Le Nozze di Cana. _Fr._ Les Noces de Cana. _Ger._ Die Hochzeit +zu Cana. + + +After his temptation and baptism, the first manifestation of the +divine mission and miraculous power of Jesus was at the wedding +feast at Cana in Galilee; and those who had devoted themselves to the +especial glorification of the Virgin Mother did not forget that it was +at her request this first miracle was accomplished:--that out of her +tender and sympathetic commiseration for the apparent want, arose +her appeal to him,--not, indeed, as requiring anything from him, but, +looking to him with habitual dependence on his goodness and power. She +simply said, "They have no wine!" He replied, "Woman, what have I to +do with thee? Mine hour is not yet come." The term _woman_, thus used, +sounds harsh to us; but in the original is a term of respect. Nor did +Jesus intend any denial to the mother, whom he regarded with dutiful +and pious reverence:--it was merely an intimation that he was not +yet entered into the period of miraculous power. He anticipated +it, however, for her sake, and because of her request. Such is the +view taken of this beautiful and dramatic incident by the early +theologians; and in the same spirit it has been interpreted by the +painters. + +The Marriage at Cana appears very seldom in the ancient +representations taken from the Gospel. All the monkish institutions +then prevalent discredited marriage; and it is clear that this +distinct consecration of the rite by the presence of the Saviour and +his mother did not find favour with the early patrons of art. + +There is an old Greek tradition, that the Marriage at Cana was that +of John the Evangelist. In the thirteenth century, when the passionate +enthusiasm for Mary Magdalene was at its height, it was a popular +article of belief, that the Marriage which Jesus graced with his +presence was that of John the Evangelist and Mary Magdalene; and +that immediately after the wedding feast, St. John and Mary, devoting +themselves to an austere and chaste religious life, followed Christ, +and ministered to him. + +As a scene in the life of Christ, the Marriage at Cana, is of course +introduced incidentally; but even here, such were the monastic +principles and prejudices, that I find it difficult to point out any +very early example. In the "Manual of Greek Art," published by Didron, +the rules for the representation are thus laid down:--"A table; +around it Scribes and Pharisees; one holds up a cup of wine, and +seems astonished. In the midst, the bride and bridegroom are seated +together. The bridegroom is to have 'grey hair and a round beard +(_cheveux gris et barbe arrondie_); both are to be crowned with +flowers; behind them, a servitor. Christ, the Virgin, and Joseph are +to be on one side, and on the other are six jars: the attendants are +in the act of filling them with water from leathern buckets." + +The introduction of Joseph is quite peculiar to Greek art; and the +more curious, that in the list of Greek subjects there is not one from +his life, nor in which he is a conspicuous figure. On the other hand, +the astonished "ruler of the feast" (the _Architriclino_), so dramatic +and so necessary to the comprehension of the scene, is scarcely ever +omitted. The apostles whom we may imagine to be present, are Peter, +Andrew, James, and John. + + * * * * * + +As a separate subject, the Marriage at Cana first became popular in +the Venetian school, and thence extended to the Lombard and German +schools of the same period--that is, about the beginning of the +sixteenth century. + +The most beautiful representation I have ever seen is a fresco, +by Luini, in the church of San Maurizio, at Milan. It belongs to a +convent of nuns; and I imagine, from its introduction there, that it +had a mystic signification, and referred to a divine _Sposalizio_. +In this sense, the treatment is perfect. There are just the number +of figures necessary to tell the story, and no more. It is the bride +who is here the conspicuous figure, seated in the centre, arrayed in +spotless white, and represented as a nun about to make her profession; +for this is evidently the intended signification. The bridegroom is at +her side, and near to the spectator. Christ, and the Virgin are seated +together, and appear to be conversing. A man presents a cup of wine. +Including guests and attendants, there are only twelve figures. +The only fault of this exquisite and graceful composition, is the +introduction of a cat and dog in front: we feel that they ought to +have been omitted, as giving occasion for irreverent witticisms.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This beautiful fresco, which is seldom seen, being behind +the altar, was in a very ruined condition when I saw it last in 1855.] + +In contrast with this picture, and as a gorgeous specimen of the +Venetian style of treatment, we may turn to the "Marriage at Cana" in +the Louvre, originally painted to cover one side of the refectory of +the convent of _San Giorgio Maggiore_ at Venice, whence it was carried +off by the French in 1796. This immense picture is about thirty-six +feet in length, and about twenty feet in height, and contains more +than a hundred figures above life-size. In the centre Christ is +seated, and beside him the Virgin Mother. Both heads are merely +commonplace, and probably portraits, like those of the other +personages at the extremity of the table. On the left are seated the +bride and bridegroom. In the foreground a company of musicians are +performing a concert; behind the table is a balustrade, where are +seen numerous servants occupied in cutting up the viands and serving +dishes, with attendants and spectators. The chief action to be +represented, the astonishing miracle performed by him at whose command +"the fountain blushed into wine," is here quite a secondary matter; +and the value of the picture lies in its magnitude and variety as +a composition, and the portraits of the historical characters and +remarkable personages introduced,--Francis I., his queen Eleanora of +Austria, Charles V. and others. In the group of musicians in front we +recognize Titian and Tintoretto, old Bassano, and Paolo himself. + +The Marriage at Cana, as a refectory subject, had been unknown till +this time: it became popular, and Paolo afterwards repeated it several +times. The most beautiful of all, to my feeling, is that in the +Dresden Gallery, where the "ruler of the feast," holding up the glass +of wine with admiration, seems to exclaim, "Thou hast kept the good +wine until now." In another, which is at Milan, the Virgin turns round +to the attendant, and desires him to obey her Son;--"Whatsoever he +saith unto you, do it!" + +As the Marriage at Cana belongs, as a subject, rather to the history +of Christ, than to that of the Virgin his mother, I shall not enter +into it further here, but proceed. + + * * * * * + +After the marriage at Cana in Galilee, which may be regarded as the +commencement of the miraculous mission of our Lord, we do not hear +anything of his mother, the Virgin, till the time approached when he +was to close his ministry by his death. She is not once referred to +by name in the Gospels until the scene of the Crucifixion. We are +indeed given to understand, that in the journeys of our Saviour, and +particularly when he went up from Nazareth to Jerusalem, the women +followed and ministered to him (Matt. xxvii. 55, Luke, viii. 2): and +those who have written the life of the Virgin for the edification of +the people, and those who have translated it into the various forms +of art, have taken it for granted that SHE, his mother, could not have +been absent or indifferent where others attended with affection and +zeal: but I do not remember any scene in which she is an actor, or +even a conspicuous figure. + +Among the carvings on the stalls at Amiens, there is one which +represents the passage (Matt. xii. 46.) wherein our Saviour, preaching +in Judea, is told that his mother and his brethren stand without. +"But he answering, said to him that told him, 'Who is my mother? +and who are my brethren?' And he stretched forth his hand toward +his disciples, and said, 'Behold my mother and my brethren!'" The +composition exhibits on one side Jesus standing and teaching his +disciples; while on the other, through an open door, we perceive the +Virgin and two or three others. This representation is very rare. The +date of these stalls is the sixteenth century; and such a group in a +series of the life of the Virgin could not, I think, have occurred +in the fifteenth. It would have been quite inconsistent with all the +religious tendencies of that time, to exhibit Christ as preaching +_within_, while his "divine and most glorious" Mother was standing +_without_. + +The theologians of the middle ages insist on the close and mystical +relation which they assure us existed between Christ and his mother: +however far separated, there was constant communion between them; and +wherever he might be--in whatever acts of love, or mercy, or benign +wisdom occupied for the good of man--_there_ was also his mother, +present with him in the spirit. I think we can trace the impress +of this mysticism in some of the productions of the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries. For example, among the frescoes by Angelico da +Fiesole in the cloisters of St. Mark, at Florence, there is one of +the Transfiguration, where the Saviour stands glorified with arms +outspread--a simple and sublime conception,--and on each side, half +figures of Moses and Elias: lower down appear the Virgin and St. +Dominick. There is also in the same series a fresco of the Last Supper +as the Eucharist, in which the Virgin is kneeling, glorified, on one +side of the picture, and appears as a partaker of the rite. Such a +version of either subject must be regarded as wholly mystical and +exceptional, and I am not acquainted with any other instance. + + + + +LO SPASIMO. + + "O what avails me now that honour high, + To have conceived of God, and that salute, + 'Hail highly favoured among woman blest! + While I to sorrows am no less advanced, + And fears as eminent, above the lot + Of other women by the birth I bore." + --"This is my favoured lot, + My exaltation to afflictions high." + + MILTON. + + +In the Passion of our Lord, taken in connection with the life of the +Virgin Mother, there are three scenes in which she is associated with +the action as an important, if not a principal, personage. + +We are told in the Gospel of St. John (chap. xvii), that Christ took a +solemn farewell of his disciples: it is therefore supposed that he did +not go up to his death without taking leave of his Mother,--without +preparing her for that grievous agony by all the comfort that his +tender and celestial pity and superior nature could bestow. This +parting of Christ and his Mother before the Crucifixion is a modern +subject. I am not acquainted with any example previous to the +beginning of the sixteenth century. The earliest I have met with is by +Albert Durer, in the series of the life of the Virgin, but there are +probably examples more ancient, or at least contemporary. In Albert +Durer's composition, Mary is sinking to the earth, as if overcome with +affliction, and is sustained in the arms of two women; she looks up +with folded hands and streaming eyes to her Son who stands before her; +he, with one hand extended, looks down upon her compassionately, and +seems to give her his last benediction. I remember another instance, +by Paul Veronese, full of that natural affectionate sentiment which +belonged to the Venetian school. (Florence Gal.) In a very beautiful +picture by Carotto of Verona, Jesus _kneels_ before his Mother, and +receives her benediction before he departs: this must be regarded +as an impropriety, a mistake in point of sentiment, considering the +peculiar relation between the two personages; but it is a striking +instance of the popular notions of the time respecting the high +dignity of the Virgin Mother. I have not seen it repeated.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Verona, San Bernardino. It is worth remarking, with +regard to this picture, that the Intendant of the Convent rebuked +the artist, declaring that he had made the Saviour show _too little_ +reverence for his Mother, seeing that he knelt to her on one knee +only.--See the anecdote in _Vasari_, vol. i. p. 651. Fl. Edit. 1838.] + + * * * * * + +It appears from the Gospel histories, that the women who had attended +upon Christ during his ministry failed not in their truth and their +love to the last. In the various circumstances of the Passion of +our Lord, where the Virgin Mother figures as an important personage, +certain of these women are represented as always near her, and +sustaining her with a tender and respectful sympathy. Three are +mentioned by name,--Mary Magdalene; Mary the wife of Cleophas; +and Mary, the mother of James and John. Martha, the sister of Mary +Magdalene, is also included, as I infer from her name, which in +several instances is inscribed in the nimbus encircling her head. I +have in another place given the story of Martha, and the legends +which in the fourteenth century converted her into a very important +character in sacred art, (First Series of Sacred and Legendary Art.) +These women, therefore, form, with the Virgin, the group of _five_ +female figures which are generally included in the scriptural scenes +from the Life of Christ. + +Of course, these incidents, and more especially the "Procession to +Calvary," and the "Crucifixion," belong to another series of subjects, +which I shall have to treat hereafter in the History of our Lord; +but they are also included in a series of the Rosary, as two of the +mystical SORROWS; and under this point of view I must draw attention +to the peculiar treatment of the Virgin in some remarkable examples, +which will serve as a guide to others. + + * * * * * + +The Procession to Calvary (_Il Portamento della Croce_) followed a +path leading from the gate of Jerusalem to Mount Calvary, which has +been kept in remembrance and sanctified as the _Via Dolorosa_, and +there is a certain spot near the summit of the hill, where, according +to a very ancient tradition, the Virgin Mother, and the women her +companions, placed themselves to witness the sorrowful procession; +where the Mother, beholding her divine Son dragged along, all bleeding +from the scourge, and sinking under his cross, in her extreme agony +sank, fainting, to the earth. This incident gave rise to one of the +mournful festivals of the Passion Week, under the title, in French, +of _Notre Dame du Spasme_ or _de la Pamoison_; in Italian _La Madonna +dello Spasimo_, or _Il Pianto di Maria_; and this is the title given +to some of those representations in which the affliction of Mary is a +prominent part of the tragic interest of the scene. She is sometimes +sinking to the earth, sustained by the women or by St. John; sometimes +she stands with clasped hands, mute and motionless with excess of +anguish; sometimes she stretches out her arms to her Son, as Jesus, +sinking under the weight of his cross, turns his benign eyes upon her, +and the others who follow him: "Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for +me!" + +This is the moment chosen by Raphael in that sublime composition +celebrated under the title "_Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_" (Madrid Gal.); +so called because it was originally painted for the high altar of the +church of the Sicilian Olivetans at Palermo, dedicated to the _Madonna +dello Spasimo_. It was thence removed, by order of Philip IV. of +Spain, early in the seventeenth century, and is now placed in the +gallery at Madrid. Here the group of the five women forms an important +part of the picture, occupying the foreground on the right. The +expression in the face of the Mother, stretching forth her arms to +her Son with a look of appealing agony, has always been cited as one +of the great examples of Raphael's tragic power. It is well known +that in this composition the attitude of Christ was suggested by the +contemporary engraving of Martin Schoen; but the prominence given to +the group of women, the dramatic propriety and pathetic grace in the +action of each, and the consummate skill shown in the arrangement +of the whole, belong only to Raphael.[1] In Martin Schoen's vivid +composition, the Virgin, and the women her companions, are seen far +off in the background, crouching in the "hollow way" between two +cliffs, from which spot, according to the old tradition, they beheld +the sad procession. We have quite a contrary arrangement in an early +composition by Lucas van Leyden. The procession to Calvary is seen +moving along in the far distance, while the foreground is occupied by +two figures only, Mary in a trance of anguish sustained by the weeping +St. John. + +[Footnote 1: The veneration at all times entertained for this picture +was probably enhanced by a remarkable fact in its history. Raphael +painted it towards the close of the year 1517, and when finished, it +was embarked at the port of Ostia, to be consigned to Palermo. A storm +came on, the vessel foundered at sea, and all was lost except the case +containing this picture, which was floated by the currents into the +Bay of Genoa; and, on being landed, the wondrous masterpiece of art +was taken out unhurt. The Genoese at first refused to give it up, +insisting that it had been preserved and floated to their shores by +the miraculous interposition of the blessed Virgin herself; and it +required a positive mandate from the Pope before they would restore +it to the Olivetan fathers.--See _Passavant's Rafael_, i. 292.] + +In a very fine "Portamento del Croce," by Gaudenzio Ferrari, one of +the soldiers or executioners, in repulsing the sorrowful mother, +lifts up a stick as if to strike her;--a gratuitous act of ferocity, +which shocks at once the taste and the feelings, and, without adding +anything to the pathos of the situation, detracts from the religious +dignity of the theme. It is like the soldier kicking our Saviour, +which I remember to have seen in a version of the subject by a much +later painter, Daniele Crespi. + +Murillo represents Christ as fainting under the weight of the cross, +while the Virgin sits on the ground by the way-side, gazing on +him with fixed eyes and folded hands, and a look of unutterable +anguish.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture, remarkable for the intense expression, was +in the collection of Lord Orford, and sold in June, 1856.] + + * * * * * + +The Ecce Homo, by Correggio, in our National Gallery, is treated in +a very peculiar manner with reference to the Virgin, and is, in fact, +another version of _Lo Spasimo_, the fourth of her ineffable sorrows. +Here Christ, as exhibited to the people by Pilate, is placed in the +distance, and is in all respects the least important part of the +picture, of which we have the real subject in the far more prominent +figure of the Virgin in the foreground. At sight of the agony and +degradation of her Son, she closes her eyes, and is on the point +of swooning. The pathos of expression in the half-unconscious face +and helpless, almost lifeless hands, which seem to seek support, is +particularly fine. + + +THE CRUCIFIXION. + + "Verum stabas, optima Mater, juxta crucem Filli tui, non solum + corpore, sed mentis constatia." + +This great subject belongs more particularly to the Life of Christ. It +is, I observe, always omitted in a series of the Life of the Virgin, +unless it be the Rosary, in which the "Vigil of the Virgin by the +Cross" is the fifth and greatest of the Seven Sorrows. + +We cannot fail to remark, that whether the Crucifixion be treated as a +mystery or as an event, Mary is always an important figure. + +In the former case she stands alone on the right of the cross, and St. +John on the left.[1] She looks up with an expression of mingled grief +and faith, or bows her head upon her clasped hands in resignation. In +such a position she is the idealized Mater Dolorosa, the Daughter of +Jerusalem, the personified Church mourning for the great Sacrifice; +and this view of the subject I have already discussed at length. + +[Footnote 1: It has been a question with the learned whether the +Virgin Mary, with St. John, ought not to stand on the left of the +cross, in allusion to Psalm cxlii. (always interpreted as prophetic +of the Passion of Christ) ver. 4: "_I looked on my right hand, and be +held, but there was none who would know me._"] + +On the other hand, when the Crucifixion is treated as a great +historical event, as a living scene acted before our eyes, then the +position and sentiment given to the Virgin are altogether different, +but equally fixed by the traditions of art. That she was present, and +near at hand, we must presume from the Gospel of St. John, who was an +eye-witness; and most of the theological writers infer that on this +occasion her constancy and sublime faith were even greater than her +grief, and that her heroic fortitude elevated her equally above the +weeping women and the timorous disciples. This is not, however, the +view which the modern painters have taken, and even the most ancient +examples exhibit the maternal grief for a while overcoming the +constancy. She is standing indeed, but in a fainting attitude, as if +about to sink to the earth, and is sustained in the arms of the two +Marys, assisted, sometimes, but not generally, by St. John; Mary +Magdalene is usually embracing the foot of the cross. With very little +variation this is the visual treatment down to the beginning of the +sixteenth century. I do not know who was the first artist who placed +the Mother prostrate on the ground; but it must be regarded as a +fault, and as detracting from the high religious dignity of the +scene. In all the greatest examples, from Cimabue, Giotto, and Pietro +Cavallini, down to Angelico, Masaccio, and Andrea Mantegna, and their +contemporaries, Mary is uniformly standing. + +In a Crucifixion by Martin Schoen, the Virgin, partly held up in the +arms of St. John, embraces with fervour the foot of the cross: a very +rare and exceptional treatment, for this is the proper place of Mary +Magdalene. In Albert Durer's composition, she is just in the act of +sinking to the ground in a very natural attitude, as if her limbs had +given way under her. In Tintoretto's celebrated Crucifixion, we have +an example of the Virgin placed on the ground, which if not one of the +earliest, is one of the most striking of the more modern conceptions. +Here the group at the foot of the cross is wonderfully dramatic and +expressive, but certainly the reverse of dignified. Mary lies fainting +on the earth; one arm is sustained by St. John, the other is round the +neck of a woman who leans against the bosom of the Virgin, with eyes +closed, as if lost in grief. Mary Magdalene and another look up to the +crucified Saviour, and more in front a woman kneels wrapped up in a +cloak, and hides her face. (Venice, S. Rocco.) + +Zani has noticed the impropriety here, and in other instances, of +exhibiting the "_Grandissima Donna_" as prostrate, and in a state +of insensibility; a style of treatment which, in more ancient times, +would have been inadmissible. The idea embodied by the artist should +be that which Bishop Taylor has _painted_ in words:--"By the cross +stood the holy Virgin Mother, upon whom old Simeon's prophecy was now +verified; for now she felt a sword passing through her very soul. +She stood without clamour and womanish noises sad, silent, and with +a modest grief, deep as the waters of the abyss, but smooth as the +face of a pool; full of love, and patience, and sorrow, and hope!" +To suppose that this noble creature lost all power over her emotions, +lost her consciousness of the "high affliction" she was called to +suffer, is quite unworthy of the grand ideal of womanly perfection +here placed before us. It is clear, however, that in the later +representations, the intense expression of maternal anguish in the +hymn of the Stabat Mater gave the key to the prevailing sentiment. +And as it is sometimes easier to faint than to endure; so it was +easier for certain artists to express the pallor and prostration of +insensibility, than the sublime faith and fortitude which in that +extremest hour of trial conquered even a mother's unutterable woe. + +That most affecting moment, in which the dying Saviour recommends his +Mother to the care of the best beloved of his disciples, I have never +seen worthily treated. There are, however, some few Crucifixions in +which I presume the idea to have been indicated; as where the Virgin +stands leaning on St. John, with his sustaining arm reverently round +her, and both looking up to the Saviour, whose dying face is turned +towards them. There is an instance by Albert Durer (the wood-cut +in the "Large Passion"); but the examples are so few as to be +exceptional. + + * * * * * + +THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS, and the DEPOSITION, are two separate +themes. In the first, according to the antique formula, the Virgin +should stand; for here, as in the Crucifixion, she must be associated +with the principal action, and not, by the excess of her grief, +disabled from taking her part in it. In the old legend it is said, +that when Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus wrenched out the nails +which fastened the hands of our Lord to the cross, St. John took them +away secretly, that his mother might not see them--"_affin que la +Vierge Marie ne les veit pas, crainte que le coeur ne lui amolist_." +And then, while Nicodemus drew forth the nails which fastened his +feet, Joseph of Arimathea sustained the body, so that the head and +arms of the dead Saviour hung over his shoulder. And the afflicted +Mother, seeing this, arose on her feet and she took the bleeding hands +of her Son, as they hung down, and clasped them in her own, and kissed +him tenderly. And then, indeed, she sank to the earth, because of the +great anguish she suffered, lamenting her Son, whom the cruel Jews had +murdered.[1] + +[Footnote 1: "---- tant qu'il n'y a coeur si dur, ni entendement +d'homme qui n'y deust penser. 'Lasse, mon confort! m'amour et ma joye, +que les Juifz ont faict mourir à grand tort et sans cause pour ce +qu'il leur monstrait leurs faltes et enseignoit leur saulvement! O +felons et mauvais Juifz, ne m'epargnez pas! puisque vous crucifiez +mon enfant crucifiez moy--moy qui suis sa dolente mere, et me tuez +d'aucune mort affin que je meure avec luy!'" v. _The old French +Legend_, "_Vie de Notre-Dame la glorieuse Vierge Marie._"] + +The first action described in this legend (the afflicted Mother +embracing the arm of her Son) is precisely that which was adopted by +the Greek masters, and by the early Italians who followed them, Nicolo +Pisano, Cimabue, Giotto, Puccio Capanna, Duccio di Siena, and others +from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. But in later pictures, +the Virgin in the extremity of her grief has sunk to the ground. In an +altar-piece by Cigoli, she is seated on the earth, looking out of the +picture, as if appealing, "Was ever sorrow like unto my sorrow?" while +the crown of thorns lies before her. This is very beautiful; but even +more touching is the group in the famous "Descent from the Cross," the +masterpiece of Daniel di Volterra (Rome, Trinità di Monte): here the +fainting form of the Virgin, extended on the earth, and the dying +anguish in her face, have never been exceeded, and are, in fact, the +chief merit of the picture. In the famous Descent at Antwerp, the +masterpiece of Rubens, Mary stands, and supports the arm of her Son as +he is let down from the cross. This is in accordance with the ancient +version; but her face and figure are the least effective part of this +fine picture. + +In a beautiful small composition, a print, attributed to Albert Durer, +there are only three figures. Joseph of Arimathea stands on a ladder, +and detaches from the cross the dead form of the Saviour, who is +received into the arms of his Mother. This is a form of the _Mater +Dolorosa_ which is very uncommon, and must be regarded as exceptional, +and ideal, unless we are to consider it as a study and an incomplete +group. + + * * * * * + +The DEPOSITION is properly that moment which succeeds the DESCENT from +the Cross; when the dead form of Christ is deposed or laid upon the +ground, resting on the lap of his Mother, and lamented by St. John, +the Magdalene, and others. The ideal and devotional form of this +subject, styled a Pietà, may be intended to represent one of those +festivals of the Passion Week which commemorate the participation of +the holy Virgin Mother in the sufferings of her Son.[1] I have already +spoken at length of this form of the Mater Dolorosa; the historical +version of the same subject is what we have now to consider, but only +so far as regards the figure of the Virgin. + +[Footnote 1: "C'est ce que l'on a jugé à propos d'appeler _La +Compassion_ de la Vierge, autrement _Notre Dame de Pitié_."--Vide +_Baillet_, "Les Fêtes Mobiles."] + +In a Deposition thus dramatically treated, there are always from four +to six or eight figures. The principal group consists of the dead +Saviour and his Mother. She generally holds him embraced, or bends +over him contemplating his dead face, or lays her cheek to his with +an expression of unutterable grief and love: in the antique conception +she is generally fainting; the insensibility, the sinking of the whole +frame through grief, which in the Crucifixion is misplaced, both in +regard to the religious feeling and the old tradition, is here quite +proper.[1] Thus she appears in the genuine Greek and Greco-Italian +productions of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as well as in +the two finest examples that could be cited in more modern times. + +[Footnote 1: The reason given is curious:--"_Perchè quando Gesù pareva +tormentato essendo vivo, il dolore si partiva frà la santissima madre +e lui; ma quando poi egli era morto, tutto il dolore rimaneva per la +sconsolata madre._"] + +1. In an exquisite composition by Raphael, usually styled a Pietà, +but properly a Deposition, there are six figures: the extended form +of Christ; the Virgin swooning in the arms of Mary Salome and Mary +Cleophas; Mary Magdalene sustains the feet of Christ, while her sister +Martha raises the veil of the Virgin, as if to give her air; St. John +stands by with clasped hands; and Joseph of Arimathea looks on the +sorrowing group with mingled grief and pity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This wonderful drawing (there is no _finished_ picture) +was in the collection of Count Fries, and then belonged to Sir T. +Lawrence. There is a good engraving by Agricola.] + +2. Another, an admirable and celebrated composition by Annibale +Caracci, known as the Four Marys, omits Martha and St. John. The +attention of Mary Magdalene is fixed on the dead Saviour; the other +two Marys are occupied by the fainting Mother. (Castle Howard.) On +comparing this with Raphael's conception, we find more of common +nature, quite as much pathos, but in the forms less of that pure +poetic grace, which softens at once, and heightens the tragic effect. + +Besides Joseph of Arimathea, we have sometimes Nicodemus; as in the +very fine Deposition by Perugino, and in one, not loss fine, by Albert +Durer. In a Deposition by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Lazarus, whom Jesus +raised from the dead, stands near his sister Martha. + +In a picture by Vandyke, the Mother closes the eyes of the dead +Redeemer: in a picture by Rubens, she removes a thorn from his wounded +brow:--both natural and dramatic incidents very characteristic of +these dramatic painters. + +There are some fine examples of this subject in the old German school. +In spite of ungraceful forms, quaint modern costumes, and worse +absurdities, we often find _motifs_, unknown in the Italian school, +most profoundly felt, though not always happily expressed, I remember +several instances in which the Madonna does not sustain her Son; but +kneeling on one side, and, with clasped hands, she gazes on him with +a look, partly of devotion, partly of resignation; both the devotion +and the resignation predominating over the maternal grief. I have +been asked, "why no painter has ever yet represented the Great Mother +as raising her hands in thankfulness that her Son _had_ drank the +cup--_had_ finished the work appointed for him on earth?" This would +have been worthy of the religions significance of the moment; and I +recommend the theme to the consideration of artists.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the most modern Deposition I have seen (one of +infinite beauty, and new in arrangement, by Paul Delaroche), the +Virgin, kneeling at some distance, and a little above, contemplates +her dead Son. The expression and attitude are those of intense +anguish, and _only_ anguish. It is the bereaved Mother; it is a +craving desolation, which is in the highest degree human and tragic; +but it is not the truly religious conception.] + + * * * * * + +The entombment follows, and when treated as a strictly historical +scene, the Virgin Mother is always introduced, though here as a less +conspicuous figure, and one less important to the action. Either +she swoons, which is the ancient Greek conception; or she follows, +with streaming eyes and clasped hands, the pious disciples who bear +the dead form of her Son, as in Raphael's wonderful picture in the +Borghese Palace, and Titian's, hardly less beautiful, in the Louvre, +where the compassionate Magdalene sustains her veiled and weeping +figure;--or she stands by, looking on disconsolate, while the beloved +Son is laid in the tomb. + + * * * * * + +All these fine and important themes belong properly to a series of +the History of Christ. In a series of the Life of the Virgin, the +incidents of the Passion of our Lord are generally omitted; whereas, +in the cycle of subjects styled the ROSARY, the Bearing of the Cross, +the Crucifixion, and the Deposition, are included in the fourth and +fifth of the "Sorrowful Mysteries." I shall have much more to say on +these subjects when treating of the artistic representations from +the History of Christ. I will only add here, that their frequency as +_separate_ subjects, and the preëminence given to the figure of the +Virgin as the mother of Pity, are very suggestive and affecting when +we come to consider their _intention_ as well as their significance. +For, in the first place, they were in most instances the votive +offerings of those who had lost the being most dear to them, and +thus appealed so the divine compassion of her who had felt that sword +"pierce through her own heart also." In this sense they were often +suspended as memorials in the chapels dedicated to the dead, of which +I will cite one very beautiful and touching example. There is a votive +Deposition by Giottino, in which the general conception is that which +belonged to the school, and very like Giotto's Deposition in the Arena +at Padua. The dead Christ is extended on a white shroud, and embraced +by the Virgin; at his feet kneels the Magdalene, with clasped hands +and flowing hair; Mary Salome kisses one of his hands, and Martha +(as I suppose) the other; the third Mary, with long hair, and +head dropping with grief, is seated in front to the right. In the +background, in the centre, stands St. John, bending over the group in +profound sorrow; on his left hand Joseph of Arimathea stands with the +vase of "spices and ointments," and the nails; near him Nicodemus. +On the right of St. John kneels a beautiful young girl, in the rich +Florentine costume, who, with a sorrowful earnestness and with her +hands crossed over her bosom, contemplates the dead Saviour. St. +Romeo (or San Remigio) patron of the church in which the picture was +dedicated, lays his hand paternally on her head; beside her kneels a +Benedictine nun, who in the game manner is presented by St. Benedict. +These two females, sisters perhaps, are the bereaved mourners who +dedicated the picture, certainly one of the finest of the Giottesque +school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is now in the gallery of the Uffizii, at Florence. In +the Florentine edition of Vasari the name of the church in which this +picture was originally placed is called San _Romeo_, who is St. Remi +(or Remigio), Bishop of Reims. The painter, Giottino, the greatest and +the most interesting, personally, of the Giottesque artists, was, as +Vasari says, "of a melancholy temperament, and a lover of solitude;" +"more desirous of glory than of gain;" "contented with little, and +thinking more of serving and gratifying others than of himself;" +"taking small care for himself, and perpetually engrossed by the works +he had undertaken." He died of consumption, in 1356, at the age of +thirty two.] + +Secondly, we find that the associations left in the minds of the +people by the expeditions of the Crusaders and the pilgrimages to +the Holy Sepulchre, rendered the Deposition and the Entombment +particularly popular and impressive as subjects of art, even down to +a late period. "Ce que la vaillante épée des ayeux avait glorieusement +defendu, le ciscaux des enfans aimait à le réproduire, leur piété à +l'honorer." I think we may trace these associations in many examples, +particularly in a Deposition by Raphael, of which there is a fine old +engraving. Here, in the centre, stands a circular building, such as +the church at Jerusalem was always described; in front of which are +seen the fainting Virgin and the mournful women: a grand and solemn +group, but poetically rather than historically treated. + + * * * * * + +In conclusion, I must notice one more form of the Mater Dolorosa, one +of the dramatic conceptions of the later schools of art; as far as I +knew, there exist no early examples. + +In a picture by Guercino (Louvre), the Virgin and St. Peter lament the +death of the Saviour. The Mother, with her clasped hands resting on +her knees, appears lost in resigned sorrow: she mourns her Son. Peter, +weeping, as with a troubled grief, seems to mourn at once his Lord +and Master, and his own weak denial. This picture has the energetic +feeling and utter want of poetic elevation which generally +characterized Guercino. + +There is a similar group by Ludovico Caracci in the Duonio at Bologna. + +In a picture by Tiarini, the _Madre Addolorata_ is seated, holding +in her hand the crown of thorns; Mary Magdalene kneels before her, +and St. John stands by--both expressing the utmost veneration and +sympathy. These and similar groups are especially to be found in the +later Bologna school. In all the instances known to me, they have been +painted for the Dominicans, and evidently intended to illustrate the +sorrows of the Rosary. + +In one of the services of the Passion Week, and in particular +reference to the maternal anguish of the Virgin, it was usual to read, +as the Epistle, a selection from the first chapter of the Lamentations +of Jeremiah, eloquent in the language of desolation and grief. The +painters seemed to have filled their imagination with the images +there presented; and frequently in the ideal _Pietà_ the daughter +of Jerusalem "sits solitary, with none to comfort her." It is the +contrary in the dramatic version: the devotion of the women, the +solicitude of the affectionate Magdalene, and the filial reverence of +St. John, whom the scriptural history associates with the Virgin in a +manner so affecting, are never forgotten. + +In obedience to the last command of his dying Master, John the +Evangelist-- + + "He, into whose keeping, from the cross, + The mighty charge was given--" + + DANTE. + +conducted to his own dwelling the Mother to whom he was henceforth to +be as a Son. This beautiful subject, "John conducting the Virgin to +his home," was quite unknown, as far as I am aware, in the earlier +schools of art, and appears first in the seventeenth century. An +eminent instance is a fine solemn group by Zurbaran. (Munich.) Christ +was laid in the sepulchre by night, and here, in the gray dawn, John +and the veiled Virgin are seen as returning from the entombment, and +walking mournfully side by side. + + * * * * * + +We find the peculiar relation between the Mother of Christ and St. +John, as her adopted son, expressed in a very tender and ideal manner, +on one of the wings of an altar-piece, attributed to Taddeo Gaddi. +(Berlin Gal., No. 1081.) Mary and St. John stand in front; he holds +one of her hands clasped in both his own, with a most reverent and +affectionate expression. Christ, standing between them, lays one hand +on the shoulder of each; the sentiment of this group is altogether +very unusual; and very remarkable. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART IV. + + + + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE RESURRECTION OF OUR LORD TO THE +ASSUMPTION. + +1. THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. 2. THE ASCENSION. 3. +THE DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST. 4. THE DEATH OF THE VIRGIN. 5. THE +ASSUMPTION AND CORONATION. + + +THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. + +The enthusiastic and increasing veneration for the Madonna, the large +place she filled in the religious teaching of the ecclesiastics and +the religious sentiments of the people, are nowhere more apparent, +nor more strikingly exhibited, than in the manner in which she was +associated with the scenes which followed the Passion;--the manner +in which some incidents were suggested, and treated with a peculiar +reference to her, and to her maternal feelings. It is nowhere said +that the Virgin Mother was one of the Marys who visited the tomb on +the morning of the resurrection, and nowhere is she so represented. +But out of the human sympathy with that bereaved and longing heart, +arose the beautiful legend of the interview between Christ and his +Mother after he had risen from the dead. + +There existed a very ancient tradition (it is mentioned by St. +Ambrose in the fourth century, as being then generally accepted by +Christians), that Christ, after his return from Hades, visited his +Mother even before he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden. +It is not indeed so written in the Gospel; but what of that? The +reasoning which led to the conclusion was very simple. He whose last +earthly thought was for his Mother would not leave her without that +consolation it was in his power to give; and what, as a son, it was +his duty to do (for the _humanity_ of Christ is never forgotten by +those who most intensely believed in his _divinity_,) that, of course, +he did do. + +The story is thus related:--Mary, when all was "finished," retired +to her chamber, and remained alone with her grief--not wailing, not +repining, not hopeless, but waiting for the fulfilment of the promise. +Open before her lay the volume of the prophecies; and she prayed +earnestly, and she said, "Thou, didst promise, O my most dear Son! +that thou wouldst rise again on the third day. Before yesterday was +the day of darkness and bitterness, and, behold, this is the third +day. Return then to me thy Mother; O my Son, tarry not, but come!" +And while thus she prayed, lo! a bright company of angels, who entered +waving their palms and radiant with joy; and they surrounded her, +kneeling and singing the triumphant Easter hymn, _Regina Coeli lætare, +Alleluia!_[1] And then came Christ partly clothed in a white garment, +having in his left hand the standard of the cross, as one just +returned from the nether world, and victorious over the powers of +sin and death. And with him came the patriarchs and prophets, whose +long-imprisoned spirits he had released from Hades.[2] All these knelt +before the Virgin, and saluted her, and blessed her, and thanked her, +because through her had come their deliverance. But, for all this, the +Mother was not comforted till she had heard the voice of her Son. Then +he, raising his hand in benediction, spoke and said, "I salute thee, +O my Mother!" and she, weeping tears of joy, responded, "Is it thou +indeed, my most dear Son?" and she fell upon his neck, and he embraced +her tenderly, and showed her the wounds he had received for sinful +man. Then he bid her be comforted and weep no more, for the pain +of death had passed away, and the gates of hell had not prevailed +against him. And she thanked him meekly on her knees, for that he had +been pleased to bring redemption to man, and to make her the humble +instrument of his great mercy. And they sat and talked together, until +he took leave of her to return to the garden, and to show himself to +Mary Magdalene, who, next to his glorious Mother, had most need of +consolation.[3] + +[Footnote 1: + + "Regina Coeli lætare Alleluia! + Quia quem meruisti portare, Alleluia! + Resurrexit sicut dixit, Alleluia! + Ora pro nobis Deum, Alleluia!"] + +[Footnote 2: The legend of the "Descent into Hades" (or limbo), often +treated of in art, will be given at length in the History of our +Lord.] + +[Footnote 3: I have given the legend from various sources; but there +is something quite untranslatable and perfectly beautiful in the +naïveté of the old Italian version. After describing the celestial +music of the angels, the rejoicing of the liberated patriarchs, and +the appearance of Christ, _allegro, e bello e tutto lucido_, it thus +proceeds: "_Quando ella lo vidde, gli andò incontro ella ancora con +le braccia aperte, e quasi tramortita per l'allegrazza. Il benedetto +Gesù l'abbraccio teneressimamente, ed ella glidesse; 'Ahi, figliuolo +mio cordialissimo, sei tu veramente il mio Gesù, ò pur m'inganna +l'affetto!' 'Io sono il tuo figliuolo, madre mia, dolcissima,' disse +il Signore: 'cessino hormai le tue lagrime, non fare ch'io ti veda +più di mala voglia, Già son finiti li tuoi e li miei travagli e dolori +insieme!' Erano rimase alcune lagrime negli occhi della Vergine.... +e per la grande allegrezza non poteva proferire parola alcuna ... +ma quando al fine potè parlare, lo ringrazio per parte di tutto +il genere humano, per la redenzione, operata e fatta, per tutto +generalmente."--v. Il Perfetto Legendario_] + +The pathetic sentiment, and all the supernatural and mystical +accompaniments of this beautiful myth of the early ages, have been +very inadequately rendered by the artists. It is always treated as a +plain matter-of-fact scene. The Virgin kneels; the Saviour, bearing +his standard, stands before her; and where the delivered patriarchs +are introduced, they are generally either Adam and Eve, the authors +of the fall or Abraham and David, the progenitors of Christ and the +Virgin. The patriarchs are omitted in the earliest instance I can +refer to, one of the carved panels of the stalls in the Cathedral of +Amiens: also in the composition by Albert Durer, not included in his +life of the Virgin, but forming one of the series of the Passion. +Guido has represented the scene in a very fine picture, wherein an +angel bears the standard of victory, and behind our Saviour are Adam +and Eve. (Dresden Gal.) + +Another example, by Guercino (Cathedral, Cento), is cited by Goethe +as an instance of that excellence in the expression of the natural +and domestic affections which characterized the painter. Mary kneels +before her Son, looking up in his face with unutterable affection; +he regards her with a calm, sad look, "as if within his noble soul +there still remained the recollection of his sufferings and hers, +outliving the pang of death, the descent into the grave, and which +the resurrection had not yet dispelled." This, however, is not the +sentiment, at once affectionate and joyously triumphant, of the +old legend. I was pleased with a little picture in the Lichtenstein +Gallery at Vienna, where the risen Saviour, standing before his +Mother, points to the page of the book before her, as if he said, "See +you not that thus it is written?" (Luke xxiv. 46.) Behind Jesus is +St. John the Evangelist bearing the cup and the cross, as the cup of +sorrow and the cross of pain, not the mere emblems. There is another +example, by one of the Caracci, in the Fitzwilliam Collection at +Cambridge. + +A picture by Albano of this subject, in which Christ comes flying or +floating on the air, like an incorporeal being, surrounded by little +fluttering cherubim, very much like Cupids, is an example of all that +is most false and objectionable in feeling and treatment. (Florence, +Pitti Pal.) + +The popularity of this scene in the Bologna school of art arose, I +think, from its being adopted as one of the subjects from the Rosary, +the first of "the five Glorious Mysteries;" therefore especially +affected by the Dominicans, the great patrons of the Caracci at that +time. + + * * * * * + +The ASCENSION, though one of the "Glorious Mysteries," was also +accounted as the seventh and last of the sorrows of the Virgin, for +she was then left alone on earth. All the old legends represent her +as present on this occasion, and saying, as she followed with uplifted +eyes the soaring figure of Christ, "My Son, remember me when thou +comest to thy kingdom! Leave me not long after thee, my Son!" In +Giotto's composition in the chapel of the Arena, at Padua, she is by +far the most prominent figure. In almost all the late pictures of the +Ascension, she is introduced with the other Marys, kneeling on one +side, or placed in the centre among the apostles. + + * * * * * + +The DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST is a strictly scriptural subject. I +have heard it said that the introduction of Mary is not authorized by +the scripture narrative. I must observe, however that, without any +wringing of the text for an especial purpose, the passage might be +so interpreted. In the first chapter of the Acts (ver. 14), after +enumerating the apostles by name, it is added, "These all continued +with one accord in prayer and supplication, with the women and Mary +the mother of Jesus, and with his brethren." And in the commencement +of the second chapter the narrative thus proceeds: "And when the day +of Pentecost was fully come, they were _all_ with one accord in +one place." The word _all_ is, in the Concordance, referred to the +previous text (ver. 14), as including Mary and the women: thus they +who were constant in their love were not refused a participation in +the gifts of the Spirit. Mary, in her character of the divine Mother +of Wisdom, or even Wisdom herself,[1] did not, perhaps, need any +accession of intellectual light; but we must remember that the Holy +Spirit was the Comforter, as well as the Giver of wisdom; therefore, +equally needed by those, whether men or women, who were all equally +called upon to carry out the ministry of Christ in love and service, +in doing and in suffering. + +[Footnote 1: The sublime eulogium of Wisdom (Prov. viii. 22), is, in +the Roman Catholic Church, applied to the Virgin Mary.] + +In the account of the apostles I have already described at length the +various treatment and most celebrated examples of this subject, and +shall only make one or two observations with especial reference to +the figure of the Virgin. It was in accordance with the feelings and +convictions prevalent in the fifteenth century, that if Mary were +admitted to be present, she would take the principal place, as Queen +and Mother of the Apostles (_Regina et Mater Apostolorum_). She +is, therefore, usually placed either in front, or in the centre +on a raised seat or dais; and often holding a book (as the _Mater +Sapientiæ_); and she receives the divine affusion either with veiled +lids and meek rejoicing; or with uplifted eyes, as one inspired, she +pours forth the hymn, _Veni, Sancte Spiritus_. + +I agree with the critics that, as the Spirit descended in form +of cloven tongues of fire, the emblem of the Dove, almost always +introduced, is here superfluous, and, indeed, out of place. + + * * * * * + +I must mention here another subject altogether apocryphal, and +confined to the late Spanish and Italian schools: The Virgin receives +the sacramental wafer from the hand of St. John the Evangelist. +This is frequently misunderstood, and styled the Communion of Mary +Magdalene. But the long hair and uncovered head of the Magdalene, and +the episcopal robe of St. Maximin, are in general distinguishable from +the veiled matronly head of the Virgin Mother, and the deacon's vest +of St. John. There is also a legend that Mary received baptism from +St. Peter; but this is a subject I have never met with in art, ancient +or modern. It may possibly exist. + +I am not acquainted with any representations taken from the sojourn on +earth of the Blessed Virgin from this time to the period of her death, +the date of which is uncertain. It is, however, generally supposed to +have taken place in the forty-eighth year of our era, and about eleven +years after the Crucifixion, therefore in her sixtieth year. There +is no distinct record, either historical or legendary, as to the +manner in which she passed these years. There are, indeed, floating +traditions alluded to by the early theological writers, that when the +first persecution broke out at Jerusalem, Mary accompanied St. John +the Evangelist to Ephesus, and was attended thither by the faithful +and affectionate Mary Magdalene. Also that she dwelt for some time on +Mount Carmel, in an oratory erected there by the prophet Elijah, and +hence became the patroness of the Carmelites, under the title of Our +Lady of Mount Carmel (_La Madonna del Carmine_, or _del Carmelo_). +If there exist any creations of the artists founded on these obscure +traditions, which is indeed most probable, particularly in the +edifices of the Carmelites in Spain, I have not met with them. + + * * * * * + +It is related that before the apostles separated to obey the command +of their divine Master, and preach the gospel to all the nations of +the earth, they took a solemn leave of the Virgin Mary, and received +her blessing. This subject has been represented, though not by any +distinguished artist. I remember such a picture, apparently of the +sixteenth century, in the Church of S. Maria-in-Capitolio at Cologne, +and another, by Bissoni, in the San Giustina at Padua. (Sacred and +Legendary Art.) + + + + + +THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION Of THE VIRGIN + + +_Lat._ Dormitio, Pausatio, Transitus, Assumptio, B. Virginis. _Ital._ +Il Transito di Maria. Il Sonno della Beata Vergine. L' Assunzione. +_Fr._ La Mort de la Vierge. L'Assomption. _Ger._ Das Absterben der +Maria. Maria Himmelfahrt. August, 13, 15. + + +We approach the closing scenes. + +Of all the representations consecrated to the glory of the Virgin, +none have been more popular, more multiplied through every form of +art, and more admirably treated, than her death and apotheosis. +The latter in particular, under the title of "the Assumption," +became the visible expression of a dogma of faith then universally +received--namely, the exaltation and deification of the Virgin in +the body as well as in the spirit. As such it meets us at every turn +in the edifices dedicated to her; in painting over the altar, in +sculpture over the portal, or gleaming upon us in light from the +shining many-coloured windows. Sometimes the two subjects are +combined, and the death-scene (_Il transito di Maria_) figured below, +is, in fact, only the _transition_ to the blessedness and exaltation +figured above. But whether separate or combined, the two scenes, in +themselves most beautiful and touching,--the extremes of the mournful +and the majestic, the dramatic and the ideal,--offered to the medieval +artists such a breadth of space for the exhibition of feeling and +fancy as no other subject afforded. Consequently, among the examples +handed down to us, are to be found some of the most curious and +important relics of the early schools, while others rank among the +grandest productions of the best ages of art. + +For the proper understanding of these, it is necessary to give the old +apocryphal legend at some length; for, although the very curious and +extravagant details of this legend were not authorized by the Church +as matters of fact or faith, it is clear that the artists were +permitted thence to derive their materials and their imagery. In +what manner they availed themselves of this permission, and how far +the wildly poetical circumstances with which the old tradition was +gradually invested, were allowed to enter into the forms of art, we +shall afterwards consider. + + + THE LEGEND OF THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION OF THE MOST GLORIOUS + VIRGIN MARY. + + Mary dwelt in the house of John upon Mount Sion looking for + the fulfilment of the promise of deliverance, and she spent + her days in visiting those places which had been hallowed by + the baptism, the sufferings, the burial and resurrection of + her divine Son, but more particularly the tomb wherein he was + laid. And she did not this as seeking the living among the + dead, but for consolation and for remembrance. + + And on a certain day; the heart of the Virgin, being filled + with an inexpressible longing to behold her Son, melted away + within her, and she wept abundantly. And lo! an angel appeared + before her clothed in light as with a garment. And he saluted + her, and said, "Hail, O Mary! blessed by him who hath given + salvation to Israel I bring thee here a branch of palm + gathered in Paradise; command that it be carried before thy + bier in the day of thy death; for in three days they soul + shall leave thy body, and though shalt enter into Paradise, + where thy Son awaits thy coming." Mary, answering, said, "If I + have found grace in thy eyes, tell me first what is thy name; + and grant that the apostles my brethren may be reunited to me + before I die, that in their presence I may give up my soul to + God. Also, I pray thee, that my soul, when delivered from my + body, may not be affrighted by any spirit of darkness, nor + any evil angel be allowed to have any power over me." And the + angel said, "Why dost thou ask my name? My name is the Great + and the Wonderful. And now doubt not that all the apostles + shall be reunited, to thee this day; for he who in former + times transported the prophet Habakkuk from Judea to Jerusalem + by the hair of his head, can as easily bring hither the + apostles. And fear thou not the evil spirit, for hast thou not + bruised his head and destroyed his kingdom?" And having said + these words, the angel departed into heaven; and the palm + branch which he had left behind him shed light from every + leaf, and sparkled as the stars of the morning. Then Mary + lighted, the lamps and prepared her bed, and waited until the + hour was come. And in the same instant John, who was preaching + at Ephesus, and Peter, who was preaching at Antioch, and all + the other apostles who were dispersed in different parts of + the world, were suddenly caught up as by a miraculous power, + and found themselves before the door of the habitation of + Mary. When Mary saw them all assembled round her, she blessed + and thanked the Lord, and she placed in the hands of St. John + the shining palm, and desired that he should bear it before + her at the time of her burial. Then Mary, kneeling down, made + her prayer to the Lord her Son, and the others prayed with + her; then she laid herself down in her bed and composed + herself for death. And John wept bitterly. And about the third + hour of the night, as Peter stood at the head of the bed and + John at the foot, and the other apostles around, a mighty + sound filled the house, and a delicious perfume filled + the chamber. And Jesus himself appeared accompanied by an + innumerable company of angels, patriarchs, and prophets; all + these surrounded the bed of the Virgin, singing hymns of joy. + And Jesus said to his Mother, "Arise, my beloved, mine elect! + come with me from Lebanon, my espoused! receive the crown that + is destined for thee!" And Mary, answering, said, "My heart + is ready; for it was written of me that I should do thy will!" + Then all the angels and blessed spirits who accompanied Jesus + began to sing and rejoice. And the soul of Mary left her body, + and was received into the arms of her Son; and together they + ascended into heaven.[1] And the apostles looked up, saying, + "Oh most prudent Virgin, remember us when thou comest to + glory!" and the angels, who received her into heaven, sung + these words, "Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness + leaning upon her Beloved? she is fairer than all the daughters + of Jerusalem." + +[Footnote 1: In the later French legend, it is the angel +Michael who takes charge of the departing soul. "_Ecce Dominus +venit cum multitudine angelorum_; et Jésus Christ vint en grande +compaignie d'anges; entre lesquels estoit Sainct Michel, et quand +la Vierge Marie le veit elle dit, 'Benoist soit Jésus Christ car il +ne m'a pas oubliée.' Quand elle eut ce dit elle rendit l'esprit, +lequel Sainct Michel print."] + + But the body of Mary remained upon the earth; and three among + the virgins prepared to wash and clothe it in a shroud; but + such a glory of light surrounded her form, that though they + touched it they could not see it, and no human eye beheld + those chaste and sacred limbs unclothed. Then the apostles + took her up reverently and placed her upon a bier, and John, + carrying the celestial palm, went before. Peter sung the 114th + Psalm, "_In exitu Israel de Egypto, domus Jacob de populo + barbaro_," and the angels followed after, also singing. The + wicked Jews, hearing these melodious voices, ran together; and + the high-priest, being seized with fury, laid his hands upon + the bier intending to overturn it on the earth; but both his + arms were suddenly dried up, so that he could not move them, + and he was overcome with fear; and he prayed to St. Peter + for help, and Peter said, "Have faith in Jesus Christ, and + his Mother, and thon shalt be healed;" and it was so. Then + they went on and laid the Virgin in a tomb in the Valley of + Jehoshaphat.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Or Gethsemane. I must observe here, that in the +genuine oriental legend, it is Michael the Archangel who hews off +the hands of the audacious Jew, which were afterwards, at the +intercession of St. Peter, reunited to his body.] + + And on the third day, Jesus said to the angels, "What honour + shall I confer on her who was my mother on earth, and brought + me forth?" And they answered, "Lord, suffer not that body + which was thy temple and thy dwelling to see corruption; but + place her beside thee on thy throne in heaven." And Jesus + consented; and the Archangel Michael brought unto the Lord, + the glorious soul of our Lady. And the Lord said, "Rise up, my + dove, my undefiled, for thou shalt not remain in the darkness + of the grave, nor shall thou see corruption;" and immediately + the soul of Mary rejoined her body, and she arose up glorious + from the tomb, and ascended into heaven surrounded and + welcomed by troops of angels, blowing their silver trumpets, + touching their golden lutes, singing, and rejoicing as they + sung, "Who is she that riseth as the morning, fair as the + moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners?" + (Cant. vi. 10.) + + But one among the apostles was absent; and when he arrived + soon after, he would not believe in the resurrection of the + Virgin; and this apostle was the same Thomas, who had formerly + been slow to believe in the resurrection of the Lord; and he + desired that the tomb should be opened before him; and when it + was opened it was found to be full of lilies and roses. Then + Thomas, looking up to heaven, beheld the Virgin bodily, in a + glory of light, slowly mounting towards the heaven; and she, + for the assurance of his faith, flung down to him her girdle, + the same which is to this day preserved in the cathedral of + Prato. And there were present at the death of the Virgin + Mary, besides the twelve apostles, Dionysius the Areopagite, + Timotheus, and Hierotheus; and of the women, Mary Salome, Mary + Cleophas,[1] and a faithful handmaid whose name was Savia. + +[Footnote 1: According to the French legend, Mary Magdalene and her +sister Martha were also present.] + + * * * * * + +This legend of the Death and Assumption of the Virgin has afforded to +the artists seven distinct scenes. + +1. The Angel, bearing the palm, announces to Mary her approaching +death. The announcing angel is usually supposed to be Gabriel, but +it is properly Michael, the "angel of death." 2. She takes leave of +the Apostles. 3. Her Death. 4. She is borne to the Sepulchre. 5. +Her Entombment. 6. Her Assumption, where she rises triumphant and +glorious, "like unto the morning" ("_quasi aurora consurgens_"). 7. +Her Coronation in heaven, where she takes her place beside her Son. + +In early art, particularly in the Gothic sculpture, two or more of +these subjects are generally grouped together. Sometimes we have the +death-scene and the entombment on a line below, and, above these, +the coronation or the assumption, as over the portal of Notre Dame at +Paris, and in many other instances; or we have first her death, above +this, her assumption, and, above all, her coronation; as over the +portal at Amiens and elsewhere. + + * * * * * + +I shall now take these subjects in their order. + +The angel announcing to Mary her approaching death has been rarely +treated. In general, Mary is seated or standing, and the angel kneels +before her, bearing the starry palm brought from Paradise. In the +frescoes at Orvieto, and in the bas-relief of Oreagna,[1] the angel +comes flying downwards with the palm. In a predella by Fra Filippo +Lippi, the angel kneels, reverently presenting a taper, which the +Virgin receives with majestic grace; St. Peter stands behind. It was +the custom to place a taper in the hand of a dying person; and as the +palm is also given sometimes to the angel of the incarnation, while +the taper can have but one meaning, the significance of the scene +is here fixed beyond the possibility of mistake, though there is a +departure from the literal details of the old legend. There is in +the Munich Gallery a curious German example of this subject by Hans +Schauffelein. + +[Footnote 1: On the beautiful shrine in Or-San-Michele, at Florence.] + + * * * * * + +The death of the Virgin is styled in Byzantine and old Italian art +the Sleep of the Virgin, _Il Sonno della Madonna_; for it was an +old superstition, subsequently rejected as heretical, that she did +not really die after the manner of common mortals, only fell asleep +till her resurrection. Therefore, perhaps, it is, that in the early +pictures we have before us, not so much a scene or action, as a sort +of mysterious rite; it is not the Virgin dead or dying in her bed; she +only slumbers in preparation for her entombment; while in the later +pictures, we have a death-bed scene with all the usual dramatic and +pathetic accessories. + +In one sense or the other, the theme has been constantly treated, +from the earliest ages of the revival of art down to the seventeenth +century. + +In the most ancient examples which are derived from the Greek school, +it is always represented with a mystical and solemn simplicity, +adhering closely to the old legend, and to the formula laid down in +the Greek Manual. + +There is such a picture in the Wallerstein Collection at Kensington +Palace. The couch or bier is in the centre of the picture, and Mary +lies upon it wrapped in a veil and mantle with closed eyes and hands +crossed over her bosom. The twelve apostles stand round in attitudes +of grief angels attend bearing tapers. Behind the extended form of the +Virgin is the figure of Christ; a glorious red seraph with expanded +wings hovers above his head. He holds in his arms the soul of the +Virgin in likeness of a new-born child. On each side stand St. +Dionysius the Areopagite, and St. Timothy, Bishop of Ephesas, in +episcopal robes. In front, the archangel Michael bends forward to +strike off the hands of the high-priest Adonijah, who had attempted to +profane the bier. (This last circumstance is rarely expressed, except +in the Byzantine pictures; for in the Italian legend, the hands of the +intruder wither and adhere to the bed or shrine.) In the picture +just described; all is at once simple, and formal, and solemn, and +supernatural; it is a very perfect example in its way of the genuine +Byzantine treatment. There is a similar picture in the Christian +museum of the Vatican. + +Another (the date about the first half of the fourteenth century, +as I think) is curious from the introduction of the women.[1] The +Virgin lies on an embroidered sheet held reverently by angels; at the +feet and at the head other angels bear tapers; Christ receives the +departing soul, which stretches out its arms; St. John kneels in +front, and St. Peter reads the service; the other apostles are behind +him, and there are three women. The execution of this curious picture +is extremely rude, but the heads very fine. Cimabue painted the Death +of the Virgin at Assisi. There is a beautiful example by Giotto, where +two lovely angels stand at the head and two at the feet, sustaining +the pall on which she lies; another most exquisite by Angelico in +the Florence Gallery; another most beautiful and pathetic by Taddeo +Bartoli in the Palazzo Publico at Siena. + +[Footnote 1: At present in the collection of Mr. Bromley, of Wootten.] + +The custom of representing Christ as standing by the couch or tomb of +his mother, in the act of receiving her soul, continued down to the +fifteenth century, at least with slight deviations from the original +conception. The later treatment is quite different. The solemn +mysterious sleep, the transition from one life to another, became a +familiar death-bed scene with the usual moving accompaniments. But +even while avoiding the supernatural incidents, the Italians gave to +the representation much ideal elegance; for instance, in the beautiful +fresco by Ghirlandajo. (Florence, S. Maria-Novella.) + + * * * * * + +In the old German school we have that homely matter-of-fact feeling, +and dramatic expression, and defiance of all chronological propriety, +which belonged to the time and school. The composition by Albert +Durer, in his series of the Life of the Virgin, has great beauty and +simplicity of expression, and in the arrangement a degree of grandeur +and repose which has caused it to be often copied and reproduced as a +picture, though the original form is merely that of a wood-cut.[1] In +the centre is a bedstead with a canopy, on which Mary lies fronting +the spectator, her eyes half closed. On the left of the bed stands +St. Peter, habited as a bishop: he places a taper in her dying hand; +another apostle holds the asperge with which to sprinkle her with +holy water: another reads the service. In the foreground is a priest +bearing a cross, and another with incense; and on the right, the other +apostles in attitudes of devotion and grief. + +[Footnote 1: There is one such copy in the Sutherland Gallery; and +another in the Munich Gallery, Cabinet viii. 161.] + +Another picture by Albert Durer, once in the Fries Gallery, at +Vienna, unites, in a most remarkable manner, all the legendary and +supernatural incidents with the most intense and homely reality. It +appears to have been painted for the Emperor Maximilian, as a tribute +to the memory of his first wife, the interesting Maria of Burgundy. +The disposition of the bed is the same as in the wood-cut, the foot +towards the spectator. The face of the dying Virgin is that of the +young duchess. On the right, her son, afterwards Philip of Spain, +and father of Charles V., stands as the young St. John, and presents +the taper; the other apostles are seen around, most of them praying; +St. Peter, habited as bishop, reads from an open book (this is the +portrait of George à Zlatkonia, bishop of Vienna, the friend and +counsellor of Maximilian); behind him, as one of the apostles, +Maximilian himself, with head bowed down, as in sorrow. Three +ecclesiastics are seen entering by an open door, bearing the cross, +the censer, and the holy water. Over the bed is seen the figure of +Christ; in his arms, the soul of the Virgin, in likeness of an infant +with clasped hands; and above all, in an open glory and like a vision, +her reception and coronation in heaven. Upon a scroll over her head, +are the words, "_Surge propera, amica mea; veni de Libano, veni +coronaberis._" (Cant. iv. 8.) Three among the hovering angels bear +scrolls, on one of which is inscribed the text from the Canticles, +"_Quæ est ista quæ progreditur quasi aurora consurgens, pulchra ut +luna, electa ut sol, terribilis ut castrorum acies ordinata?_" (Cant. +vi. 10;) on another, "_Quæ est ista quæ ascendit de deserto deliciis +affluens super dilectum suum?_" (Cant. viii. 5;) and on the third, +"_Quæ est ista quæ ascendit super dilectum suum ut virgula fumi?_" +(Cant. iii. 6.) This picture bears the date 1518. If it be true, as +is, indeed, most apparent, that it was painted by order of Maximilian +nearly forty years after the loss of the young wife he so tenderly +loved, and only one year before his own death, there is something +very touching in it as a memorial. The ingenious and tender compliment +implied by making Mary of Burgundy the real object of those mystic +texts consecrated to the glory of the MATER DEI, verges, perhaps, +on the profane; but it was not so intended; it was merely that +combination of the pious, and the poetical, and the sentimental, which +was one of the characteristics of the time, in literature, as well as +in art. (Heller's Albrecht Dürer p. 261.) + +The picture by Jan Schoreel, one of the great ornaments of the +Boisserée Gallery,[1] is remarkable for its intense reality and +splendour of colour. The heads are full of character; that of the +Virgin in particular, who seems, with half-closed eyes, in act to +breathe away her soul in rapture. The altar near the bed, having on +it figures of Moses and Aaron, is, however, a serious fault and +incongruity in this fine painting. + +[Footnote 1: Munich (70). The admirable lithograph by Strixner is well +known.] + +I must observe that Mary is not always dead or dying: she is sometimes +preparing for death, in the act of prayer at the foot of her couch, +with the apostles standing round, as in a very fine picture by Martin +Schaffner, where she kneels with a lovely expression, sustained in the +arms of St. John, while St. Peter holds the gospel open before her. +(Munich Gal.) Sometimes she is sitting up in her bed, and reading from +the Book of the Scripture, which is always held by St. Peter. + +In a picture by Cola della Matrice, the Death of the Virgin is treated +at once in a mystical and dramatic style. Enveloped in a dark blue +mantle spangled with golden stars, she lies extended on a couch; +St. Peter, in a splendid scarlet cope as bishop, reads the service; +St. John, holding the palm, weeps bitterly. In front, and kneeling +before the coach or bier, appear the three great Dominican saints +as witnesses of the religious mystery; in the centre, St. Dominick; +on the left, St. Catherine of Siena; and on the right, St. Thomas +Aquinas. In a compartment above is the Assumption. (Rome, Capitol.) + + * * * * * + +Among the later Italian examples, where the old legendary accessories +are generally omitted, there are some of peculiar elegance. One +by Ludovico Caracci, another by Domenichino, and a third by Carlo +Maratti, are treated, if not with much of poetry or religious +sentiment, yet with great dignity and pathos. + +I must mention one more, because of its history and celebrity: +Caravaggio, of whom it was said that he always painted like a ruffian, +because he _was_ a ruffian, was also a genius in his way, and for a +few months he became the fashion at Rome, and was even patronized by +some of the higher ecclesiastics. He painted for the church of _la +Scala in Trastevere_ a picture of the Death of the Virgin, wonderful +for the intense natural expression, and in the same degree grotesque +from its impropriety. Mary, instead of being decently veiled, lies +extended with long scattered hair; the strongly marked features +and large proportions of the figure are those of a woman of the +Trastevere.[1] The apostles stand around; one or two of them--I must +use the word--blubber aloud: Peter thrusts his fists into his eyes to +keep back the tears; a woman seated in front cries and sobs; nothing +can be more real, nor more utterly vulgar. The ecclesiastics for whom +the picture was executed were so scandalized, that they refused to +hang it up in their church. It was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, +and, with the rest of the Mantuan Gallery, came afterwards into the +possession of our unfortunate Charles I. On the dispersion of his +pictures, it found its way into the Louvre, where it now is. It has +been often engraved. + +[Footnote 1: The face has a swollen look, and it was said that +his model had been a common woman whose features were swelled by +intoxication. (Louvre, 32.)] + + * * * * * + +THE APOSTLES CARRY THE BODY OF THE VIRGIN TO THE TOMB. This is a very +uncommon subject. There is a most beautiful example by Taddeo Bartoli +(Siena, Pal. Publico), full of profound religious feeling. There is +a small engraving by Bonasoni, in a series of the Life of the Virgin, +apparently after Parmigiano, in which the apostles bear her on their +shoulders over rocky ground, and appear to be descending into the +Valley of Jehoshaphat: underneath are these lines:-- + + "Portan gli uomini santi in su le spalle + Al Sepolcro il corpo di Maria + Di Josaphat nella famosa valle." + +There is another picture of this subject by Ludovico Caracci, at +Parma. + + * * * * * + +THE ENTOMBMENT. In the early pictures, there is little distinction +between this subject and the Death of the Virgin. If the figure +of Christ stand over the recumbent form, holding in his arms the +emancipated soul, then it is the _Transito_--the death or sleep; but +when a sarcophagus is in the centre of the picture, and the body +lies extended above it on a sort of sheet or pall held by angels or +apostles, it may be determined that it is the Entombment of the Virgin +after her death. In a small and very beautiful picture by Angelico, we +have distinctly this representation.[1] She lies, like one asleep, on +a white pall, held reverently by the mourners. They prepare to lay her +in a marble sarcophagus. St. John, bearing the starry palm, appears +to address a man in a doctor's cap and gown, evidently intended for +Dionysius the Areopagite. Above, in the sky, the soul of the Virgin, +surrounded by most graceful angels, is received into heaven. This +group is distinguished from the group below, by being painted in a +dreamy bluish tint, like solidified light, or like a vision. + +[Footnote 1: This picture, now in the possession of W. Fuller +Maitland, Esq., was exhibited in the British Institution in the summer +of 1852. It is engraved in the Etruria Pittrice.] + + * * * * * + +THE ASSUMPTION. The old painters distinguish between the Assumption +of the soul and the Assumption of the body of the Virgin. In the first +instance, at the moment the soul is separated from the body, Christ +receives it into his keeping, standing in person either beside her +death-bed or above it. But in the Assumption properly so called, we +have the moment wherein the soul of the Virgin is reunited to her +body, which, at the command of Christ, rises up from the tomb. Of all +the themes of sacred art there is not one more complete and beautiful +than this, in what it represents, and in what it suggests. Earth and +its sorrows, death and the grave, are left below; and the pure spirit +of the Mother again clothed in its unspotted tabernacle, surrounded +by angelic harmonies, and sustained by wings of cherubim and seraphim, +soars upwards to meet her Son, and to be reunited to him forever. + + * * * * * + +We must consider this fine subject under two aspects. + +The first is purely ideal and devotional; it is simply the expression +of a dogma of faith, "_Assumpta est Maria Virgo in Coelum_." The +figure of the Virgin is seen within an almond-shaped aureole (the +mandorla), not unfrequently crowned as well as veiled, her hands +joined, her white robe falling round her feet (for in all the early +pictures the dress of the Virgin is white, often spangled with stars), +and thus she seems to cleave the air upwards, while adoring angels +surround the glory of light within which she is enshrined. Such are +the figures which are placed in sculpture over the portals of the +churches dedicated to her, as at Florence.[1] She is not always +standing and upright, but seated on a throne, placed within an aureole +of light, and borne by angels, as over the door of the Campo Santo +at Pisa. I am not sure that such figures are properly styled the +Assumption; they rather exhibit in an ideal form the glorification +of the Virgin, another version of the same idea expressed in the +_Incoronata_. She is here _Varia Virgo Assumpta_, or, in Italian, +_L'Assunta_; she has taken upon her the glory of immortality, though +not yet crowned. + +[Footnote 1: The "Santa Maria del Fiore,"--the Duomo.] + +But when the Assumption is presented to us as the final scene of her +life, and expresses, as it were, a progressive action--when she has +left the empty tomb, and the wondering, weeping apostles on the earth +below, and rises "like the morning" ("_quasi aurora surgens_") from +the night of the grave,--then we have the Assumption of the Virgin in +its dramatic and historical form, the final act and consummation of +her visible and earthly life. As the Church had never settled in what +manner she was translated into heaven, only pronouncing it heresy to +doubt the fact itself, the field was in great measure left open to the +artists. The tomb below, the figure of the Virgin floating in mid-air, +and the opening heavens above, such is the general conception fixed +by the traditions of art; but to give some idea of the manner in which +this has been varied, I shall describe a few examples. + +1. Giunta Pisano, 1230. (Assisi, S. Franceso.) Christ and the Virgin +ascend together in a seated attitude upborne by clouds and surrounded +by angels; his arm is round her. The empty tomb, with the apostles and +others, below. The idea is here taken from the Canticles (ch. viii.), +"Who is this that ariseth from the wilderness leaning upon her +beloved?" + +2. Andrea Orcagna, 1359. (Bas-relief, Or-San-Michele, Florence.) The +Virgin Mary is seated on a rich throne within the _Mandorla_, which +is borne upwards by four angels, while two are playing on musical +instruments. Immediately below the Virgin, on the right, is the +figure of St. Thomas, with hands outstretched, receiving the mystic +girdle: below is the entombment; Mary lies extended on a pall above +a sarcophagus. In the centre stands Christ, holding in his arms the +emancipated soul; he is attended by eight angels. St. John is at the +head of the Virgin, and near him an angel swings a censer; St. James +bends and kisses her hand; St. Peter reads as usual; and the other +apostles stand round, with Dionysius, Timothy, and Hierotheus, +distinguished from the apostles by wearing turbans and caps. The whole +most beautifully treated. + +I have been minutely exact in describing the details of this +composition, because it will be useful as a key to many others of the +early Tuscan school, both in sculpture and painting; for example, the +fine bas-relief by Nanni over the south door of the Duomo at Florence, +represents St. Thomas in the same manner kneeling outside the aureole +and receiving the girdle; but the entombment below is omitted. These +sculptures were executed at the time when the enthusiasm for the +_Sacratissima Cintola della Madonna_ prevailed throughout the length +and breadth of Tuscany, and Prato had become a place of pilgrimage. + +This story of the Girdle was one of the legends imported from the +East. It had certainly a Greek origin;[1] and, according to the Greek +formula, St. Thomas is to be figured apart in the clouds, on the +right of the Virgin, and in the act of receiving the girdle. Such is +the approved arrangement till the end of the fourteenth century; +afterwards we find St. Thomas placed below among the other apostles. + +[Footnote 1: It may be found in the Greek Menologium, iii. p. 225] + + +THE LEGEND OF THE HOLY GIRDLE. + +An account of the Assumption would be imperfect without some notice +of the western legend, which relates the subsequent history of the +Girdle, and its arrival in Italy, as represented in the frescoes of +Agnolo Gaddi at Prato.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Notizie istoriche intorno alla Sacratissima Cintola +di Maria Vergine, che si conserva, nella Città di Prato, dal Dottore +Giuseppe Bianchini di Prato_, 1795.] + +The chapel _della Sacratissima Cintola_ was erected from the designs +of Giovanni Pisano about 1320. This "most sacred" relic had long been +deposited under the high altar of the principal chapel, and held in +great veneration; but in the year 1312, a native of Prato, whose name +was Musciatino, conceived the idea of carrying it off, and selling it +in Florence. The attempt was discovered; the unhappy thief suffered +a cruel death; and the people of Prato resolved to provide for the +future custody of the precious relic a new and inviolable shrine. + +The chapel is in the form of a parallelogram, three sides of which are +painted, the other being separated from the choir by a bronze gate of +most exquisite workmanship, designed by Ghiberti, or, as others say, +by Brunelleschi, and executed partly by Simone Donatello. + +On the wall, to the left as we enter, is a series of subjects from the +Life of the Virgin, beginning, as usual, with the Rejection of Joachim +from the temple, and ending with the Nativity of our Saviour. + +The end of the chapel is filled up by the Assumption of the Virgin, +the tomb being seen below, surrounded by the apostles; and above it +the Virgin, as she floats into heaven, is in the act of loosening her +girdle, which St. Thomas, devoutly kneeling, stretches out his arms to +receive. Above this, a circular window exhibits, in stained glass, the +Coronation of the Virgin, surrounded by a glory of angels. + +On the third wall to the right we have the subsequent History of the +Girdle, in six compartments. + +St. Thomas, on the eve of his departure to fulfil his mission as +apostle in the far East, intrusts the precious girdle to the care of +one of his disciples, who receives it from his hands in an ecstasy of +amazement and devotion. + +The deposit remains, for a thousand years, shrouded from the eyes +of the profane; and the next scene shows us the manner in which it +reached the city of Prato. A certain Michael of the Dogomari family +in Prato, joined, with a party of his young townsmen, the crusade +in 1096. But, instead of returning to his native country after the +war was over, this same Michael took up the trade of a merchant, +travelling from land to land in pursuit of gain, until he came to the +city of Jerusalem, and lodged in the house of a Greek priest, to whom +the custody of the sacred relic had descended from a long line of +ancestry; and this priest, according to the custom of the oriental +church, was married, and had "one fair daughter, and no more, the +which he loved passing well," so well, that he had intrusted to her +care the venerable girdle. Now it chanced that Michael, lodging in +the same house, became enamoured of the maiden, and not being able to +obtain the consent of her father to their marriage, he had recourse +to the mother, who, moved by the tears and entreaties of the daughter, +not only permitted their union, but bestowed on her the girdle as a +dowry, and assisted the young lovers in their flight. + +In accordance with this story, we have, in the third compartment, the +Marriage of Michael with the Eastern Maiden, and then the Voyage from +the Holy Land to the Shores of Tuscany. On the deck of the vessel, and +at the foot of the mast, is placed the casket containing the relic, to +which the mariners attribute their prosperous voyage to the shores of +Italy. Then Michael is seen disembarking at Pisa, and, with his casket +reverently carried in his hands, he reenters the paternal mansion in +the city of Prato. + +Then we have a scene of wonder. Michael is extended on his bed in +profound sleep. An angel at his head, and another at his feet, are +about to lift him up; for, says the story, Michael was so jealous +of his treasure, that not only he kindled a lamp every night in its +honour, but, fearing he should be robbed of it, he placed it under +his bed, which action, though suggested by his profound sense of its +value, offended his guardian angels, who every night lifted him from +his bed and placed him on the bare earth, which nightly infliction +this pious man endured rather than risk the loss of his invaluable +relic. But after some years Michael fell sick and died. + +In the last compartment we have the scene of his death. The bishop +Uberto kneels at his side, and receives from him the sacred girdle, +with a solemn injunction to preserve it in the cathedral church of the +city, and to present it from time to time for the veneration of the +people, which injunction Uberto most piously fulfilled; and we see him +carrying it, attended by priests bearing torches, in solemn procession +to the chapel, in which it has ever since remained. + +Agnolo Gaddi was but a second-rate artist, even for his time, yet +these frescoes, in spite of the feebleness and general inaccuracy +of the drawing, are attractive from a certain _naïve_ grace; and the +romantic and curious details of the legend have lent them so much of +interest, that, as Lord Lindsay says, "when standing on the spot one +really feels indisposed for criticism."[1] + +[Footnote 1: M. Rio is more poetical. "Comme j'entendais raconter +cette légende pour la première fois, il me semblait que le tableau +réfléchissait une partie de la poésie qu'elle renferme. Cet amour +d'outre mer mêlé aux aventures chevaleresques d'une croisade, cette +relique précieuse donnée pour dot à une pauvre fille, la dévotion +des deux époux pour ce gage révéré de leur bonheur, leur départ +clandestin, leur navigation prospère avec des dauphins qui leur font +cortège à la surface des eaux, leur arrivée à Prato et les miracles +répétés qui, joints à une maladie mortelle, arracèhrent enfin de la +bouche du moribond une déclaration publique à la suite de laquelle +la ceinture sacrée fut déposée dans la cathédrale, tout ce mélange +de passion romanesque et de piété naïve, avait effacé pour moi les +imperfections techniques qui au raient pu frapper une observateur de +sang-froid."] + +The exact date of the frescoes executed by Agnolo Gaddi is not known, +but, according to Vasari, he was called to Prato _after_ 1348. An +inscription in the chapel refers them to the year 1390, a date too +late to be relied on. The story of Michele di Prato I have never seen +elsewhere; but just as the vicinity of Cologne, the shrine of the +"Three Kings," had rendered the Adoration of the Magi one of the +popular themes in early German and Flemish art; so the vicinity of +Prato rendered the legend of St. Thomas a favourite theme of the +Florentine school, and introduced it wherever the influence of that +school had extended. The fine fresco by Mainardi, in the Baroncelli +Chapel, is an instance; and I must cite one yet finer, that by +Ghirlandajo in the choir of S. Maria-Novella: in this last-mentioned +example, the Virgin stands erect in star-bespangled drapery and +closely veiled. + +We now proceed to other examples of the treatment of the Assumption. + +3. Taddeo Bartoli, 1413. He has represented the moment in which the +soul is reunited to the body. Clothed in a starry robe she appears in +the very act and attitude of one rising up from a reclining position, +which is most beautifully expressed, as if she were partly lifted +up upon the expanded many-coloured wings of a cluster of angels, and +partly drawn up, as it were, by the attractive power of Christ, who, +floating above her, takes her clasped hands in both his. The intense, +yet tender ecstasy in _her_ face, the mild spiritual benignity in +_his_, are quite indescribable, and fix the picture in the heart and +the memory as one of the finest religious conceptions extant. (Siena, +Palazzo Publico.) + +I imagine this action of Christ taking her hands in both his, must be +founded on some ancient Greek model, for I have seen the same _motif_ +in other pictures, German and Italian; but in none so tenderly or so +happily expressed. + +4. Domenico di Bartolo, 1430. A large altar-piece. Mary seated on a +throne, within a glory of encircling cherubim of a glowing red, and +about thirty more angels, some adoring, others playing on musical +instruments, is borne upwards. Her hands are joined in prayer, her +head veiled and crowned, and she wears a white robe, embroidered +with golden flowers. Above, in the opening heaven, is the figure of +Christ, young and beardless (_à l'antique_), with outstretched arms, +surrounded by the spirits of the blessed. Below, of a diminutive +size, as if seen from a distant height, is the tomb surrounded by +the apostles, St. Thomas holding the girdle. This is one of the most +remarkable and important pictures of the Siena school, out of Siena, +with which I am acquainted. (Berlin Gal., 1122.) + +5. Ghirlandajo, 1475. The Virgin stands in star-spangled drapery, with +a long white veil, and hands joined, as she floats upwards. She is +sustained by four seraphim. (Florence, S. Maria-Novella.) + +6. Raphael, 1516. The Virgin is seated within the horns of a crescent +moon, her hands joined. On each side an angel stands bearing a flaming +torch; the empty tomb and the eleven apostles below. This composition +is engraved after Raphael by an anonymous master (_Le Maitre au +dé_). It is majestic and graceful, but peculiar for the time. The two +angels, or rather genii, bearing torches on each side, impart to the +whole something of the air of a heathen apotheosis. + +7. Albert Durer. The apostles kneel or stand round the empty tomb; +while Mary, soaring upwards, is received into heaven by her Son; an +angel on each side. + +8. Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1525. Mary, in a white robe spangled with stars, +rises upward as if cleaving the air in an erect position, with her +hands extended, but not raised, and a beautiful expression of mild +rapture, as if uttering the words attributed to her, "My heart is +ready;" many angels, some of whom bear tapers, around her. One angel +presents the end of the girdle to St. Thomas; the other apostles and +the empty tomb lower down. (Vercelli, S. Cristofore.) + +9. Correggio. Cupola of the Duomo at Parma, 1530. This is, perhaps, +one of the earliest instances of the Assumption applied as a grand +piece of scenic decoration; at all events we have nothing in +this luxuriant composition of the solemn simplicity of the older +conception. In the highest part of the Cupola, where the strongest +light falls, Christ, a violently foreshortened figure, precipitates +himself downwards to meet the ascending Madonna, who, reclining amid +clouds, and surrounded by an innumerable company of angels, extends +her arms towards him. One glow of heavenly rapture is diffused over +all; but the scene is vast, confused, almost tumultuous. Below, all +round the dome, as if standing on a balcony, appear the apostles. + +10. Titian, 1540 (about). In the Assumption at Venice, a picture of +world-wide celebrity, and, in its way, of unequalled beauty, we have +another signal departure from all the old traditions. The noble figure +of the Virgin in a flood of golden light is borne, or rather impelled, +upwards with such rapidity, that her veil and drapery are disturbed +by the motion. Her feet are uncovered, a circumstance inadmissible in +ancient art; and her drapery, instead of being white, is of the usual +blue and crimson, her appropriate colours in life. Her attitude, +with outspread arms--her face, not indeed a young or lovely face, +but something far better, sublime and powerful in the expression of +rapture--the divinely beautiful and childish, yet devout, unearthly +little angels around her--the grand apostles below--and the splendour +of colour over all--render this picture an enchantment at once to the +senses and the imagination; to me the effect was like music. + +11. Palma Vecchio, 1535. (Venice Acad.) The Virgin looks down, not +upwards, as is usual, and is in the act of taking off her girdle to +bestow it on St. Thomas, who, with ten other apostles, stands below. + +12. Annibale Caracci, 1600. (Bologna Gal.) The Virgin amid a crowd +of youthful angels, and sustained by clouds, is placed _across_ the +picture with extended arms. Below is the tomb (of sculptured marble) +and eleven apostles, one of whom, with an astonished air, lifts from +the sepulchre a handful of roses. There is another picture wonderfully +fine in the same style by Agostino Caracci. This fashion of varying +the attitude of the Virgin was carried in the later schools to every +excess of affectation. In a picture by Lanfranco. she cleaves the air +like a swimmer, which is detestable. + +13. Rubens painted at least twelve Assumptions with characteristic +_verve_ and movement. Some of these, if not very solemn or poetical, +convey very happily the idea of a renovated life. The largest and most +splendid as a scenic composition is in the Musée at Brussels. More +beautiful, and, indeed, quite unusually poetical for Rubens, is +the small Assumption in the Queen's Gallery, a finished sketch for +the larger picture. The majestic Virgin, arrayed in white and blue +drapery, rises with outstretched arms, surrounded by a choir of +angels; below, the apostles and the women either follow with upward +gaze the soaring ecstatic figure, or look with surprise at the flowers +which spring within the empty tomb. + +In another Assumption by Rubens, one of the women exhibits the +miraculous flowers in her apron, or in a cloth, I forget which; but +the whole conception, like too many of his religious subjects, borders +on the vulgar and familiar. + +14. Guido, as it is well known, excelled in this fine subject,--I +mean, according to the taste and manner of his time and school. His +ascending Madonnas have a sort of aërial elegance, which is very +attractive; but they are too nymph-like. We must be careful to +distinguish in his pictures (and all similar pictures painted after +1615) between the Assumption and the Immaculate Conception; it is a +difference in sentiment which I have already pointed out. The small +finished sketch by Guido in our National Gallery is an Assumption and +Coronation together: the Madonna is received into heaven as _Regina +Angelorum_. The fine large Assumption in the Munich Gallery may be +regarded as the best example of Guido's manner of treating this theme. +His picture in the Bridgewater Gallery, often styled an Assumption, is +an Immaculate Conception. + +The same observations would apply to Poussin, with, however, more of +majesty. His Virgins are usually seated or reclining, and in general +we have a fine landscape beneath. + + * * * * * + +The Assumption, like the Annunciation, the Nativity, and other +historical themes, may, through ideal accessories, assume a purely +devotional form. It ceases then to be a fact or an event, and becomes +a vision or a mystery, adored by votaries, to which attendant saints +bear witness. Of this style of treatment there are many beautiful +examples. + +1. Early Florentine, about 1450. (Coll. of Fuller Maitland, Esq.) +The Virgin, seated, elegantly draped in white, and with pale-blue +ornaments in her hair, rises within a glory sustained by six angels; +below is the tomb full of flowers and in front, kneeling, St. Francis +and St. Jerome. + +2. Ambrogio Borgognone--1506. (Milan, Brera.) She stands, floating +upwards In a fine attitude: two angels crown her; others sustain her; +others sound their trumpets. Below are the apostles and empty tomb; at +each side, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine; behind them, St. Cosimo and +St. Damian; the introduction of these saintly apothecaries stamps the +picture as an ex-voto--perhaps against the plague. It is very fine, +expressive, and curious. + +3. F. Granacci. 1530.[1] The Virgin, ascending in glory, presents +her girdle to St. Thomas, who kneels: on each, side, standing as +witnesses. St. John the Baptist, as patron of Florence, St. Laurence, +as patron of Lorenzo de' Medici, and the two apostles, St. Bartholomew +and St. James. + +[Footnote 1: In the Casa Ruccellai (?) Engraved in the _Etruria +Pittrice_.] + +4. Andrea del Sarto, 1520. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) She is seated +amid vapoury clouds, arrayed in white: on each side adoring angels: +below, the tomb with the apostles, a fine solemn group: and hi front, +St. Nicholas, and that interesting penitent saint, St. Margaret of +Cortona. (Legends of the Monastic Orders.) The head of the Virgin +is the likeness of Andrea's infamous wife; otherwise this is a +magnificent picture. + + * * * * * + +The Coronation of the Virgin follows the Assumption. In some +instances, this final consummation of her glorious destiny supersedes, +or rather includes, her ascension into heaven. As I have already +observed, it is necessary to distinguish this scenic Coronation from +the mystical INCORONATA, properly so called, which is the triumph of +the allegorical church, and altogether an allegorical and devotional +theme; whereas, the scenic Coronation is the last event in a series of +the Life of the Virgin. Here we have before us, not merely the court +of heaven, its argent fields peopled with celestial spirits, and the +sublime personification of the glorified Church exhibited as a vision, +and quite apart from all real, all human associations; but we have +rather the triumph of the human mother;--the lowly woman lifted +into immortality. The earth and its sepulchre, the bearded apostles +beneath, show us that, like her Son, she has ascended into glory by +the dim portal of the grave, and entered into felicity by the path of +pain. Her Son, next to whom she has taken her seat, has himself wiped +the tears from her eyes, and set the resplendent crown upon her head; +the Father blesses her; the Holy Spirit bears witness; cherubim and +seraphim welcome her, and salute her as their queen. So Dante,-- + + "At their joy + And carol smiles the Lovely One of heaven, + That joy is in the eyes of all the blest." + +Thus, then, we must distinguish:-- + +1. The Coronation of the Virgin is a strictly devotional subject where +she is attended, not merely by angels and patriarchs, but by canonized +saints and martyrs, by fathers and doctors of the Church, heads of +religious orders in monkish dresses, patrons and votaries. + +2. It is a dramatic and historical subject when it is the last scene +in a series of the Life of the Virgin; when the death-bed, or the +tomb, or the wondering apostles, and weeping women, are figured on +the earth below. + +Of the former treatment, I have spoken at length. It is that most +commonly met with in early pictures and altar-pieces. + +With regard to the historical treatment, it is more rare as a separate +subject, but there are some celebrated examples both in church +decoration and in pictures. + +1. In the apsis of the Duomo at Spoleto, we have, below, the death +of the Virgin in the usual manner, that is, the Byzantine conception +treated in the Italian style, with Christ receiving her soul, and over +it the Coronation. The Virgin kneels in a white robe, spangled with +golden flowers; and Christ, who is here represented rather as the +Father than the Son, crowns her as queen of heaven. + +2. The composition by Albert Durer, which concludes his fine series +of wood-cuts, the "Life, of the Virgin" is very grand and singular. On +the earth is the empty tomb; near it the bier; around stand the twelve +apostles, all looking up amazed. There is no allusion to the girdle, +which, indeed, is seldom found in northern art. Above, the Virgin +floating in the air, with the rainbow under her feet, is crowned by +the Father and the Son, while over her head hovers the holy Dove. + +3. In the Vatican is the Coronation attributed to Raphael. That he +designed the cartoon, and began the altar-piece, for the nuns of +Monte-Luce near Perugia, seems beyond all doubt; but it is equally +certain that the picture as we see it was painted almost entirely by +his pupils Giulo Romano and Gian Francesco Penni. Here we have the +tomb below, filled with flowers; and around it the twelve apostles; +John and his brother James, in front, looking up; behind John, St. +Peter; more in the background, St. Thomas holds the girdle. Above is +the throne set in heaven, whereon the Virgin, mild and beautiful, sits +beside her divine Son, and with joined hands, and veiled head, and +eyes meekly cast down, bends to receive the golden coronet he is about +to place on her brow. The Dove is omitted, but eight seraphim, with +rainbow-tinted wings, hover above her head. On the right, a most +graceful angel strikes the tambourine; on the left, another, equally +graceful, sounds the viol; and, amidst a flood of light, hosts of +celestial and rejoicing spirits fill up the background. + +Thus, in highest heaven, yet not out of sight of earth, in beatitude +past utterance, in blessed fruition of all that faith creates and love +desires, amid angel hymns and starry glories, ends the pictured life +of Mary, MOTHER OF OUR LORD. + +THE END. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Legends of the Madonna, by Mrs. Jameson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA *** + +***** This file should be named 12047-8.txt or 12047-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/0/4/12047/ + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, William Flis, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Legends of the Madonna + +Author: Mrs. Jameson + +Release Date: April 15, 2004 [EBook #12047] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, William Flis, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +LEGENDS + +OF + +THE MADONNA, + +AS + +REPRESENTED IN THE FINE ARTS. + +BY MRS. JAMESON. + +CORRECTED AND ENLARGED EDITION. + +BOSTON: +HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY. +The Riverside Press, Cambridge. +1881. + + + + +NOTE BY THE PUBLISHERS. + +Some months since Mrs. Jameson kindly consented to prepare for this +Edition of her writings the series of _Sacred and Legendary Art_, but +dying before she had time to fulfil her promise, the arrangement has +been intrusted to other hands. The text of the whole series will be an +exact reprint of the last English Edition. + +TICKNOR & FIELDS. + +BOSTON, Oct. 1st, 1860. + + + + +CONTENTS. + +PREFACE + +INTRODUCTION-- + Origin of the Worship of the Madonna. + Earliest artistic Representations. + Origin of the Group of the Virgin and Child in the Fifth Century. + The First Council at Ephesus. + The Iconoclasts. + First Appearance of the Effigy of the Virgin on Coins. + Period of Charlemagne. + Period of the Crusades. + Revival of Art in the Thirteenth Century. + The Fourteenth Century. + Influence of Dante. + The Fifteenth Century. + The Council of Constance and the Hussite Wars. + The Sixteenth Century. + The Luxury of Church Pictures. + The Influence of Classical Literature on the Representations of the + Virgin. + The Seventeenth Century. + Theological Art. + Spanish Art. + Influence of Jesuitism on Art. + Authorities followed by Painters in the earliest Times. + Legend of St. Luke. + Character of the Virgin Mary as drawn in the Gospels. + Early Descriptions of her Person; how far attended to by the Painters. + Poetical Extracts descriptive of the Virgin Mary. + +SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN. + Proper Costume and Colours. + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS AND HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + Altar-pieces. + The Life of the Virgin Mary as treated in a Series. + The Seven Joys and Seven Sorrows as a Series. + Titles of the Virgin, as expressed in Pictures and Effigies. + Churches dedicated to her. + Conclusion. + +SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + +PART I. + +THE VIRGIN WITHOUT THE CHILD. + +LA VERGINE GLORIOSA. Earliest Figures. The Mosaics. The Virgin of San + Venanzio. The Virgin of Spoleto. + +The Enthroned Virgin without the Child, as type of heavenly Wisdom. + Various Examples. + +L'INCORONATA, the Type of the Church triumphant. The Virgin crowned by + her Son. Examples from the old Mosaics. Examples of the Coronation of + the Virgin from various Painters. + +The VIRGIN OF MERCY, as she is represented in the Last Judgment. + +The Virgin, as Dispenser of Mercy on Earth. Various Examples. + +The MATER DOLOROSA seated and standing, with the Seven Swords. + +The _Stabat Mater_, the Ideal Pieta. The Votive Pieta by Guido. + +OUR LADY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION Origin of the Subject. History + of the Theological Dispute. The First Papal Decree touching the + Immaculate Conception. The Bull of Paul V. The Popularity of the + Subject in Spain. Pictures by Guido, by Roelas, Velasquez, Murillo. + +The Predestination of the Virgin. Curious Picture by Cotignola. + + +PART II. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED. _Virgo Deipara_. The Virgin in her + Maternal Character. Origin of the Group of the Mother and Child. + Nestorian Controversy. + +The Enthroned Virgin in the old Mosaics. In early Italian Art The + Virgin standing as _Regina Coeli_. + +_La Madre Pia_ enthroned. _Mater Sapientiae_ with the Book. + +The Virgin and Child enthroned with attendant Figures; with Angels; + with Prophets; with Apostles. + +With Saints: John the Baptist; St. Anna; St. Joachim; St. Joseph. + +With Martyrs and Patron Saints. + +_Various Examples of Arrangement_. With the Fathers of the Church; + with St. Jerome and St. Catherine; with the Marriage of St. Catherine. + The Virgin and Child between St. Catherine and St. Barbara; with Mary + Magdalene; with St. Lucia. + +The Virgin and Child between St. George and St. Nicholas; with St. + Christopher; with St. Leonard. The Virgin of Charity. + +The Madonnas of Florence; of Siena; of Venice and Lombardy. How + attended. + +The Virgin attended by the Monastic Saints. Examples from various + Painters. + +Votive Madonnas. For Mercies accorded; for Victory; for Deliverance + from Pestilence; against Flood and Fire. + +Family Votive Madonnas, Examples. The Madonna of the Bentivoglio + Family. The Madonna of the Sforza Family. The Madonna of the Moyer + Family, The Madonna di Foligno. German Votive Madonna at Rouen. + Madonna of Rene, Duke of Anjou; of the Pesaro Family at Venice. + +Half-length Enthroned Madonnas; first introduced by the Venetians. + Various Examples. + +The MATER AMABILIS, Early Greek Examples. The infinite Variety given + to this Subject. + +Virgin and Child with St. John. He takes the Cross + +The MADRE PIA; the Virgin adores her Son. + +Pastoral Madonnas of the Venetian School. + +Conclusion of the Devotional Subjects. + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + +PART I. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN FROM HER BIRTH TO HER MARRIAGE WITH JOSEPH. + +THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + +Joachim rejected from the Temple. Joachim herding his Sheep on the + Mountain. The Altercation between Anna and her Maid Judith. The + Meeting at the Golden Gate. + +THE NATIVITY OF THE VIRGIN. The Importance and Beauty of the Subject. + How treated. + +THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN. A Subject of great Importance. General + Arrangement and Treatment. Various Examples from celebrated Painters. + +The Virgin in the Temple. + +THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN. The Legend as followed by the Painters. + +Various Examples of the Marriage of the Virgin, as treated by + Perugino, Raphael, and others. + + +PART II. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE RETURN FROM +EGYPT. + +THE ANNUNCIATION, Its Beauty as a Subject. Treated as a Mystery and + as an Event. As a Mystery; not earlier than the Eleventh Century. + Its proper Place in architectural Decoration. On Altar-pieces. As + an Allegory. The Annunciation as expressing the Incarnation. Ideally + treated with Saints and Votaries. Examples by Simone Memmi, Fra + Bartolomeo, Angelico, and others. + +The Annunciation as an Event. The appropriate Circumstances. The + Time, the Locality, the Accessories. The Descent of the Angel; proper + Costume; with the Lily, the Palm, the Olive. + +Proper Attitude and Occupation of Mary; Expression and Deportment. The + Dove. Mistakes. Examples from various Painters. + +THE VISITATION. Character of Elizabeth. The Locality and + Circumstances. Proper Accessories. Examples from various Painters. + +THE DREAM OF JOSEPH. He entreats Forgiveness of Mary. + +THE NATIVITY. The Prophecy of the Sibyl. _La Madonna del Parto_. The + Nativity as a Mystery; with poetical Accessories; with Saints and + Votaries. + +The Nativity as an Event. The Time; the Places; the proper Accessories + and Circumstances; the angelic Choristers; Signification of the Ox and + the Ass. + +THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. + +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI; they are supposed to have been Kings. + Prophecy of Balaam. The Appearance of the Star. The Legend of the + three Kings of Cologne. Proper Accessories. Examples from various + Painters. The Land Surveyors, by Giorgione. + +THE PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN. The Prophecy of Simeon. Greek Legend + of the _Nunc Dimittis_. Various Examples. + +THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. The Massacre of the Innocents. The Preparation + for the Journey. The Circumstances. The Legend of the Robbers; of the + Palm. + +THE REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY. The Subject often mistaken. Proper + Treatment of the Group. The Repose at Matarea. The Ministry of Angels. + +THE LEGEND OF THE GYPSY. + +THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + + +PART III. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN FROM THE SOJOURN IN EGYPT TO THE CRUCIFIXION OF +OUR LORD. + +THE HOLY FAMILY. Proper Treatment of the Domestic Group as + distinguished from the Devotional. The simplest Form that of the + Mother and Child. The Child fed from his Mother's Bosom. The Infant + sleeps. + +Holy Family of three Figures; with the little St. John; with St. + Joseph; with St. Anna. + +Holy Family of four Figures; with St. Elizabeth and others. + +The Holy Family of Five and Six Figures. + +The Family of the Virgin grouped together. + +Examples of Holy Family as treated by various Artists. + +The Carpenter's Shop. + +The Infant Christ learning to read. + +THE DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE. The Virgin seeks her Son. + +THE DEATH OF JOSEPH. + +THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. Proper Treatment of the Virgin in this Subject; + as treated by Luini and by Paul Veronese. + +The Virgin attends on the Ministry of Christ. Mystical Treatment by + Fra Angelico. + +LO SPASIMO. Christ takes leave of his Mother. Women who are introduced + into Scenes of the Passion of our Lord. + +The Procession to Calvary, _Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_. + +THE CRUCIFIXION. Proper Treatment of the Virgin in this Subject. The + impropriety of placing her upon the ground. Her Fortitude. Christ + recommends his Mother to St. John. + +THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS. Proper Place and Action of the Virgin in + this Subject. + +THE DEPOSITION. Proper Treatment of this Form of the _Mater Dolorosa_. + Persons introduced. Various Examples. + +THE ENTOMBMENT. Treated as an historical Scene. As one of the Sorrows + of the Rosary; attended by Saints. + +The _Mater Dolorosa_ attended by St. Peter. Attended by St. John and + Mary Magdalene. + + +PART IV. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE RESURRECTION OF THE LORD TO THE +ASSUMPTION. + +THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. Beauty and Sentiment of the + old Legend; how represented by the Artists. + +THE ASCENSION OF OUR LORD. The proper Place of the Virgin Mary. + +THE DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST; Mary being one of the principal + persons. + +THE APOSTLES TAKE LEAVE OF THE VIRGIN. + +THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION OF THE VIRGIN. The old Greek Legend. + +The Angel announces to Mary her approaching Death. + +The Death of the Virgin, an ancient and important Subject. As treated + in the Greek School; in early German Art; in Italian Art. Various + Examples. + +The Apostles carry the Body of the Virgin to the Tomb. + +The Entombment. + +THE ASSUMPTION. Distinction between the Assumption of the Body and the + Assumption of the Soul of the Virgin. The Assumption as a Mystery; as + an Event. + +LA MADONNA BELLA CINTOLA. The Legend of the Girdle; as painted in the + Cathedral at Prato. + +Examples of the Assumption as represented by various Artists. + +THE CORONATION as distinguished from the _Incoronata_; how treated as + an historical Subject. Conclusion. + + + + +NOTE. + +The decease of Mrs. Jameson, the accomplished woman and popular +writer, at an advanced period of life, took place in March, 1860, +after a brief illness. But the frame had long been worn out by past +years of anxiety, and the fatigues of laborious literary occupation +conscientiously undertaken and carried out. Having entered certain +fields of research and enterprise, perhaps at first accidentally, Mrs. +Jameson could not satisfy herself by anything less than the utmost +that minute collection and progressive study could do to sustain her +popularity. Distant and exhausting journeys, diligent examination of +far-scattered examples of Art, voluminous and various reading, became +seemingly more and more necessary to her; and at the very time of life +when rest and slackened effort would have been natural,--not merely +because her labours were in aid of others, but to satisfy her own high +sense of what is demanded by Art and Literature,--did her hand and +brain work more and more perseveringly and thoughtfully, till at last +she sank under her weariness; and passed away. + +The father of Miss Murphy was a miniature-painter of repute, attached, +we believe, to the household of the Princess Charlotte. His daughter +Anna was naturally taught by him the principles of his own art; +but she had instincts for all,--taste for music,--a feeling for +poetry,--and a delicate appreciation of the drama. These gifts--in +her youth rarer in combination than they are now (when the connection +of the arts is becoming understood, and the love of all increasingly +diffused)--were, during part of Mrs. Jameson's life, turned to the +service of education.--It was not till after her marriage, that a +foreign tour led her into authorship, by the publication of "The Diary +of an Ennuyee," somewhere about the year 1826.--It was impossible to +avoid detecting in that record the presence of taste, thought, and +feeling, brought in an original fashion to bear on Art, Society, +Morals.--The reception of the book was decisive.--It was followed, at +intervals, by "The Loves of the Poets," "Memoirs of Italian Painters," +"The Lives of Female Sovereigns," "Characteristics of Women" (a series +of Shakspeare studies; possibly its writer's most popular book). After +this, the Germanism so prevalent five-and-twenty years ago, and now +somewhat gone by, possessed itself of the authoress, and she published +her reminiscences of Munich, the imitative art of which was new, and +esteemed as almost a revelation. To the list of Mrs. Jameson's books +may be added her translation of the easy, if not vigorous Dramas +by the Princess Amelia of Saxony, and her "Winter Studies and +Summer Rambles"--recollections of a visit to Canada. This included +the account of her strange and solitary canoe voyage, and her +residence among a tribe of Indians. From this time forward, social +questions--especially those concerning the position of women in life +and action--engrossed a large share of Mrs. Jameson's attention; and +she wrote on them occasionally, always in a large and enlightened +spirit, rarely without touches of delicacy and sentiment.--Even when +we are unable to accept all Mrs. Jameson's conclusions, or to join her +in the hero or heroine worship of this or the other favourite example, +we have seldom a complaint to make of the manner of the authoress. It +was always earnest, eloquent, and poetical. + +Besides a volume or two of collected essays, thoughts, notes on books, +and on subjects of Art, we have left to mention the elaborate volumes +on "Sacred and Legendary Art," as the greatest literary labour of a +busy life. Mrs. Jameson was putting the last finish to the concluding +portion of her work, when she was bidden to cease forever. + +There is little more to be told,--save that, in the course of her +indefatigable literary career, Mrs. Jameson drew round herself a large +circle of steady friends--these among the highest illustrators of +Literature and Art in France, Germany, and Italy; and that, latterly, +a pension from Government was added to her slender earnings. These, it +may be said without indelicacy, were liberally apportioned to the aid +of others,--Mrs. Jameson being, for herself, simple, self-relying, +and self-denying;--holding that high view of the duties belonging +to pursuits of imagination which rendered meanness, or servility, or +dishonourable dealing, or license glossed over with some convenient +name, impossible to her.--She was a faithful friend, a devoted +relative, a gracefully-cultivated, and honest literary worker, whose +mind was set on "the best and honourablest things." + + * * * * * + +Some months since Mrs. Jameson kindly consented to prepare for this +edition of her writings the "Legends of the Madonna," "Sacred and +Legendary Art," and "Legends of the Monastic Orders;" but, dying +before she had time to fulfil her promise, the arrangement has been +intrusted to other hands. The text of this whole series will be an +exact reprint of the last English Edition. + + * * * * * + +The portrait annexed to this volume is from a photograph taken in +London only a short time before Mrs. Jameson's death. + +BOSTON, September, 1860. + + + + +AUTHOR'S PREFACE + +TO THE FIRST EDITION. + +In presenting to my friends and to the public this Series of the +Sacred and Legendary Art, few preparatory words will be required. + +If in the former volumes I felt diffident of my own powers to do any +justice to my subject, I have yet been encouraged by the sympathy and +approbation of those who nave kindly accepted of what has been done, +and yet more kindly excused deficiencies, errors, and oversights, +which the wide range of subjects rendered almost unavoidable. + +With far more of doubt and diffidence, yet not less trust in the +benevolence and candour of my critics, do I present this volume to the +public. I hope it will be distinctly understood, that the general plan +of the work is merely artistic; that it really aims at nothing more +than to render the various subjects intelligible. For this reason +it has been thought advisable to set aside, in a great measure, +individual preferences, and all predilections for particular schools +and particular periods of Art,--to take, in short, the widest possible +range as regards examples,--and then to leave the reader, when thus +guided to the meaning of what he sees, to select, compare, admire, +according to his own discrimination, taste, and requirements. The +great difficulty has been to keep within reasonable limits. Though +the subject has a unity not found in the other volumes, it is +really boundless as regards variety and complexity. I may have been +superficial from mere superabundance of materials; sometimes mistaken +as to facts and dates; the tastes, the feelings, and the faith of my +readers may not always go along with me; but if attention and interest +have been exited--if the sphere of enjoyment in works of Art have been +enlarged and enlightened, I have done all I ever wished--all I ever +hoped, to do. + +With regard to a point of infinitely greater importance, I may +be allowed to plead,--that it has been impossible to treat of the +representations of the Blessed Virgin without touching on doctrines +such as constitute the principal differences between the creeds of +Christendom. I have had to ascend most perilous heights, to dive +into terribly obscure depths. Not for worlds would I be guilty of a +scoffing allusion to any belief or any object held sacred by sincere +and earnest hearts; but neither has it been possible for me to write +in a tone of acquiescence, where I altogether differ in feeling +and opinion. On this point I shall need, and feel sure that I shall +obtain, the generous construction of readers of all persuasions. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +I. ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF THE EFFIGIES OF THE MADONNA. + +Through all the most beautiful and precious productions of human +genius and human skill which the middle ages and the _renaissance_ +have bequeathed to us, we trace, more or less developed, more or less +apparent, present in shape before us, or suggested through inevitable +associations, one prevailing idea: it is that of an impersonation in +the feminine character of beneficence, purity, and power, standing +between an offended Deity and poor, sinning, suffering humanity, and +clothed in the visible form of Mary, the Mother of our Lord. + +To the Roman Catholics this idea remains an indisputable religious +truth of the highest import. Those of a different creed may think fit +to dispose of the whole subject of the Madonna either as a form of +superstition or a form of Art. But merely as a form of Art, we cannot +in these days confine ourselves to empty conventional criticism. We +are obliged to look further and deeper; and in this department of +Legendary Art, as in the others, we must take the higher ground, +perilous though it be. We must seek to comprehend the dominant idea +lying behind and beyond the mere representation. For, after all, +some consideration is due to facts which we must necessarily accept, +whether we deal with antiquarian theology or artistic criticism; +namely, that the worship of the Madonna did prevail through all the +Christian and civilized world for nearly a thousand years; that, in +spite of errors, exaggerations, abuses, this worship did comprehend +certain great elemental truths interwoven with our human nature, and +to be evolved perhaps with our future destinies. Therefore did it work +itself into the life and soul of man; therefore has it been worked +_out_ in the manifestations of his genius; and therefore the multiform +imagery in which it has been clothed, from the rudest imitations of +life, to the most exquisite creations of mind, may be resolved, as a +whole, into one subject, and become one great monument in the history +of progressive thought and faith, as well as in the history of +progressive art. + +Of the pictures in our galleries, public or private,--of the +architectural adornments of those majestic edifices which sprung up +in the middle ages (where they have not been despoiled or desecrated +by a zeal as fervent as that which reared them), the largest and most +beautiful portion have reference to the Madonna,--her character, +her person, her history. It was a theme which never tired her +votaries,--whether, as in the hands of great and sincere artists, +it became one of the noblest and loveliest, or, as in the hands +of superficial, unbelieving, time-serving artists, one of the most +degraded. All that human genius, inspired by faith, could achieve of +best, all that fanaticism, sensualism, atheism, could perpetrate of +worst, do we find in the cycle of those representations which have +been dedicated to the glory of the Virgin. And indeed the ethics of +the Madonna worship, as evolved in art, might be not unaptly likened +to the ethics of human love: so long as the object of sense remained +in subjection to the moral idea--so long as the appeal was to the +best of our faculties and affections--so long was the image grand or +refined, and the influences to be ranked with those which have helped +to humanize and civilize our race; but so soon as the object became +a mere idol, then worship and worshippers, art and artists, were +together degraded. + +It is not my intention to enter here on that disputed point, the +origin of the worship of the Madonna. Our present theme lies within +prescribed limits,--wide enough, however, to embrace an immense +field of thought: it seeks to trace the progressive influence of +that worship on the fine arts for a thousand years or more, and to +interpret the forms in which it has been clothed. That the veneration +paid to Mary in the early Church was a very natural feeling in those +who advocated the divinity of her Son, would be granted, I suppose, +by all but the most bigoted reformers; that it led to unwise and +wild extremes, confounding the creature with the Creator, would be +admitted, I suppose, by all but the most bigoted Roman Catholics. How +it extended from the East over the nations of the West, how it grew +and spread, may be read in ecclesiastical histories. Everywhere it +seems to have found in the human heart some deep sympathy--deeper far +than mere theological doctrine could reach--ready to accept it; and in +every land the ground prepared for it in some already dominant idea +of a mother-Goddess, chaste, beautiful, and benign. As, in the oldest +Hebrew rites and Pagan superstitions, men traced the promise of a +coming Messiah,--as the deliverers and kings of the Old Testament, and +even the demigods of heathendom, became accepted types of the person +of Christ,--so the Eve of the Mosaic history, the Astarte of the +Assyrians-- + + "The mooned Ashtaroth, queen and mother both,"-- + +the Isis nursing Horus of the Egyptians, the Demeter and the +Aphrodite of the Greeks, the Scythian Freya, have been considered +by some writers as types of a divine maternity, foreshadowing the +Virgin-mother of Christ. Others will have it that these scattered, +dim, mistaken--often gross and perverted--ideas which were afterwards +gathered into the pure, dignified, tender image of the Madonna, +were but as the voice of a mighty prophecy, sounded through all the +generations of men, even from the beginning of time, of the coming +moral regeneration, and complete and harmonious development of the +whole human race, by the establishment, on a higher basis, of what +has been called the "feminine element" in society. And let me at least +speak for myself. In the perpetual iteration of that beautiful image +of THE WOMAN highly blessed--_there_, where others saw only pictures +or statues, I have seen this great hope standing like a spirit beside +the visible form; in the fervent worship once universally given to +that gracious presence, I have beheld an acknowledgment of a higher as +well as gentler power than that of the strong hand and the might that +makes the right,--and in every earnest votary one who, as he knelt, +was in this sense pious beyond the reach of his own thought, and +"devout beyond the meaning of his will." + +It is curious to observe, as the worship of the Virgin-mother expanded +and gathered to itself the relics of many an ancient faith, how +the new and the old elements, some of them apparently the most +heterogeneous, became amalgamated, and were combined into the early +forms of art;--how the Madonna, when she assumed the characteristics +of the great Diana of Ephesus, at once the type of Fertility, and the +Goddess of Chastity, became, as the impersonation of motherhood, all +beauty, bounty and graciousness; and at the same time, by virtue of +her perpetual virginity, the patroness of single and ascetic life--the +example and the excuse for many of the wildest of the early monkish +theories. With Christianity, new ideas of the moral and religious +responsibility of woman entered the world; and while these ideas were +yet struggling with the Hebrew and classical prejudices concerning the +whole sex, they seem to have produced some curious perplexity in the +minds of the greatest doctors of the faith. Christ, as they assure +us, was born of a woman only, and had no earthly father, that neither +sex might despair; "for had he been born a man (which was necessary), +yet not born of woman, the women might have despaired of themselves, +recollecting the first offence, the first man having been deceived by +a woman. Therefore we are to suppose that, for the exaltation of the +male sex, Christ appeared on earth as a man; and, for the consolation +of womankind, he was born of a woman only; as if it had been said, +'From henceforth no creature shall be base before God, unless +perverted by depravity.'" (Augustine, Opera Supt. 238, Serm. 63.) +Such is the reasoning of St. Augustine, who, I must observe, had an +especial veneration for his mother Monica; and it is perhaps for her +sake that he seems here desirous to prove that through the Virgin Mary +all womankind were henceforth elevated in the scale of being. And +this was the idea entertained of her subsequently: "Ennobler of thy +nature!" says Dante apostrophizing her, as if her perfections had +ennobled not merely her own sex, but the whole human race.[1] + +[Footnote 1: "Tu se' colei che l'umana natura Nobilitasti."] + +But also with Christianity came the want of a new type of womanly +perfection, combining all the attributes of the ancient female +divinities with others altogether new. Christ, as the model-man, +united the virtues of the two sexes, till the idea that there are +essentially masculine and feminine virtues intruded itself on the +higher Christian conception, and seems to have necessitated the +female type. + +The first historical mention of a direct worship paid to the Virgin +Mary, occurs in a passage in the works of St. Epiphanius, who died +in 403. In enumerating the heresies (eighty-four in number) which had +sprung up in the early Church, he mentions a sect of women, who had +emigrated from Thrace into Arabia, with whom it was customary to +offer cakes of meal and honey to the Virgin Mary, as if she had been a +divinity, transferring to her, in fact, the worship paid to Ceres. The +very first instance which occurs in written history of an invocation +to Mary, is in the life of St. Justina, as related by Gregory +Nazianzen. Justina calls on the Virgin-mother to protect her against +the seducer and sorcerer, Cyprian; and does not call in vain. (Sacred +and Legendary Art.) These passages, however, do not prove that +previously to the fourth century there had been no worship or +invocation of the Virgin, but rather the contrary. However this may +be, it is to the same period--the fourth century--we refer the most +ancient representations of the Virgin in art. The earliest figures +extant are those on the Christian sarcophagi; but neither in the early +sculpture nor in the mosaics of St. Maria Maggiore do we find any +figure of the Virgin standing alone; she forms part of a group of +the Nativity or the Adoration of the Magi. There is no attempt at +individuality or portraiture. St. Augustine says expressly, that there +existed in his time no _authentic_ portrait of the Virgin; but it +is inferred from his account that, authentic or not, such pictures +did then exist, since there were already disputes concerning their +authenticity. There were at this period received symbols of the person +and character of Christ, as the lamb, the vine, the fish, &c., but +not, as far as I can learn, any such accepted symbols of the Virgin +Mary. Further, it is the opinion of the learned in ecclesiastical +antiquities that, previous to the first Council of Ephesus, it was the +custom to represent the figure of the Virgin alone without the Child; +but that none of these original effigies remain to us, only supposed +copies of a later date.[1] And this is all I have been able to +discover relative to her in connection with the sacred imagery of the +first four centuries of our era. + +[Footnote 1: Vide "_Memorie dell' Immagine di M.V. dell' Imprunela_." +Florence, 1714.] + + * * * * * + +The condemnation of Nestorius by the Council of Ephesus, in the year +431, forms a most important epoch in the history of religious art. +I have given further on a sketch of this celebrated schism, and its +immediate and progressive results. It may be thus summed up here. The +Nestorians maintained, that in Christ the two natures of God and man +remained separate, and that Mary, his human mother, was parent of +the man, but not of the God; consequently the title which, during +the previous century, had been popularly applied to her, "Theotokos" +(Mother of God), was improper and profane. The party opposed to +Nestorius, the Monophysite, maintained that in Christ the divine and +human were blended in one incarnate nature, and that consequently Mary +was indeed the Mother of God. By the decree of the first Council +of Ephesus, Nestorius and his party were condemned as heretics; and +henceforth the representation of that beautiful group, since popularly +known as the "Madonna and Child," became the expression of the +orthodox faith. Every one who wished to prove his hatred of the +arch-heretic exhibited the image of the maternal Virgin holding in +her arms the Infant Godhead, either in his house as a picture, or +embroidered on his garments, or on his furniture, on his personal +ornaments--in short, wherever it could be introduced. It is worth +remarking, that Cyril, who was so influential in fixing the orthodox +group, had passed the greater part of his life in Egypt, and must nave +been familiar with the Egyptian type of Isis nursing Horus. Nor, as I +conceive, is there any irreverence in supposing that a time-honoured +intelligible symbol should be chosen to embody and formalize a creed. +For it must be remembered that the group of the Mother and Child was +not at first a representation, but merely a theological symbol set up +in the orthodox churches, and adopted by the orthodox Christians. + +It is just after the Council of Ephesus that history first makes +mention of a supposed authentic portrait of the Virgin Mary. The +Empress Eudocia, when travelling in the Holy Land, sent home such +a picture of the Virgin holding the Child to her sister-in-law +Pulcheria, who placed it in a church at Constantinople. It was at that +time regarded, as of very high antiquity, and supposed to have been +painted from the life. It is certain that a picture, traditionally +said to be the same which Eudocia had sent to Pulcheria, did exist +at Constantinople, and was so much venerated by the people as to be +regarded as a sort of palladium, and borne in a superb litter or car +in the midst of the imperial host, when the emperor led the army in +person. The fate of this relic is not certainly known. It is said to +have been taken by the Turks in 1453, and dragged through the mire; +but others deny this as utterly derogatory to the majesty of the Queen +of Heaven, who never would have suffered such an indignity to have +been put on her sacred image. According to the Venetian legend, it was +this identical effigy which was taken by the blind old Dandolo, when +he besieged and took Constantinople in 1204, and brought in triumph +to Venice, where it has ever since been preserved in the church of St. +Mark, and held in _somma venerazione_. No mention is made of St. Luke +in the earliest account of this picture, though like all the antique +effigies of uncertain origin, it was in after times attributed to him. + +The history of the next three hundred years testifies to the triumph +of orthodoxy, the extension and popularity of the worship of the +Virgin, and the consequent multiplication of her image in every form +and material, through the whole of Christendom. + +Then followed the schism of the Iconoclasts, which distracted +the Church for more than one hundred years, under Leo III., the +Isaurian, and his immediate successors. Such were the extravagances +of superstition to which the image-worship had led the excitable +Orientals, that, if Leo had been a wise and temperate reformer, he +might have done much good in checking its excesses; but he was himself +an ignorant, merciless barbarian. The persecution by which he sought +to exterminate the sacred pictures of the Madonna, and the cruelties +exercised on her unhappy votaries, produced a general destruction +of the most curious and precious remains of antique art. In other +respects, the immediate result was naturally enough a reaction, which +not only reinstated pictures in the veneration of the people, but +greatly increased their influence over the imagination; for it is at +this time that we first hear of a miraculous picture. Among those +who most strongly defended the use of sacred images in the churches, +was St. John Damascene, one of the great lights of the Oriental +Church. According to the Greek legend, he was condemned to lose his +right hand, which was accordingly cut off; but he, full of faith, +prostrating himself before a picture of the Virgin, stretched out the +bleeding stump, and with it touched her lips, and immediately a new +hand sprung forth "like a branch from a tree." Hence, among the Greek +effigies of the Virgin, there is one peculiarly commemorative of this +miracle, styled "the Virgin with three hands." (Didron, Manuel, p. +462.) In the west of Europe, where the abuses of the image-worship had +never yet reached the wild superstition of the Oriental Christians, +the fury of the Iconoclasts excited horror and consternation. The +temperate and eloquent apology for sacred pictures, addressed by +Gregory II. to the Emperor Leo, had the effect of mitigating the +persecution in Italy, where the work of destruction could not be +carried out to the same extent as in the Byzantine provinces. Hence it +is in Italy only that any important remains of sacred art anterior to +the Iconoclast dynasty have been preserved.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It appears, from one of these letters from Gregory II, +that it was the custom at that time (725) to employ religious pictures +as a means of instruction in the schools. He says, that if Lee were +to enter a school in Italy, and to say that he prohibited pictures, +the children would infallibly throw their hornbooks (_Ta volexxe del +alfabeto_) at his head.--v. _Bosio_, p. 567.] + +The second Council of Nice, under the Empress Irene in 787, condemned +the Iconoclasts, and restored the use of the sacred pictures in the +churches. Nevertheless, the controversy still raged till after the +death of Theophilus, the last and the most cruel of the Iconoclasts, +in 842. His widow Theodora achieved the final triumph of the orthodox +party, and restored the Virgin to her throne. We must observe, +however, that only pictures were allowed; all sculptured imagery +was still prohibited, and has never since been allowed in the Greek +Church, except in very low relief. The flatter the surface, the more +orthodox. + +It is, I think, about 886, that we first find the effigy of the Virgin +on the coins of the Greek empire. On a gold coin of Leo VI., the +Philosopher, she stands veiled, and draped, with a noble head, no +glory, and the arms outspread, just as she appears in the old mosaics. +On a coin of Romanus the Younger, she crowns the emperor, having +herself the nimbus; she is draped and veiled. On a coin of Nicephorus +Phocus (who had great pretensions to piety), the Virgin stands, +presenting a cross to the emperor, with the inscription, "Theotokos, +be propitious." On a gold coin of John Zimisces, 975, we first find +the Virgin and Child,--the symbol merely: she holds against her bosom +a circular glory, within which is the head of the Infant Christ. In +the successive reigns of the next two centuries, she almost constantly +appears as crowning the emperor. + +Returning to the West, we find that in the succeeding period, from +Charlemagne to the first crusade, the popular devotion to the Virgin, +and the multiplication of sacred pictures, continued steadily to +increase; yet in the tenth and eleventh centuries art was at its +lowest ebb. At this time, the subjects relative to the Virgin were +principally the Madonna and Child, represented according to the Greek +form; and those scenes from the Gospel in which she is introduced, as +the Annunciation, the Nativity, and the Worship of the Magi. + +Towards the end of the tenth century the custom of adding the angelic +salutation, the "_Ave Maria_," to the Lord's prayer, was first +introduced; and by the end of the following century, it had been +adopted in the offices of the Church. This was, at first, intended as +a perpetual reminder of the mystery of the Incarnation, as announced +by the angel. It must have had the effect of keeping the idea of +Mary as united with that of her Son, and as the instrument of the +Incarnation, continually in the minds of the people. + +The pilgrimages to the Holy Land, and the crusades in the eleventh and +the twelfth centuries, had a most striking effect on religious art, +though this effect was not fully evolved till a century later. More +particularly did this returning wave of Oriental influences modify the +representations of the Virgin. Fragments of the apocryphal gospels +and legends of Palestine and Egypt were now introduced, worked up +into ballads, stories, and dramas, and gradually incorporated with the +teaching of the Church. A great variety of subjects derived from the +Greek artists, and from particular localities and traditions of the +East, became naturalized in Western Europe, Among these were the +legends of Joachim and Anna; and the death, the assumption, and the +coronation of the Virgin. + +Then came the thirteenth century, an era notable in the history +of mind, more especially notable in the history of art. The seed +scattered hither and thither, during the stormy and warlike period of +the crusades, now sprung up and flourished, bearing diverse fruit. +A more contemplative enthusiasm, a superstition tinged with a morbid +melancholy, fermented into life and form. In that general "fit of +_compunction_," which we are told seized all Italy at this time, the +passionate devotion for the benign Madonna mingled the poetry of +pity with that of pain; and assuredly this state of feeling, with its +mental and moral requirements, must have assisted in emancipating art +from the rigid formalism of the degenerate Greek school. Men's hearts, +throbbing with a more feeling, more pensive life, demanded something +more _like_ life,--and produced it. It is curious to trace in the +Madonnas of contemporary, but far distant and unconnected schools of +painting, the simultaneous dawning of a sympathetic sentiment--for the +first time something in the faces of the divine beings responsive to +the feeling of the worshippers. It was this, perhaps, which caused +the enthusiasm excited by Cimabue's great Madonna, and made the people +shout and dance for joy when it was uncovered before them. Compared +with the spectral rigidity, the hard monotony, of the conventional +Byzantines, the more animated eyes, the little touch of sweetness in +the still, mild face, must have been like a smile out of heaven. As +we trace the same softer influence in the earliest Siena and Cologne +pictures of about the same period, we may fairly regard it as an +impress of the spirit of the time, rather than that of an individual +mind. + +In the succeeding century these elements of poetic art, expanded and +animated by an awakened observation of nature, and a sympathy with +her external manifestations, were most especially directed by the +increasing influence of the worship of the Virgin, a worship at once +religious and chivalrous. The title of "Our Lady"[1] came first into +general use in the days of chivalry, for she was the lady "of all +hearts," whose colours all were proud to wear. Never had her votaries +so abounded. Hundreds upon hundreds had enrolled themselves in +brotherhoods, vowed to her especial service;[2] or devoted to acts of +charity, to be performed in her name.[3] Already the great religious +communities, which at this time comprehended all the enthusiasm, +learning, and influence of the Church, had placed themselves solemnly +and especially under her protection. The Cistercians wore white in +honour of her purity; the Servi wore black in respect to her sorrows; +the Franciscans had enrolled themselves as champions of the Immaculate +Conception; and the Dominicans introduced the rosary. All these richly +endowed communities vied with each other in multiplying churches, +chapels, and pictures, in honour of their patroness, and expressive of +her several attributes. The devout painter, kneeling before his easel, +addressed himself to the task of portraying those heavenly lineaments +which had visited him perhaps in dreams. Many of the professed monks +and friars became themselves accomplished artists.[4] + +[Footnote 1: _Fr._ Notre Dame. _Ital._ La Madonna. _Ger._ Unser liebe +Frau.] + +[Footnote 2: As the Serviti, who were called in France, _les esclaves +de Marie_.] + +[Footnote 3: As the order of "Our Lady of Mercy," for the deliverance +of captives.--_Vide_ Legends of the Monastic Orders.] + +[Footnote 4: A very curious and startling example of the theological +character of the Virgin in the thirteenth century is figured in Miss +Twining's work, "_The Symbols of early Christian Art_;" certainly the +most complete and useful book of the kind which I know of. Here the +Madonna and Child are seated side by side with the Trinity; the Holy +Spirit resting on her crowned head.] + +At this time, Jacopo di Voragine compiled the "Golden Legend," a +collection of sacred stories, some already current, some new, or +in a new form. This famous book added many themes to those already +admitted, and became the authority and storehouse for the early +painters in their groups and dramatic compositions. The increasing +enthusiasm for the Virgin naturally caused an increasing demand for +the subjects taken from her personal history, and led, consequently, +to a more exact study of those natural objects and effects which were +required as accessories, to greater skill in grouping the figures, and +to a higher development of historic art. + +But of all the influences on Italian art in that wonderful fourteenth +century, Dante was the greatest. He was the intimate friend of Giotto. +Through the communion of mind, not less than through his writings, +he infused into religious art that mingled theology, poetry, and +mysticism, which ruled in the Giottesque school during the following +century, and went hand in hand with the development of the power and +practice of imitation. Now, the theology of Dante was the theology of +his age. His ideas respecting the Virgin Mary were precisely those +to which the writings of St. Bernard, St. Bonaventura, and St. Thomas +Aquinas had already lent all the persuasive power of eloquence, and +the Church all the weight of her authority. Dante rendered these +doctrines into poetry, and Giotto and his followers rendered them +into form. In the Paradise of Dante, the glorification of Mary, +as the "Mystic Rose" (_Roxa Mystica_) and Queen of Heaven,--with +the attendant angels, circle within circle, floating round her in +adoration, and singing the Regina Coeli, and saints and patriarchs +stretching forth their hands towards her,--is all a splendid, but +still indefinite vision of dazzling light crossed by shadowy forms. +The painters of the fourteenth century, in translating these glories +into a definite shape, had to deal with imperfect knowledge and +imperfect means; they failed in the power to realize either their own +or the poet's conception; and yet--thanks to the divine poet!--that +early conception of some of the most beautiful of the Madonna +subjects--for instance, the _Coronation_ and the _Sposalizio_--has +never, as a religious and poetical conception, been surpassed by later +artists, in spite of all the appliances of colour, and mastery of +light and shade, and marvellous efficiency of hand since attained. + +Every reader of Dante will remember the sublime hymn towards the close +of the Paradiso:-- + + "Vergine Madre, figlia del tuo figlio! + Umile ed alta piu che creatura, + Terrains fisso d'eterno consiglio; + + Tu se' colei che l'umana natura + Nobilitasti si, che 'l suo fattore + Non disdegno di farsi sua fattura; + + Nel ventre tuo si raccese l'amore + Per lo cui caldo nell' eterna pace + Cosi e germinato questo fiore; + + Qui se' a noi meridiana face + Di caritade, e giuso intra mortali + Se' di speranza fontana vivace: + + Donna, se' tanto grande e tanto vali, + Che qual vuol grazia e a te non ricorre + Sua disianza vuol volar senz' ali; + + La tua benignita noa pur soccorre + A chi dimanda, ma molte fiate + Liberamente al dimandar precorre; + + In te misericordia, in te pietate, + In te magnificenza, in te s' aduna + Quantunque in creatura e di bontate!" + +To render the splendour, the terseness, the harmony, of this +magnificent hymn seems impossible. Cary's translation has, however, +the merit of fidelity to the sense:-- + + "Oh, Virgin-Mother, daughter of thy Son! + Created beings all in lowliness + Surpassing, as in height above them all; + Term by the eternal counsel preordain'd; + Ennobler of thy nature, so advanc'd + In thee, that its great Maker did not scorn + To make himself his own creation; + For in thy womb, rekindling, shone the love + Reveal'd, whose genial influence makes now + This flower to germin in eternal peace: + Here thou, to us, of charity and love + Art as the noon-day torch; and art beneath, + To mortal men, of hope a living spring. + So mighty art thou, Lady, and so great, + That he who grace desireth, and comes not + To thee for aidance, fain would have desire + Fly without wings. Not only him who asks, + Thy bounty succours; but doth freely oft + Forerun the asking. Whatsoe'er may be + Of excellence in creature, pity mild, + Relenting mercy, large munificence, + Are all combin'd in thee!" + +It is interesting to turn to the corresponding stanzas in Chaucer. +The invocation to the Virgin with which he commences the story of St. +Cecilia is rendered almost word for word from Dante:-- + + "Thou Maid and Mother, daughter of thy Son! + Thou wel of mercy, sinful soules cure!" + +The last stanza of the invocation is his own, and as characteristic of +the practical Chaucer, as it would have been contrary to the genius of +Dante:-- + + "And for that faith is dead withouten workis, + So for to worken give me wit and grace! + That I be quit from thence that most dark is; + O thou that art so fair and full of grace, + Be thou mine advocate in that high place, + There, as withouten end is sung Hozanne, + Thou Christes mother, daughter dear of Anne!" + +Still more beautiful and more his own is the invocation in the +"Prioress's Tale." I give the stanzas as modernized by Wordsworth:-- + + "O Mother Maid! O Maid and Mother free! + O bush unburnt, burning in Moses' sight! + That down didst ravish from the Deity, + Through humbleness, the Spirit that that did alight + Upon thy heart, whence, through that glory's might + Conceived was the Father's sapience, + Help me to tell it in thy reverence! + + "Lady, thy goodness, thy magnificence, + Thy virtue, and thy great humility, + Surpass all science and all utterance; + For sometimes, Lady! ere men pray to thee, + Thou go'st before in thy benignity, + The light to us vouchsafing of thy prayer, + To be our guide unto thy Son so dear. + + "My knowledge is so weak, O blissful Queen, + To tell abroad thy mighty worthiness, + That I the weight of it may not sustain; + But as a child of twelve months old, or less, + That laboureth his language to express, + Even so fare I; and therefore, I thee pray, + Guide thou my song, which I of thee shall say." + +And again, we may turn to Petrarch's hymn to the Virgin, wherein +he prays to be delivered from his love and everlasting regrets for +Laura:-- + + "Vergine bella, che di sol vestita, + Coronata di stelle, al sommo Sole + Piacesti si, che'n te sua luce ascose. + + "Vergine pura, d'ogni parte intera, + Del tuo parto gentil figliuola e madre! + + "Vergine sola al mondo senza esempio, + Che 'l ciel di tue bellezze innamorasti." + +The fancy of the theologians of the middle ages played rather +dangerously, as it appears to me, for the uninitiated and +uninstructed, with the perplexity of these divine relationships. It is +impossible not to feel that in their admiration for the divine beauty +of Mary, in borrowing the amatory language and luxuriant allegories +of the Canticles, which represent her as an object of delight to the +Supreme Being, theologians, poets, and artists had wrought themselves +up to a wild pitch of enthusiasm. In such passages as those I have +quoted above, and in the grand old Church hymns, we find the best +commentary and interpretation of the sacred pictures of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries. Yet during the thirteenth century there was +a purity in the spirit of the worship which at once inspired and +regulated the forms in which it was manifested. The Annunciations and +Nativities were still distinguished by a chaste and sacred simplicity. +The features of the Madonna herself, even where they were not what we +call beautiful, had yet a touch of that divine and contemplative grace +which the theologians and the poets had associated with the queenly, +maternal, and bridal character of Mary. + +Thus the impulses given in the early part of the fourteenth century +continued in progressive development through the fifteenth; the +spiritual for some time in advance of the material influences; the +moral idea emanating as it were _from_ the soul, and the influences +of external nature flowing _into_ it; the comprehensive power of fancy +using more and more the apprehensive power of imitation, and both +working together till their "blended might" achieved its full fruition +in the works of Raphael. + + * * * * * + +Early in the fifteenth century, the Council of Constance (A.D. 1414), +and the condemnation of Huss, gave a new impulse to the worship of the +Virgin. The Hussite wars, and the sacrilegious indignity with which +her sacred images had been treated in the north, filled her orthodox +votaries of the south, of Europe with a consternation and horror +like that excited by the Iconoclasts of the eighth century, and were +followed by a similar reaction. The Church was called upon to assert +more strongly than ever its orthodox veneration for her, and, as a +natural consequence, votive pictures multiplied, the works of the +excelling artists of the fifteenth century testify to the zeal of the +votaries, and the kindred spirit in which the painters worked. + +Gerson, a celebrated French priest, and chancellor of the university +of Paris, distinguished himself in the Council of Constance by the +eloquence with which he pleaded for the Immaculate Conception, and the +enthusiasm with which he preached in favour of instituting a festival +in honour of this mystery, as well as another in honour of Joseph, +the husband of the Virgin. In both he was unsuccessful during his +lifetime; but for both eventually his writings prepared the way. +He also composed a Latin poem of three thousand lines in praise of +Joseph, which was among the first works published after the invention +of printing. Together with St. Joseph, the parents of the Virgin, St. +Anna more particularly, became objects, of popular veneration, and +all were at length exalted to the rank of patron saints, by having +festivals instituted in their honour. It is towards the end of the +fifteenth century, or rather a little later, that we first meet with +that charming domestic group, called the "Holy Family," afterwards +so popular, so widely diffused, and treated with such an infinite +variety. + + * * * * * + +Towards the end of this century sprung up a new influence,--the +revival of classical learning, a passionate enthusiasm for the poetry +and mythology of the Greeks, and a taste for the remains of antique +art. This influence on the representations of the Virgin, as far as +it was merely external, was good. An added dignity and grace, a more +free and correct drawing, a truer feeling for harmony of proportion +and all that constitutes elegance, were gradually infused into the +forms and attitudes. But dangerous became the craving for mere +beauty,--dangerous the study of the classical and heathen literature. +This was the commencement of that thoroughly pagan taste which in +the following century demoralized Christian art. There was now an +attempt at varying the arrangement of the sacred groups which led to +irreverence, or at best to a sort of superficial mannered grandeur; +and from this period we date the first introduction of the portrait +Virgins. An early, and most scandalous example remains to us in one +of the frescoes in the Vatican, which represents Giulia Farnese in the +character of the Madonna, and Pope Alexander VI. (the infamous Borgia) +kneeling at her feet in the character of a votary. Under the influence +of the Medici the churches of Florence were filled with pictures of +the Virgin, in which the only thing aimed at was an alluring and +even meretricious beauty. Savonarola thundered from his pulpit in the +garden of San Marco against these impieties. He exclaimed against +the profaneness of those who represented the meek mother of Christ in +gorgeous apparel, with head unveiled, and under the features of women +too well and publicly known. He emphatically declared that if the +painters knew as well as he did the influence of such pictures in +perverting simple minds, they would hold their own works in horror and +detestation. Savonarola yielded to none in orthodox reverence for the +Madonna; but he desired that she should be represented in an orthodox +manner. He perished at the stake, but not till after he had made +a bonfire in the Piazza at Florence of the offensive effigies; he +perished--persecuted to death by the Borgia family. But his influence +on the greatest Florentine artists of his time is apparent in the +Virgins of Botticelli, Lorenzo di Credi, and Fra Bartolomeo, all of +whom had been his friends, admirers, and disciples: and all, differing +from each other, were alike in this, that, whether it be the dignified +severity of Botticelli, or the chaste simplicity of Lorenzo di Credi, +or the noble tenderness of Fra Bartolomeo, we feel that each of them +had aimed to portray worthily the sacred character of the Mother of +the Redeemer. And to these, as I think, we might add Raphael himself, +who visited Florence but a short time after the horrible execution +of Savonarola, and must have learned through his friend Bartolomeo to +mourn the fate and revere the memory of that remarkable man, whom he +placed afterwards in the grand fresco of the "Theologia," among the +doctors and teachers of the Church. (Rome, Vatican.) Of the numerous +Virgins painted by Raphael in after times, not one is supposed to have +been a portrait: he says himself, in a letter to Count Castiglione, +that he painted from an idea in his own mind, "mi servo d' una certa +idea che mi viene in mente;" while in the contemporary works of Andrea +del Sarto, we have the features of his handsome but vulgar wife in +every Madonna he painted.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The tendency to portraiture, in early Florentine and +German art, is observable from an early period. The historical sacred +subjects of Masaccio, Ghirlandajo, and Van Eyck, are crowded with +portraits of living personages. Their introduction into devotional +subjects, in the character of sacred persons, is far less excusable.] + +In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the constellation of living +genius in every department of art, the riches of the Church, the +luxurious habits and classical studies of the churchmen, the decline +of religious conviction, and the ascendency of religious controversy, +had combined to multiply church pictures, particularly those of a +large and decorative character. But, instead of the reign of faith, +we had now the reign of taste. There was an absolute passion for +picturesque grouping; and, as the assembled figures were to be as +varied as possible in action and attitude, the artistic treatment, in +order to prevent the lines of form and the colours of the draperies +from interfering with each other, required great skill and profound +study: some of these scenic groups have become, in the hands of great +painters, such as Titian, Paul Veronese, and Annibale Caracci, so +magnificent, that we are inclined to forgive their splendid errors. +The influence of Sanazzaro, and of his famous Latin poem on the +Nativity ("_De Partu Virginis_"), on the artists of the middle of the +sixteenth century, and on the choice and treatment of the subjects +pertaining to the Madonna, can hardly be calculated; it was like that +of Dante in the fourteenth century, but in its nature and result how +different! The grand materialism of Michael Angelo is supposed to have +been allied to the genius of Dante; but would Dante have acknowledged +the group of the Holy Family in the Florentine Gallery, to my feeling, +one of the most profane and offensive of the so-called _religious_ +pictures, in conception and execution, which ever proceeded from +the mind or hand of a great painter? No doubt some of the sculptural +Virgins of Michael Angelo are magnificent and stately in attitude and +expression, but too austere and mannered as religious conceptions: nor +can we wonder if the predilection for the treatment of mere form led +his followers and imitators into every species of exaggeration and +affectation. In the middle of the sixteenth century, the same artist +who painted a Leda, or a Psyche, or a Venus one day, painted for the +same patron a Virgin of Mercy, or a "Mater Purissima" on the morrow. +_Here_, the votary told his beads, and recited his Aves, before +the blessed Mother of the Redeemer; _there_, she was invoked in +the purest Latin by titles which the classical mythology had far +otherwise consecrated. I know nothing more disgusting in art than the +long-limbed, studied, inflated Madonnas, looking grand with all their +might, of this period; luckily they have fallen into such disrepute +that we seldom see them. The "Madonna dell' lungo Collo" of Parmigiano +might be cited as a favourable example of this mistaken and wholly +artificial grace. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) + +But in the midst of these paganized and degenerate influences, the +reform in the discipline of the Roman Catholic Church was preparing +a revolution in religious art. The Council of Trent had severely +denounced the impropriety of certain pictures admitted into churches: +at the same time, in the conflict of creed which now divided +Christendom, the agencies of art could not safely be neglected by that +Church which had used them with such signal success. Spiritual art +was indeed no more. It was dead: it could never be revived without +a return to those modes of thought and belief which had at first +inspired it. Instead of religious art, appeared what I must call +_theological_ art. Among the events of this age, which had great +influence on the worship and the representations of the Madonna, +I must place the battle of Lepanto, in 1571, in which the combined +fleets of Christendom, led by Don Juan of Austria, achieved a +memorable victory over the Turks. This victory was attributed by Pope +Pius V. to the especial interposition of the Blessed Virgin. A new +invocation was now added to her Litany, under the title of _Auxilium +Christianorum_; a new festival, that of the Rosary, was now added to +those already held in her honour; and all the artistic genius which +existed in Italy, and all the piety of orthodox Christendom, were now +laid under contribution to incase in marble sculpture, to enrich with +countless offerings, that miraculous house, which the angels had +borne over land and sea, and set down at Loretto; and that miraculous, +bejewelled, and brocaded Madonna, enshrined within it. + + * * * * * + +In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the Caracci school gave +a new impetus to religious, or rather, as it has been styled in +contradistinction, sacerdotal or theological art. If these great +painters had been remarkable merely for the application of new +artistic methods, for the success with which they combined the aims of +various schools-- + + "Di Michel Angiol la terribil via + E 'l vero natural di Tiziano," + +the study of the antique with the observation of real life,--their +works undoubtedly would never have taken such a hold on the minds of +their contemporaries, nor kept it so long. Everything to live must +have an infusion of truth within it, and this "patchwork ideal," as +it has been well styled, was held together by such a principle. The +founders of the Caracci school, and their immediate followers, felt +the influences of the time, and worked them out. They were devout +believers in their Church, and most sincere worshippers of the +Madonna. Guido, in particular, was so distinguished by his passionate +enthusiasm for her, that he was supposed to have been favoured by a +particular vision, which enabled him more worthily to represent her +divine beauty. + +It is curious that, hand in hand with this development of taste and +feeling in the appreciation of natural sentiment and beauty, and +this tendency to realism, we find the associations of a peculiar and +specific sanctity remaining with the old Byzantine type. This arose +from the fact, always to be borne in mind, that the most ancient +artistic figure of the Madonna was a purely theological symbol; +apparently the moral type was too nearly allied to the human and +the real to satisfy faith. It is the ugly, dark-coloured, ancient +Greek Madonnas, such as this, which had all along the credit of +being miraculous; and "to this day," says Kugler, "the Neapolitan +lemonade-seller will allow no other than a formal Greek Madonna, with +olive-green complexion and veiled head, to be set up in his booth." It +is the same in Russia. Such pictures, in which there is no attempt +at representation, real or ideal, and which merely have a sort of +imaginary sanctity and power, are not so much idols as they are mere +_Fetishes_. The most lovely Madonna by Raphael or Titian would not +have the same effect. Guido, who himself painted lovely Virgins, +went every Saturday to pray before the little black _Madonna della +Guardia_, and, as we are assured, held this old Eastern relic in +devout veneration. + +In the pictures of the Madonna, produced by the most eminent painters +of the seventeenth century, is embodied the theology of the time. +The Virgin Mary is not, like the Madonna di San Sisto, "a single +projection of the artist's mind," but, as far as he could put his +studies together, she is "a compound of every creature's best," +sometimes majestic, sometimes graceful, often full of sentiment, +elegance, and refinement, but wanting wholly in the spiritual element. +If the Madonna did really sit to Guido in person, (see Malvasia, +"Felsina Pittrice,") we fancy she must have revealed her loveliness, +but veiled her divinity. + +Without doubt the finest Madonnas of the seventeenth century are +those produced by the Spanish school; not because they more realize +our spiritual conception of the Virgin--quite the contrary: for here +the expression of life through sensation and emotion prevails over +abstract mind, grandeur, and grace;--but because the intensely human +and sympathetic character given to the Madonna appeals most strongly +to our human nature. The appeal is to the faith through the feelings, +rather than through the imagination. Morales and Ribera excelled +in the Mater Dolorosa; and who has surpassed Murilio in the tender +exultation of maternity?[1] There is a freshness and a depth of +feeling in the best Madonnas of the late Spanish school, which puts to +shame the mannerism of the Italians, and the naturalism of the Flemish +painters of the same period: and this because the Spaniards were +intense and enthusiastic believers, not mere thinkers, in art as in +religion. + +[Footnote 1: See in the Handbook to the Private Galleries of Art some +remarks on the tendencies of the Spanish School, p, 172.] + +As in the sixth century, the favourite dogma of the time (the union +of the divine and human nature in Christ, and the dignity of Mary +as parent of both) had been embodied in the group of the Virgin +and Child, so now, in the seventeenth, the doctrine of the eternal +sanctification and predestination of Mary was, after a long +controversy, triumphant, and took form in the "Immaculate Conception;" +that beautiful subject in which Guido and Murilio excelled, and which +became the darling theme of the later schools of art. It is worthy +of remark, that while in the sixth century, and for a thousand years +afterwards, the Virgin, in all devotional subjects, was associated in +some visible manner with her divine Son, in this she appears without +the Infant in her arms. The maternal character is set aside, and +she stands alone, absolute in herself, and complete in her own +perfections. This is a very significant characteristic of the +prevalent theology of the time. + +I forbear to say much of the productions of a school of art which +sprung up simultaneously with that of the Caracci, and in the end +overpowered its higher aspirations. The _Naturalisti_, as they were +called, imitated nature without selection, and produced some charming +painters. But their religious pictures are almost all intolerable, +and their Madonnas are almost all portraits. Rubens and Albano painted +their wives; Allori and Vandyck their mistresses; Domenichino his +daughter. Salvator Rosa, in his Satires, exclaims against this general +profaneness in terms not less strong than those of Savonarola in his +Sermons; but the corruption was by this time beyond the reach of cure; +the sin could neither be preached nor chided away. Striking effects of +light and shade, peculiar attitudes, scenic groups, the perpetual and +dramatic introduction of legendary scenes and personages, of visions +and miracles of the Madonna vouchsafed to her votaries, characterize +the productions of the seventeenth century. As "they who are whole +need not a physician, but they who are sick," so in proportion to +the decline of faith were the excitements to faith, or rather to +credulity: just in proportion as men were less inclined to believe +were the wonders multiplied which they were called on to believe. + +I have not spoken of the influence of Jesuitism on art. This Order +kept alive that devotion for the Madonna which their great founder +Loyola had so ardently professed when he chose for the "Lady" of +his thoughts, "no princess, no duchess, but one far greater, more +peerless." The learning of the Jesuits supplied some themes not +hitherto in use, principally of a fanciful and allegorical kind, and +never had the meek Mary been so decked out with earthly ornament +as in their church pictures. If the sanctification of simplicity, +gentleness, maternal love, and heroic fortitude, were calculated +to elevate the popular mind, the sanctification of mere glitter and +ornament, embroidered robes, and jewelled crowns, must have tended +to degrade it. It is surely an unworthy and a foolish excuse that, in +thus desecrating with the vainest and most vulgar finery the beautiful +ideal of the Virgin, an appeal was made to the awe and admiration +of vulgar and ignorant minds; for this is precisely what, in all +religious imagery, should be avoided. As, however, this sacrilegious +millinery does not come within the province of the fine arts, I may +pass it over here. + +Among the Jesuit prints of the seventeenth century, I remember one +which represents the Virgin and Child in the centre, and around are +the most famous heretics of all ages, lying prostrate, or hanging by +the neck. Julian the Apostate; Leo the Isaurian; his son, Constantine +Capronymus; Arius; Nestorius; Manicheus; Luther; Calvin:--very +characteristic of the age of controversy which had succeeded to the +age of faith, when, instead of solemn saints and grateful votaries, we +have dead or dying heretics surrounding the Mother of Mercy! + + * * * * * + +After this rapid sketch of the influences which modified in a general +way the pictures of the Madonna, we may array before us, and learn to +compare, the types which distinguished in a more particular manner the +separate schools, caught from some more local or individual impulses. +Thus we have the stern, awful quietude of the old Mosaics; the hard +lifelessness of the degenerate Greek; the pensive sentiment of +the Siena, and stately elegance of the Florentine Madonnas; the +intellectual Milanese, with their large foreheads and thoughtful eyes; +the tender, refined mysticism of the Umbrian; the sumptuous loveliness +of the Venetian; the quaint, characteristic simplicity of the early +German, so stamped with their nationality, that I never looked round +me in a room full of German girls without thinking of Albert Durer's +Virgins; the intense life-like feeling of the Spanish; the prosaic, +portrait-like nature of the Flemish schools, and so on. But here an +obvious question suggests itself. In the midst of all this diversity, +these ever-changing influences, was there no characteristic type +universally accepted, suggested by common religious associations, if +not defined by ecclesiastical authority, to which the artist was bound +to conform? How is it that the impersonation of the Virgin fluctuated, +not only with the fluctuating tendencies of successive ages, but even +with the caprices of the individual artist? + +This leads us back to reconsider the sources from which the artist +drew his inspiration. + +The legend which represents St. Luke the Evangelist as a painter +appears to be of Eastern origin, and quite unknown in Western Europe +before the first crusade. It crept in then, and was accepted with many +other oriental superstitions and traditions. It may have originated +in the real existence of a Greek painter named Luca--a saint, too, +he may have been; for the Greeks have a whole calendar of canonized +artists,--painters, poets, and musicians; and this Greek San Luca may +have been a painter of those Madonnas imported from the ateliers of +Mount Athos into the West by merchants and pilgrims; and the West, +which knew but of one St. Luke, may have easily confounded the painter +and the evangelist. + +But we must also remember, that St. Luke the Evangelist was early +regarded as the great authority with respect to the few Scripture +particulars relating to the character and life of Mary; so that, +in the figurative sense, he may be said to have _painted_ that +portrait of her which has been since received as the perfect type +of womanhood:--1. Her noble, trustful humility, when she receives +the salutation of the angel (Luke i. 38); the complete and feminine +surrender of her whole being to the higher, holier will--"Be it unto +me according to thy word." 2. Then, the decision and prudence of +character, shown in her visit to Elizabeth, her older relative; her +journey in haste over the hills to consult with her cousin, which +journey it is otherwise difficult to accord with the oriental customs +of the time, unless Mary, young as she was, had possessed unusual +promptitude and energy of disposition. (Luke i. 39, 40.) 3. The proof +of her intellectual power in the beautiful hymn she has left us, "_My +soul doth magnify the Lord._" (Luke i. 46.) The commentators are +not agreed as to whether this effusion was poured forth by immediate +inspiration, or composed and written down, because the same words, +"and Mary said," may be interpreted in either sense; but we can no +more doubt her being the authoress, than we can doubt of any other +particulars recorded in the same Gospel: it proves that she must have +been, for her time and country, most rarely gifted in mind, and deeply +read in the Scriptures. 4. She was of a contemplative, reflecting, +rather silent disposition. "She kept all these sayings, and pondered +them in her heart." (Luke ii. 51.) She made no boast of that wondrous +and most blessed destiny to which she was called; she thought upon it +in silence. It is inferred that as many of these sayings and events +could be known to herself alone, St. Luke the Evangelist could have +learned them only from her own lips. 5. Next her truly maternal +devotion to her divine Son, whom she attended humbly through his whole +ministry;[1] 6. and lastly, the sublime fortitude and faith with which +she followed her Son to the death scene, stood beside the cross till +all was finished, and then went home, and _lived_ (Luke xxiii.); for +she was to be to us an example of all that a woman could endure, as +well as all that a woman could be and act out in her earthly life. +(John xix. 25.) Such was the character of Mary; such the _portrait_ +really _painted_ by St. Luke; and, as it seems to me, these scattered, +artless, unintentional notices of conduct and character converge into +the most perfect moral type of the intellectual, tender, simple, and +heroic woman that ever was placed before us for our edification and +example. + +[Footnote 1: Milton places in the mouth of our Saviour an allusion to +the influence of his Mother in early life:-- + + "These growing thoughts my mother soon perceiving + By words at times cast forth, duly rejoiced, + And said to me apart, 'High are thy thoughts, + O Son; but nourish them, and let them soar + To what height sacred virtue and true worth + Can raise them, though above example high.'"] + +But in the Church traditions and enactments, another character +was, from the fifth century, assigned to her, out of which grew the +theological type, very beautiful and exalted, but absorbing to a great +degree the scriptural and moral type, and substituting for the merely +human attributes others borrowed from her relation to the great +scheme of redemption; for it was contended that, as the mother of +_the Divine_, she could not be herself less than divine; consequently +above the angels, and first of all created beings. According to the +doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, her tender woman's wisdom +became supernatural gifts; the beautiful humility was changed into a +knowledge of her own predestined glory; and, being raised bodily into +immortality, and placed beside her Son, in all "the sacred splendour +of beneficence," she came to be regarded as our intercessor before +that divine Son, who could refuse nothing to his mother. The relative +position of the Mother and Son being spiritual and indestructible was +continued in heaven; and thus step by step the woman was transmuted +into the divinity. + +But, like her Son, Mary had walked in human form upon earth, and in +form must have resembled her Son; for, as it is argued, Christ had no +earthly father, therefore could only have derived his human lineaments +from his mother. All the old legends assume that the resemblance +between the Son and the Mother must have been perfect. Dante alludes +to this belief: + + "Riguarda ormai nella faccia ch' a Christo + Piu s' assomiglia." + + "Now raise thy view + Unto the visage most resembling Christ." + +The accepted type of the head of Christ was to be taken as a model in +its mild, intellectual majesty, for that of the Virgin-mother, as far +as difference of sex would allow. + +In the ecclesiastical history of Nicephorus Gallixtus, he has inserted +a description of the person of Mary, which he declares to have been +given by Epiphanius, who lived in the fourth century, and by him +derived from a more ancient source. It must be confessed, that the +type of person here assigned to the Virgin is more energetic for a +woman than that which has been assigned to our Saviour as a man. "She +was of middle stature; her face oval; her eyes brilliant, and of an +olive tint; her eyebrows arched and black; her hair was of a pale +brown; her complexion fair as wheat. She spoke little, but she spoke +freely and affably; she was not troubled in her speech, but grave, +courteous, tranquil. Her dress was without ornament, and in her +deportment was nothing lax or feeble." To this ancient description +of her person and manners, we are to add the scriptural and popular +portrait of her mind; the gentleness, the purity, the intellect, +power, and fortitude; the gifts of the poetess and prophetess; the +humility in which she exceeded all womankind. Lastly, we are to +engraft on these personal and moral qualities, the theological +attributes which the Church, from early times, had assigned to +her, the supernatural endowments which lifted her above angels +and men:--all these were to be combined into one glorious type of +perfection. Where shall we seek this highest, holiest impersonation! +Where has it been attained, or even approached? Not, certainly, in the +mere woman, nor yet in the mere idol; not in those lovely creations +which awaken a sympathetic throb of tenderness; nor in those stern, +motionless types,--which embody a dogma; not in the classic features +of marble goddesses, borrowed as models; nor in the painted images +which stare upon us from tawdry altars in flaxen wigs and embroidered +petticoats. But where? + +Of course we each form to ourselves some notion of what we require; +and these requirements will be as diverse as our natures and our +habits of thought. For myself, I have seen my own ideal once, and only +once, attained: _there_, where Raphael--inspired if ever painter was +inspired--projected on the space before him that wonderful creation +which we style the _Madonna di San Sisto_ (Dresden Gal.); for there +she stands--the transfigured woman, at once completely human and +completely divine, an abstraction of power, purity, and love, poised +on the empurpled air, and requiring no other support; looking out, +with her melancholy, loving mouth, her slightly dilated, sibylline +eyes, quite through the universe, to the end and consummation of all +things;--sad, as if she beheld afar off the visionary sword that +was to reach her heart through HIM, now resting as enthroned on +that heart; yet already exalted through the homage of the redeemed +generations who were to salute her as Blessed. Six times have I +visited the city made glorious by the possession of this treasure, and +as often, when again at a distance, with recollections disturbed by +feeble copies and prints, I have begun to think, "Is it so indeed? is +she indeed so divine? or does not rather the imagination encircle +her with a halo of religion and poetry, and lend a grace which is not +really there?" and as often, when returned, I have stood before it and +confessed that there is more in that form and face than I had ever +yet conceived. I cannot here talk the language of critics, and speak +of this picture merely as a picture, for to me it was a revelation. +In the same gallery is the lovely Madonna of the Meyer family: +inexpressibly touching and perfect in its way, but conveying only one +of the attributes of Mary, her benign pity; while the Madonna di San +Sisto is an abstract of _all_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Expression is the great and characteristic excellence of +Raphael more especially in his Madonnas. It is precisely this which +all copies and engravings render at best most imperfectly; and in +point of expression the most successful engraving of the Madonna di +San Sisto is certainly that of Steinla.] + + * * * * * + +The poets are ever the best commentators on the painters. I have +already given from the great "singers of high poems" in the fourteenth +century _their_ exposition of the theological type of the Madonna. +Now, in some striking passages of our modern poets, we may find a most +beautiful commentary on what I have termed the _moral_ type. + +The first is from Wordsworth, and may be recited before the Madonna di +San Sisto:-- + + "Mother! whose virgin bosom was uncrost + With the least shade of thought to sin allied! + Woman! above all women glorified; + Out tainted nature's solitary boast; + Purer than foam on central ocean tost; + Brighter than eastern skies at daybreak strewn + With fancied roses, than the unblemish'd moon + Before her wane begins on heaven's blue coast, + Thy Image falls to earth. Yet some I ween, + Not unforgiven, the suppliant knee might bend, + As to a visible Power, in which did blend + All that was mix'd and reconcil'd in thee, + Of mother's love with maiden purity, + Of high with low, celestial with terrene." + +The next, from Shelley, reads like a hymn in honour of the Immaculate +Conception:-- + + Seraph of Heaven! too gentle to be human, + Veiling beneath that radiant form of woman + All that is insupportable in thee + Of light, and love, and immortality! + Sweet Benediction in the eternal curse! + Veil'd Glory of this lampless Universe! + Thou Moon beyond the clouds! Thou living Form + Among the Dead! Thou Star above the storm! + Thou Wonder, and thou Beauty, and thou Terror! + Thou Harmony of Nature's art! Thou Mirror + In whom, as in the splendour of the Sun, + All shapes look glorious which thou gazest on!" + + "See where she stands! a mortal shape endued + With love, and life, and light, and deity; + The motion which may change but cannot die, + An image of some bright eternity; + A shadow of some golden dream; a splendour + Leaving the third sphere pilotless." + +I do not know whether intentionally or not, but we have here assembled +some of the favourite symbols of the Virgin--the moon, the star, the +"_terribilis ut castrorum acies_" (Cant. vi. 10), and the mirror. + +The third is a passage from Robert Browning, which appears to me to +sum up the moral ideal:-- + + "There is a vision in the heart of each, + Of justice, mercy, wisdom, tenderness + To wrong and pain, and knowledge of their cure; + And these embodied in a woman's form + That best transmits them pure as first received + From God above her to mankind below!" + + + + +II. SYMBOLS AND ATTRIBUTES OF THE VIRGIN. + + +That which the genius of the greatest of painters only once expressed, +we must not look to find in his predecessors, who saw only partial +glimpses of the union of the divine and human in the feminine form; +still less in his degenerate successors, who never beheld it at all. + +The difficulty of fully expressing this complex ideal, and the +allegorical spirit of the time, first suggested the expedient of +placing round the figure of the glorified Virgin certain accessory +symbols, which should assist the artist to express, and the observer +to comprehend, what seemed beyond the power of art to portray;--a +language of metaphor then understood, and which we also must +understand if we would seize the complete theological idea intended +to be conveyed. + +I shall begin with those symbols which are borrowed from the Litanies +of the Virgin, and from certain texts of the Canticles, in all ages +of the Church applied to her; symbols which, in the fifteenth and +sixteenth centuries, frequently accompany those representations +which set forth her Glorification or Predestination; and, in the +seventeenth, are introduced into the "Immaculate Conception." + +1. The Sun and the Moon.--"Electa ut Sol, pulchra ut Luna," is one +of the texts of the Canticles applied to Mary; and also in a passage +of the Revelation, "_A woman clothed with the sun, having the moon +under her feet, and on her head a crown of twelve stars._" Hence the +radiance of the sun above her head, and the crescent moon beneath her +feet. From inevitable association the crescent moon suggests the +idea of her perpetual chastity; but in this sense it would be a pagan +rather than a Christian attribute. + +2. The STAR.--This attribute, often embroidered in front of the veil +of the Virgin or on the right shoulder of her blue mantle, has become +almost as a badge from which several well-known pictures derive +their title, "La Madonna della Stella." It is in the first place +an attribute alluding to the most beautiful and expressive of her +many titles:--"_Stella Maris_" Star of the Sea,[1] which is one +interpretation of her Jewish name, _Miriam_: but she is also "_Stella +Jacobi_," the Star of Jacob; "_Stella Matutina_," the Morning Star; +"_Stella non Erratica_," the Fixed Star. When, instead of the single +star on her veil or mantle, she has the crown of twelve stars, the +allusion is to the text of the Apocalypse already quoted, and the +number of stars is in allusion to the number of the Apostles.[2] + +[Footnote 1: + "Ave Maris Stella + Dei Mater alma!" &c.] + +[Footnote 2: "In capite inquit ejus corona stellarum duodecim; quidni +coronent sidera quam sol vestit?"--_St. Bernard_.] + +3. The LILY.--"_I am the rose of Sharon, and lily of the valleys._" +(Cant. ii. 1, 2.) As the general emblem of purity, the lily is +introduced into the Annunciation, where it ought to be without +stamens: and in the enthroned Madonnas it is frequently placed in +the hands of attendant angels, more particularly in the Florentine +Madonnas; the lily, as the emblem of their patroness, being chosen +by the citizens as the _device_ of the city. For the same reason it +became that of the French monarchy. Thorns are sometimes interlaced +with the lily, to express the "_Lilium inter Spinas_." (Cant. ii. 2.) + +4. The ROSE.--She is the rose of Sharon, as well as the lily of the +valley; and as an emblem of love and beauty, the rose is especially +dedicated to her. The plantation or garden of roses[1] is often +introduced; sometimes it forms the background of the picture. There +is a most beautiful example in a Madonna by Cesare di Sesto (Milan, +Brera); and another, "the Madonna of the Rose Bush," by Martin Schoen. +(Cathedral, Colmar.) + +[Footnote 1: Quasi plantatio rosae in Jericho.] + +5. The ENCLOSED GARDEN (_Hortus conclusus_) is an image borrowed, +like many others, from the Song of Solomon. (Cant. iv. 12.) I have +seen this enclosed garden very significantly placed in the background +of the Annunciation, and in pictures of the Immaculate Conception. +Sometimes the enclosure is formed of a treillage or hedge of roses, as +in a beautiful Virgin by Francia.[1] Sometimes it is merely formed of +stakes or palisades, as In some of the prints by Albert Durer. + +[Footnote 1: Munich Gal.; another by Antonio da Negroponte in the +San Francesco della Vigna at Venice, is also an instance of this +significant background.] + +The WELL always full; the FOUNTAIN forever sealed; the TOWER of David; +the TEMPLE of Solomon; the CITY of David (_Civitas sancti_), (Cant iv. +4. 12, 15); all these are attributes borrowed from the Canticles, and +are introduced into pictures and stained glass. + +6. The PORTA CLAITSA, the Closed Gate, is another metaphor, taken from +the prophecy of Ezekiel (xliv. 4). + +7. The CEDAR of Lebanon (_Cedrus exaliata_, "exalted as a cedar in +Lebanon"), because of its height, its incorruptible substance, +its perfume, and the healing virtues attributed to it in the East, +expresses the greatness, the beauty, the goodness of Mary. + +The victorious PALM, the Plantain "far spreading," and the Cypress +pointing to heaven, are also emblems of the Virgin. + +The OLIVE, as a sign of peace, hope, and abundance, is also a fitting +emblem of the graces of Mary.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Quasi oliva speciosa in campis.] + +8. The Stem of Jesse (Isa. xi. 1), figured as a green branch entwined +with flowers, is also very significant. + +9. The MIRROR (_Specula sine macula_) is a metaphor borrowed from the +Book of Wisdom (vii, 25). We meet with it in some of the late pictures +of the Immaculate Conception. + +10. The SEALED BOOK is also a symbol often placed in the hands of the +Virgin in a mystical Annunciation, and sufficiently significant. The +allusion is to the text, "In that book were all my members written;" +and also to the text in Isaiah (xxix. 11, 12), in which he describes +the vision of the book that was sealed, and could be read neither by +the learned nor the unlearned. + +11. "The Bush which burned and was not consumed," is introduced, with +a mystical significance, into an Annunciation by Titian. + + * * * * * + +Besides these symbols, which have a mystic and sacred significance, +and are applicable to the Virgin only, certain attributes and +accessories are introduced into pictures of the Madonna and Child, +which are capable of a more general interpretation. + +1. The GLOBE, as the emblem of sovereignty, was very early placed in +the hand of the divine Child. When the globe is under the feet of +the Madonna and encircled by a serpent, as in some later pictures, +it figures our Redemption; her triumph over a fallen world--fallen +through sin. + +2. The SERPENT is the general emblem of Sin or Satan; but under the +feet of the Virgin it has a peculiar significance. She has generally +her foot on the head of the reptile. "SHE shall bruise thy head," as +it is interpreted in the Roman Catholic Church.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Ipsa_ conteret caput tuum.] + +3. The APPLE, which of all the attributes is the most common, +signifies the fall of man, which made Redemption necessary. It is +sometimes placed in the hands of the Child; but when in the hand of +the Mother, she is then designated as the second Eve.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Mors per Evam: vita per Mariam.] + +4. The POMEGRANATE, with the seeds displayed, was the ancient emblem +of hope, and more particularly of religious hope. It is often placed +in the hands of the Child, who sometimes presents it to his Mother. + +Other fruits and flowers, always beautiful accessories, are frequently +introduced according to the taste of the artist. But fruits in a +general sense signified "the fruits of the Spirit--joy, peace, love;" +and flowers were consecrated to the Virgin: hence we yet see them +placed before her as offerings. + +5. EARS OF WHEAT in the hand of the Infant (as in a lovely little +Madonna by Ludovico Caracci)[1] figured the bread in the Eucharist, +and GRAPES the wine. + +[Footnote 1: Lansdowne Collection. There was another exactly similar +in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +6. The BOOK.--In the hand of the Infant Christ, the book is the Gospel +in a general sense, or it is the Book of Wisdom. In the hand of the +Madonna, it may have one of two meanings. When open, or when she has +her finger between the leaves, or when the Child is turning over the +pages, then it is the Book of Wisdom, and is always supposed to be +open at the seventh chapter. When the book is clasped or sealed, it is +a mystical symbol of the Virgin herself, as I have already explained. + +7. The DOVE, as the received emblem of the Holy Spirit, is properly +placed above, as hovering over the Virgin. There is an exception to +this rule in a very interesting picture in the Louvre, where the +Holy Dove (with the _nimbus_) is placed at the feet of the Child.[1] +This is so unusual, and so contrary to all the received proprieties +of religious art, that I think the _nimbus_ may have been added +afterwards. + +[Footnote 1: The Virgin has the air of a gipsy. (Louvre, 515.)] + +The seven doves round the head of the Virgin signify the seven gifts +of the Spirit. These characterize her as personified Wisdom--the Mater +Sapientiae. + +Doves placed near Mary when she is reading, or at work in the temple, +are expressive of her gentleness and tenderness. + +8. BIRDS.--The bird in the Egyptian hieroglyphics signified the soul +of man. In the very ancient pictures there can be no doubt, I think, +that the bird in the hand of Christ figured the soul, or the spiritual +as opposed to the material. But, in the later pictures, the original +meaning being lost, birds became mere ornamental accessories, or +playthings. Sometimes it is a parrot from the East, sometimes a +partridge (the partridge is frequent in the Venetian pictures): +sometimes a goldfinch, as in Raphael's Madonna _del Cardellino_. In a +Madonna by Guercino, the Mother holds a bird perched on her hand, and +the Child, with a most _naive_ infantine expression, shrinks back from +it.[1] In a picture by Baroccio, he holds it up before a cat (Nat. +Gal. 29), so completely were the original symbolism and all the +religious proprieties of art at this time set aside. + +[Footnote 1: It was in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +Other animals are occasionally introduced. Extremely offensive are +the apes when admitted into devotional pictures. We have associations +with the animal as a mockery of the human, which render it a very +disagreeable accessory. It appears that, in the sixteenth century, +it became the fashion to keep apes as pets, and every reader of +Vasari will remember the frequent mention of these animals as pets +and favourites of the artists. Thus only can I account for the +introduction of the ape, particularly in the Ferrarese pictures. +Bassano's dog, Baroccio's cat, are often introduced. In a famous +picture by Titian, "La Vierge au Lapin," we have the rabbit. (Louvre.) +The introduction of these and other animals marks the decline of +religious art. + +Certain women of the Old Testament are regarded as especial types of +the Virgin. + +EVE. Mary is regarded as the second Eve, because, through her, came +the promised Redemption. She bruised the head of the Serpent. The Tree +of Life, the Fall, or Eve holding the Apple, are constantly introduced +allusively in the Madonna pictures, as ornaments of her throne, or +on the predella of an altar-piece, representing the Annunciation, the +Nativity, or the Coronation. + +RACHEL figures as the ideal of contemplative life. + +RUTH, as the ancestress of David. + +ABISHAG, as "the Virgin who was brought to the King." (I Kings i. 1.) + +BATHSHEBA, because she sat upon a throne on the right hand of her Son. + +JUDITH and ESTHER, as having redeemed their people, and brought +deliverance to Israel. It is because of their typical character, as +emblems of the Virgin, that these Jewish heroines so often figure in +the religious pictures.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The artistic treatment of these characters as types of +the Virgin, will be found in the fourth series of "Legendary Art."] + +In his "Paradiso" (c. xxxii.), Dante represents Eve, Rachel, Sara, +Ruth, Judith, as seated at the feet of the Virgin Mary, beneath her +throne in heaven; and next to Rachel, by a refinement of spiritual and +poetical gallantry, he has placed his Beatrice. + +In the beautiful frescoes of the church of St. Apollinaris at Remagen, +these Hebrew women stand together in a group below the throne of the +Virgin. + +Of the Prophets and the Sibyls who attend on Christ in his character +of the Messiah or Redeemer, I shall have much to say, when describing +the artistic treatment of the history and character of Our Lord. +Those of the prophets who are supposed to refer more particularly to +the Incarnation, properly attend on the Virgin and Child; but in the +ancient altar-pieces, they are not placed within the same frame, nor +are they grouped immediately round her throne, but form the outer +accessories, or are treated separately as symbolical. + +First, MOSES, because he beheld the burning bush, "which burned and +was not consumed." He is generally in the act of removing his sandals. + +AARON, because his rod blossomed miraculously. + +GIDEON, on whose fleece descended the dew of heaven, while all was +dry around. + +DANIEL, who beheld the stone which was cut out without hands, and +became a great mountain, filling the earth. (ch. ii. 45.) + +DAVID, as prophet and ancestor. "Listen, O daughter, and incline thine +ear." + +ISAIAH, "Behold a virgin shall conceive and bear a son." + +EZEKIEL, "This gate shall be shut." (ch. xliv. 2.) + +Certain of these personages, Moses, Aaron, Gideon, Daniel, Ezekiel, +are not merely accessories and attendant figures, but in a manner +attributes, as expressing the character of the Virgin. Thus in many +instances, we find the prophetical personages altogether omitted, and +we have simply the attribute figuring the prophecy itself, the burning +bush, the rod, the dewy fleece, &c. + +The Sibyls are sometimes introduced alternately with the Prophets. In +general, if there be only two, they are the Tiburtina, who showed the +vision to Augustus, and the Cumean Sibyl who foretold the birth of our +Saviour. The Sibyls were much the fashion in the classic times of the +sixteenth century; Michael Angelo and Raphael have left us consummate +examples. + +But I must repeat that the full consideration of the Prophets and +Sibyls as accessories belongs to another department of sacred art, and +they will find their place there. + +The Evangelists frequently, and sometimes one or more of the +Twelve Apostles, appear as accessories which assist the theological +conception. When other figures are introduced, they are generally +either the protecting saints of the country or locality, or the saints +of the Religious Order to whom the edifice belongs: or, where the +picture or window is an _ex-voto_, we find the patron saints of the +confraternity, or of the donor or votary who has dedicated it. + +Angels seated at the feet of the Madonna and playing on musical +instruments, are most lovely and appropriate accessories, for the +choral angels are always around her in heaven, and on earth she is +the especial patroness of music and minstrelsy.[1] Her delegate +Cecilia patronized _sacred_ music; but _all_ music and musicians, +all minstrels, and all who plied the "gaye science," were under the +protection of Mary. When the angels are singing from their music +books, and others are accompanying them with lutes and viols, the +song is not always supposed to be the same. In a Nativity they sing +the "Gloria in excelsis Deo;" in a Coronation, the "Regina Coeli;" +in an enthroned Madonna with votaries, the "Salve Regina, Mater +Misericordiae!" in a pastoral Madonna and Child it may be the "Alma +Mater Redemptoris." + +[Footnote 1: The picture by Lo Spagna, lately added to our National +Gallery, is a beautiful example.] + + * * * * * + +In all the most ancient devotional effigies (those in the catacombs +and the old mosaics), the Virgin appears as a majestic woman of mature +age. In those subjects taken from her history which precede her return +from Egypt, and in the Holy Families, she should appear as a young +maiden from fifteen to seventeen years old. + +In the subjects taken from her history which follow the baptism of our +Lord, she should appear as a matron between forty and fifty, but still +of a sweet and gracious aspect. When Michael Angelo was reproached +with representing his Mater Dolorosa much too young, he replied that +the perfect virtue and serenity of the character of Mary would have +preserved her beauty and youthful appearance long beyond the usual +period.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The group in St. Peter's, Rome.] + +Because some of the Greek pictures and carved images had become black +through extreme age, it was argued by certain devout writers, that the +Virgin herself must have been of a very dark complexion; and in favour +of this idea they quoted this text from the Canticles, "I am black, +but comely, O ye daughters of Jerusalem." But others say that her +complexion had become black only during her sojourn in Egypt. At all +events, though the blackness of these antique images was supposed to +enhance their sanctity, it has never been imitated in the fine arts, +and it is quite contrary to the description of Nicephorus, which is +the most ancient authority, and that which is followed in the Greek +school. + +The proper dress of the Virgin is a close red tunic, with long +sleeves;[1] and over this a blue robe or mantle. In the early +pictures, the colours are pale and delicate. Her head ought to be +veiled. The fathers of the primeval Church, particularly Tertullian, +attach great importance to the decent veil worn by Christian maidens; +and in all the early pictures the Virgin is veiled. The enthroned +Virgin, unveiled, with long tresses falling down on either side, +was an innovation introduced about the end of the fifteenth century; +commencing, I think, with the Milanese, and thence adopted in the +German schools and those of Northern Italy. The German Madonnas of +Albert Durer's time have often magnificent and luxuriant hair, curling +in ringlets, or descending to the waist in rich waves, and always +fair. Dark-haired Madonnas appear first in the Spanish and later +Italian schools. + +[Footnote 1: In a famous Pieta by Raphael, engraved by Marc Antonio, +the Virgin, standing by the dead form of her Son, has the right arm +apparently bare; in the repetition of the subject it is clothed with +a full sleeve, the impropriety being corrected. The first is, however, +the most perfect and most precious as a work of art.--_Bartsch_, xiv. +34, 35.] + +In the historical pictures, her dress is very simple; but in those +devotional figures which represent her as queen of heaven, she wears a +splendid crown, sometimes of jewels interwoven with lilies and roses. +The crown is often the sovereign crown of the country in which the +picture is placed: thus, in the Papal States, she often wears the +triple tiara: in Austria, the imperial diadem. Her blue tunic is +richly embroidered with gold and gems, or lined with ermine, or stuff +of various colours, in accordance with a text of Scripture: "The +King's daughter is all glorious within; her clothing is of wrought +gold. She shall be brought unto the King in a vesture of needlework." +(Ps. xlv. 13.) In the Immaculate Conception, and in the Assumption, +her tunic should be plain white, or white spangled with golden stars. +In the subjects relating to the Passion, and after the Crucifixion, +the dress of the Virgin should be violet or gray. These proprieties, +however, are not always attended to. + +In the early pictures which represent her as nursing the divine Infant +(the subject called the _Vergine Lattante_), the utmost care is taken +to veil the bust as much as possible. In the Spanish school the most +vigilant censorship was exercised over all sacred pictures, and, with +regard to the figures of the Virgin, the utmost decorum was required. +"What," says Pacheco, "can be more foreign to the respect which we owe +to our Lady the Virgin, than to paint her sitting down with one of her +knees placed over the other, and often with her sacred feet uncovered +and naked? Let thanks be given to the Holy Inquisition, which commands +that this liberty should be corrected." For this reason, perhaps, we +seldom see the feet of the Virgin in Spanish pictures.[1] Carducho +speaks more particularly on the impropriety of painting the Virgin +unshod, "since it is manifest that, our Lady was in the habit of +wearing shoes, as is proved by the much venerated relic of one of them +from her divine feet at Burgos." + +[Footnote 1: Or in any of the old pictures till the seventeenth +century "Tandis que Dieu est toujours montre pieds nus, lui qui est +descendu a terre et a pris notre humanite, Marie au contraire est +constamment representee les pieds perdus dans les plis trainants, +nombreux et legers de sa robe virginale; elle, qui est elevee au +dessus de la terre et rapprochee de Dieu par sa purete. Dieu montre +par ses pieds nus qu'il a pris le corps de l'homme; Marie fait +comprendre en les cachant qu'elle participe de la spiritualite de +Dieu."] + +The Child in her arms is always, in the Greek and early pictures, +clothed in a little tunic, generally white. In the fifteenth century +he first appears partly, and then wholly, undraped. Joseph, as the +earthly _sposo_, wears the saffron-coloured mantle over a gray tunic. +In the later schools of art these significant colours are often +varied, and sometimes wholly dispensed with. + + + + +III. DEVOTIONAL AND HISTORICAL REPRESENTATIONS. + + +In this volume, as in the former ones, I have adhered to the +distinction between the devotional and the historical representations. + +I class as devotional, all those which express a dogma merely; all the +enthroned Madonnas, alone or surrounded by significant accessories +or attendant saints; all the Mystical Coronations and Immaculate +Conceptions; all the Holy Families with saints, and those completely +ideal and votive groups, in which the appeal is made to the faith and +piety of the observer. I shall give the characteristic details, in +particular instances, further on. + +The altar-pieces in a Roman Catholic church are always either strictly +devotional objects, or it may be, historical subjects (such as the +Nativity) treated in a devotional sense. They are sometimes in several +pieces or compartments. A Diptych is an altar-piece composed of two +divisions or leaves which are united by hinges, and close like a book. +Portable altar-pieces of a small size are generally in this form; and +among the most valuable and curious remains of early religious art are +the Greek and Byzantine Diptychs, sometimes painted, sometimes carved +in ivory[1]. A Triptych is an altar-piece in three parts; the two +outer divisions or wings often closing as shutters over the central +compartment. + +[Footnote 1: Among the "Casts from Ancient Ivory Carvings", +published by the Arundel Society, will be found some interesting and +illustrative examples, particularly Class III. Diptych _b_, Class VII +Diptych _c_ and Triptych _f_, Class IX. Triptych _k_.] + +On the outside of the shutters or doors the Annunciation was +generally painted, as the mystery which opened the gates of salvation; +occasionally, also, the portraits of the votaries or donors. + +Complete examples of devotional representation occur in the complex +and elaborate altar-pieces and windows of stained glass, which often +comprehend a very significant scheme of theology.[1]. I give here +plans of two of these old altar-pieces, which will assist the reader +in elucidating the meaning of others. + +[Footnote 1: Still more important examples occur in the porches and +exterior decoration of the old cathedrals, French and English which +have escaped mutilation. These will be found explained at length in +the Fourth Series of Sacred and Legendary Art.] + +The first is the altar-piece in the Rinuccini Chapel in the church +of the Santa Croco of Florence. It is necessary to premise that +the chapel was founded in honour of the Virgin and Mary Magdalene; +while the church is dedicated to the Holy Cross, and belongs to the +Franciscans. + +[Illustration: Altar-piece] + +The compartments are separated by wood-work most richly carved +and gilt in the Gothic style, with twisted columns, pinnacles, and +scrolls. The subjects are thus distributed. + +A. The Virgin and Child enthroned. She has the sun on her breast, the +moon under her feet, the twelve stars over her head, and is attended +by angels bearing the attributes of the cardinal virtues. B. St. +John the Baptist. C. St. Francis. D. St. John Evangelist. E. Mary +Magdalene. 1. The Crucifixion, with the Virgin and St. John. 2, 3, 4, +5. The four Evangelists with their books: half length. 6, 7. St. Peter +and St. Paul: half length. 8, 9, 10, 11. St. Thomas, St. Philip, St. +James, and St. Andrew: half length. PP. The Predella. 12. The Nativity +and Adoration of Magi. 13. St. Francis receives the Stigmata. 14. +Baptism of Christ. 15. The Vision of St. John in Patmos. 16. Mary +Magdalene borne up by angels. Between the altar-piece and the predella +runs the inscription in Gothic letters, AVE DELICISSIMIS VIRGO MARIA, +SUCCURRE NOBIS MATER PIA. MCCCLXXVIII. + +The second example is sketched from an altar-piece painted for the +suppressed convent of Santa Chiara, at Venice. It is six feet high, +and eight feet wide, and the ornamental caning in which the subjects +are enclosed particularly splendid and elaborate. + +[Illustration: Altar-piece] + +A. The Coronation of the Virgin, treated as a religious mystery, with +choral angels. B. The Nativity of our Lord. C. The Baptism. D. The +Last Supper. E. The Betrayal of Christ. F. The Procession to Calvary, +in which the Virgin is rudely pushed aside by the soldiers. G. The +Crucifixion, as an event: John sustains the Virgin at the foot of the +cross. H. The Resurrection and the _Noli me tangere_. I. Ascension. +1. Half-figure of Christ, with the hand extended in benediction; in +the other hand the Gospel. 2. David. 3. Isaiah. 4, 5, 6, 7. The +four Evangelists standing. 8. 9, 11, 12. Scenes from the Life of St. +Francis and St. Clara. 10. The Descent of the Holy Ghost. 13. The Last +Judgment. + +It is to be regretted that so many of these altar-pieces have been +broken up, and the detached parts sold as separate pictures: so that +we may find one compartment of an altar in a church at Rome, and +another hanging in a drawing-room in London; the upper part at Ghent, +the lower half at Paris; one wing at Berlin, another at Florence. But +where they exist as a whole, how solemn, significant, and instructive +the arrangement! It may be read as we read a poem. Compare these with +the groups round the enthroned Virgin in the later altar-pieces, +where the saints elbow each other in attitudes, where mortal men sit +with unseemly familiarity close to personages recognized as divine. +As I have remarked further on, it is one of the most interesting +speculations connected with the study of art, to trace this decline +from reverence to irreverence, from the most rigid formula to the most +fantastic caprice. The gradual disappearance of the personages of the +Old Testament, the increasing importance given to the family of the +Blessed Virgin, the multiplication of legendary subjects, and all the +variety of adventitious, unmeaning, or merely ornamental accessories, +strike us just in proportion as a learned theology replaced the +unreflecting, undoubting piety of an earlier age. + + * * * * * + +The historical subjects comprise the events from the Life of the +Virgin, when treated in a dramatic form; and all those groups which +exhibit her in her merely domestic relations, occupied by cares for +her divine Child, and surrounded by her parents and kindred, subjects +which assume a pastoral and poetical rather than an historical form. + +All these may be divided into Scriptural and Legendary +representations. The Scriptural scenes in which the Virgin Mary is a +chief or important personage, are the Annunciation, the Visitation, +the Nativity, the Purification, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight +into Egypt, the Marriage at Cana, the Procession to Calvary, the +Crucifixion (as related by St. John), and the Descent of the Holy +Ghost. The Traditional and Legendary scenes are those taken from +the apocryphal Scriptures, some of which have existed from the third +century. The Legend of Joachim and Anna, the parents of the Virgin, +with the account of her early life, and her Marriage with Joseph, +down to the Massacre of the Innocents, are taken from the Gospel of +Mary and the Protevangelion. The scenes of the Flight into Egypt, +the Repose on the Journey, and the Sojourn of the Holy Family at +Hieropolis or Matarea, are taken from the Gospel of Infancy. The +various scenes attending the Death and Assumption of the Virgin are +derived from a Greek legendary poem, once attributed to St. John the +Evangelist, but the work, as it is supposed, of a certain Greek, named +Meliton, who lived in the ninth century, and who has merely dressed +up in a more fanciful form ancient traditions of the Church. Many +of these historical scenes have been treated in a devotional style, +expressing not the action, but the event, taken in the light of a +religious mystery; a distinction which I have fully explained in the +following pages, where I have given in detail the legends on which +these scenes are founded, and the religious significance conveyed by +the treatment. + +A complete series of the History of the Virgin begins with the +rejection of her father Joachim from the temple, and ends with the +assumption and coronation, including most of the events in the History +of our Lord (as for example, the series painted by Giotto, in the +chapel of the Arena, at Padua); but there are many instances in which +certain important evens relating to the Virgin only, as the principal +person, are treated as a devotional series; and such are generally +found in the chapels and oratories especially dedicated to her. A +beautiful instance is that of the Death of the Virgin, treated in +a succession of scenes, as an event apart, and painted by Taddeo +Barrolo, in the Chapel of the Palazzo Publico, at Siena. This small +chapel was dedicated to the Virgin soon after the terrible plague of +1848 had ceased, as it was believed, by her intercession; so that +this municipal chapel was at once an expression of thanksgiving, and +a memorial of death, of suffering, of bereavement, and of hope in +the resurrection. The frescoes cover one wall of the chapel, and are +arranged in four scenes. + +1. Mary is reclining in her last sickness, and around her are the +Apostles, who, according to the beautiful legend, were _miraculously_ +assembled to witness her departure. To express this, one of them is +floating in as if borne on the air. St. John kneels at her feet, and +she takes, with an expression exquisitely tender and maternal, his two +hands in hers. This action is peculiar to the Siena school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: On each side of the principal door of the Cathedral at +Siena, which is dedicated to "Beata Virgine Assunta," and just within +the entrance, is a magnificent pilaster, of white marble, completely +covered from the base to the capital with the most luxuriant carving, +arabesques, foliage, &c., in an admirable and finished style. On the +bases of these two pilasters are subjects from the Life of the Virgin, +three on each side, and arranged, each subject on one side having its +pendant on the other. + +1. The meeting of Joachim and Anna. 2. The Nativity of Mary. 3. Her +sickness and last farewell to the Apostles; bending towards St. John, +she takes his hands in hers with the same tender expression as in +the fresco by Taddeo Bartola. 4. She lies dead on her couch. 5. The +Assumption. 6. The Coronation. + +The figures are about a foot in height, delicately carved, full of +that sentiment which is especially Sienese, and treated with a truly +sculptural simplicity.] + +2. She lies extended on her couch, surrounded by the weeping +Apostles, and Christ behind receives the parting soul,--the usual +representation, but treated with the utmost sentiment. + +3. She is borne to the grave by the Apostles; in the background, the +walls of the city of Jerusalem. Here the Greek legend of St. Michael +protecting her remains from the sacrilegious Jew is omitted, and a +peculiar sentiment of solemnity pervades the whole scene. + +4. The resurrection of the Virgin, when she rises from the tomb +sustained by hovering angels, and is received by Christ. + +When I first saw these beautiful frescoes, in 1847, they were in a +very ruined state; they have since been restored in a very good style, +and with a reverent attention to the details and expression. + +In general, however, the cycle commences either with the legend of +Joachim and Anna, or with the Nativity of the Virgin, and ends with +the assumption and coronation. A most interesting early example is the +series painted in fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, in the Baroncelli Chapel +at Florence. The subjects are arranged on two walls. The first on the +right hand, and the second, opposite to us as we enter. + +1. Joachim is rejected from the Temple. + +2. He is consoled by the Angel. + +3. The meeting of Joachim and Anna. + +4. The Birth of the Virgin. + +5. The Presentation of the Virgin. She is here a child of about five +years old; and having ascended five steps (of the fifteen) she turns +as if to bid farewell to her parents and companions, who stand below; +while on the summit the High Priest, Anna the prophetess, and the +maidens of the Temple come forward to receive her. + +6. The Marriage to Joseph, and the rage and disappointment of the +other suitors. + +The second wall is divided by a large window of the richest stained +glass, on each side of which the subjects are arranged. + +7. The Annunciation. This is peculiar. Mary, not throned or standing, +but seated on the ground, with her hands clasped, and an expression +beautiful for devotion and humility, looks upwards to the descending +angel. + +8. The Meeting of Mary and Elizabeth. + +9. The Annunciation to the Shepherds. + +10. The Nativity. + +11. The Wise Men behold the Star in the Form of a Child. + +12. They approach to Worship. Under the window is the altar, no longer +used as such; and behind it a small but beautiful triptych of the +Coronation of the Virgin, by Giotto, containing at least a hundred +heads of saints, angels, &c.; and on the wall opposite is the large +fresco of the Assumption, by Mainardi, in which St. Thomas receives +the girdle, the other Apostles being omitted. This is of much later +date, being painted about 1495. + +The series of five subjects in the Rinuccini Chapel (in the sacristy +of the same church) has been generally attributed to Taddeo Gaddi, +but I agree with those who gave it to a different painter of the same +period. + +The subjects are thus arranged:--1. The Rejection of Joachim, which +fills the whole arch at the top, and is rather peculiarly treated. +On the right of the altar advances a company of grave-looking Elders, +each with his offering. On the left, a procession of the matrons and +widows "who had been fruitful in Israel," each with her lamb. In the +centre, Joachim, with his lamb in his arms and an affrighted look, +is hurrying down the steps. 2. The Lamentation of Joachim on the +Mountain, and the Meeting of Joachim and Anna. 3. The Birth of the +Virgin. 4. The Presentation in the Temple. 5. The Sposalizio of the +Virgin, with which the series concludes; every event referring to her +divine Son, even the Annunciation, being omitted. On comparing these +frescoes with those in the neighbouring chapel of the Baroncelli, the +difference in _feeling_ will be immediately felt; but they are very +_naive_ and elegant. + +About a hundred years later than these two examples we have the +celebrated series painted by Ghirlandajo, in the choir of S. Maria +Novella at Florence. There are three walls. On the principal wall, +facing us as we enter, is the window; and around it the Annunciation +(as a mystery), then the principal saints of the Order to whom the +church belongs,--St. Dominic and St. Peter Martyr, and the protecting +saints of Florence. + +On the left hand (i.e. the right as we face the high altar) is the +History of the Virgin; on the opposite side, the History of St. John +the Baptist. The various cycles relating to St. John as patron of +Florence will be fully treated in the last volume of Legendary Art; at +present I shall confine myself to the beautiful set of subjects which +relate the history of the Virgin, and which the engravings of Lasinio +(see the "Ancient Florentine Masters") have rendered well known to +the lovers of art. They cover the whole wall and are thus arranged, +beginning from the lowest on the left hand. + +1. Joachim is driven from the Temple. + +2. The Birth of the Virgin. + +3. The Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple. + +4. The Marriage of Joseph and Mary. + +5. The Adoration of the Magi (this is very much ruined). + +6. The Massacre of the Innocents. (This also is much ruined.) Vasari +says it was the finest of all. It is very unusual to make this +terrible and pathetic scene part of the life of the Virgin. + +7. In the highest and largest compartment, the Death and Assumption of +the Virgin. + +Nearly contemporary with this fine series is that by Pinturicchio in +the Church of S. Maria del Popolo, at Rome (in the third chapel on the +right). It is comprised in five lunettes round the ceiling, beginning +with the Birth of the Virgin, and is remarkable for its elegance. + +About forty years after this series was completed the people of Siena, +who had always bees remarkable for their devotion to the Virgin, +dedicated to Her honour the beautiful little chapel called the Oratory +of San Bernardino (v. Legends of the Monastic Orders), near the church +of San Francesco, and belonging to the same Order, the Franciscans. +This chapel is an exact parallelogram and the frescoes which cover +the four walls are thus arranged above the wainscot, which rises about +eight feet from the ground. + +1. Opposite the door as we enter, the Birth of the Virgin. The usual +visitor to St. Anna is here a grand female figure, in voluminous +drapery. The delight and exultation of those who minister to the +new-born infant are expressed with the most graceful _naivete_. This +beautiful composition should be compared with those of Ghirlandajo +and Andrea del Sarto in the Annunziata at Florence;[1] it yields to +neither as a conception and is wholly different. It is the work of a +Sienese painter little known--Girolamo del Pacchio. + +[Footnote 1: This series, painted by Andrea and his scholars and +companions, Franciabigio and Pontormo, is very remarkable as a work of +art, but presents nothing new in regard to the choice and treatment of +the subjects.] + +2. The Presentation in the Temple, by G.A. Razzi. The principal scene +is placed in the background, and the little Madonna, as she ascends +the steps, is received by the High Priest and Anna the prophetess. +Her father and mother and groups of spectators fill the foreground; +here, too, is a very noble female figure on the right; but the whole +composition is mannered, and wants repose and religious feeling. + +3. The Sposalizio, by Beccafumi. The ceremony takes place after the +manner of the Jews, outside the Temple. In a mannered, artificial +style. + +4, 5. On one side of the altar, the Angel Gabriel floating in--very +majestic and angelic; on the other side the Virgin Annunziata, with +that attitude and expression so characteristic of the Siena School, +as if shrinking from the apparition. These also are by Girolamo del +Pacchio, and extremely fine. + +6. The enthroned Virgin and Child, by Beccafumi. The Virgin is very +fine and majestic; around her throne stand and kneel the guardian +saints of Siena and the Franciscan Order; St. Francis, St. Antony of +Padua, St. Bernardino, St. Catherine of Siena, St. Ansano, St. John +B., St. Louis. (St. Catherine, as patroness of Siena, takes here the +place usually given to St. Clara in the Franciscan pictures.) + +7. The Visitation. Very fine and rather peculiar; for here Elizabeth +bends over Mary as welcoming her, while the other inclines her head as +accepting hospitality. By Razzi. + +8. The Death of the Virgin. Fourteen figures, among which are four +females lamenting, and St. John bearing the palm. The attitude and +expression of Mary, composed in death, are very fine; and Christ, +instead of standing, as usual, by the couch, with her parting soul in +his arms, comes rushing down from above with arms outspread to receive +it. + +9. The Assumption. Mary, attired all in white, rises majestically. +The tomb is seen beneath, out of which grow two tall lilies amid white +roses; the Apostles surround it, and St. Thomas receives the girdle. +This is one of the finest works of Razzi, and one of the purest in +point of sentiment. + +10. The Coronation, covering the whole wall which faces the altar, is +by Razzi; it is very peculiar and characteristic. The Virgin, all in +white, and extremely fine, bending gracefully, receives her crown; the +other figures have that vulgarity of expression which belonged to the +artist, and is often so oddly mingled with the sentiment and grandeur +of his school and time. On the right of the principal group stands +St. John B.; on the left, Adam and Eve; and behind the Virgin, her +mother, St. Anna, which is quite peculiar, and the only instance I can +remember. + + * * * * * + +It appears therefore that the Life of the Virgin Mary, whether treated +as a devotional or historical series, forms a kind of pictured drama +in successive scenes; sometimes comprising only six or eight of the +principal events of her individual life, as her birth, dedication, +marriage, death, and assumption: sometimes extending to forty or fifty +subjects, and combining her history with that of her divine Son. I +may now direct the attention of the reader to a few other instances +remarkable for their beauty and celebrity. + +Giotto, 1320. In the chapel at Padua styled _la Capella dell' Arena_. +One of the finest and most complete examples extant, combining the +Life of the Virgin with that of her Son. This series is of the highest +value, a number of scenes and situations suggested by the Scriptures +being here either expressed for the first time, or in a form unknown +in the Greek school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Kugler's Handbook, p. 129. He observes, that "the +introduction of the maid-servant spinning, in the story of St. Anna, +oversteps the limits of the higher ecclesiastical style." For an +explanation I must refer to the story as I have given it at p 249. +See, for the distribution of the subjects in this chapel, Lord +Lindsay's "Christian Art," vol. ii. A set of the subjects has since +been published by the Arundel Society.] + +Angiolo Gaddi, 1380. The series in the cathedral at Prato. These +comprise the history of the Holy Girdle. + +Andrea Orcagna, 1373. The beautiful series of bas-reliefs on the +shrine in Or-San-Michele, at Florence. + +Nicolo da Modena, 1450. Perhaps the earliest engraved example: +very remarkable for the elegance of the _motifs_ and the imperfect +execution, engraving on copper being then a new art. + +Albert Durer. The beautiful and well-known set of twenty-five +wood-cuts, published in 1510. A perfect example of the German +treatment. + +Bernardino Luini, 1515. A series of frescoes of the highest beauty, +painted for the monastery Della Pace. Unhappily we have only the +fragments which are preserved in the Brera. + +The series of bas-reliefs on the outer shrine of the Casa di Loretto, +by Sansovino, and others of the greatest sculptors of the beginning of +the sixteenth century. + +The series of bas-reliefs round the choir at Milan: seventeen +subjects. + + * * * * * + +We often find the Seven Joys and the Seven Sorrows of the Virgin +treated as a series. + +The Seven Joys are, the Annunciation, the Visitation, the Nativity, +the Adoration of the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple, Christ +found by his Mother, the Assumption and Coronation. + +The Seven Sorrows are, the Prophecy of Simeon, the Flight into Egypt, +Christ lost by his Mother, the Betrayal of Christ, the Crucifixion +(with St. John and the Virgin only present), the Deposition from the +Cross, the Ascension when the Virgin is left on earth. + +The Seven Joys and Sorrows are frequently found in altar-pieces and +religions prints, arranged in separate compartments, round the Madonna +in the centre. Or they are combined in various groups into one large +composition, as in a famous picture by Hans Hemling, wonderful for the +poetry, expression, and finished execution.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Altogether, on a careful consideration of this picture, +I do not consider the title by which it is generally known as +appropriate. It contains man groups which would not enter into the +mystic joys or sorrows; for instance, the Massacre of the Innocents, +Christ at Emmaus, the _Noli me tangere_, and others.] + +Another cycle of subjects consists of the fifteen Mysteries of the +Rosary. + +The five Joyful Mysteries, are the Annunciation, the Visitation, the +Nativity, the Purification, and Christ found in the Temple. + +The five Dolorous or Sorrowful Mysteries are, our Lord in the +Garden of Olives, the Flagellation, Christ crowned with Thorns, the +Procession to Calvary, the Crucifixion. + +The five Glorious Mysteries are, the Resurrection, the Ascension, the +Descent of the Holy Ghost, the Assumption, the Coronation. + +A series of subjects thus arranged cannot be called strictly +historical, but partakes of the mystical and devotional character. +The purpose being to excite devout meditation, requires a particular +sentiment, frequently distinguished from the merely dramatic and +historical treatment in being accompanied by saints, votaries, +and circumstances purely ideal; as where the Wise Men bring their +offerings, while St. Luke sits in a corner painting the portrait +of the Virgin, and St. Dominick kneels in adoration of the Mystery +(Mabuse, Munich Gal.);--and in a hundred other examples. + + + + +IV. TITLES OF THE VIRGIN MARY. + + +Of the various titles given to the Virgin Mary, and thence to certain +effigies and pictures of her, some appear to me very touching, as +expressive of the wants, the aspirations, the infirmities and sorrows, +which are common to poor suffering humanity, or of those divine +attributes from which they hoped to find aid and consolation. Thus we +have-- + +Santa Maria "del buon Consilio." Our Lady of good Counsel. + +S.M. "del Soccorso." Our Lady of Succour. Our Lady of the Forsaken. + +S.M. "del buon Core." Our Lady of good Heart. + +S.M. "della Grazia." Our Lady of Grace. + +S.M. "di Misericordia." Our Lady of Mercy. + +S.M. "Auxilium Afflictorum." Help of the Afflicted. + +S.M. "Refugium Peccatorum." Refuge of Sinners. + +S.M. "del Pianto," "del Dolore." Our Lady of Lamentation, or Sorrow. + +S.M. "Consolatrice," "della Consolazione," or "del Conforte." Our Lady +of Consolation. + +S.M. "della Speranza." Our Lady of Hope. + +Under these and similar titles she is invoked by the afflicted, and +often represented with her ample robe outspread and upheld by angels, +with votaries and suppliants congregated beneath its folds. In Spain, +_Nuestra Senora de la Merced_ is the patroness of the Order of Mercy; +and in this character she often holds in her hand small tablets +bearing the badge of the Order. (Legends of the Monastic Orders, 2d +edit.) + +S.M. "della Liberta," or "Liberatrice," Our Lady of Liberty; and S.M. +"della Catena," Our Lady of Fetters. In this character she is invoked +by prisoners and captives. + +S.M. "del Parto," Our Lady of Good Delivery, invoked by women in +travail.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Dante alludes to her in this character:-- + + "E per ventura udi 'Dolce Maria!' + Dinanzi a noi chiamar cosi nel pianto + Come fa donna che 'n partorir sia."--_Purg._ c. 20.] + +S.M. "del Popolo." Our Lady of the People. + +S.M. "della Vittoria." Our Lady of Victory. + +S.M. "della Pace." Our Lady of Peace. + +S.M. "della Sapienza," Our Lady of Wisdom; and S.M. "della +Perseveranza," Our Lady of Perseverance. (Sometimes placed in +colleges, with a book in her hand, as patroness of students.) + +S.M. "della Salute." Our Lady of Health or Salvation. Under this title +pictures and churches have been dedicated after the cessation of a +plague, or any other public calamity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: There is also somewhere in France a chapel dedicated to +_Notre Dame de la Haine_.] + +Other titles are derived from particular circumstances and +accessories, as-- + +S.M. "del Presepio," Our Lady of the Cradle; generally a Nativity, or +when she is adoring her Child. + +S.M. "della Scodella"--with the cup or porringer, where she is taking +water from a fountain; generally a Riposo. + +S.M. "dell' Libro," where she holds the Book of Wisdom. + +S.M. "della Cintola," Our Lady of the Girdle, where she is either +giving the Girdle to St. Thomas, or where the Child holds it in his +hand. + +S.M. "della Lettera." Our Lady of the Letter. This is the title given +to Our Lady as protectress of the city of Messina. According to the +Sicilian legend, she honoured the people of Messina by writing a +letter to them, dated from Jerusalem, "in the year of her Son, 42." In +the effigies of the "Madonna della Lettera," she holds this letter in +her hand. + +S.M. "della Rosa." Our Lady of the Rose. A title given to several +pictures, in which the rose, which is consecrated to her, is placed +either in her hand, or in that of the Child. + +S.M. "della Stella." Our Lady of the Star. She wears the star as one +of her attributes embroidered on her mantle. + +S.M. "del Fiore." Our Lady of the Flower. She has this title +especially as protectress of Florence. + +S.M. "della Spina." She holds in her hand the crown of thorns, and +under this title is the protectress of Pisa. + +S.M. "del Rosario." Our Lady of the Rosary, with the mystic string of +beads. I do not remember any instance of the Rosary placed in the hand +of the Virgin or the Child till after the battle of Lepanto (1571), +and the institution of the Festival of the Rosary, as an act of +thanksgiving. After this time pictures of the Madonna "del Rosario" +abound, and may generally be found in the Dominican churches. There is +a famous example by Guido in the Bologna Gallery, and a very beautiful +one by Murillo in the Dulwich Gallery. + +S.M. "del Carmine." Our Lady of Mount Carmel. She is protectress of +the Order of the Carmelites, and is often represented holding in her +hand small tablets, on which is the effigy of herself with the Child. + +S.M. "de Belem." Our Lady of Bethlehem. Under this title she is the +patroness of the Jeronymites, principally in Spain and Portugal. + +S.M. "della Neve." Our Lady of the Snow. In Spain, S. Maria la Blanca. +To this legend of the snow the magnificent church of S.M. Maggiore at +Rome is said to owe its origin. A certain Roman patrician, whose name +was John (Giovanni Patricie), being childless, prayed of the Virgin to +direct him how best to bestow his worldly wealth. She appeared to him +in a dream on the night of the fifth of August, 352, and commanded him +to build a church in her honour, on a spot where snow would be found +the next morning. The same vision having appeared to his wife and the +reigning pope, Liberius, they repaired in procession the next morning +to the summit of Mount Esquiline, where, notwithstanding the heat of +the weather, a large patch of ground was miraculously covered with +snow, and on it Liberius traced out with his crosier the plan of the +church. This story has been often represented in art, and is easily +recognized; but it is curious that the two most beautiful pictures +consecrated to the honour of the Madonna della Neve are Spanish and +not Roman, and were painted by Murillo about the time that Philip +IV. of Spain sent rich offerings to the church of S.M. Maggiore, thus +giving a kind of popularity to the legend. The picture represents +the patrician John and his wife asleep, and the Vision of the Virgin +(one of the loveliest ever painted by Murillo) breaking upon them in +splendour through the darkness of the night; while in the dim distance +is seen the Esquiline (or what is meant for it) covered with snow. In +the second picture, John and his wife are kneeling before the pope, +"a grand old ecclesiastic, like one of Titian's pontiffs." These +pictures, after being carried off by the French from the little church +of S.M. la Blanca at Seville, are now in the royal gallery at Madrid. + +S. Maria "di Loretto." Our Lady of Loretto. The origin of this title +is the famous legend of the Santa Casa, the house at Nazareth, which +was the birthplace of the Virgin, and the scene of the Annunciation. +During the incursions of the Saracens, the Santa Casa being threatened +with profanation, if not destruction, was taken up by the angels +and conveyed over land and sea till it was set down on the coast of +Dalmatia; but not being safe there, the angels again took it up, and, +bearing it over the Adriatic, set it down in a grove near Loretto. But +certain wicked brigands having disturbed its sacred quietude by strife +and murder, the house again changed its place, and was at length set +down on the spot where it now stands. The date of this miracle is +placed in 1295. + +The Madonna di Loretto is usually represented as seated with the +divine Child on the roof of a house, which is sustained at the corners +by four angels, and thus borne over sea and land. From the celebrity +of Loretto as a place of pilgrimage this representation became +popular, and is often found in chapels dedicated to our Lady of +Loretto. Another effigy of our Lady of Loretto is merely a copy of +a very old Greek "Virgin and Child," which is enshrined in the Santa +Casa. + +S.M. "del Pillar," Our Lady of the Pillar, is protectress of +Saragossa. According to the Legend, she descended from heaven standing +on an alabaster pillar, and thus appeared to St. James (Santiago) +when he was preaching the gospel in Spain. The miraculous pillar +is preserved in the cathedral of Saragossa, and the legend appears +frequently in Spanish art. Also in a very interior picture by Nicolo +Poussin, now in the Louvre. + + * * * * * + +Some celebrated pictures are individually distinguished by titles +derived from some particular object in the composition, as Raphael's +_Madonna de Impannata_, so called from the window in the back +ground being partly shaded with a piece of linen (in the Pitti +Pal., Florence); Correggio's _Vierge au Panier_, so called from the +work-basket which stands beside her (in our Nat Gal.); Murillo's +_Virgen de la Servilleta_, the Virgin of the Napkin, in allusion to +the dinner napkin on which it was painted.[1] Others are denominated +from certain localities, as the _Madonna di Foligno_ (now in the +Vatican); others from the names of families to whom they have +belonged, as _La Madonna della Famiglia Staffa_, at Perugia. + +[Footnote 1: There is a beautiful engraving in Stirling's "Annals of +the Artists of Spain."] + + * * * * * + +Those visions and miracles with which the Virgin Mary favoured many +of the saints, as St. Luke (who was her secretary and painter), St. +Catherine, St. Francis, St. Herman, and others, have already been +related in the former volumes, and need not be repeated here. + +With regard to the churches dedicated to the Virgin, I shall not +attempt to enumerate even the most remarkable, as almost every town +in Christian Europe contains one or more bearing her name. The most +ancient of which tradition speaks, was a chapel beyond the Tiber, at +Rome, which is said to have been founded in 217, on the site where S. +Maria _in Trastevere_ now stands. But there are one or two which carry +their pretensions much higher; for the cathedral at Toledo and the +cathedral at Chartres both claim the honour of having been dedicated +to the Virgin while she was yet alive.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In England we have 2,120 churches dedicated in her +honour; and one of the largest and most important of the London +parishes bears her name--"St. Marie-la-bonne"] + + * * * * * + +Brief and inadequate as are these introductory notices, they will, I +hope, facilitate the comprehension of the critical details into which +it has been necessary to enter in the following pages, and lend some +new interest to the subjects described. I have heard the artistic +treatment of the Madonna styled a monotonous theme; and to those who +see only the perpetual iteration of the same groups on the walls of +churches and galleries, varied as they may suppose only by the fancy +of the painter, it may seem so. But beyond the visible forms, there +lies much that is suggestive to a thinking mind--to the lover of Art +a higher significance, a deeper beauty, a more various interest, than +could at first be imagined. + +In fact, the greatest mistakes in point of _taste_ arise in general +from not knowing what we ought to demand of the artist, not only in +regard to the subject expressed, but with reference to the times in +which he lived, and his own individuality. An axiom which I have heard +confidently set forth, that a picture is worth nothing unless "he who +runs may read," has inundated the world with frivolous and pedantic +criticism. A picture or any other work of Art, is worth nothing except +in so far as it has emanated from mind, and is addressed to mind. It +should, indeed, be _read_ like a book. Pictures, as it has been well +said, are the books of the unlettered, but then we must at least +understand the language in which they are written. And further,--if, +in the old times, it was a species of idolatry to regard these +beautiful representations as endued with a specific sanctity and +power; so, in these days, it is a sort of atheism to look upon them +reckless of their significance, regardless of the influences through +which they were produced, without acknowledgment of the mind which +called them into being, without reference to the intention of the +artist in his own creation. + + * * * * * + +SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES TO THE SECOND EDITION. + + +I. + +In the first edition of this work, only a passing allusion was made to +those female effigies, by some styled "_la donna orante_" (the Praying +Woman) and by others supposed to represent Mary the Mother of our +Lord, of which so many examples exist in the Catacombs and in the +sculptured groups on the ancient Christian sarcophagi. I know it has +long been a disputed, or at least an unsettled and doubtful point, as +to whether certain female figures existing on the earliest Christian +monuments were or were not intended to represent the Virgin Mary. +The Protestants, on the one hand, as if still inspired by that +superstition against superstition which led to the violent and vulgar +destruction of so many beautiful works of art, and the Catholics on +the other, jealous to maintain the authenticity of these figures as a +testimony to the ancient worship of the Virgin, both appear to me to +have taken an exaggerated and prejudiced view of a subject which ought +to be considered dispassionately on purely antiquarian and critical +grounds. Having had the opportunity, during a late residence in +Italy, of reconsidering and comparing a great number of these antique +representations, and having heard the opinions of antiquarians, +theologians, and artists, who had given their attention to the +subject, and who occasionally differed from each other as to the +weight of evidence, I have arrived at the conviction, that some of +these effigies represent the Virgin Mary, and others do not. I confess +I do not believe in any authentic representation of the Virgin holding +the Divine Child older than the sixth century, except when introduced +into the groups of the Nativity and the Worship of the Magi. Previous +to the Nestorian controversy, these maternal effigies, as objects of +devotion, were, I still believe, unknown, but I cannot understand +why there should exist among Protestants, so strong a disposition to +discredit every representation of Mary the Mother of our Lord to which +a high antiquity had been assigned by the Roman Catholics. We know +that as early as the second century, not only symbolical figures of +our Lord, but figures of certain personages of holy life, as St. Peter +and St. Paul, Agnes the Roman, and Euphemia the Greek, martyr, did +certainly exist. The critical and historical testimony I have given +elsewhere. (Sacred and Legendary Art.) Why therefore should there not +have existed effigies of the Mother of Christ, of the "Woman highly +blessed," the subject of so many prophecies, and naturally the object +of a tender and just veneration among the early Christians? It seams +to me that nothing could be more likely, and that such representations +ought to have a deep interest for all Christians, no matter of what +denomination--for _all_, in truth, who believe that the Saviour of +the world had a good Mother, His only earthly parent, who brought Him +forth, nurtured and loved Him. That it should be considered a point +of faith with Protestants to treat such memorials with incredulity +and even derision, appears to me most inconsistent and unaccountable, +though I confess that between these simple primitive memorials and the +sumptuous tasteless column and image recently erected at Rome there is +a very wide margin of disputable ground, of which I shall say no more +in this place. But to return to the antique conception of the "Donna +orante" or so-called Virgin Mother, I will mention here only the moat +remarkable examples; for to enter fully into the subject would occupy +a volume in itself. + +There is a figure often met with in the Catacombs and on the +sarcophagi of a majestic woman standing with outspread arms (the +ancient attitude of prayer), or holding a book or scroll in her hand. +When this figure stands alone and unaccompanied by any attribute, I +think the signification doubtful: but in the Catacomb of St. Ciriaco +there is a painted figure of a woman, with arms outspread and +sustained on each aide by figures, evidently St. Peter and St. Paul; +on the sarcophagi the same figure frequently occurs; and there are +other examples certainly not later than the third and fourth century. +That these represent Mary the Mother of Christ I have not the least +doubt; I think it has been fully demonstrated that no other Christian +woman could have been so represented, considering the manners and +habits of the Christian community at that period. Then the attitude +and type are precisely similar to those of the ancient Byzantine +Madonnas and the Italian mosaics of Eastern workmanship, proving, as +I think, that there existed a common traditional original for this +figure, the idea of which has been preserved and transmitted in these +early copies. + +Further:--there exist in the Roman museums many fragments of ancient +glass found in the Christian tombs, on which are rudely pictured in +colours figures exactly similar, and having the name MARIA inscribed +above them. On one of these fragments I found the same female figure +between two male figures, with the names inscribed over them, MARIA. +PETRVS. PAVLVS., generally in the rudest and most imperfect style, as +if issuing from some coarse manufacture; but showing that they have +had a common origin with those far superior figures in the Catacombs +and on the sarcophagi, while the inscribed names leave no doubt as to +the significance. + +On the other hand, there are similar fragments of coarse glass found +in the Catacombs--either lamps or small vases, bearing the same female +in the attitude of prayer, and superscribed in rude letters, DULCIS +ANIMA PIE ZESES VIVAS. (ZESES instead of JESUS.) Such may, possibly, +represent, not the Virgin Mary, but the Christian matron or martyr +buried in the tomb; at least, I consider them as doubtful. + +The Cavaliere Rossi, whose celebrity as an antiquarian is not merely +Italian, but European, and whose impartiality can hardly be doubted, +told me that a Christian sarcophagus had lately been discovered at +Saint-Maxime, in the south of France, on which there is the same group +of the female figure praying, and over it the name MARIA. + +I ought to add, that on one of these sarcophagi, bearing the oft +repeated subject of the good Shepherd feeding His sheep, I found, as +the companion group, a female figure in the act of feeding birds which +are fluttering to her feet. It is not doubted that the good Shepherd +is the symbol of the beneficent Christ; whether the female figure +represent the Virgin-mother, or is to be regarded merely as a general +symbol of female beneficence, placed on a par with that of Christ +(in His human character), I will not pretend to decide. It is equally +touching and beautiful in either significance. + +Three examples of these figures occur to me. + +The first is from a Christian sarcophagus of early date, and in a good +style of art, probably of the third century--it is a noble figure, +in the attitude of prayer, and separated from the other groups by a +palm-tree on each side--at her feet is a bird (perhaps a dove, the +ancient symbol of the released soul), and scrolls which represent +the gospel. I regard this figure as doubtful; it may possibly be the +effigy of a Christian matron, who was interred in the sarcophagus. + +The second example is also from a sarcophagus. It is a figure holding +a scroll of the gospel, and standing between St. Peter and St. +Paul; on each side (in the original) there are groups expressing the +beneficent miracles of our Lord. This figure, I believe, represents +the Virgin Mary. + +In the third example, the conspicuous female figure is combined with +the series of groups on each side. She stands with hands outspread, in +the attitude of prayer, between the two apostles, who seem to sustain +her arms. On one side is the miracle of the water changed into wine; +on the other side, Christ healing the woman who touched His garment; +both of perpetual recurrence in these sculptures. Of these groups of +the miracles and actions of Christ on the early Christian sarcophagi, +I shall give a full account in the "History of our Lord, as +illustrated in the fine arts;" at present I confine myself to the +female figure which takes this conspicuous place, while other female +figures are prostrate, or of a diminutive size, to express their +humility or inferiority; and I have no doubt that thus situated it +is intended to represent the woman who was highly honoured as well as +highly blessed--the Mother of our Saviour. + +I have come therefore to the conclusion, that while many of these +figures have a certain significance, others are uncertain. Where +the figure is isolated, or placed within a frame or border, like the +memorial busts and effigies on the Pagan sarcophagi, I think it may +be regarded as probably commemorating the Christian martyr or matron +entombed in the sarcophagus; but when there is no division, where the +figure forms part of a continuous series of groups, expressing the +character and miracles of Christ, I believe that it represents His +mother. + + +II. + +The BORGHESE CHAPEL, in the church, of St. Maria Maggiore at Rome, was +dedicated to the honour of the Virgin Mary by Paul V. (Borghese), in +1611--the same Pope who in 1615 promulgated the famous Bull relative +to the Immaculate Conception. The scheme of decoration in this +gorgeous chapel is very remarkable, as testifying to the development +which the theological idea of the Virgin, as the Sposa or personified +Church, had attained at this period, and because it is not, as in +other examples, either historical or devotional, but purely doctrinal. + +As we enter, the profusion of ornament, the splendour of colour, +marbles, gilding, from the pavement under our feet to the summit of +the lofty dome, are really dazzling. First, and elevated above all, +we have the "Madonna della Concezione," Our Lady of the Immaculate +Conception, in a glory of light, sustained and surrounded by angels, +having the crescent under her feet, according to the approved +treatment. Beneath, round the dome, we read in conspicuous letters +the text from the Revelations:--SIGNUM. MAGNUM. APPARAVlT. IN COELO. +MULIER. AMICTA. SOLE. ET. LUNA. SUB. PEDIBUS. EJUS. ET. IN CAPITE. +EJUS, CORONA. STELLARUM. DUODECIM. (Rev. xii. 1.) Lower down is a +second inscription, expressing the dedication. MARIAE. CHRISTI. MATRI. +SEMPER. VIRGINI. PAULUS. QUINTUS.P.M. The decorations beneath the +cornice consist of eighteen large frescoes, and six statues in marble, +above life size. Beginning with the frescoes, we have the subjects +arranged in the following order:-- + +1. The four great prophets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and Daniel, +in their usual place in the four pendentives of the dome. (v. The +Introduction.) + +2. Two large frescoes. In the first, the Vision of St. Gregory +Thaumaturgus,[1] and Heretics bitten by Serpents. In the second, St. +John Damascene and St. Ildefonso miraculously rewarded for defending +the Majesty of the Virgin. (Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +[Footnote 1: St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, Bishop of Pontus in the third +century, was favoured by a vision of the Trinity, which enabled him to +confute and utterly subdue the Sabellian heretics--the Unitarians of +his time.] + +3. A large fresco, representing the four Doctors of the Church who had +especially written in honour of the Virgin: viz. Ireneus and Cyprian, +Ignatius and Theophilus, grouped two and two. + +4. St. Luke, who painted the Virgin, and whose gospel contains the +best account of her. + +5. As spiritual conquerors in the name of the Virgin, St. Dominic and +St. Francis, each attended by two companions of his Order. + +6. As military conquerors in the name of the Virgin, the Emperor +Heraclius, and Narses, the general against the Arians. + +7. A group of three female figures, representing the three famous +saintly princesses who in marriage preserved their virginity, +Pulcheria, Edeltruda (our famous queen Ethelreda), and Cunegunda. (For +the legends of Cunegunda and Ethelreda, see Legends of the Monastic +Orders.) + +8. A group of three learned Bishops, who had especially defended the +immaculate purity of the Virgin, St. Cyril, St. Anselm, and St. Denis +(?). + +9. The miserable ends of those who were opposed to the honour of the +Virgin. 1. The death of Julian the Apostate, very oddly represented; +he lies on an altar, transfixed by an arrow, as a victim; St. +Mercurius in the air. (For this legend see Sacred and Legendary Art.) +2. The death of Leo IV., who destroyed the effigies of the Virgin. 3. +The death of Constantine IV., also a famous iconoclast. + +The statues which are placed in niches are-- + +1, 2. St. Joseph, as the nominal husband, and St. John the Evangelist, +as the nominal son of the Virgin; the latter, also, as prophet and +poet, with reference to the passage in the Revelation, c. xii. 1. + +3, 4. Aaron, as priestly ancestor (because his wand blossomed), and +David, as kingly ancestor of the Virgin. + +5, 6. St. Dionysius the Areopagite, who was present at the death of +the Virgin, and St. Bernard, who composed the famous "Salve Regina" in +her honour. + +Such is this grand systematic scheme of decoration, which, to those +who regard it cursorily, is merely a sumptuous confusion of colours +and forms, or at best, "a fine example of the Guido school and +Bernino." It is altogether a very complete and magnificent specimen +of the prevalent style of art, and a very comprehensive and suggestive +expression of the prevalent tendency of thought, in the Roman +Catholic Church from the beginning of the seventeenth century. In no +description of this chapel have I ever seen the names and subjects +accurately given: the style of art belongs to the _decadence_, and the +taste being worse than, questionable, the pervading _doctrinal_ idea +has been neglected, or never understood. + + +III. + +Those pictures which represent the Virgin Mary kneeling before the +celestial throne, while the PADRE ETERNO or the MESSIAH extends his +hand or his sceptre towards her, are generally misunderstood. They +do not represent, the Assumption, nor yet the reception of Mary in +Heaven, as is usually supposed; but the election or predestination of +Mary as the immaculate vehicle or tabernacle of human redemption--the +earthly parent of the divine Saviour. I have described such a picture +by Dosso Dossi, and another by Cottignola. A third example may be +cited in a yet more beautiful and celebrated picture by Francia, now +in the Church at San Frediano at Lucca. Above, in the glory of Heaven, +the Virgin kneels before the throne of the Creator; she is clad in +regal attire of purple and crimson and gold; and she bends her fair +crowned head, and folds her hands upon her bosom with an expression +of meek yet dignified resignation--"_Behold the handmaid of the +Lord!_"--accepting, as woman, that highest glory, as mother, that +extremest grief, to which the Divine will, as spoken by the prophets +of old, had called her. Below, on the earth and to the right hand, +stand David and Solomon, as prophets and kingly ancestors: on the left +hand, St. Augustine and St. Anselm in their episcopal robes. (I have +mentioned, with regard to the office in honour of the Immaculate +Conception, that the idea is said to have originated in England. I +should also have added, that Anselm, Archbishop of Canterbury, was +its strenuous advocate.) Each of these personages holds a scroll. On +that of David the reference is to the 4th and 5th verses of Psalm +xxvii.--"_In the secret of his tabernacle he shall hide me_." On +that of Solomon is the text from his Song, ch. iv. 7. On that of St. +Augustine, a quotation, I presume, from his works, but difficult +to make out; it seems to be, "_In coelo qualis est Pater, talis est +Films; qualis est Filius, talis est Mater_." On that of St. Anselm the +same inscription which is on the picture of Cottignola quoted before, +"_non puto vere esse_." &c., which is, I suppose, taken from his +works. In the centre, St. Anthony of Padua kneels beside the sepulchre +full of lilies and roses; showing the picture to have been painted +for, or under the influence of, the Franciscan Order; and, like other +pictures of the same class, "an attempt to express in a visible form +the idea or promise of the redemption of the human race, as existing +in the Sovereign Eternal Mind before the beginning of the world." This +altar-piece has no date, but appears to have been painted about the +same time as the picture in our National Gallery (No. 179.), which +came from the same church. As a work of art it is most wonderfully +beautiful. The editors of the last excellent edition of Vasari speak +of it with just enthusiasm as "_Opera veramente stupenda in ogni +parte_!" The predella beneath, painted in chiaro-oscuro, is also of +exquisite beauty; and let us hope that we shall never see it separated +from the great subject, like a page or a paragraph torn out of a book +by ignorant and childish collectors. + + +IV. + +Although the Nativity of the Virgin Mary is one of the great festivals +of the Roman Catholic Church, I have seldom seen it treated as +a separate subject and an altar-piece. There is, however, a very +remarkable example in the Belle Arti at Siena. It is a triptych +enclosed in a framework elaborately carved and gilt, in the +Gothic style. In the centre compartment, St. Anna lies on a rich +couch covered with crimson drapery; a graceful female presents an +embroidered napkin, others enter, bringing refreshments, as usual. +In front, three attendants minister to the Infant: one of them is in +an attitude of admiration; on the right, Joachim seated, with white +hair and beard, receives the congratulations of a young man who seems +to envy his paternity. In the compartment on the right stand St. +James Major and St. Catherine; on the left, St. Bartholomew and St. +Elizabeth of Hungary (?). This picture is in the hard primitive style +of the fourteenth century, by an unknown painter, who must have lived, +before Giovanni di Paolo, but vividly coloured, exquisitely finished, +and full of sentiment and dramatic feeling. + + + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART I. + +THE VIRGIN WITHOUT THE CHILD. + +1. LA VERGINE GLORIOSA. 2. L'INCORONATA. +3. LA MADONNA DI MISERICORDIA. 4. LA MADRE +DOLOROSA. 5. LA CONCEZIONE. + +THE VIRGIN MARY. + +_Lat._ 1. Virgo Gloriosa. 2. Virgo Sponsa Dei. 3. Virgo Potens 4. +Virgo Veneranda. 5. Virgo Praedicanda. 6. Virgo Clemens. 7. Virgo +Sapientissima. 8. Sancta Virgo Virginum. _Ital._ La Vergine Gloriosa. +La Gran Vergine delle Vergini. _Fr._ La Grande Vierge. + +There are representations of the Virgin, and among them some of the +earliest in existence, which place her before us as an object of +religious veneration, but in which the predominant idea is not that +of her maternity. No doubt it was as the mother of the Saviour Christ +that she was originally venerated; but in the most ancient monuments +of the Christian faith, the sarcophagi, the rude paintings in the +catacombs, and the mosaics executed before the seventh century, +she appears simply as a veiled female figure, not in any respect +characterized. She stands, in a subordinate position, on one side of +Christ; St. Peter or St. John the Baptist on the other. + +When the worship of the Virgin came to us from the East, with it came +the Greek type--and for ages we had no other--the Greek classical +type, with something of the Oriental or Egyptian character. When thus +she stands before us without her Son, and the apostles or saints on +each side taking the subordinate position, then we are to regard her +not only as the mother of Christ, but as the second Eve, the mother of +all suffering humanity; THE WOMAN of the primeval prophecy whose issue +was to bruise the head of the Serpent; the Virgin predestined from +the beginning of the world who was to bring forth the Redeemer of the +world; the mystical Spouse of the Canticles; the glorified Bride of +a celestial Bridegroom; the received Type of the Church of Christ, +afflicted on earth, triumphant and crowned in heaven; the most +glorious, most pure, most pious, most clement, most sacred Queen and +Mother, Virgin of Virgins. + +The form under which we find this grand and mysterious idea of +glorified womanhood originally embodied, is wonderfully majestic +and simple. A female figure of colossal dimensions, far exceeding +in proportion all the attendant personages and accessories, stands +immediately beneath some figure or emblem representing almighty power: +either it is the omnipotent hand stretched out above her, holding the +crown of immortality; or it is the mystic dove which hovers over her; +or it is the half-form of Christ, in the act of benediction. + +She stands with arms raised and extended wide, the ancient attitude of +prayer; or with hands merely stretched forth, expressing admiration, +humility, and devout love. She is attired in an ample tunic of +blue or white, with a white veil over her head, thrown a little +back, and displaying an oval face with regular features, mild, +dignified--sometimes, in the figures of the ruder ages, rather stern +and melancholy, from the inability of the artist to express beauty; +but when least beautiful, and most formal and motionless, always +retaining something of the original conception, and often expressibly +striking and majestic. + +The earliest figure of this character to which I can refer is the +mosaic in the oratory of San Venanzio, in the Lateran, the work of +Greek artists under the popes John IV. and Theodorus, both Greeks by +birth, and who presided over the Church from 640 to 649. In the vault +of the tribune, over the altar, we have first, at the summit, a figure +of Christ half-length, with his hand extended in benediction; on each +side, a worshipping angel; below, in the centre, the figure of the +Virgin according to the ancient type, standing with extended arms, in +a violet or rather dark-blue tunic and white veil, with a small cross +pendant on her bosom. On her right hand stands St. Paul, on her left +St. Peter; beyond St. Peter and St. Paul, St. John the Baptist holding +a cross, and St. John the Evangelist holding a book; and beyond these +again, St. Domino and St. Venantius, two martyred saints, who perished +in Dalmatia, and whose relics were brought out of that country by the +founder of the chapel, John IV., himself a Dalmatian by birth. At the +extremities of this group, or rather line of figures, stand the two +popes, John IV. and Theodorus, under whom the chapel was founded and +dedicated. Although this ancient mosaic has been many times restored, +the original composition remains. + +Similar, but of later date, is the effigy of the Virgin over the altar +of the archiepiscopal chapel at Ravenna. This mosaic, with others of +Greek work, was brought from the old tribune of the cathedral, when +it was altered and repaired, and the ancient decorations removed or +destroyed. + +Another instance, also, at Ravenna, is the basso-relievo in +Greek marble, and evidently of Greek workmanship, which is said +to have existed from the earliest ages, in the church of S. +Maria-in-Porto-Fuori, and is now preserved in the S. Maria-in-Porto, +where I saw it in 1847. It is probably as old as the sixth or seventh +century. + +In St. Mark's at Venice, in the grand old basilica at Torcello, in +San Donate at Murano, at Monreale, near Palermo, and in most of the +old churches in the East of Europe, we find similar figures, either +Byzantine in origin, or in imitation of the Byzantine style. + +But about the middle of the thirteenth century, and contemporary with +Cimabue, we find the first indication of a departure, even in the +mosaics, from the lifeless, formal type of Byzantine art. The earliest +example of a more animated treatment is, perhaps, the figure in the +apsis of St. John Lateran. (Rome.) In the centre is an immense cross, +emblem of salvation; the four rivers of Paradise (the four Gospels) +flow from its base; and the faithful, figured by the hart and the +sheep, drink from these streams. Below the cross is represented, of +a small size, the New Jerusalem guarded by an archangel. On the right +stands the Virgin, of colossal dimensions. She places one hand on the +head of a diminutive kneeling figure, Pope Nicholas IV.,[1] by whom +the mosaic was dedicated about 1290; the other hand, stretched forth, +seems to recommend the votary to the mercy of Christ. + +[Footnote 1: For a minute reduction of the whole composition, see +Kugler's Handbook, p. 113.] + +Full-length effigies of the Virgin seated on a throne, or glorified as +queen of heaven, or queen of angels, without her divine Infant in her +arms, are exceedingly rare in every age; now and then to be met with +in the early pictures and illuminations, but never, that I know of, +in the later schools of art. A signal example is the fine enthroned +Madonna in the Campo Santo, who receives St. Ranieri when presented +by St. Peter and St. Paul. + +On the Dalmatica (or Deacon's robe) preserved in the sacristy of +St. Peter's at Rome (which Lord Lindsay well describes as a perfect +example of the highest style of Byzantine art) (Christian Art, i. +136), the embroidery on the front represents Christ in a golden circle +or glory, robed in white, with the youthful and beardless face, his +eyes looking into yours. He sits on the rainbow; his left hand holds +an open book, inscribed, "Come, ye blessed of my Father!" while +the right is raised in benediction. The Virgin stands on the right +entirely _within_ the glory; "she is sweet in feature and graceful +in attitude, in her long white robe." The Baptist stands on the left +_outside_ the glory. + +In pictures representing the glory of heaven, Paradise, or the Last +Judgment, we have this idea constantly repeated--of the Virgin on the +right hand of her Son, but not on the same throne with him, unless it +be a "Coronation," which is a subject apart. + +In the great altar-piece of the brothers Van Eyck, the upper part +contains three compartments;[1] in the centre is Christ, wearing the +triple tiara, and carrying the globe, as King, as Priest, as Judge--on +each side, as usual, but in separate compartments, the Virgin and St. +John the Baptist. The Virgin, a noble queenly figure, full of serene +dignity and grace, is seated on a throne, and wears a superb crown, +formed of lilies, roses, and gems, over her long fair hair. She +is reading intently in a book--The Book of Wisdom. She is here the +_Sponsa Dei_, and the _Virgo Sapientissima_, the most wise Virgin. +This is the only example I can recollect of the Virgin seated on the +right hand of her Son in glory, and _holding a book_. In every other +instance she is standing or seated with her hands joined or crossed +over her bosom, and her eyes turned towards him. + +[Footnote 1: It is well known that the different parts of this great +work have been dispersed. The three compartments mentioned here are at +Berlin.] + +Among innumerable examples, I will cite only one, perhaps the most +celebrated of all, and familiar, it may be presumed, to most of my +readers, though perhaps they may not have regarded it with reference +to the character and position given to the Virgin. It is one of the +four great frescoes of the Camera della Segnatura, in the Vatican, +exhibiting the four highest objects of mental culture--Theology, +Poetry, Philosophy, and Jurisprudence. In the first of these, +commonly, but erroneously, called _La Disputa dell' Sacramento_, +Raphael has combined into one great scene the whole system of +theology, as set forth by the Catholic Church; it is a sort of +concordance between heaven and earth--between the celestial and +terrestrial witnesses of the truth. The central group above shows us +the Redeemer of the world, seated with extended arms, having on the +right the Virgin in her usual place, and on the left, also in his +accustomed place, St. John the Baptist; both seated, and nearly on +a level with Christ. The Baptist is here in his character of the +Precursor "sent to bear witness to the light, that through him all +men might believe." (John i. 7.) The Virgin is exhibited, not merely +as the Mother, the Sposa, the Church, but as HEAVENLY WISDOM, for in +this character the Catholic Church has applied to her the magnificent +passage in Proverbs: "The Lord possessed me in the beginning of His +way, before His works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the +beginning, or ever the earth was." "Then I was by Him as one brought +up with Him, and I was daily His delight, rejoicing alway before Him." +(Prov. viii, 12-36, and Eccles. xxiv. 15, 16.) + +Nothing can be more beautiful than the serene grace and the mingled +majesty and humility in the figure of the Virgin, and in her +countenance, as she looks up adoring to the Fountain of _all_ light, +_all_ wisdom, and _all_ goodness. Above the principal group, is the +emblematical image of the FATHER; below is the holy Dove, in the act +of descending to the earth.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a detailed description of this fresco, see +Passavant's Raphael, i. 140, and Kugler's Handbook, 2d edit., where a +minute and beautiful reduction of the whole composition will give and +idea of the general design.] + +The Virgin alone, separate from her Son, standing or enthroned before +us, simply as the _Virgine Dea_ or _Regina Coeli_, is rarely met with +in modern art, either in sculpture or painting. I will give, however, +one signal example. + +In an altar-piece painted by Cosimo Rosselli, for the Serviti at +Florence, she stands alone, and in a majestic attitude, on a raised +pedestal. She holds a book, and looks upward, to the Holy Dove, +hovering over her head; she is here again the _Virgo Sapientiae_. +(Fl. Gal.) On one side is St. John the Evangelist and St. Antonino of +Florence (see Legends of the Monastic Orders); on the other, St. Peter +and St. Philip Benozzi; in front kneel St. Margaret and St. Catherine: +all appear to contemplate with rapturous devotion the vision of the +Madonna. The heads and attitudes in this picture have that character +of elegance which distinguished the Florentine school at this period, +without any of those extravagances and peculiarities into which Piero +often fell; for the man had evidently a touch of madness, and was as +eccentric in his works as in his life and conversation. The order +of the Serviti, for whom he painted this picture, was instituted +in honour of the Virgin, and for her particular service, which will +account for the unusual treatment. + + * * * * * + +The numerous--often most beautiful--heads and half-length figures +which represent the Virgin alone, looking up with a devout or tender +expression, or with the head declined, and the hands joined in prayer, +or crossed over the bosom with virginal humility and modesty, belong +to this class of representations. In the ancient heads, most of which +are imitations of the old Greek effigies ascribed to St. Luke, there +is often great simplicity and beauty. When she wears the crown over +her veil, or bears a sceptre in her hand, she figures as the queen of +heaven (_Regina Coeli_). When such effigies are attended by adoring +angels, she is the queen of angels (_Regina Angelorum_). When she is +weeping or holding the crown of thorns, she is Our Lady of Sorrow, the +_Mater Dolorosa_. When she is merely veiled, with folded hands, and +in her features all the beauty, maiden purity, and sweetness which the +artist could render, she is simply the Blessed Virgin, the Madonna, +the _Santa Maria Vergine_. Such heads are very rare in the earlier +schools of art, which seldom represented the Virgin without her +Child, but became favourite studies of the later painters, and +were multiplied and varied to infinitude from the beginning of the +seventeenth century. From these every trace of the mystical and solemn +conception of antiquity gradually disappeared; till, for the majestic +ideal of womanhood, we have merely inane prettiness, or rustic, or +even meretricious grace, the borrowed charms of some earthly model. + + + + +L'INCORONATA. + + +The Coronation of the Virgin. _Lat._ Coronatio Beatae Mariae Virginis. +_Ital._ Maria coronata dal divin suo Figlio. _Fr._ Le Couronnement de +la Sainte Vierge. _Ger._ Die Kroenung Mariae. + +The usual type of the Church triumphant is the CORONATION OF THE +VIRGIN properly so called, Christ in the act of crowning his Mother; +one of the most popular, significant, and beautiful subjects in the +whole range of mediaeval art. + +When in a series of subjects from the life of the Virgin, so often +met with in religious prints and in the Roman Catholic churches, we +find her death and her assumption followed by her coronation; when +the bier or sarcophagus and the twelve apostles appear below, while +heaven opens upon us above; then the representation assumes a kind +of dramatic character: it is the last and most glorious event of her +history. The Mother, dying on earth, is received into glory by her Son +who had gone before her, and who thus celebrates the consummation of +his victory and hers. + +But when the scene is treated apart as a single subject; when, instead +of the apostles gazing up to heaven, or looking with amazement into +the tomb from which she had risen, we find the lower part of the +composition occupied by votaries, patron saints, or choral angels; +then the subject must be regarded as absolutely devotional and +typical. It is not a scene or an action; it is a great mystery. It +is consecrated to the honour of the Virgin as a type of the spiritual +Church. The Espoused is received into glory and crowned with the crown +of everlasting life, exalted above angels, spirits, and men. In this +sense we must understand the subject when we find it in ecclesiastical +sculpture, over the doors of places of worship, in the decorative +carving of church utensils, in stained glass. In many of the Italian +churches there is a chapel especially dedicated to the Virgin in this +character, called _la Capella dell' Incoronata_; and both in Germany +and Italy it is a frequent subject as an altar-piece. + +In all the most ancient examples, it is Christ only who places the +crown on the head of his Mother, seated on the same throne, and placed +at his right hand. Sometimes we have the two figures only; sometimes +the _Padre Eterno_ looks down, and the Holy Spirit in the form of the +dove hovers above or between them. In some later examples the Virgin +is seated between the Father and the Son, both in human form: they +place the crown on her head each holding it with one hand, the Holy +Spirit hovering above. In other representations the Virgin _kneels_ at +the feet of Christ; and he places the crown on her head, while two or +more rejoicing and adoring angels make heavenly music, or all Paradise +opens to the view; and there are examples where not only the choir +of attendant angels, but a vast assembly of patriarchs, saints, +martyrs, fathers of the Church--the whole company of the blessed +spirits--assist at this great ceremony. + +I will now give some celebrated examples of the various styles of +treatment. + +There is a group in mosaic, which I believe to be singular in its +kind, where the Virgin is enthroned, with Christ. She is seated at his +right hand, at the same elevation, and altogether as his equal. His +right arm embraces her, and his hand rests on her shoulder. She wears +a gorgeous crown, which her Son has placed on her brow Christ has only +the cruciform nimbus; in his left hand is an open book, on which is +inscribed, "_Veni, Electa mea_" &c. "Come, my chosen one, and I will +place thee upon my throne." The Virgin holds a tablet, on which are +the words "His right hand should be under my head, and his left hand +should embrace me." (Cant. viii. 3.) The omnipotent Hand is stretched +forth in benediction above. Here the Virgin is the type of the Church +triumphant and glorified, having overcome the world; and the solemn +significance of the whole representation is to be found in the Book of +Revelations: "To him that overcometh will I grant _to sit with me in +my throne_, even as I also overcame and am set down with my Father in +his throne." (Rev. iii. 21.) + +This mosaic, in which, be it observed, the Virgin is enthroned with +Christ, and _embraced_, not crowned, by him, is, I believe, unique +either as a picture or a church decoration. It is not older than +the twelfth century, is very ill executed, but is curious from the +peculiarity of the treatment. (Rome. S. Maria in Trastevere.) + + * * * * * + +In the mosaic in the tribune of S. Maria-Maggiore at Rome, perhaps +the earliest example extant of the Coronation, properly so called, the +subject is treated with a grand and solemn simplicity. Christ and the +Virgin, colossal figures, are seated on the same regal throne within +a circular glory. The background is blue studded with golden stars. +He places the crown on her head with his right hand; in the left he +holds an open book, with the usual text, "_Veni, Electa mea, et ponam +te in thronum meum_," &c. She bends slightly forward, and her hands +are lifted in adoration. Above and around the circular glory the +emblematical vine twines in arabesque form; among the branches and +leaves sit peacocks and other birds; the peacock being the old emblem +of immortality, as birds in general are emblems of spirituality. On +each side of the glory are nine adoring angels, representing the nine +choirs of the heavenly hierarchy; beyond these on the right stand St. +Peter, St. Paul, St. Francis; on the left, St. John the Baptist, St. +John the Evangelist, and St. Antony of Padua; all these figures being +very small in proportion to those of Christ and the Virgin. Smaller +still, and quite diminutive in comparison, are the kneeling figures of +Pope Nicholas IV. and Cardinal Giacomo Colonna, under whose auspices +the mosaic was executed by Jacopo della Turrita, a Franciscan friar, +about 1288. In front flows the river Jordan, symbol of baptism and +regeneration; on its shore stands the hart, the emblem of religions +aspiration. Underneath the central group is the inscription,-- + + MARIA VIRGO ASSUMPTA AD ETHERIUM THALAMUM + IN QUO REX REGUM STELLATO SEDET SOLIO. + +The whole of this vast and poetical composition is admirably executed, +and it is the more curious as being, perhaps, one of the earliest +examples of the glorification of St. Francis and St. Antony of Padua +(Monastic Orders), who were canonized about thirty or forty years +before. + +The mosaic, by Gaddo Gaddi (Florence, A.D. 1330), over the great door +in the cathedral at Florence, is somewhat different. Christ, while +placing the crown on the head of his Mother with his _left_ hand, +blesses her with his right hand, and he appears to have laid aside +his own crown, which lies near him. The attitude of the Virgin is also +peculiar.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the same cathedral (which is dedicated to the Virgin +Mary) the circular window of the choir opposite to the mosaic exhibits +the Coronation. The design, by Donatello, is eminently fine and +classical.] + +In a small altar-piece by Giotto (Florence, S. Croce), Christ and the +Virgin are seated together on a throne. He places the jewelled crown +on her head with _both_ hands, while she bends forward with her hands +crossed in her lap, and the softest expression in her beautiful face, +as if she as meekly resigned herself to this honour, as heretofore to +the angelic salutation which pronounced her "Blessed:" angels kneel +before the throne with censers and offerings. In another, by Giotto, +Christ wearing a coronet of gems is seated on a throne: the Virgin +_kneels_ before him with hands joined: twenty angels with musical +instruments attend around. In a "Coronation," by Piero Laurati, +the figures of Christ and the Virgin, seated together, resemble in +sentiment and expression those of Giotto. The angels are arranged in +a glory around, and the treatment is wholly typical. + +One of the most beautiful and celebrated of the pictures of Angelico +da Fiesole is the "Coronation" now in the Louvre; formerly it stood +over the high altar of the Church of St. Dominick at Fiesole, where +Angelico had been nurtured, and made his profession as monk. The +composition is conceived as a grand regal ceremony, but the beings who +figure in it are touched with a truly celestial grace. The Redeemer, +crowned himself, and wearing the ermine mantle of an earthly monarch, +is seated on a magnificent throne, under a Gothic canopy, to which +there is an ascent of nine steps. He holds the crown, which he is in +the act of placing, with both hands, on the head of the Virgin, who +kneels before him, with features of the softest and most delicate +beauty, and an expression of divine humility. Her face, seen in +profile, is partly shaded by a long transparent veil, flowing over +her ample robe of a delicate crimson, beneath which is a blue tunic. +On each side a choir of lovely angels, clothed from head to foot in +spangled tunics of azure and rose-colour, with shining wings, make +celestial music, while they gaze with looks of joy and adoration +towards the principal group. Lower down on the right of the throne +are eighteen, and on the left twenty-two, of the principal patriarchs, +apostles, saints, and martyrs, among whom the worthies of Angelico's +own community, St. Dominick and St. Peter Martyr, are of course +conspicuous. At the foot of the throne kneel on one side St. +Augustine, St. Benedict, St. Charlemagne, the royal saint; St. +Nicholas; and St. Thomas Aquinas holding a pen (the great literary +saint of the Dominican order, and author of the Office of the Virgin); +on the left we have a group of virgins, St. Agnes, St. Catherine with +her wheel, St. Catherine of Siena, her habit spangled with stars; +St. Cecilia crowned with her roses, and Mary Magdalene, with her +long golden hair.[1] Beneath this great composition runs a border or +predella, in seven compartments, containing in the centre a Pieta, and +on each side three small subjects from the history of St. Dominick, +to whom the church, whence it was taken, is dedicated. The spiritual +beauty of the heads, the delicate tints of the colouring, an ineffable +charm of mingled brightness and repose shed over the whole, give to +this lovely picture an effect like that of a church hymn, sung at +some high festival by voices tuned in harmony--"blest voices, uttering +joy!" + +[Footnote 1: See "Legends of the Monastic Orders," and "Sacred and +Legendary Art," for an account of all these personages.] + +In strong contrast with the graceful Italian conception, is the German +"Coronation," now in the Wallerstein collection. (Kensington Pal.) +It is supposed to have been painted for Philip the Good, Duke of +Burgundy, either by Hans Hemling, or a painter not inferior to him. +Here the Virgin is crowned by the Trinity. She kneels, with an air of +majestic humility, and hands meekly folded on her bosom, attired in +simple blue drapery, before a semicircular throne, on which are seated +the Father and the Son, between them, with outspread wings, touching +their mouths, the Holy Dove. The Father a venerable figure, wears the +triple tiara, and holds the sceptre; Christ, with an expression of +suffering, holds in his left hand a crystal cross; and they sustain +between them a crown which they are about to place on the head of the +Virgin. Their golden throne is adorned with gems, and over it is a +glory of seraphim, with hair, faces, and plumage, all of a glowing +red. The lower part of this picture and the compartments on each side +are filled with a vast assemblage of saints, and martyrs, and holy +confessors: conspicuous among them we find the saints most popular +in Flanders and Burgundy--St. Adrian, St. George, St. Sebastian, St. +Maurice, clad in coats of mail and crowned with laurel, with other +kingly and warlike personages; St. Philip, the patron of Philip the +Good; St. Andrew, in whose honour he instituted the order of the +Golden Fleece: and a figure in a blue mantle with a ducal crown, one +of the three kings of Cologne, is supposed to represent Duke Philip +himself. It is, impossible by any description to do justice to this +wonderful picture, as remarkable for its elaborate workmanship, the +mysticism of the conception, the quaint elegance of the details, +and portrait-like reality of the faces, as that of Angelico for its +spiritual, tender, imaginative grace. + +There is a "Coronation" by Vivarini (Acad. Venice), which may be +said to comprise in itself a whole system of theology. It is one +vast composition, not divided by compartments. In the centre is a +magnificent carved throne sustained by six pillars, which stand on +a lofty richly ornamented pedestal. On the throne are seated Christ +and the Virgin; he is crowned, and places with both hands a crown on +her head. Between them hovers the celestial Dove, and above them is +seen the Heavenly Father in likeness of "the Ancient of Days," who +paternally lays a hand on the shoulder of each. Around his head and +over the throne, are the nine choirs of angels, in separate groups. +First and nearest, hover the glowing seraphim and cherubim, winged, +but otherwise formless. Above these, the Thrones, holding the globe +of sovereignty; to the right, the Dominations, Virtues, and Powers; to +the left, the Princedoms, Archangels, and Angels. Below these, on each +side of the throne, the prophets and patriarchs of the Old Testament, +holding each a scroll. Below these the apostles on twelve thrones, six +on each side, each holding the Gospel. Below these, on each side, the +saints and martyrs. Below these, again, the virgins and holy women. +Under the throne, in the space formed by the pillars, is seen a +group of beautiful children (not angels), representing, I think, the +martyred Innocents. They bear the instruments of Christ's passion--the +cross, nails, spear, crown of thorns, &c. On the step below the +pedestal, and immediately in front, are seated the Evangelists and +doctors of the Church; on the right St. Matthew and St. Luke, and +behind them St. Ambrose and St. Augustine; on the left St. Mark and +St. John, and behind them St. Jerome and St. Gregory. (See "Sacred and +Legendary Art") Every part of this curious picture is painted with the +utmost care and delicacy: the children are exquisite, and the heads, +of which there are at least seventy without counting the angels, are +finished like miniatures. + +This simple, and altogether typical representation of the Virgin +crowned by the Trinity in human form, is in a French carving of the +fifteenth century, and though ill drawn, there is considerable naivete +in the treatment. The Eternal Father wears, as is usual, the triple +tiara, the Son has the cross and the crown of thorns, and the Holy +Ghost is distinguished by the dove on his hand. All three sustain the +crown over the head of the kneeling Virgin, whose train is supported +by two angels. + +In a bas-relief over a door of the cathedral at Treves, the subject is +very simply treated; both Christ and the Virgin are standing, which +is unusual, and behind each is an angel, also standing and holding a +crown. + +Where not more than five or six saints are introduced as attendants +and accessories, they are usually the patron saints of the locality or +community, which may be readily distinguished. Thus, + +1. In a "Coronation" by Sandro Botticelli, we find below, St. John the +Evangelist, St. Augustine, St. John Gualberto, St. Bernardo Cardinale. +It was painted for the Vallombrosian monks. (Fl. Gal.) + +2. In a very fine example by Ghirlandajo, St. Dominick and St. Peter +Martyr are conspicuous: painted, of course, for the Dominicans. +(Paris, Louvre.) + +3. In another, by Pinturicchio, St. Francis is a principal figure, +with St. Bonaventura and St. Louis of Toulouse; painted for the +Franciscans, or at least for a Franciscan pope, Sixtus IV. (Rome, +Vatican.) + +4. In another, by Guido, the treatment differs from the early style. +The coronation above is small and seen as a vision; the saints below, +St. Bernard and St. Catherine, are life-size. It was painted for a +community of Bernardines, the monks of Monte Oliveto. (Bologna, Gal.) + +5. In a beautiful little altar-piece by Lorenzo di Credi[1], the +Virgin is kneeling above, while Christ, seated, places the crown on +her head. A glory of red seraphim surround the two figures. Below are +the famous patron saints of Central Italy, St. Nicholas of Bari and +St. Julian of Rimini, St. Barbara and St. Christina. The St. Francis +and St. Antony, in the predella, show it to have been painted for a +Franciscan church or chapel, probably for the same church at Cestello +for which Lorenzo painted the St. Julian and St. Nicholas now in the +Louvre. + +[Footnote 1: Once in the collection of Mr. Rogers; _v_. "Sacred and +Legendary Art."] + +The "Coronation of the Virgin" by Annibale Carracci is in a spirit +altogether different, magnificently studied.[1] On high, upon a lofty +throne which extends across the whole picture from side to side, the +Virgin, a noble majestic creature, in the true Carracci style, is +seated in the midst as the principal figure, her hands folded on her +bosom. On the right hand sits the Father, on the left the Son; they +hold a heavenly crown surmounted by stars above her head. The locality +is the Empyreum. The audience consists of angels only, who circle +within circle, filling the whole space, and melting into an abyss of +light, chant hymns of rejoicing and touch celestial instruments of +music. This picture shows how deeply Annibale Carracci had studied +Correggio, in the magical chiaro-oscuro, and the lofty but somewhat +mannered grace of the figures. + +[Footnote 1: This was also in the collection of Mr. Rogers.] + +One of the latest examples I can point to is also one of the most +simple and grand in conception. (Madrid Gal.) It is that by Velasquez, +the finest perhaps of the very few devotional subjects painted by +him. We have here the three figures only, as large as life, filling +the region of glory, without angels, witnesses, or accessories of any +kind, except the small cherubim beneath; and the symmetrical treatment +gives to the whole a sort of sublime effect. But the heads have the +air of portraits: Christ has a dark, earnest, altogether Spanish +physiognomy; the Virgin has dark hair; and the _Padre Eterno_, with +a long beard, has a bald head,--a gross fault in taste and propriety; +because, though the loose beard and flowing white hair may serve to +typify the "Ancient of Days," baldness expresses not merely age, but +the infirmity of age. + +Rubens, also, painted a "Coronation" with all his own lavish +magnificence of style for the Jesuits at Brussels. After the time +of Velasquez and Rubens, the "Immaculate Conception" superseded the +"Coronation." + + * * * * * + +To enter further into the endless variations of this charming and +complex subject would lead us through all the schools of art from +Giotto to Guido. I have said enough to render it intelligible +and interesting, and must content myself with one or two closing +_memoranda_. + +1. The dress of the Virgin in a "Coronation" is generally splendid, +too like the coronation robes of an earthly queen,--it is a "raiment +of needlework,"--"a vesture of gold wrought about with divers +colours"--generally blue, crimson, and white, adorned with gold, gems, +and even ermine. In the "Coronation" by Filippo Lippi, at Spoleto, she +wears a white robe embroidered with golden suns. In a beautiful little +"Coronation" in the Wallerstein collection (Kensington Pal.) she wears +a white robe embroidered with suns and moons, the former red with +golden rays, the latter blue with coloured rays,--perhaps in allusion +to the text so often applied in reference to her, "a woman clothed +with the _sun_," &c. (Rev. xii. 1, or Cant. vi. 10.) + +2. In the set of cartoons for the tapestries of the Sistine Chapel +(Kugler's Handbook, ii. 394), as originally prepared by Raphael, +we have the foundation, the heaven-bestowed powers, the trials and +sufferings of the early Church, exhibited in the calling of St. Peter, +the conversion of St. Paul, the acts and miracles of the apostles, the +martyrdom of St. Stephen; and the series closed with the Coronation +of the Virgin, placed over the altar, as typical of the final triumph +of the Church, the completion and fulfilment of all the promises made +to man, set forth in the exaltation and union of the mortal with the +immortal, when the human Mother and her divine Son are reunited and +seated on the same throne. Raphael placed on one side of the celestial +group, St. John the Baptist, representing sanctification through the +rite of baptism; and on the other, St. Jerome, the general symbol of +sanctification through faith and repentance. The cartoon of this grand +symbolical composition, in which all the figures were colossal, is +unhappily lost; the tapestry is missing from the Vatican collection; +two old engravings, however, exist, from which some idea may be formed +of the original group. (Passavant's Rafael, ii. 258.) + +3. It will be interesting to remember that the earliest existing +impression taken from an engraved metal plate, is a "Coronation of the +Virgin." Maso Finiguerra, a skilful goldsmith and worker in niello, +living at Florence in 1434, was employed to execute a pix (the small +casket in which the consecrated wafer of the sacrament is deposited), +and he decorated it with a representation of the Coronation in +presence of saints and angels, in all about thirty figures, minutely +and exquisitely engraved on the silver face. Whether Finiguerra was +the first worker in niello to whom it occurred to fill up the lines +cut in the silver with a black fluid, and then by laying on it a piece +of damp paper, and forcibly rubbing it, take off the fac-simile of his +design and try its effect before the final process,--this we can not +ascertain; we only know that the impression of his "Coronation" is +the earliest specimen known to exist, and gave rise to the practice +of cutting designs on plates of copper (instead of silver), for the +purpose of multiplying impressions of them. The pix finished by Maso +in 1452 is now in the Florence Gallery in the "Salle des Bronzes." The +invaluable print, first of its species, exists in the National Library +at Paris. There is a very exact fac-simile of it in Otley's "History +of Engraving," Christ and the Virgin are here seated together on +a lofty architectural throne: her hands are crossed on her bosom, +and she bends her meek veiled head to receive the crown, which her +Son, who wears a triple tiara, places on her brow. The saints most +conspicuous are St. John the Baptist, patron of Florence and of the +church for which the pix was executed, and a female saint, I believe +St. Reparata, both standing; kneeling in front are St. Cosmo and St. +Damian, the patrons of the Medici family, then paramount at Florence. +(Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +4. In an illuminated "Office of the Virgin," I found a version of +this subject which must be rare, and probably confined to miniatures. +Christ is seated on a throne and the Virgin kneels before him; he +bends forwards, and tenderly takes her clasped hands in both his own. +An empty throne is at the right hand of Christ, over which hovers +an angel bearing a crown. This is the moment which _precedes_ +the Coronation, as the group already described in the S. +Maria-in-Trastevere exhibits the moment which _follows_ the +Coronation. + +5. Finally, we must bear in mind that those effigies in which the +Madonna is holding her Child, while angels place a crown upon her +head, do not represent THE CORONATION properly so called, but merely +the Virgin honoured as Mother of Christ and Queen of Heaven (_Mater +Christi, Regina Coeli_); and that those representations of the +Coronation which conclude a series of the life of the Virgin, and +surmount her death-bed or her tomb, are historical and dramatic rather +than devotional and typical. Of this historical treatment there are +beautiful examples from Cimabue down to Raphael, which will be noticed +hereafter in their proper place. + + + + +THE VIRGIN OF MERCY. + + +Our Lady of Succour. _Ital._ La Madonna di Misericordia. _Fr._ Notre +Dame de Misericorde. _Ger._ Maria Mutter des Erbarmens. _Sp._ Nuestra +Senora de Grazia. + +When once the Virgin had been exalted and glorified in the celestial +paradise, the next and the most natural result was, that she should be +regarded as being in heaven the most powerful of intercessors, and on +earth a most benign and ever-present protectress. In the mediaeval idea +of Christ, there was often something stern; the Lamb of God who died +for the sins of the world, is also the inexorable Judge of the quick +and the dead. When he shows his wounds, it is as if a vindictive +feeling was supposed to exist; as if he were called upon to remember +in judgment the agonies and the degradation to which he had been +exposed below for the sake of wicked ungrateful men. In a Greek "Day +of Judgment," cited by Didron, Moses holds up a scroll, on which is +written, "Behold Him whom ye crucified," while the Jews are dragged +into everlasting fire. Everywhere is the sentiment of vengeance; +Christ himself is less a judge than an avenger. Not so the Virgin; +she is represented as all mercy, sympathy, and benignity. In some of +the old pictures of the Day of Judgment, she is seated by the side +of Christ, on an equality with him, and often in an attitude of +deprecation, as if adjuring him, to relent: or her eyes are turned on +the redeemed souls, and she looks away from the condemned as if unable +to endure the sight of their doom. In other pictures she is lower than +Christ, but always on his right hand, and generally seated; while St. +John the Baptist, who is usually placed opposite to her on the left +of Christ, invariably stands or kneels. Instead of the Baptist, it is +sometimes, but rarely, John the Evangelist, who is the pendant of the +Virgin. + +In the Greek representations of the Last Judgment, a river of fire +flows from under the throne of Christ to devour and burn up the +wicked.[1] In western art the idea is less formidable,--Christ is +not at once judge and executioner; but the sentiment is always +sufficiently terrible; "the angels and all the powers of heaven +tremble before him." In the midst of these terrors, the Virgin, +whether kneeling, or seated, or standing, always appears as a gentle +mediator, a, supplicant for mercy. In the "Day of Judgment," as +represented in the "Hortus Deliciarum," [2] we read inscribed under +her figure the words "_Maria, Filio suo pro Ecclesia supplicat_." +In a very fine picture by Martin Schoen (Schleissheim Gal.), it is +the Father, who, with a sword and three javelins in his hand, sits +as the avenging judge; near him Christ; while the Virgin stands in +the foreground, looking up to her Son with an expression of tender +supplication, and interceding, as it appears, for the sinners kneeling +round her, and whose imploring looks are directed to _her_. In the +well-known fresco by Andrea Ortagna (Pisa, Campo Santo), Christ and +the Virgin sit throned above, each in a separate aureole, but equally +glorified. Christ, pointing with one hand to the wound in his side, +raises the other in a threatening attitude, and his attention is +directed to the wicked, whom he hurls into perdition. The Virgin, +with one hand pressed to her bosom, looks to him with an air of +supplication. Both figures are regally attired, and wear radiant +crowns; and the twelve apostles attend them, seated on each side. + +[Footnote 1: Didron, "Iconographie Chretienne;" and in the mosaic of +the Last Judgment, executed by Byzantine artists, in the cathedral at +Torcello.] + +[Footnote 2: A celebrated illuminated MS. (date about 1159 to 1175), +preserved in the Library at Strasburg.] + + * * * * * + +In the centre group of Michael Angelo's "Last Judgment," we have the +same leading _motif_, but treated in a very different feeling. Christ +stands before us in figure and mien like a half-naked athlete; his +left hand rejects, his right hand threatens, and his whole attitude +is as utterly devoid of dignity as of grace. I have often wondered +as I have looked at this grand and celebrated work, what could be +Michael Angelo's idea of Christ. He who was so good, so religious, +so pure-minded, and so high-minded, was deficient in humility and +sympathy; if his morals escaped, his imagination was corrupted by the +profane and pagan influences of his time. His conception of Christ is +here most unchristian, and his conception of the Virgin is not much +better. She is grand in form, but the expression is too passive. +She looks down and seems to shrink; but the significance of the +attitude,--the hand pressed to the maternal bosom,--given to her by +the old painters, is lost. + +In a "Last Judgment" by Rubens, painted for the Jesuits of Brussels +(Brussels; Musee), the Virgin extends her robe over the world, as if +to shield mankind from the wrath of her Son; pointing, at the same +time, significantly to her bosom, whence He derived his earthly life. +The daring bad taste, and the dramatic power of this representation, +are characteristic alike of the painter, the time, and the community +for which the picture was painted. + + * * * * * + +More beautiful and more acceptable to our feelings are those graceful +representations of the Virgin as dispenser of mercy on earth; as +protectress and patroness either of all Christendom, or of some +particular locality, country, or community. In such pictures she +stands with outstretched arms, crowned with a diadem, or in some +instances simply veiled, her ample robe, extended on each side, is +held up by angels, while under its protecting folds are gathered +worshippers and votaries of all ranks and ages--men, women, +children,--kings, nobles, ecclesiastics,--the poor, the lame, the +sick. Or if the picture be less universal in its significance, +dedicated perhaps by some religious order or charitable brotherhood, +we see beneath her robe an assemblage of monks and nuns, or a troop of +young orphans or redeemed prisoners. Such a representation is styled a +_Misericordia_. + +In a picture by Fra Filippo Lippi (Berlin Gal.), the Madonna of Mercy +extends her protecting mantle over thirty-five kneeling figures, +the faces like portraits, none elevated or beautiful, but the whole +picture as an example of the subject most striking. + +A very beautiful and singular representation of the Virgin of Mercy +without the Child, I found in the collection of Herr v. Quandt, of +Dresden. She stands with hands folded over her bosom, and wrapped in +ample white drapery, without ornament of any kind; over her head, a +veil of transparent gauze of a brown colour, such as, from various +portraits of the time, appears to have been then a fashion. The +expression of the face is tender and contemplative, almost sad; and +the whole figure, which is life-size, is inexpressibly refined and +dignified. The following inscription is on the dark background to the +right of the Virgin:-- + + IMAGO + BEATAE MARIAE VIRGINIS + QUAE + MENS. AUGUST. MDXXXIII. + APPARUIT + MIRACULOR. OPERATIONE + CONCURSU POP. + CELEBERRIM. + +This beautiful picture was brought from Brescia to Vienna by a +picture-dealer, and purchased by Herr v. Quandt. It was painted by +Moretto of Brescia, of whom Lanzi truly says that his sacred subjects +express _la compunzione, la pieta, la carita istessa_; and this +picture is an instance. But by whom dedicated, for what especial +mercy, or in what church, I could not ascertain.[1] + +[Footnote 1: I possess a charming drawing of the head by Fraulein +Louise Seidler of Weimar, whose feeling for early religious art is +shown in her own works, as well as in the beautiful copies she has +made of others.] + + * * * * * + +It is seldom that the Madonna di Misericordia appears without the +Child in her arms; her maternity is supposed to be one element in her +sympathy with suffering humanity. I will add, however, to the examples +already given, one very celebrated instance. + +The picture entitled the "Misericordia di Lucca" is famous in the +history of art. (Lucca. S. Romano.) It is the most important work +of Fra Bartolomeo, and is dated 1515, two years before his death. +The Virgin, a grand and beautiful figure, stands alone on a raised +platform, with her arms extended, and looking up to heaven. The ample +folds of her robe are held open by two angels. Beneath and round her +feet are various groups in attitudes of supplication, who look up to +her, as she looks up to heaven. On one side the donor of the picture +is presented by St. Dominick. Above, in a glory, is the figure of +Christ surrounded by angels, and seeming to bend towards his mother. +The expression in the heads, the dignified beneficence of the Virgin, +the dramatic feeling in the groups, particularly the women and +children, justify the fame of this picture as one of the greatest of +the productions of mind.[1] + +[Footnote 1: According to the account in Murray's "Handbook," +this picture was dedicated by the noble family of Montecanini, and +represents the Virgin interceding for the Lucchesi during the wars +with Florence. But I confess I am doubtful of this interpretation, and +rather think it refers to the pestilence, which, about 1512, desolated +the whole of the north of Italy. Wilkie, who saw this picture in 1825, +speaks of the workmanship with the enthusiasm of a workman.] + + * * * * * + +There is yet another version of this subject, which deserves notice +from the fantastic grace of the conception. As in early Christian Art, +our Saviour was frequently portrayed as the Good Shepherd, so, among +the later Spanish fancies, we find his Mother represented as the +Divine Shepherdess. In a picture painted by Alonzo Miguel de Tobar +(Madrid Gal. 226), about the beginning of the eighteenth century, +we find the Virgin Mary seated under a tree, in guise of an Arcadian +pastorella, wearing a broad-brimmed hat, encircled by a glory, a crook +in her hand, while she feeds her flock with the mystical roses. The +beauty of expression in the head of the Virgin is such as almost to +redeem the quaintness of the religious conceit; the whole picture is +described as worthy of Murillo. It was painted for a Franciscan church +at Madrid, and the idea became so popular, that we find it multiplied +and varied in French and German prints of the last century; the +original picture remains unequalled for its pensive poetical grace; +but it must be allowed that the idea, which at first view strikes from +its singularity, is worse than questionable in point of taste, and +will hardly bear repetition. + +There are some ex-voto pictures of the Madonna of Mercy, which record +individual acts of gratitude. One, for instance, by Nicolo Alunno +(Rome, Pal. Colonna), in which the Virgin, a benign and dignified +creature, stretches forth her sceptre from above, and rebukes the ugly +fiend of Sin, about to seize a boy. The mother kneels on one side, +with eyes uplifted, in faith and trembling supplication. The same idea +I have seen repeated in a picture by Lanfranco. + + * * * * * + +The innumerable votive pictures which represent the Madonna di +Misericordia with the Child in her arms, I shall notice hereafter. +They are in Catholic countries the usual ornaments of charitable +Institutions and convents of the Order of Mercy; and have, as I cannot +but think, a very touching significance. + + + + +THE MATER DOLOROSA. + + +_Ital._ La Madre di Dolore. L' Addolorata. _Fr._ Notre Dame da Pitie. +La Vierge de Douleur. _Sp_. Nuestra Senora de Dolores _Ger._ Die +Schmerzhafte Mutter. + +One of the most important of these devotional subjects proper to the +Madonna is the "Mourning Mother," the _Mater Dolorosa_, in which her +character is that of the mother of the crucified Redeemer; the mother +of the atoning Sacrifice; the queen of martyrs; the woman whose bosom +was pierced with a sharp sword; through whose sorrow the world was +saved, whose anguish was our joy, and to whom the Roman Catholic +Christians address their prayers as consoler of the afflicted, because +she had herself tasted of the bitterest of all earthly sorrow, the +pang of the agonized mother for the loss of her child. + +In this character we have three distinct representations of the +Madonna. + +MATER DOLOROSA. In the first she appears alone, a seated or standing +figure, often the head or half length only; the hands clasped, the +head bowed in sorrow, tears streaming from the heavy eyes, and the +whole expression intensely mournful. The features are properly +those of a woman in middle age; but in later times the sentiment of +beauty predominated over that of the mother's agony; and I have seen +the sublime Mater Dolorosa transformed into a merely beautiful and +youthful maiden, with such an air of sentimental grief as might serve +for the loss of a sparrow. + +Not so with the older heads; even those of the Carracci and the +Spanish school have often a wonderful depth of feeling. + +It is common in such representations to represent the Virgin with a +sword in her bosom, and even with _seven_ swords in allusion to +the _seven_ sorrows. This very material and palpable version of the +allegorical prophecy (Luke ii, 35) has been found extremely effective +as an appeal to the popular feelings, so that there are few Roman +Catholic churches without such a painful and literal interpretation +of the text. It occurs perpetually in prints, and there is a fine +example after Vandyck; sometimes the swords are placed round her head; +but there is no instance of such a figure from the best period of +religious art, and it must be considered as anything but artistic: in +this case, the more materialized and the more matter of fact, the more +_unreal_. + + * * * * * + +STABAT MATER. A second representation of the _Madre di Dolore_ is that +figure of the Virgin which, from the very earliest times, was placed +on the right of the Crucifix, St. John the Evangelist being invariably +on the left. I am speaking here of the _crucifix_ as a wholly ideal +and mystical emblem of our faith in a crucified Saviour; not of +the _crucifixion_ as an event, in which the Virgin is an actor and +spectator, and is usually fainting in the arms of her attendants. In +the ideal subject she is merely an ideal figure, at once the mother +of Christ, and the personified Church. This, I think, is evident from +those very ancient carvings, and examples in stained glass, in which +the Virgin, as the Church, stands on one side of the cross, trampling +on a female figure which personifies Judaism or the synagogue. Even +when the allegory is less palpable, we feel that the treatment is +wholly religious and poetical. + +The usual attitude of the _Mater Dolorosa_ by the crucifix is that of +intense but resigned sorrow; the hands clasped, the head declined and +shaded by a veil, the figure closely wrapped in a dark blue or violet +mantle. In some instances a more generally religious and ideal cast is +given to the figure; she stands with outspread arms, and looking up; +not weeping, but in her still beautiful face a mingled expression of +faith and anguish. This is the true conception of the sublime hymn, + + "Stabat Mater Dolorosa + Juxta crucem lachrymosa + Dum pendebat filius." + +LA PIETA. The third, and it is the most important and most beautiful +of all as far as the Virgin is concerned, is the group called the +PIETA, which, when strictly devotional, consists only of the Virgin +with her dead Son in her arms, or on her lap, or lying at her feet; +in some instances with lamenting angels, but no other personages. +This group has been varied in a thousand ways; no doubt the two most +perfect conceptions are those of Michael Angelo and Raphael; the first +excelling in sublimity, the latter in pathos. The celebrated marble +group by Michael Angelo stands in the Vatican in a chapel to the +right as we enter. The Virgin is seated; the dead Saviour lies across +the knees of his mother; she looks down on him in mingled sorrow +and resignation, but the majestic resignation predominates. The +composition of Raphael exists only as a print; but the flimsy paper, +consecrated through its unspeakable beauty, is likely to be as lasting +as the marble. It represents the Virgin, standing with outstretched +arms, and looking up with an appealing agonized expression towards +heaven; before her, on the earth, lies extended the form of the +Saviour. In tenderness, dignity, simplicity, and tragic pathos, +nothing can exceed this production; the head of the Virgin in +particular is regarded as a masterpiece, so far exceeding in delicacy +of execution every other work of Marc Antonio, that some have thought +that Raphael himself took the burin from his hand, and touched himself +that face of quiet woe. + +Another example of wonderful beauty is the Pieta by Francia, in +our National Gallery. The form of Christ lies extended before his +mother; a lamenting angel sustains the head, another is at the feet: +the Virgin, with eyes red and heavy with weeping, looks out of the +picture. There needs no visible sword in her bosom to tell what +anguish has pierced that maternal heart. + +There is another Pieta, by Michael Angelo, quite a different +conception. The Virgin sits at the foot of the cross; before her, and +half-sustained by her knees, lies the form of the dead Saviour, seen +in front; his arms are held up by two angels (unwinged, as is usual +with Michael Angelo). The Virgin looks up to heaven with an appealing +expression; and in one engraving of this composition the cross is +inscribed with the words, "Tu non pensi quanta sangue costa." There is +no painting by Michael Angelo himself, but many copies and engravings +of the drawing. A beautiful small copy, by Marcello Venusti, is in the +Queen's Gallery. + +There is yet another version of the Pieta, quite mystical and +devotional in its significance,--but, to my feeling, more painful and +material than poetical. It is variously treated; for example:--1. +The dead Redeemer is seen half-length within the tomb; his hands are +extended to show his wounds; his eyes are closed, his head declined, +his bleeding brow encircled by thorns. On one side is the Virgin, on +the other St. John the Evangelist, in attitudes of profound grief +and commiseration. 2. The dead form, half emerging from the tomb, is +sustained in the arms of the Mater Dolorosa. St. John the Evangelist +on the other side. There are sometimes angels. + +The Pieta thus conceived as a purely religious and ideal impersonation +of the atoning Sacrifice, is commonly placed over the altar of +the sacrament, and in many altar-pieces it forms the centre of the +predella, just in front where the mass is celebrated, or on the door +of the tabernacle, where the Host is deposited. + +When, with the Mater Dolorosa and St. John, Mary Magdalene is +introduced with her dishevelled hair, the group ceases to be properly +a Pieta, and becomes a representation rather than a symbol. + + * * * * * + +There are also examples of a yet more complex but still perfectly +ideal and devotional treatment, in which the Mourning Mother is +attended by saints. + +A most celebrated instance of this treatment is the Pieta by Guido. +(Bologna Gal.) In the upper part of the composition, the figure of the +dead Redeemer lies extended on a white shroud; behind him stands the +Virgin-mother, with her eyes raised to heaven, and sad appealing face, +touched with so divine a sorrow--so much of dignity in the midst of +infinite anguish, that I know nothing finer in its way. Her hands +are resignedly folded in each other, not raised, not clasped, but +languidly drooping. An angel stands at the feet of Christ looking on +with a tender adoring commiseration; another, at his head, turns away +weeping. A kind of curtain divides this group from the lower part +of the picture, where, assembled on a platform, stand or kneel the +guardian saints of Bologna: in the centre, the benevolent St. Charles +Borromeo, who just about that time had been canonized and added to +the list of the patrons of Bologna by a decree of the senate; on the +right, St. Dominick and St. Petronius; on the left, St. Proculus +and St. Francis. These sainted personages look up as if adjuring the +Virgin, even by her own deep anguish, to intercede for the city; she +is here at once our Lady of Pity, of Succour, and of Sorrow. This +wonderful picture was dedicated, as an act of penance and piety, by +the magistrates of Bologna, in 1616, and placed in their chapel in the +church of the "Mendicanti," otherwise S. Maria-della-Pieta. It hung +there for two centuries, for the consolation of the afflicted; it +is now placed in the Academy of Bologna for the admiration of +connoisseurs. + + + + +OUR LADY OF THE IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. + + +_Ital._ La Madonna Purissima. _Lat._ Regina sine labe originali +concepta. _Spa._ Nuestra Senora sin peccado concepida. La Concepcion. +_Fr._ La Conception de la Vierge Marie. _Ger._ Das Geheimniss der +unbefleckten Empfaengniss Mariae. Dec. 8. + +The last and the latest subject in which the Virgin appears alone +without the Child, is that entitled the "Immaculate Conception of the +Blessed Virgin;" and sometimes merely "THE CONCEPTION." There is no +instance of its treatment in the earlier schools of art; but as one of +the most popular subjects of the Italian and Spanish painters of the +seventeenth century, and one very frequently misunderstood, it is +necessary to go into the history of its origin. + +In the early ages of Christianity, it was usual to celebrate, as +festivals of the Church, the Conception of Jesus Christ, and the +Conception of his kinsman and precursor John the Baptist; the latter +as miraculous, the former as being at once divine and miraculous. In +the eleventh century it was proposed to celebrate the Conception of +the Virgin Mother of the Redeemer. + +From the time that the heresy of Nestorius had been condemned, and +that the dignity of the Virgin as mother of the _Divinity_ had become +a point of doctrine, it was not enough to advocate her excelling +virtue and stainless purity as a mere human being. It was contended, +that having been predestined from the beginning as the Woman, through +whom the divine nature was made manifest on earth, she must be +presumed to be exempt from all sin, even from that original taint +inherited from Adam. Through the first Eve, we had all died; through +the second Eve, we had all been "made alive." It was argued that +God had never suffered his earthly temple to be profaned; had even +promulgated in person severe ordinances to preserve its sanctuary +inviolate. How much more to him was that temple, that _tabernacle_ +built by no human hands, in which he had condescended to dwell. +Nothing was impossible to God; it lay, therefore, in his power to +cause his Mother to come absolutely pure and immaculate into the +world: being in his power, could any earnest worshipper of the Virgin +doubt for a moment that for one so favoured it would not be done? Such +was the reasoning of our forefathers; and the premises granted, who +shall call it illogical or irreverent? + +For three or four centuries, from the seventh to the eleventh, these +ideas had been gaining ground. St. Ildefonso of Seville distinguished +himself by his writings on this subject; and how the Virgin +recompensed his zeal, Murillo has shown us, and I have related in +the life of that saint. (Legends of the Monastic Orders.) But the +first mention of a festival, or solemn celebration of the Mystery of +the Immaculate Conception, may be traced to an English monk of the +eleventh century, whose name is not recorded, (v. Baillet, vol. xii.) +When, however, it was proposed to give the papal sanction to this +doctrine as an article of belief, and to institute a church office for +the purpose of celebrating the Conception of Mary, there arose strong +opposition. What is singular, St. Bernard, so celebrated for his +enthusiastic devotion to the Virgin, was most strenuous and eloquent +in his disapprobation. He pronounced no judgment against those who +received the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception, he rather leaned +towards it; but he opposed the institution of the festival as an +innovation not countenanced by the early fathers of the Church. After +the death of St. Bernard, for about a hundred years, the dispute +slept; but the doctrine gained ground. The thirteenth century, so +remarkable for the manifestation of religious enthusiasm in all its +forms, beheld the revival of this celebrated controversy. A certain +Franciscan friar, Duns Scotus (John Scott of Dunse), entered the lists +as champion for the Virgin. He was opposed by the Dominicans and their +celebrated polemic Thomas Aquinas, who, like St. Bernard, was known +for his enthusiastic reverence for the Virgin; but, like him, and on +the same grounds, objected to the introduction of new forms. Thus the +theological schools were divided. + +During the next two hundred years the belief became more and more +general, the doctrine more and more popular; still the Church, while +it tolerated both, refused to ratify either. All this time we find +no particular representation of the favourite dogma in art, for until +ratified by the authority of the Church, it could not properly enter +into ecclesiastical decoration. We find, however, that the growing +belief in the pure Conception and miraculous sanctification of +the Virgin multiplied the representations of her coronation and +glorification, as the only permitted expression of the popular +enthusiasm on this point. For the powerful Order of the Franciscans, +who were at this time and for a century afterwards the most ardent +champions of the Immaculate Conception, were painted most of the +pictures of the Coronation produced during the fourteenth century. + +The first papal decree touching the "Immaculate Conception" as an +article of faith, was promulgated in the reign of Sixtus IV., who +had been a Franciscan friar, and he took the earliest opportunity of +giving the solemn sanction of the Church to what had ever been the +favourite dogma of his Order; but the celebration of the festival, +never actually forbidden, had by this time become so usual, that +the papal ordinance merely sanctioned without however rendering it +obligatory. An office was composed for the festival, and in 1496 +the Sorbonne declared in favour of it Still it remained a point of +dispute; still there were dissentient voices, principally among the +Dominican theologians; and from 1500 to 1600 we find this controversy +occupying the pens of the ecclesiastics, and exciting the interest and +the imagination of the people. In Spain the "Immaculate Conception +of the Virgin," owing perhaps to the popularity and power of the +Franciscans in that country, had long been "the darling dogma of the +Spanish Church." Villegas, in the "Flos Sanctorum," while admitting +the modern origin of the opinion, and the silence of the Church, +contended that, had this great fact been made manifest earlier and +in less enlightened times, it might possibly have led to the error of +worshipping the Virgin as an actual goddess. (Stirling's Artists of +Spain, p. 905.) To those who are conversant with Spanish theology +and art, it may seem that the distinction drawn in theory is not very +definite or perceptible in practice. + +At length, in July, 1615, Paul V. formally instituted the office +commemorating the Immaculate Conception, and in 1617 issued a bull +forbidding any one to teach or preach a contrary opinion. "On the +publication of this bull, Seville flew into a frenzy of religious +joy." The archbishop performed a solemn service in the Cathedral. +Cannon roared, and bull fights, tournaments, and banquets celebrated +this triumph of the votaries of the Virgin. Spain and its dependencies +were solemnly placed under the protection of the "Immaculate +Conception," thus personifying an abstract idea; and to this day, a +Spaniard salutes his neighbour with the angelic "Ave Maria purissima!" +and he responds "Sin peccado concepida!"[1] + +[Footnote 1: In our own days we have seen this curious controversy +revived. One of the latest, if not the last, writer on the subject was +Cardinal Lambruschini; and the last papal ordinance was promulgated by +Pio Mono, and dated from Gaeta, 1849.] + + * * * * * + +I cannot find the date of the earliest picture of the Immaculate +Conception; but the first writer on the art who makes allusion to the +subject, and lays down specific rules from ecclesiastical authority +for its proper treatment, is the Spaniard Pacheco, who must have been +about forty years of age when the bull was published at Seville in +1618. It is soon after this time that we first hear of pictures of the +Immaculate Conception. Pacheco subsequently became a familiar of the +Inquisition, and wielded the authority of the holy office as inspector +of sacred pictures; and in his "Arte de la Pintura," published in +1649, he laid down those rules for the representation which had been +generally, though not always, exactly followed. + +It is evident that the idea is taken from the woman in the Apocalypse, +"clothed with the sun, having the moon under her feet, and on her head +a crown of twelve stars." The Virgin is to be portrayed in the first +spring and bloom of youth as a maiden of about twelve or thirteen +years of age; with "grave sweet eyes;" her hair golden; her features +"with all the beauty painting can express;" her hands are to be folded +on her bosom or joined in prayer. The sun is to be expressed by a +flood of light around her. The moon under her feet is to have the +horns pointing downwards, because illuminated from above, and the +twelve stars are to form a crown over her head. The robe must be +of spotless white; the mantle or scarf blue. Round her are to hover +cherubim bearing roses, palms, and lilies; the head of the bruised and +vanquished dragon is to be under her feet. She ought to have the cord +of St. Francis as a girdle, because in this guise she appeared to +Beatriz de Silva, a noble Franciscan nun, who was favoured by a +celestial vision of the Madonna in her beatitude. Perhaps the good +services of the Franciscans as champions of the Immaculate Conception +procured them the honour of being thus commemorated. + +All these accessories are not absolutely and rigidly required; +and Murillo, who is entitled _par excellence_ the painter of the +Conception, sometimes departed from the letter of the law without +being considered as less orthodox. With him the crescent moon, is +sometimes the full moon, or when a crescent the horns point upwards +instead of downwards. He usually omits the starry crown, and, in spite +of his predilection for the Capuchin Order, the cord of St. Francis +is in most instances dispensed with. He is exact with regard to the +colours of the drapery, but not always in the colour of the hair. On +the other hand, the beauty and expression of the face and attitude, +the mingled loveliness, dignity, and purity, are given with exquisite +feeling; and we are never, as in his other representations of the +Madonna, reminded of commonplace homely, often peasant, portraiture; +here all is spotless grace, ethereal delicacy, benignity, refinement, +repose,--the very apotheosis of womanhood. + +I must go back to observe, that previous to the promulgation of +the famous bull of Pope Paul V., the popular ideas concerning the +Immaculate Conception had left their impress on art. Before the +subject had taken an express and authorized form, we find pictures +which, if they do not represent it, relate to it, I remember two which +cannot be otherwise interpreted, and there are probably others. + +The first Is a curious picture of the early Florentine School. (Berlin +Gal.) In the centre is original sin, represented by Eve and the +Serpent; on the right stand St. Ambrose, St. Hilarius, St. Anselm, +and St. Bernard; on the left St. Cyril, Origen, St. Augustine, and St. +Cyprian; and below are inscribed passages from the writings of these +fathers relating to the immaculate Conception of the Virgin: all of +them had given to her in their works the title of Immaculate, most +pure; but they differed as to the period of her sanctification, as to +whether it was in the moment of conception or at the moment of birth. + +The other picture is in the Dresden Gallery, and one of the finest +productions of that extraordinary Ferrarese painter Dosso Dossi. In +the lower part of the picture are the four Latin Fathers, turning over +their great books, or in deep meditation; behind them, the Franciscan +Bernardino of Siena. Above, in a glory of light, the Virgin, clothed, +not in spotless white, but a richly embroidered regal mantle, "wrought +about with divers colours," kneels at the feet of the Almighty, who +extends his hand in benediction. I find no account in the catalogue +whence this picture was taken, but it was evidently painted for the +Franciscans. + + * * * * * + +In 1617, when the Bull of Paul V. was formally expedited, Guido was +attached to the papal court in quality of painter and an especial +favourite with his Holiness. Among the earliest accredited pictures of +the Immaculate Conception, are four of his finest works. + +1. The cupola of the private chapel of the Quirinal represents the +Almighty meditating the great miracle of the Immaculate Conception, +and near him, within the same glory of light, is the Virgin in her +white tunic, and in an attitude of adoration. This was painted about +1610 or 1611, when Pope Paul V. was meditating the promulgation of his +famous ordinance. + +2. The great picture, also painted for Paul V., represents the +doctors of the Church arguing and consulting their great books for the +authorities on the subject of the Conception.[1] Above, the Virgin is +seated in glory, arrayed in spotless white, her hands crossed over her +bosom, and her eyes turned towards the celestial fountain of light. +Below are six doctors, consulting their books; they are not well +characterized, being merely so many ideal heads in a mannered style; +but I believe they represent the four Latin Fathers, with St. John +Damascene and St. Ildefonso, who were especial defenders of the +doctrine. + +[Footnote 1: Petersburg Imp. Gal. There is a fine engraving.] + +3. The next in point of date was painted for the Infanta of Spain, +which I believe to be the same now in the possession of Lord +Ellesmere. The figure of the Virgin, crowned with the twelve stars, +and relieved from a background of golden light, is standing on a +crescent sustained by three cherubs beneath; she seems to float +between heaven and earth; on either side is a seraph, with hands +folded and looks upraised in adoration. The whole painted in his +silvery tone, with such an extreme delicacy and transparency +of effect, that it might be styled "a vision of the Immaculate +Conception." + +4. The fourth was painted for the chapel of the Immaculate Conception, +in the church of San Biagio, at Forli, and is there still. + + * * * * * + +Just as the Italian schools of painting were on the decline, the +Spanish school of art arose in all its glory, and the "Conception" +became, from the popularity of the dogma, not merely an +ecclesiastical, but a popular subject. Not only every church, but +almost every private house, contained the effigy either painted or +carved, or both, of our Lady "_sin peccado concepida_;" and when the +academy of painting was founded at Seville, in 1660, every candidate +for admission had to declare his orthodox belief in _the most pure +Conception of our Lady_. + +The finest Spanish "Conception" before the time of Murillo, is by +Roelas, who died in 1625; it is in the academy at Seville, and is +mentioned by Mr. Ford as "equal to Guido."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Handbook of Spain. A very fine picture of this subject, +by Roelas, was sold out of the Soult Collection.] + +One of the most beautiful and characteristic, as well as earliest, +examples of this subject I have seen, is a picture in the Esterhazy +Gallery at Vienna. The Virgin is in the first bloom of girlhood; she +looks not more than nine or ten years old, with dark hair, Spanish +features, and a charming expression of childlike simplicity and +devotion. She stands amid clouds, with her hands joined, and the +proper white and blue drapery: there are no accessories. This picture +is attributed to an obscure painter, Lazaro Tavarone, of whom I can +learn nothing more than that he was employed in the Escurial about +1590. + +The beautiful small "Conception" by Velasquez, in the possession +of Mr. Frere, is a departure from the rules laid down by Pacheco in +regard to costume; therefore, as I presume, painted before he entered +the studio of the artist-inquisitor, whose son-in-law he became before +he was three and twenty. Here the Virgin is arrayed in a pale violet +robe, with a dark blue mantle. Her hands are joined, and she looks +down. The solemnity and depth of expression in the sweet girlish face +is very striking; the more so, that it is not a beautiful face, and +has the air of a portrait. Her long hair flows over her shoulders. The +figure is relieved against a bright sun, with fleecy clouds around; +and the twelve stars are over her head. She stands on the round moon, +of which the upper half is illumined. Below, on earth, and through +the deep shadow, are seen several of the emblems of the Virgin--the +fountain, the temple, the olive, the cypress, and the garden enclosed +in a treillage of roses.[1] This picture is very remarkable; it is in +the earliest manner of Velasquez, painted in the bold free style of +his first master, Herrara, whose school he quitted when he was about +seventeen or eighteen, just at the period when the Pope's ordinance +was proclaimed at Seville. + +[Footnote 1: v. Introduction: "The Symbols and Attributes of the +Virgin."] + + * * * * * + +Of twenty-five pictures of this subject, painted by Murillo, there are +not two exactly alike; and they are of all sizes, from the colossal +figure called the "Great Conception of Seville," to the exquisite +miniature representation in the possession of Lord Overston, not more +than fifteen inches in height. Lord Lansdowne has also a beautiful +small "Conception," very simply treated. In those which have dark +hair, Murillo is said to have taken his daughter Francisca as a model. +The number of attendant angels varies from one or two, to thirty. They +bear the palm, the olive, the rose, the lily, the mirror; sometimes +a sceptre and crown. I remember but few instances in which he has +introduced the dragon-fiend, an omission which Pacheco is willing to +forgive; "for," as he observes, "no man ever painted the devil with +good-will." + +In the Louvre picture (No. 1124), the Virgin is adored by three +ecclesiastics. In another example, quoted by Mr. Stirling (Artists +of Spain, p. 839), a friar is seen writing at her feet: this figure +probably represents her champion, the friar Duns Scotus. There is +at Hampton Court a picture, by Spagnoletto, of this same Duns Scotus +writing his defence of the Immaculate Conception. Spagnoletto was +painting at Naples, when, in 1618, "the Viceroy solemnly swore, in +presence of the assembled multitude, to defend with his life the +doctrine of the Immaculate Conception;" and this picture, curious +and striking in its way, was painted about the same time. + + * * * * * + +In Italy, the decline of Art in the seventeenth century is nowhere +more apparent, nor more offensive, than in this subject. A finished +example of the most execrable taste is the mosaic in St. Peter's, +after Pietro Bianchi. There exists, somewhere, a picture of the +Conception, by Le Brun, in which the Virgin has no other drapery +than a thin, transparent gauze, and has the air of a Venus Meretrix. +In some old French prints, the Virgin is surrounded by a number of +angels, defending her with shield and buckler against demons who are +taking aim at her with fiery arrows. Such, and even worse, vagaries +and perversities, are to be found in the innumerable pictures of this +favourite subject, which inundated the churches between 1640 and 1720. +Of these I shall say no more. The pictures of Guido and Murillo, and +the carved figures of Alonzo Cano, Montanez, and Hernandez, may +be regarded as authorized effigies of "Our Lady of the most pure +Conception;" in other words, as embodying, in the most attractive, +decorous, and intelligible form, an abstract theological dogma, which +is in itself one of the most curious, and, in its results, one of the +most important of the religions phenomena connected with the artistic +representations of the Virgin.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We often find on pictures and prints of the Immaculate +Conception, certain scriptural texts which the theologians of the +Roman Church have applied to the Blessed Virgin; for instance, from +Ps. xliv. _Omnis gloria ejus filiae regis ab intus_--"The king's +daughter is all glorious within;" or from the Canticles, iv. 7, _Tota +pulchra es amica mea, et macula non est in te_,--"Thou art all fair, +my love, there is no spot in thee." I have also seen the texts, Ps. +xxii. 10, and Prov. viii. 22, 28, xxxi. 29, thus applied, as well as +other passages from the very poetical office of the Virgin _In Festo +Immaculatae Conceptionis_.] + +We must be careful to discriminate between the Conception, so +styled by ecclesiastical authority, and that singular and mystical +representation which is sometimes called the "Predestination of Mary," +and sometimes the "Litanies of the Virgin." Collectors and writers +on art must bear in mind, that the former, as a subject, dates only +from the beginning of the seventeenth century, the latter from +the beginning of the sixteenth. Although, as representations, so +very similar, yet the intention and meaning are different. In the +Conception it is the sinless Virgin in her personal character, who +is held up to reverence, as the purest, wisest, holiest, of created +beings. The earlier theme involves a yet more recondite signification. +It is, undoubtedly, to be regarded as an attempt on the part of the +artist to express, in a visible form, the idea or promise of the +redemption of the human race, as existing in the Sovereign Mind before +the beginning of things. They do not personify this idea under the +image of Christ,--for they conceived that, as the second person of the +Trinity, he could not be his own instrument,--but by the image of Mary +surrounded by those attributes which were afterwards introduced into +the pictures of the Conception: or setting her foot, as second Eve, on +the head of the prostrate serpent. Not seldom, in a series of subjects +from the Old Testament, the _pendant_ to Eve holding the apple is Mary +crushing the head of the fiend; and thus the "bane and antidote are +both before us." This is the proper interpretation of those effigies, +so prevalent in every form of art during the sixteenth century, and +which are often, but erroneously, styled the Immaculate Conception. + +The numerous heads of the Virgin which proceeded from the later +schools of Italy and Spain, wherein she appears neither veiled nor +crowned, but very young, and with flowing hair and white vesture, are +intended to embody the popular idea of the _Madonna purissima_, of +"the Virgin most pure, conceived without sin," in an abridged form. +There is one by Murillo, in the collection of Mr. Holford; and another +by Guido, which will give an idea of the treatment. + +Before quitting the subject of the Immaculate Conception. I must +refer to a very curious picture[1] called an Assumption, but certainly +painted at least one hundred years before the Immaculate Conception +was authorized as a Church subject. + +[Footnote 1: Once in the collection of Mr. Solly, and now in the +possession of Mr. Bromley of Wootten.] + +From the year 1496, when Sixtus IV. promulgated his Bull, and the +Sorbonne put forth their famous decree,--at a time when there was +less of faith and religious feeling in Italy than ever before,--this +abstract dogma became a sort of watchword with theological disputants; +not ecclesiastics only, the literati and the reigning powers took +an interest in the controversy, and were arrayed on one side or the +other. The Borgias, for instance, were opposed to it. Just at this +period, the singular picture I allude to was painted by Girolamo da +Cotignola. It is mentioned by Lanzi, but his account of it is not +quite correct. + +Above, in glory, is seen the _Padre Eterno_, surrounded by cherubim +bearing a scroll, on which is inscribed, "_Non enim pro te sed pro +omnibus hec lex constitutura est._"[1] Lower down the Virgin stands +on clouds, with hands joined, and attired in a white tunic embroidered +with gold, a blue mantle lined with red, and, which is quite singular +and unorthodox, _black shoes_. Below, on the earth, and to the +right, stands a bishop without a glory, holding a scroll, on which +is inscribed, "_Non puto vere esse amatorem Virginis qui respuit +celebrare Festum suae Conceptionis_;" on the left is St. Jerome. In +the centre are three kneeling figures: on one side St. Catherine (or +perhaps Caterina Sforza in the character of St. Catherine, for the +head looks like a portrait); on the other an elderly woman, Ginevra +Tiepolo, widow of Giovanni Sforza, last prince of Pesaro; [2] between +them the little Costanzo Sforza, looking up with a charming devout +expression. [3] Underneath is Inscribed, "JUNIPERA SFOSTIA PATRIA +A MARITO RECEPTA. EXVOTO MCCCCCXII." Giovanni Sforza had been +dispossessed of his dominions by the Borgias, after his divorce from +Lucrezia, and died in 1501. The Borgias ceased to reign in 1512; and +Ginevra, apparently restored to her country, dedicated this picture, +at once a memorial of her gratitude and of her faith. It remained over +the high-altar of the Church of the Serviti, at Pesaro, till acquired +by Mr. Solly, from whom it was purchased by Mr. Bromley. [4] + +[Footnote 1: From the Office of the Blessed Virgin.] + +[Footnote 2: This Giovanni was the first husband of Lucrezia Borgia.] + +[Footnote 3: Lanzi calls this child Costanzo II., prince of Pesaro. +Very interesting memoirs of all the personages here referred to may be +found in Mr. Dennistoun's "Dukes of Urbino."] + +[Footnote 4: Girolamo Marchesi da Cotignola, was a painter of the +Francia school, whose works date from about 1508 to 1550. Those of +his pictures which I have seen are of very unequal merit, and, with +much feeling and expression in the heads, are often mannered and +fantastic as compositions. This agrees with what Vasari says, that his +excellence lay in portraiture, for which reason he was summoned, after +the battle of Ravenna, to paint the portrait of Caston de Foix, as +he lay dead. (See Vasari, _Vita di Bagnacavallo_; and in the English +trans., vol. iii. 331.) The picture above described, which has a sort +of historical interest, is perhaps the same mentioned in Murray's +Handbook (Central Italy, p. 110.) as an _enthroned_ Madonna, dated +1513, and as being in 1843 in its original place over the altar in the +Serviti at Pesaro; if so, it is there no longer.] + + + + +DEVOTIONAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART II. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD. + +1. LA VERGINE MADRE DI DIO. 2. LA MA DRE AMABILE. + +THE VIRGIN AND CHILD ENTHRONED. + +_Lat._ Sancta Dei Genitrix. Virgo Deipara. _Ital._ La Santissima +Vergine, Madre di Dio. _Fr._ La Sainte Vierge, Mere de Dieu. _Ger._ +Die Heilige Mutter Gottes. + + +The Virgin in her maternal character opens upon us so wide a field +of illustration, that I scarce know where to begin or how to find my +way, amid the crowd of associations which press upon me. A mother +holding her child in her arms is no very complex subject; but like a +very simple air constructed on a few expressive notes, which, when +harmonized, is susceptible of a thousand modulations, and variations, +and accompaniments, while the original _motif_ never loses its power +to speak to the heart; so it is with the MADONNA AND CHILD;--a +subject so consecrated by its antiquity, so hallowed by its profound +significance, so endeared by its associations with the softest and +deepest of our human sympathies, that the mind has never wearied of +its repetition, nor the eye become satiated with its beauty. Those who +refuse to give it the honour due to a religious representation, yet +regard it with a tender half-unwilling homage; and when the glorified +type of what is purest, loftiest, holiest in womanhood, stands before +us, arrayed in all the majesty and beauty that accomplished Art, +inspired by faith and love, could lend her, and bearing her divine +Son, rather enthroned than sustained on her maternal bosom, "we look, +and the heart is in heaven!" and it is difficult, very difficult, to +refrain from an _Ora pro Nobis_. But before we attempt to classify +these lovely and popular effigies, in all their infinite variety, +from the enthroned grandeur of the Queen of Heaven, the SANCTA +DEI GENITRIX, down to the peasant mother, swaddling or suckling +her infant; or to interpret the innumerable shades of significance +conveyed by the attendant accessories, we must endeavour to trace the +representation itself to its origin. + +This is difficult. There exists no proof, I believe, that the effigies +of the Virgin with the infant Christ in her arms, which existed before +the end of the fifth century, were placed before Christian worshippers +as objects of veneration. They appear to have been merely groups +representing a particular incident of the New Testament, namely, +the adoration of the Magi; for I find no other in which the mother +is seated with the infant Christ, and this is an historical subject +of which we shall have to speak hereafter. From the beginning of +the fourth century, that is, from the time of Constantine and the +condemnation of Arius, the popular reverence for the Virgin, the +Mother of Christ, had been gaining ground; and at the same time the +introduction of images and pictures into the places of worship and +into the houses of Christians, as ornaments on glass vessels and even +embroidered on garments and curtains, became more and more diffused, +(v. Neander's Church History.) + +The earliest effigies of the Virgin and Child may be traced +to Alexandria, and to Egyptian influences; and it is as easily +conceivable that the time-consecrated Egyptian myth of Isis and +Horus may have suggested the original type, the outward form and the +arrangement of the maternal group, as that the classical Greek types +of the Orpheus and Apollo should have furnished the early symbols of +the Redeemer as the Good Shepherd; a fact which does not rest upon +supposition, but of which the proofs remain to us in the antique +Christian sculptures and the paintings in the catacombs. + +The most ancient Greek figures of the Virgin and Child have perished; +but, as far as I can learn, there is no evidence that these effigies +were recognized by the Church as sacred before the beginning of the +sixth century. It was the Nestorian schism which first gave to the +group of the Mother bearing her divine Son that religious importance +and significance which it has ever since retained in Catholic +countries. + +The divinity of Christ and his miraculous conception, once established +as articles of belief, naturally imparted to Mary, his mother, a +dignity beyond that of other mothers her Son was God; therefore the +title of MOTHER OF GOD was assigned to her. When or by whom first +brought into use, does not appear; but about the year 400 it became +a popular designation. + +Nestorias, patriarch of Constantinople in 428, had begun by +persecuting the Arians; but while he insisted that in Jesus were +combined two persons and two natures, he insisted that the Virgin Mary +was the mother of Christ considered as _man_, but not the mother of +Christ considered as _God_; and that, consequently, all those who gave +her the title of _Dei Genitrix_, _Deipara_,[1] were in error. There +were many who adopted these opinions, but by a large portion of the +Church they were repudiated with horror, as utterly subverting the +doctrine of the mystery of the Incarnation. Cyril of Alexandria +opposed Nestorius and his followers, and defended with zealous +enthusiasm the claims of the Virgin to all the reverence and +worship due to her; for, as he argued, the two natures being one and +indivisible from the moment of the miraculous conception, it followed +that Mary did indeed bring forth God,--was, in fact, the mother of +God; and, all who took away from her this dignity and title were in +error, and to be condemned as heretics. + +[Footnote 1: The inscription on the Greek and Byzantine pictures is +actually [Greek: MAeR ThU] ([Greek: Mhaetaer Theos]).] + +I hope I shall not be considered irreverent in thus plainly and simply +stating the grounds of this celebrated schism, with reference to its +influence on Art; an influence incalculable, not only at the time, +but ever since that time; of which the manifold results, traced +from century to century down to the present hour, would remain quite +unintelligible, unless we clearly understood the origin and the issue +of the controversy. + +Cyril, who was as enthusiastic and indomitable as Nestorius, and had +the advantage of taking the positive against the negative side of the +question, anathematized the doctrines of his opponent, in a synod held +at Alexandria in 430, to which Pope Celestine II gave the sanction of +his authority. The emperor Theodosius II then called a general council +at Ephesus in 431, before which Nestorius refused to appear, and was +deposed from his dignity of patriarch by the suffrages of 200 bishops. +But this did not put an end to the controversy; the streets of Ephesus +were disturbed by the brawls and the pavement of the cathedral was +literally stained with the blood of the contending parties Theodosius +arrested both the patriarchs; but after the lapse of only a few days, +Cyril triumphed over his adversary: with him triumphed the cause of +the Virgin. Nestorius was deposed and exiled; his writings condemned +to the flames; but still the opinions he had advocated were adopted by +numbers, who were regarded as heretics by those who called themselves +"the Catholic Church." + +The long continuance of this controversy, the obstinacy of the +Nestorians, the passionate zeal of those who held the opposite +doctrines, and their ultimate triumph when the Western Churches of +Rome and Carthage declared in their favour, all tended to multiply and +disseminate far and wide throughout Christendom those images of the +Virgin which exhibited her as Mother of the Godhead. At length the +ecclesiastical authorities, headed by Pope Gregory the Great, stamped +them as orthodox: and as the cross had been the primeval symbol which +distinguished the Christian from the Pagan, so the image of the Virgin +Mother with her Child now became the symbol which distinguished the +Catholic Christian from the Nestorian Dissenter. + +Thus it appears that if the first religious representations of the +Virgin and Child were not a consequence of the Nestorian schism, yet +the consecration of such effigies as the visible form of a theological +dogma to the purposes of worship and ecclesiastical decoration +must date from the Council of Ephesus in 431; and their popularity +and general diffusion throughout the western Churches, from the +pontificate of Gregory in the beginning of the seventh century. + +In the most ancient of these effigies which remain, we have clearly +only a symbol; a half figure, veiled, with hands outspread, and +the half figure of a child placed against her bosom, without any +sentiment, without even the action of sustaining him. Such was the +formal but quite intelligible sign; but it soon became more, it became +a representation. As it was in the East that the cause of the Virgin +first triumphed, we might naturally expect to find the earliest +examples in the old Greek churches; but these must have perished +in the furious onslaught made by the Iconoclasts on all the sacred +images. The controversy between the image-worshippers and the +image-breakers, which distracted the East for more than a century +(that is, from 726 to 840), did not, however, extend to the west of +Europe. We find the primeval Byzantine type, or at least the exact +reproduction of it, in the most ancient western churches, and +preserved to us in the mosaics of Rome, Ravenna, and Capua. These +remains are nearly all of the same date, much later than the single +figures of Christ as Redeemer, and belonging unfortunately to a lower +period and style of art. The true significance of the representation +is not, however, left doubtful; for all the earliest traditions and +inscriptions are in this agreed, that such effigies were intended as +a confession of faith; an acknowledgment of the dignity of the Virgin +Mary, as the "SANCTA DEI GENITRIX;" as a visible refutation of "the +infamous, iniquitous, and sacrilegious doctrines of Nestorius the +Heresiarch."[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Mostrando quod ipsa Deipara esset contra impiam Nestorii +Heresium quam talem esse iste Heresiareo negabat_ Vide Ciampini, and +Munter's "Sinnbilder."] + + * * * * * + +As these ancient mosaic figures of the Virgin, enthroned with her +infant Son, were the precursors and models of all that was afterwards +conceived and executed in art, we must examine them in detail before +proceeding further. + +The mosaic of the cathedral of Capua represents in the highest place +the half figure of Christ in the act of benediction. In one of the +spandrels, to the right, is the prophet Isaiah, bearing a scroll, on +which is inscribed, _Ecce Dominus in fortitudine veniet, et brachium +ejus dominibatur_,--"The Lord God will come with strong hand, and his +arm shall rule for him." (Isaiah, ch. xl. v. 10.) On the left stands +Jeremiah, also with a scroll and the words, _Fortissime, magne, et +patens Dominus exercituum nomen tibi_,--"The great, the mighty God, +the Lord of hosts is his name." (Jeremiah, ch. xxxii. v. 18.) In the +centre of the vault beneath, the Virgin is seated on a rich throne, +a footstool under her feet; she wears a crown over her veil. Christ, +seated on her knee, and clothed, holds a cross in his left hand; the +right is raised is benediction. On one side of the throne stand St. +Peter and St. Stephen; on the other St. Paul and St. Agatha, to whom +the church is dedicated. The Greek monogram of the Virgin is inscribed +below the throne. + +The next in date which remains visible, is the group in the apsis of +S. Maria-della-Navicella (Rome), executed about 820, in the time of +Paschal I, a pontiff who was very remarkable for the zeal with which +he rebuilt and adorned the then half-ruined churches of Rome. The +Virgin, of colossal size, is seated on a throne; her robe and veil +are blue; the infant Christ, in a gold-coloured vest, is seated in her +lap, and raises his hand to bless the worshippers. On each side of the +Virgin is a group of adoring angels; at her feet kneels the diminutive +figure of Pope Paschal. + +In the Santa Maria-Nova (called also, "Santa Francesca," Rome), the +Virgin is seated on a throne wearing a rich crown, as queen of heaven. +The infant Christ stands upon her knee; she has one hand on her bosom +and sustains him with the other. + +On the facade of the portico of the S. Maria-in-Trastevere at Rome, +the Virgin is enthroned, and crowned, and giving her breast to the +Child. This mosaic is of later date than that in the apsis, but is +one of the oldest examples of a representation which was evidently +directed against the heretical doubts of the Nestorians: "How," said +they, pleading before the council of Ephesus, "can we call him God +who is only two or three months old; or suppose the Logos to have +been _suckled_ and to increase in wisdom?" The Virgin in the act +of suckling her Child, is a _motif_ often since repeated when the +original significance was forgotten. + +In the chapel of San Zeno (Rome), the Virgin is enthroned; the Child +is seated on her knee. He holds a scroll, on which are the words +_Ego sum lux mundi_, "I am the light of the world;" the right hand is +raised in benediction. Above is the monogram [Greek: M-R ThU], MARIA +MATER DEI. In the mosaics, from the eighth to the eleventh century, +we find Art at a very low ebb. The background is flat gold, not a blue +heaves with its golden stars, as in the early mosaics of the fifth and +sixth centuries. The figures are ill-proportioned; the faces consist +of lines without any attempt at form or expression. The draperies, +however, have a certain amplitude; "and the character of a few +accessories, for example, the crown on the Virgin's heads instead of +the invariable Byzantine veil, betrays," says Kugler, "a northern and +probably a Frankish influence." The attendant saints, generally St. +Peter and St. Paul, stand, stiff and upright on each side. + +But with all their faults, these grand, formal, significant groups--or +rather not groups, for there was as yet no attempt either at +grouping or variety of action, for that would have been considered +irreverent--but these rows of figures, were the models of the early +Italian painters and mosaic-workers in their large architectural +mosaics and altar-pieces set up in the churches during the revival +of Art, from the period of Cimabue and Andrea Tafi down to the +latter half of the thirteenth century: all partook of this lifeless, +motionless character, and were, at the same time, touched with +the same solemn religious feeling. And long afterwards, when the +arrangement became less formal and conventional, their influence may +still be traced in those noble enthroned Madonnas, which represent +the Virgin as queen of heaven and of angels, either alone, or with +attendant saints, and martyrs, and venerable confessors waiting round +her state. + +The general disposition of the two figures varies but little in the +earliest examples which exist for us in painting, and which are, in +fact, very much alike. The Madonna seated on a throne, wearing a red +tunic and a blue mantle, part of which is drawn as a veil over her +head, holds the infant Christ, clothed in a red or blue tunic. She +looks straight out of the picture with her head a little declined to +one side. Christ has the right hand raised in benediction, and the +other extended. Such were the simple, majestic, and decorous effigies, +the legitimate successors of the old architectural mosaics, and +usually placed over the high altar of a church or chapel. The earliest +examples which have been preserved are for that reason celebrated in +the history of Art. + +The first is the enthroned Virgin of Guido da Siena, who preceded +Cimabue by twenty or thirty years. In this picture, the Byzantine +conception and style of execution are adhered to, yet with a softened +sentiment, a touch of more natural, life-like feeling, particularly +in the head of the Child. The expression in the face of the Virgin +struck me as very gentle and attractive; but it has been, I am afraid, +retouched, so that we cannot be quite sure that we have the original +features. Fortunately Guido has placed a date on his work, MCCXXI., +and also inscribed on it a distich, which shows that he felt, with +some consciousness and self-complacency, his superiority to his +Byzantine models;-- + + "Me Guido de Senis diebus depinxit amoenis + Quem Christus lenis nullis velit angere poenis."[1] + +Next we may refer to the two colossal Madonnas by Cimabue, preserved +at Florence. The first, which was painted for the Vallombrosian monks +of the S. Trinita, is now in the gallery of the academy. It has all +the stiffness and coldness of the Byzantine manner. There are three +adoring angels on each side, disposed one above another, and four +prophets are placed below in separate niches, half figures, holding +in their hands their prophetic scrolls, as in the old mosaic at Capua, +already described. The second is preserved in the Ruccellai chapel, in +the S. Maria Novella, in its original place. In spite of its colossal +size, and formal attitude, and severe style, the face of this Madonna +is very striking, and has been well described as "sweet and unearthly, +reminding you of a sibyl." The infant Christ is also very fine. There +are three angels on each side, who seem to sustain the carved chair or +throne on which the Madonna is seated; and the prophets, instead, of +being below, are painted in small circular medallions down each side +of the frame. The throne and the background are covered with gold. +Vasari gives a very graphic and animated account of the estimation +in which this picture was held when first executed. Its colossal +dimensions, though familiar in the great mosaics, were hitherto +unknown in painting; and not less astonishing appeared the deviation, +though slight, from ugliness and lifelessness into grace and nature. +"And thus," he says, "it happened that this work was an object of +so much admiration to the people of that day, they having never seen +anything better, that it was carried in solemn procession, with the +sound of trumpets and other festal demonstrations, from the house of +Cimabue to the church, he himself being highly rewarded and honoured +for it. It is further reported, and may be read in certain records +of old painters, that, whilst Cimabue was painting this picture, in a +garden near the gate of San Pietro, King Charles the Elder, of Anjou, +passed through Florence, and the authorities of the city, among other +marks of respect, conducted him to see the picture of Cimabue. When +this work was thus shown to the King it had not before been seen +by any one; wherefore all the men and women of Florence hastened in +crowds to admire it, making all possible demonstrations of delight. +The inhabitants of the neighbourhood, rejoicing in this occurrence, +ever afterwards called that place _Borgo Allegri_; and this name +it has ever since retained, although in process of time it became +enclosed within the walls of the city." + +[Footnote 1: The meaning, for it is not easy to translate literally, +is "_Me, hath painted, in pleasant days, Guido of Siena, Upon whose +soul may Christ deign to have mercy!_"] + + * * * * * + +In the strictly devotional representations of the Virgin and Child, +she is invariably seated, till the end of the thirteenth century: and +for the next hundred years the innovation of a standing figure was +confined to sculpture. An early example is the beautiful statue by +Niccola Pisano, in the Capella della Spina at Pisa; and others will be +found in Cicognara'a work (Storia della Scultura Moderna). The Gothic +cathedrals, of the thirteenth century, also exhibit some most graceful +examples of the Madonna in sculpture, standing on a pedestal, crowned +or veiled, sustaining on her left arm the divine Child, while in +her right she holds a sceptre or perhaps a flower. Such crowned or +sceptred effigies of the Virgin were placed on the central pillar +which usually divided the great door of a church into two equal parts; +in reference to the text, "I am the DOOR; by me if any man enter in, +he shall be saved." In Roman Catholic countries we find such effigies +set up at the corners of streets, over the doors of houses, and the +gates of gardens, sometimes rude and coarse, sometimes exceedingly +graceful, according to the period of art and skill of the local +artist. Here the Virgin appears in her character of Protectress--our +Lady of Grace, or our Lady of Succour. + + * * * * * + +In pictures, we rarely find the Virgin standing, before the end of +the fourteenth century. An almost singular example is to be found +in an old Greek Madonna, venerated as miraculous, in the Cathedral +of Orvieto, under the title of _La Madonna di San Brizio_, and to +which is attributed a fabulous antiquity. I may be mistaken, but my +impression, on seeing it, was, that it could not be older than the end +of the thirteenth century. The crowns worn by the Virgin and Christ +are even more modern, and out of character with the rest of the +painting. In Italy the pupils of Giotto first began to represent +the Virgin standing on a raised dais. There is an example by Puccio +Capanna, engraved in d'Agincourt's work; but such figures are very +uncommon. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries they occur more +frequently in the northern than in the Italian schools. + +In the simple enthroned Madonna, variations of attitude and sentiment +were gradually introduced. The Virgin, instead of supporting her +Son with both hands, embraces him with one hand, and with the other +points to him; or raises her right hand to bless the worshipper. Then +the Child caresses his mother,--a charming and natural idea, but a +deviation from the solemnity of the purely religious significance; +better imagined, however, to convey the relation between the mother +and child, than the Virgin suckling her infant, to which I have +already alluded in its early religious, or rather controversial +meaning. It is not often that the enthroned Virgin is thus occupied. +Mr. Rogers had in his collection an exquisite example where the +Virgin, seated in state on a magnificent throne under a Gothic canopy +and crowned as queen of heaven, offers her breast to the divine Infant +Then the Mother adores her Child. This is properly the _Madre Pia_ +afterwards so beautifully varied. He lies extended on her knee, and +she looks down upon him with hands folded in prayer: or she places +her hand under his foot, an attitude which originally implied her +acknowledgment of his sovereignty and superiority, but was continued +as a natural _motif_ when the figurative and religious meaning was no +longer considered. Sometimes the Child looks up in his mother's face +with his finger on his lip, expressing the _Verbum sum_, "I am the +Word." Sometimes the Child, bending forwards from his mother's knee, +looks down benignly on the worshippers, who are _supposed_ to be +kneeling at the foot of the altar. Sometimes, but very rarely he +sleeps; never in the earliest examples; for to exhibit the young +Redeemer asleep, where he is an object of worship, was then a species +of solecism. + +When the enthroned Virgin is represented holding a book, or reading, +while the infant Christ, perhaps, lays his hand upon it--a variation +in the first simple treatment not earlier than the end of the +fourteenth century, and very significant--she is then the _Virgo +Sapientissima_, the most Wise Virgin; or the Mother of Wisdom, _Mater +Sapientiae_; and the book she holds is the Book of Wisdom.[1] This is +the proper interpretation, where the Virgin is seated on her throne. +In a most beautiful picture by Granacci (Berlin Gal.), she is thus +enthroned, and reading intently; while John the Baptist and St. +Michael stand on each side. + +[Footnote 1: L'Abbe Crosnier, "Iconographie Chretienne;" but the book +as an attribute had another meaning, for which, see the Introduction.] + + * * * * * + +With regard to costume, the colours in which the enthroned +Virgin-Mother was arrayed scarcely ever varied from the established +rule: her tunic was to be red, her mantle blue; red, the colour of +love, and religious aspiration; blue, the colour of constancy and +heavenly purity. In the pictures of the thirteenth and fourteenth +centuries, and down to the early part of the fifteenth, these colours +are of a soft and delicate tint,--rose and pale azure; but afterwards, +when powerful effects of colour became a study, we have the intense +crimson, and the dark blue verging on purple. Sometimes the blue +mantle is brought over her head, sometimes she wears a white veil, in +other instances the queenly crown. Sometimes (but very rarely when she +is throned as the _Regina Coeli_) she has no covering or ornament on +her head; and her fair hair parted on her brow, flows down on either +side in long luxuriant tresses. + +In the Venetian and German pictures, she is often most gorgeously +arrayed; her crown studded with jewels, her robe covered with +embroidery, or bordered with gold and pearls. The ornamental parts of +her dress and throne were sometimes, to increase the magnificence of +the effect, raised in relief and gilt. To the early German painters, +we might too often apply the sarcasm of Apelles, who said of his +rival, that, "not being able to make Venus _beautiful_ he had made +her _fine_;" but some of the Venetian Madonnas are lovely as well as +splendid. Gold was often used, and in great profusion, in some of the +Lombard pictures even of a late date; for instance, by Carlo Crivelli: +before the middle of the sixteenth century, this was considered +barbaric. The best Italian painters gave the Virgin ample, well +disposed drapery, but dispensed with ornament. The star embroidered on +her shoulder, so often retained when all other ornament was banished, +expresses her title "Stella Maris." I have seen some old pictures, in +which she wears a ring on the third finger. This expresses her dignity +as the _Sposa_ as well as the Mother. + +With regard to the divine Infant, he is, in the early pictures, +invariably draped, and it is not till the beginning of the fifteenth +century that we find him first partially and then wholly undraped. +In the old representations, he wears a long tunic with full sleeves, +fastened with a girdle. It is sometimes of gold stuff embroidered, +sometimes white, crimson, or blue. This almost regal robe was +afterwards exchanged for a little semi-transparent shirt without +sleeves. In pictures of the throned Madonna painted expressly for +nunneries, the Child is, I believe, always clothed, or the Mother +partly infolds him in her own drapery. In the Umbrian pictures of the +fifteenth century, the Infant often wears a coral necklace, then and +now worn by children in that district, as a charm against the evil +eye. In the Venetian pictures he has sometimes a coronal of pearls. In +the carved and painted images set up in churches, he wears, like his +mother, a rich crown over a curled wig, and is hung round with jewels; +but such images must be considered as out of the pale of legitimate +art. + + * * * * * + +Of the various objects placed in the hand of the Child as emblems I +have already spoken, and of their sacred significance as such,--the +globe, the book, the bird, the flower, &c. In the works of the +ignorant secular artists of later times, these symbols of power, or +divinity, or wisdom, became mere playthings; and when they had become +familiar, and required by custom, and the old sacred associations +utterly forgotten, we find them most profanely applied and misused. +To give one example:--the bird was originally placed in the hand of +Christ as the emblem of the soul, or of the spiritual as opposed to +the earthly nature; in a picture by Baroccio, he holds it up before +a cat, to be frightened and tormented.[1] But to proceed. + +[Footnote 1: In the "History of Our Lord, as illustrated in the +Fine Arts," the devotional and characteristic effigies of the infant +Christ, and the accompanying attributes, will be treated at length.] + +The throne on which the Virgin is seated, is, in very early pictures, +merely an embroidered cushion on a sort of stool, or a carved Gothic +chair, such as we see in the thrones and stalls of cathedrals. It +is afterwards converted into a rich architectural throne, most +elaborately adorned, according to the taste and skill of the artist. +Sometimes, as in the early Venetian pictures, it is hung with garlands +of fruits and flowers, most fancifully disposed. Sometimes the +arabesque ornaments are raised in relief and gilt. Sometimes the +throne is curiously painted to imitate various marbles, and adorned +with medallions and bas-reliefs from those subjects of the Old +Testament which have a reference to the character of the Virgin and +the mission of her divine Child; the commonest of all being the Fall, +which rendered a Redeemer necessary. Moses striking the rock (the +waters of life)--the elevation of the brazen serpent--the gathering +of the manna--or Moses holding the broken tablets of the old law,--all +types of redemption, are often thus introduced as ornaments. In the +sixteenth century, when the purely religious sentiment had declined, +and a classical and profane taste had infected every department of +art and literature, we find the throne of the Virgin adorned with +classical ornaments and bas-reliefs from the antique remains; as, for +instance, the hunt of Theseus and Hippolyta. We must then suppose +her throned on the ruins of paganism, an idea suggested by the old +legends, which represent the temples and statues of the heathen gods +as falling into ruin on the approach of the Virgin and her Child; and +a more picturesque application of this idea afterwards became common +in other subjects. In Garofalo's picture the throne is adorned with +Sphinxes--_a l'antique_. Andrea del Sarto has placed harpies at the +corner of the pedestal of the throne, in his famous Madonna di San +Francesco (Florence Gal.),--a gross fault in that otherwise grand +and faultless picture; one of those desecrations of a religious +theme which Andrea, as devoid of religious feeling as he was weak and +dishonest, was in the habit of committing. + +But whatever the material or style of the throne, whether simple or +gorgeous, it is supposed to be a heavenly throne. It is not of the +earth, nor on the earth; and at first it was alone and unapproachable. +The Virgin-mother, thus seated in her majesty, apart from all human +beings, and in communion only with the Infant Godhead on her knee, or +the living worshippers who come to lay down their cares and sorrows +at the foot of her throne and breathe a devout "Salve Regina!"--is, +through its very simplicity and concentrated interest, a sublime +conception. The effect of these figures, in their divine quietude and +loveliness, can never be appreciated when hung in a gallery or room +with other pictures, for admiration, or criticism, or comparison. I +remember well suddenly discovering such a Madonna, in a retired chapel +in S. Francesco della Vigna at Venice,--a picture I had never heard +of, by a painter then quite unknown to me, Fra Antonio da Negroponte, +a Franciscan friar who lived in the fifteenth century. The calm +dignity of the attitude, the sweetness, the adoring love in the face +of the queenly mother as with folded hands she looked down on the +divine Infant reclining on her knee, so struck upon my heart, that I +remained for minutes quite motionless. In this picture, nothing can +exceed the gorgeous splendor of the Virgin's throne and apparel: +she wears a jewelled crown; the Child a coronal of pearls; while the +background is composed entirely of the mystical roses twined in a sort +of _treillage_. + +I remember, too, a picture by Carlo Crivelli, in which the Virgin is +seated on a throne, adorned, in the artist's usual style, with rich +festoons of fruit and flowers. She is most sumptuously crowned and +apparelled; and the beautiful Child on her knee, grasping her hand as +if to support himself, with the most _naive_ and graceful action bends +forward and looks dawn benignly on the worshippers _supposed_ to be +kneeling below. + +When human personages were admitted within the same compartment, the +throne was generally raised by several steps, or placed on a lofty +pedestal, and till the middle of the fifteenth century it was always +in the centre of the composition fronting the spectator. It was a +Venetian innovation to place the throne at one side of the picture, +and show the Virgin in profile or in the act of turning round. +This more scenic disposition became afterwards, in the passion for +variety and effect, too palpably artificial, and at length forced and +theatrical. + +The Italians distinguish between the _Madonna in Trono_ and the +_Madonna in Gloria_. When human beings, however sainted and exalted +were admitted within the margin of the picture, the divine dignity +of the Virgin as _Madre di Dio_, was often expressed by elevating her +wholly above the earth, and placing her "in regions mild of calm and +serene air," with the crescent or the rainbow under her feet. This is +styled a "Madonna in Gloria." It is, in fact, a return to the antique +conception of the enthroned Redeemer, seated on a rainbow, sustained +by the "curled clouds," and encircled by a glory of cherubim. The +aureole of light, within which the glorified Madonna and her Child +when in a standing position are often placed, is of an oblong form, +called from its shape the _mandorla_, "the almond;"[1] but in general +she is seated above in a sort of ethereal exaltation, while the +attendant saints stand on the earth below. This beautiful arrangement, +though often very sublimely treated, has not the simple austere +dignity of the throne of state, and when the Virgin and Child, as in +the works of the late Spanish and Flemish painters, are formed out of +earth's most coarse and commonplace materials, the aerial throne of +floating fantastic clouds suggests a disagreeable discord, a fear lest +the occupants of heaven should fall on the heads of their worshippers +below. Not so the Virgins of the old Italians; for they look so +divinely ethereal that they seem uplifted by their own spirituality: +not even the air-borne clouds are needed to sustain them. They have no +touch of earth or earth's material beyond the human form; their proper +place is the seventh heaven; and there they repose, a presence and a +power--a personification of infinite mercy sublimated by innocence and +purity; and thence they look down on their worshippers and attendants, +while these gaze upwards "with looks commercing with the skies." + +[Footnote 1: Or the "Vescica Pisces," by Lord Lindsay and others.] + + * * * * * + +And now of these angelic and sainted accessories, however placed, we +must speak at length; for much of the sentiment and majesty of the +Madonna effigies depend on the proper treatment of the attendant +figures, and on the meaning they convey to the observer. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin is entitled, by authority of the Church, queen of angels, +of prophets, of apostles, of martyrs, of virgins, and of confessors; +and from among these her attendants are selected. + +ANGELS were first admitted, waiting Immediately round her chair +of state. A signal instance is the group of the enthroned Madonna, +attended by the four archangels, as we find it in the very ancient +mosaic in Sant-Apollinare-Novo, at Ravenna. As the belief in the +superior power and sanctity of the Blessed Virgin grew and spread, +the angels no longer attended her as princes of the heavenly host, +guardians, or councillors; they became, in the early pictures, +adoring angels, sustaining her throne on each side, or holding up +the embroidered curtain which forms the background. In the Madonna by +Cimabue, which, if it be not the earliest after the revival of art, +was one of the first in which the Byzantine manner was softened and +Italianized, we have six grand, solemn-looking angels, three on each +side of the throne, arranged perpendicularly one above another. +The Virgin herself is of colossal proportions, far exceeding them +in size, and looking out of her frame, "large as a goddess of the +antique world." In the other Madonna in the gallery of the academy, +we have the same arrangement of the angels. Giotto diversified this +arrangement. He placed the angels kneeling at the foot of the throne, +making music, and waiting on their divine Mistress as her celestial +choristers,--a service the more fitting because she was not only queen +of angels, but patroness of music and minstrelsy, in which character +she has St. Cecilia as her deputy and delegate. This accompaniment +of the choral angels was one of the earliest of the accessories, and +continued down to the latest times. They are most particularly lovely +in the pictures of the fifteenth century. They kneel and strike their +golden lutes, or stand and sound their silver clarions, or sit like +beautiful winged children on the steps of the throne, and pipe and +sing as if their spirits were overflowing with harmony as well as love +and adoration.[1] In a curious picture of the enthroned Madonna and +Child (Berlin Gal.), by Gentil Fabriano, a tree rises on each side +of the throne, on which little red seraphim are perched like birds, +singing and playing on musical instruments. In later times, they play +and sing for the solace of the divine Infant, not merely adoring, but +ministering: but these angels ministrant belong to another class of +pictures. Adoration, not service, was required by the divine Child +and his mother, when they were represented simply in their +divine character, and placed far beyond earthly wants and earthly +associations. + +[Footnote 1: As in the picture by Lo Spagna in our National Gallery, +No. 282.] + +There are examples where the angels in attendance bear, not harps +or lutes, but the attributes of the Cardinal Virtues, as in an +altar-piece by Taddeo Gaddi at Florence. (Santa Croce, Rinuccini +Chapel.) + +The patriarchs, prophets, and sibyls, all the personages, in fact, who +lived under the old law, when forming, in a picture or altar-piece, +part, of the _cortege_ of the throned Virgin, as types, or prophets, +or harbingers of the Incarnation, are on the _outside_ of that sacred +compartment wherein she is seated with her Child. This was the case +with _all_ the human personages down to the end of the thirteenth +century; and after that time, I find the characters of the Old +Testament still excluded from the groups immediately round her throne. +Their place was elsewhere allotted, at a more respectful distance. The +only exceptions I can remember, are King David and the patriarch +Job; and these only in late pictures, where David does not appear as +prophet, but as the ancestor of the Redeemer; and Job, only at Venice, +where he is a patron saint. + +The four evangelists and the twelve apostles are, in their collective +character in relation to the Virgin, treated like the prophets, +and placed around the altar-piece. Where we find one or more of the +evangelists introduced into the group of attendant "Sanctities" on +each side of her throne, it is not in their character of evangelists, +but rather as patron saints. Thus St. Mark appears constantly in the +Venetian pictures; but it is as the patron and protector of Venice. +St. John the Evangelist, a favourite attendant on the Virgin, is near +her in virtue of his peculiar relation to her and to Christ; and he is +also a popular patron saint. St. Luke and St. Matthew, unless they be +patrons of the particular locality, or of the votary who presents +the picture, never appear. It is the same with the apostles in their +collective character as such; we find them constantly, as statues, +ranged on each side of the Virgin, or as separate figures. Thus they +stand over the screen of St. Mark's, at Venice, and also on the carved +frames of the altar-pieces; but either from their number, or some +other cause, they are seldom grouped round the enthroned Virgin. + + * * * * * + +It is ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST who, next to the angels, seems to have +been the first admitted to a propinquity with the divine persons. In +Greek art, he is himself an angel, a messenger, and often represented +with wings. He was especially venerated in the Greek Church in +his character of precursor of the Redeemer, and, as such, almost +indispensable in every sacred group; and it is, perhaps, to the +early influence of Greek art on the selection and arrangement of the +accessory personages, that we owe the preeminence of John the Baptist. +One of the most graceful, and appropriate, and familiar of all the +accessory figures grouped with the Virgin and Child, is that of the +young St. John (called in Italian _San Giovannino_, and in Spanish +_San Juanito_.) When first introduced, we find him taking the place +of the singing or piping angels in front of the throne. He generally +stands, "clad in his raiment of camel's hair, having a girdle round +his loins," and in his hand a reed cross, round which is bound a +scroll with the words "_Ecce Agnus Dei_" ("Behold the Lamb of God"), +while with his finger he points up to the enthroned group above him, +expressing the text from St. Luke (c. ii.), "And thou, CHILD shalt +be called the Prophet of the Highest," as in Francia's picture in our +National Gallery. Sometimes he bears a lamb in his arms, the _Ecce +Agnus Dei_ in form instead of words. + +The introduction of the young St. John becomes more and more usual +from the beginning of the sixteenth century. In later pictures, a +touch of the dramatic is thrown into the arrangement: instead of being +at the foot of the throne, he is placed beside it; as where the Virgin +is throned on a lofty pedestal, and she lays one hand on the head of +the little St. John, while with the other she strains her Child to her +bosom; or where the infant Christ and St. John, standing at her knee, +embrace each other--a graceful incident in a Holy Family, but in the +enthroned Madonna it impairs the religious conception; it places St. +John too much on a level with the Saviour, who is here in that divine +character to which St. John bore witness, but which he did not share. +It is very unusual to see John the Baptist in his childish character +glorified in heaven among the celestial beings: I remember but one +instance, in a beautiful picture by Bonifazio. (Acad. Venice.) The +Virgin is seated in glory, with her Infant on her knee, and encircled +by cherubim; on one side an angel approaches with a basket of flowers +on his head, and she is in act to take these flowers and scatter +them on the saints below,--a new and graceful _motif_: on the other +side sits John the Baptist as a boy about twelve years of age. The +attendant saints below are St. Peter, St. Andrew, St. Thomas holding +the girdle,[1] St. Francis, and St. Clara, all looking up with +ecstatic devotion, except St. Clara, who looks down with a charming +modesty. + +[Footnote 1: St. Thomas is called in the catalogue, James, king of +Arragon.] + + * * * * * + +In early pictures, ST. ANNA, the mother of the Virgin, is very seldom +introduced, because in such sublime and mystical representations of +the _Vergine Dea_, whatever connected her with realities, or with her +earthly genealogy, is suppressed. But from the middle of the fifteenth +century, St. Anna became, from the current legends of the history +of the Virgin, an important saint, and when introduced into the +devotional groups, which, however, is seldom, it seems to have +embarrassed the painters how to dispose of her. She could not well be +placed below her daughter; she could not be placed above her. It is a +curious proof of the predominance of the feminine element throughout +these representations, that while ST. JOACHIM the father and ST. +JOSEPH the husband of the Virgin, are either omitted altogether, or +are admitted only in a subordinate and inferior position, St. Anna, +when she does appear, is on an equality with her daughter. There is +a beautiful example, and apt for illustration, in the picture by +Francia, in our National Gallery, where St. Anna and the Virgin are +seated together on the same throne, and the former presents the apple +to her divine Grandson. I remember, too, a most graceful instance +where St. Anna stands behind and a little above the throne, with her +hands placed affectionately on the shoulders of the Virgin, and raises +her eyes to heaven as if in thanksgiving to God, who through her had +brought salvation into the world. Where the Virgin is seated on the +knees of St. Anna, it is a still later innovation. There is such a +group in a picture in the Louvre, after a famous cartoon by Leonardo +da Vinci, which, in spite of its celebrity, has always appeared to me +very fantastic and irreverent in treatment. There is also a fine print +by Carraglio, in which the Virgin and Child are sustained on the +knees of St. Anna: under her feet lies the dragon. St. Roch and St. +Sebastian on each side, and the dead dragon, show that this is a +votive subject, an expression of thanksgiving after the cessation of +a plague. The Germans, who were fond of this group, imparted, even to +the most religious treatment, a domestic sentiment. + +The earliest instance I can point to of the enthroned Virgin attended +by both her parents, is by Vivarini (Acad. Venice): St. Anna is on the +right of the throne; St. Joachim, in the act of reverently removing +his cap, stands on the left; more in front is a group of Franciscan +saints. + +The introduction of St. Anna into a Holy Family, as part of the +domestic group, is very appropriate and graceful; but this of course +admits, and indeed requires, a wholly different sentiment. The same +remark applies to St. Joseph, who, in the earlier representations +of the enthroned Virgin, is carefully excluded; he appears, I think, +first in the Venetian pictures. There is an example in a splendid +composition by Paul Veronese. (Acad. Venice.) The Virgin, on a lofty +throne, holds the Child; both look down on the worshippers; St. +Joseph is partly seen behind leaning on his crutch. Round the throne +stand St. John the Baptist, St. Justina, as patroness of Venice, and +St. George; St. Jerome is on the other side in deep meditation. A +magnificent picture, quite sumptuous in colour and arrangement, and +yet so solemn and so calm![1] + +[Footnote 1: There is another example by Paul Veronese, similar in +character and treatment, in which St. John and St. Joseph are on the +throne with the Virgin and child, and St. Catherine and St. Antony +below.] + +The composition by Michael Angelo, styled a "Holy Family," is, +though singular in treatment, certainly devotional in character, +and an enthroned Virgin. She is seated in the centre, on a raised +architectural seat, holding a book; the infant Christ slumbers,--books +can teach him nothing, and to make him reading is unorthodox. In the +background on one side, St. Joseph leans over a balustrade, as if in +devout contemplation; a young St. John the Baptist leans on the other +side. The grand, mannered, symmetrical treatment is very remarkable +and characteristic. There are many engravings of this celebrated +composition. In one of them, the book held by the Virgin bears on one +side the text in Latin, "_Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is +the fruit of thy womb._" On the opposite page, "_Blessed be God, who +has regarded the low estate of his hand-maiden. For, behold, from +henceforth all generations shall call me blessed._" + +While the young St. John is admitted into' such close companionship +with the enthroned Madonna, his mother Elizabeth, so commonly and +beautifully introduced into the Holy Families, is almost uniformly +excluded. + +Next in order, as accessory figures, appear some one or two or more of +the martyrs, confessors, and virgin patronesses, with their respective +attributes, either placed in separate niches and compartments on each +side, or, when admitted within the sacred precincts where sits the +Queenly Virgin Mother and her divine Son, standing, in the manner +of councillors and officers of state on solemn occasions, round an +earthly sovereign, all reverently calm and still; till gradually this +solemn formality, this isolation of the principal characters, gave way +to some sentiment which placed them in nearer relation to each other, +and to the divine personages. Occasional variations of attitude and +action were introduced--at first, a rare innovation; ere long, a +custom, a fashion. For instance;--the doctors turn over the leaves +of their great books as if seeking for the written testimonies to the +truth of the mysterious Incarnation made visible in the persons of the +Mother and Child; the confessors contemplate the radiant group with +rapture, and seem ready to burst forth in hymns of praise; the martyrs +kneel in adoration; the virgins gracefully offer their victorious +palms: and thus the painters of the best periods of art contrived to +animate their sacred groups without rendering them too dramatic and +too secular. + +Such, then, was the general arrangement of that religious subject +which is technically styled "The Madonna enthroned and attended by +Saints." The selection and the relative position of these angelic and +saintly accessories were not, as I have already observed, matters of +mere taste or caprice; and an attentive observation of the choice and +disposition of the attendant figures will often throw light on the +original significance of such pictures, and the circumstances under +which they wore painted. + +Shall I attempt a rapid classification and interpretation of these +infinitely varied groups? It is a theme which might well occupy +volumes rather than pages, and which requires far more antiquarian +learning and historical research than I can pretend to; still by +giving the result of my own observations in some few instances, it may +be possible so to excite the attention and fancy of the reader, as +to lead him further on the same path than I have myself been able to +venture. + + * * * * * + +We can trace, in a large class of these pictures, a general +religious significance, common to all periods, all localities, all +circumstances; while in another class, the interest is not only +particular and local, but sometimes even personal. + +To the first class belongs the antique and beautiful group of the +Virgin and Child, enthroned between the two great archangels, St. +Michael and St. Gabriel. It is probably the most ancient of these +combinations: we find it in the earliest Greek art, in the carved +ivory diptychs of the eighth and ninth centuries, in the old +Greco-Italian pictures, in the ecclesiastical sculpture and stained +glass of from the twelfth to the fifteenth century. In the most +ancient examples, the two angels are seen standing on each side of +the Madonna, not worshipping, but with their sceptres and attributes, +as princes of the heavenly host, attending on her who is queen of +angels; St. Gabriel as the angel of birth and life, St. Michael as +the angel of Death, that is, in the Christian sense, of deliverance +and immortality. There is an instance of this antique treatment in a +small Greek picture in the Wallerstein collection. (Now at Kensington +Palace.) + +In later pictures, St. Gabriel seldom appears except as the _Angela +Annunziatore_; but St. Michael very frequently. Sometimes, as +conqueror over sin and representative of the Church militant, +he stands with his foot on the dragon with a triumphant air; or, +kneeling, he presents to the infant Christ the scales of eternal +justice, as in a famous picture by Leonardo da Vinci. It is not only +because of his popularity as a patron saint, and of the number of +churches dedicated to him, that he is so frequently introduced into +the Madonna pictures; according to the legend, he was by Divine +appointment the guardian of the Virgin and her Son while they +sojourned on earth. The angel Raphael leading Tobias always expresses +protection, and especially protection to the young. Tobias with his +fish was an early type of baptism. There are many beautiful examples. +In Raphael's "Madonna dell' Pesce" (Madrid Gal.) he is introduced as +the patron saint of the painter, but not without a reference to more +sacred meaning, that of the guardian spirit of all humanity. The +warlike figure of St. Michael, and the benign St. Raphael, are +thus represented as celestial guardians in the beautiful picture by +Perugino now in our National Gallery. (No. 288.) + +There are instances of the three archangels all standing together +below the glorified Virgin: St. Michael in the centre with his foot +on the prostrate fiend; St. Gabriel on the right presents his lily; +and, on the left, the protecting angel presents his human charge, and +points up to the source of salvation. (In an engraving after Giulio +Romano.) + + * * * * * + +The Virgin between St. Peter and St. Paul is also an extremely ancient +and significant group. It appears in the old mosaics. As chiefs of the +apostles and joint founders of the Church, St. Peter and St. Paul are +prominent figures in many groups and combinations, particularly in +the altar-pieces of the Roman churches, and those painted for the +Benedictine communities. + +The Virgin, when supported on each side by St. Peter and St. Paul, +must be understood to represent the personified Church between her +two great founders and defenders; and this relation is expressed, +in a very poetical manner, when St. Peter, kneeling, receives the +allegorical keys from the hand of the infant Saviour. There are some +curious and beautiful instances of this combination of a significant +action with the utmost solemnity of treatment; for example, in +that very extraordinary Franciscan altar-piece, by Carlo Crivelli, +lately purchased by Lord Ward, where St. Peter, having deposited his +papal tiara at the foot of the throne, kneeling receives the great +symbolical keys. And again, in a fine picture by Andrea Meldula, where +the Virgin and Child are enthroned, and the infant Christ delivers +the keys to Peter, who stands, but with a most reverential air; on the +other side of the throne is St. Paul with his book and the sword held +upright. There are also two attendant angels. On the border of the +mantle of the Virgin is inscribed "_Ave Maria gratia plena_."[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the collection of Mr. Bromley, of Wootton. This +picture is otherwise remarkable as the only authenticated work of a +very rare painter. It bears his signature, and the style indicates the +end of the fifteenth century as the probable date.] + +I do not recollect any instance in which the four evangelists as such, +or the twelve apostles in their collective character, wait round the +throne of the Virgin and Child, though one or more of the evangelists +and one or more of the apostles perpetually occur. + +The Virgin between St. John the Baptist and St. John the Evangelist, +is also a very significant and beautiful combination, and one very +frequently met with. Though both these saints were as children +contemporary with the child Christ, and so represented in the Holy +Families, in these solemn ideal groups they are always men. The first +St. John expresses regeneration by the rite of baptism the second St. +John, distinguished as _Theologus_, "the Divine," stands with his +sacramental cup, expressing regeneration by faith. The former was the +precursor of the Saviour, the first who proclaimed him to the world as +such; the latter beheld the vision in Patmos, of the Woman in travail +pursued by the dragon, which is interpreted in reference to the +Virgin and her Child. The group thus brought into relation is full +of meaning, and, from the variety and contrast of character, full of +poetical and artistic capabilities. St. John the Baptist is usually +a man about thirty, with wild shaggy hair and meagre form, so draped +that his vest of camel's hair is always visible; he holds his reed +cross. St. John the Evangelist is generally the young and graceful +disciple; but in some instances he is the venerable seer of Patmos, + + "Whose beard descending sweeps his aged breast." + +There is an example in one of the finest pictures by Perugino. The +Virgin is throned above, and surrounded by a glory of seraphim, with +many-coloured wings. The Child stands on her knee. In the landscape +below are St. Michael, St. Catherine, St. Apollonia, and. St. John +the Evangelist as the aged prophet with white flowing beard. (Bologna +Acad.) + + * * * * * + +The Fathers of the Church, as interpreters and defenders of the +mystery of the Incarnation, are very significantly placed near the +throne of the Virgin and Child. In Western art, the Latin doctors, St. +Jerome, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and St. Gregory, have of course +the preeminence. (v Sacred and Legend. Art.) + +The effect produced by these aged, venerable, bearded dignitaries, +with their gorgeous robes and mitres and flowing beards, in contrast +with the soft simplicity of the divine Mother and her Infant, is, +in the hands of really great artists, wonderfully fine. There is a +splendid example, by Vivarini (Venice Acad.); the old doctors stand +two on each side of the throne, where, under a canopy upborne by +angels, sits the Virgin, sumptuously crowned and attired, and looking +most serene and goddess-like; while the divine Child, standing on +her knee, extends his little hand in the act of benediction. Of this +picture I have already given a very detailed description. (Sacred and +Legend. Art.) Another example, a grand picture by Moretto, now in the +Museum at Frankfort, I have also described. There is here a touch of +the dramatic sentiment;--the Virgin is tenderly caressing her Child, +while two of the old doctors, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, stand +reverently on each side of her lofty throne; St. Gregory sits on the +step below, reading, and St. Jerome bends over and points to a page in +his book. The Virgin is not sufficiently dignified; she has too much +the air of a portrait; and the action of the Child is, also, though +tender, rather unsuited to the significance of the rest of the group; +but the picture is, on the whole, magnificent. There is another fine +example of the four doctors attending on the Virgin, in the Milan +Gallery.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In a native picture of the Milanese School, dedicated by +Ludovico Sforza _Il Moro_.] + +Sometimes not four, but two only of these Fathers, appear in +combination with other figures, and the choice would depend on the +locality and other circumstances. But, on the whole, we rarely find +a group of personages assembled round the throne of the Virgin which +does not include one or more of these venerable pillars of the Church. +St. Ambrose appears most frequently in the Milanese pictures: St. +Augustine and St. Jerome, as patriarchs of monastic orders, are +very popular: St. Gregory, I think, is more seldom met with than the +others. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin, with St. Jerome and St. Catherine, the patron saints +of theological learning, is a frequent group in all monasteries, +but particularly in the churches and houses of the Jeronimites. A +beautiful example is the Madonna, by Francia. (Borghese Palace. +Rome.) St. Jerome, with Mary Magdalene, also a frequent combination, +expresses theological learning in union with religious penitence and +humility. Correggio's famous picture is an example, where St. Jerome +on one side presents his works in defence of the Church, and his +translation of the Scriptures; while, on the other, Mary Magdalene, +bending down devoutly, kisses the feet of the infant Christ. (Parma.) + +Of all the attendants on the Virgin and Child, the most popular is, +perhaps, St. Catherine; and the "Marriage of St. Catherine," as a +religious mystery, is made to combine with the most solemn and formal +arrangement of the other attendant figures. The enthroned Virgin +presides over the mystical rite. This was, for intelligible reasons, +a favourite subject in nunneries.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a detailed account of the legendary marriage of St. +Catherine and examples of treatment, see Sacred and Legendary Art.] + +In a picture by Garofalo, the Child, bending from his mother's knee, +places a golden crown on the head of St. Catherine as _Sposa_; on each +side stand St. Agnes and St. Jerome. + +In a picture by Carlo Maratti, the nuptials take place in heaven, the +Virgin and Child being throned in clouds. + +If the kneeling _Sposa_ be St. Catherine of Siena, the nun, and not +St. Catherine of Alexandria, or if the two are introduced, then we may +be sure that the picture was painted for a nunnery of the Dominican +order.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Legends of the Monastic Orders. A fine example of +this group "the Spozulizio of St. Catherine of Siena," has lately been +added to our National Gallery; (Lorenzo di San Severino, No. 249.)] + +The great Madonna _in Trono_ by the Dominican Fra Bartolomeo, wherein +the queenly St. Catherine of Alexandria witnesses the mystical +marriage of her sister saint, the nun of Siena, will occur to every +one who has been at Florence; and there is a smaller picture by the +same painter in the Louvre;--a different version of the same subject. +I must content myself with merely referring to these well-known +pictures which have been often engraved, and dwell more in detail +on another, not so well known, and, to my feeling, as preeminently +beautiful and poetical, but in the early Flemish, not the Italian +style--a poem in a language less smooth and sonorous, but still a +_poem_. + +This is the altar-piece painted by Hemmelinck for the charitable +sisterhood of St. John's Hospital at Bruges. The Virgin is seated +under a porch, and her throne decorated with rich tapestry; two +graceful angels hold a crown over her head. On the right, St. +Catherine, superbly arrayed as a princess, kneels at her side, and +the beautiful infant Christ bends forward and places the bridal ring +on her finger. Behind her a charming angel, playing on the organ, +celebrates the espousals with hymns of joy; beyond him stands St. +John the Baptist with his lamb. On the left of the Virgin kneels St. +Barbara, reading intently; behind her an angel with a book; beyond him +stands St. John the Evangelist, youthful, mild, and pensive. Through +the arcades of the porch is seen a landscape background, with +incidents picturesquely treated from the lives of the Baptist and +the Evangelist. Such is the central composition. The two wings +represent--on one side, the beheading of St. John the Baptist; on +the other, St. John the Evangelist, in Patmos, and the vision of the +Apocalypse. In this great work there is a unity and harmony of design +which blends the whole into an impressive poem. The object was to do +honour to the patrons of the hospital, the two St. Johns, and, at +the same time, to express the piety of the Charitable Sisters, who, +like St. Catherine (the type of contemplative studious piety), were +consecrated and espoused to Christ, and, like St. Barbara (the type of +active piety), were dedicated to good works. It is a tradition, that +Hemmelinck painted this altar-piece as a votive offering in gratitude +to the good Sisters, who had taken him in and nursed him when +dangerously wounded: and surely if this tradition be true, never was +charity more magnificently recompensed. + +In a very beautiful picture by Ambrogio Borgognone (Dresden, +collection of M. Grahl) the Virgin is seated on a splendid throne; +on the right kneels St. Catherine of Alexandria, on the left St. +Catherine of Siena: the Virgin holds a hand of each, which she +presents to the divine Child seated on her knee, and to each he +presents a ring. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin and Child between St. Catherine and St. Barbara is one of +the most popular, as well as one of the most beautiful and expressive, +of these combinations; signifying active and contemplative life, +or the two powers between which the social state was divided in the +middle ages, namely, the ecclesiastical and the military, learning and +arms (Sacred and Legend. Art); St. Catherine being the patron of the +first, and St. Barbara of the last. When the original significance had +ceased to be understood or appreciated, the group continued to be a +favourite one, particularly in Germany; and examples are infinite. + +The Virgin between St. Mary Magdalene and St. Barbara, the former as +the type of penance, humility, and meditative piety, the latter as the +type of fortitude and courage, is also very common. When between St. +Mary Magdalene and St. Catherine, the idea suggested is learning, with +penitence and humility; this is a most popular group. So is St. Lucia +with one of these or both: St. Lucia with her _lamp_ or her _eyes_, is +always expressive of _light_, the light of divine wisdom. + + * * * * * + +The Virgin between St. Nicholas and St. George is a very expressive +group; the former as the patron saint of merchants, tradesmen, and +seamen, the popular saint of the bourgeoisie; the latter as the patron +of soldiers, the chosen saint of the aristocracy. These two saints +with St. Catherine are pre-eminent in the Venetian pictures; for all +three, in addition to their poetical significance, were venerated as +especial protectors of Venice. + + * * * * * + +St. George and St. Christopher both stand by the throne of the Virgin +of Succour as protectors and deliverers in danger. The attribute of +St. Christopher is the little Christ on his shoulder; and there are +instances in which Christ appears on the lap of his mother, and also +on the shoulder of the attendant St. Christopher. This blunder, if it +may be so called, has been avoided, very cleverly I should think in +his own opinion, by a painter who makes St. Christopher kneel, while +the Virgin places the little Christ on his shoulders; a _concetto_ +quite inadmissible in a really religious group. + + * * * * * + +In pictures dedicated by charitable communities, we often find +St. Nicholas and St. Leonard as the patron saints of prisoners and +captives. Wherever St. Leonard appears he expresses deliverance +from captivity. St. Omobuono, St. Martin, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, +St. Roch, or other beneficent saints, waiting round the Virgin with +kneeling beggars, or the blind, the lame, the sick, at their feet, +always expressed the Virgin as the mother of mercy, the _Consolatrix +afflictorum_. Such pictures were commonly found in hospitals, and +the chapels and churches of the Order of Mercy, and other charitable +institutions. The examples are numerous. I remember one, a striking +picture, by Bartolomeo Montagna, where the Virgin and Child are +enthroned in the centre as usual. On her right the good St. Omobuono, +dressed as a burgher, in a red gown and fur cap, gives alms to a poor +beggar; on the left, St. Francis presents a celebrated friar of his +Order, Bernardino da Feltri, the first founder of a _mont-de-piete_, +who kneels, holding the emblem of his institution, a little green +mountain with a cross at the top. + + * * * * * + +Besides these saints, who have a _general_ religious character and +significance, we have the national and local saints, whose presence +very often marks the country or school of art which produced the +picture. + +A genuine Florentine Madonna is distinguished by a certain elegance +and stateliness, and well becomes her throne. As patroness of +Florence, in her own right, the Virgin bears the title of Santa Maria +del Fiore, and in this character she holds a flower, generally a rose, +or is in the act of presenting it to the Child. She is often attended +by St. John the Baptist, as patron of Florence; but he is everywhere +a saint of such power and importance as an attendant on the divine +personages, that his appearance in a picture does not stamp it as +Florentine. St. Cosmo and St. Damian are Florentine, as the protectors +of the Medici family; but as patrons of the healing art, they have +a significance which renders them common in the Venetian and other +pictures. It may, however, be determined, that if St. John the +Baptist, St. Cosmo and St. Damian, with St. Laurence (the patron of +Lorenzo the Magnificent), appear together in attendance on the Virgin, +that picture is of the Florentine school. The presence of St. Zenobio, +or of St. Antonino, the patron archbishops of Florence, will set the +matter at rest, for these are exclusively Florentine. In a picture by +Giotto, angels attend on the Virgin bearing vases of lilies in their +hands. (Lilies are at once the emblem of the Virgin and the _device_ +of Florence.) On each side kneel St. John the Baptist and St. +Zenobio.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We now possess in our National Gallery a very interesting +example of a Florentine enthroned Madonna, attended by St. John the +Baptist and St. Zenobio as patrons of Florence.] + +A Siena Madonna would naturally be attended by St. Bernardino and St. +Catherine of Siena; if they seldom appear together, it is because they +belong to different religious orders. + +In the Venetian pictures we find a crowd of guardian saints; first +among them, St. Mark, then St. Catherine, St. George, St. Nicholas, +and St. Justina: wherever these appear together, that picture is +surely from the Venetian school. + +All through Lombardy and Piedmont, St. Ambrose of Milan and St. +Maurice of Savoy are favourite attendants on the Virgin. + + * * * * * + +In Spanish and Flemish art, the usual attendants on the queenly +Madonna are monks and nuns, which brings us to the consideration of +a large and interesting class of pictures, those dedicated by the +various religious orders. When we remember that the institution of +some of the most influential of these communities was coeval with the +revival of art; that for three or four centuries, art in all its forms +had no more powerful or more munificent patrons; that they counted +among their various brotherhoods some of the greatest artists the +world has seen; we can easily imagine how the beatified members of +these orders have become so conspicuous as attendants on the celestial +personages. To those who are accustomed to read the significance of +a work of art, a single glance is often sufficient to decide for what +order it has been executed. + +St. Paul is a favourite saint of the Benedictine communities; and +there are few great pictures painted for them in which he does +not appear. When in companionship with St. Benedict, either in the +original black habit or the white habit of the reformed orders, with +St. Scholastica bearing her dove, with St. Bernard, St. Romualdo, +or other worthies of this venerable community, the interpretation is +easy. + +Here are some examples by Domenico Puligo. The Virgin not seated, but +standing on a lofty pedestal, looks down on her worshippers; the Child +in her arms extends the right hand in benediction; with his left he +points to himself, "I am the Resurrection and the Life." Around are +six saints, St. Peter, St. Paul, St. John the Baptist as protector of +Florence, St. Matthew, St. Catherine; and St. Bernard, in his ample +white habit, with his keen intellectual face, is about to write in a +great book, and looking up to the Virgin for inspiration. The picture +was originally painted for the Cistercians.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is now in the S. Maria-Maddalena de' Pazzi at +Florence. Engraved in the "Etruria Pittrice," xxxv.] + +The Virgin and Child enthroned between St. Augustine and his mother +St. Monica, as in a fine picture by Florigerio (Venice Acad.), would +show the picture to be painted for one of the numerous branches of the +Augustine Order. St. Antony the abbot is a favourite saint in pictures +painted for the Augustine hermits. + +In the "Madonna del Baldachino" of Raphael, the beardless saint +who stands in a white habit on one side of the throne is usually +styled St. Bruno; an evident mistake. It is not a Carthusian, but +a Cistercian monk, and I think St. Bernard, the general patron of +monastic learning. The other attendant saints are St. Peter, St. +James, and St. Augustine. The picture was originally painted for the +church of San Spirito at Florence, belonging to the Augustines. + +But St. Augustine is also the patriarch of the Franciscans and +Dominicans, and frequently takes an influential place in their +pictures, as the companion either of St. Francis or of St. Dominick, +as in a picture by Fra Angelico. (Florence Gal.) + +Among the votive Madonnas of the mendicant orders, I will mention a +few conspicuous for beauty and interest, which will serve as a key to +others. + +1. The Virgin and Child enthroned between Antony of Padua and St. +Clara of Assisi, as in a small elegant picture by Pellegrino, must +have been dedicated in a church of the Franciscans. (Sutherland Gal.) + +2. The Virgin blesses St. Francis, who looks up adoring: behind him +St. Antony of Padua; on the other side, John the Baptist as a man, and +St. Catherine. A celebrated but not an agreeable picture, painted by +Correggio for the Franciscan church at Parma. (Dresden Gal.) + +3. The Virgin is seated in glory; on one side St. Francis, on the +other St. Antony of Padua, both placed in heaven, and almost on +an equality with the celestial personages. Around are seven female +figures, representing the seven cardinal virtues, bearing their +respective attributes. Below are seen the worthies of the Franciscan +Order; to the right of the Virgin, St. Elizabeth of Hungary, St. Louis +of France, St. Bonaventura; to the left, St. Ives of Bretagne, St. +Eleazar, and St. Louis of Toulouse.[1] Painted for the Franciscans by +Morone and Paolo Cavazzolo of Verona. This is a picture of wonderful +beauty, and quite poetical in the sentiment and arrangement, and the +mingling of the celestial, the allegorical, and the real personages, +with a certain solemnity and gracefulness quite indescribable. +The virtues, for instance, are not so much allegorical persons as +spiritual appearances, and the whole of the ripper part of the picture +is like a vision. + +[Footnote 1: For these Franciscan saints, v. Legends of the Monastic +Orders.] + +4. The Virgin, standing on the tree of Site, holds the Infant: rays +of glory proceed from them on every side. St. Francis, kneeling at the +foot of the tree, looks up in an ecstasy of devotion, while a snake +with a wounded and bleeding head is crawling away. This strange +picture, painted for the Franciscans, by Carducho, about 1625, is a +representation of an abstract dogma (redemption from original sin), +in the most real, most animated form--all over life, earthly breathing +life--and made me start back: in the mingling of mysticism and +materialism, it is quite Spanish.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Esterhazy Gal., Vienna. Mr. Stirling tells us that the +Franciscan friars of Valladolid possessed two pictures of the Virgin +by Mateo de Cerezo "in one of which she was represented sitting in a +cherry-tree and adored by St. Francis. This unusual throne may perhaps +have been introduced by Cerezo as a symbol of his own devout feelings, +his patronymic being the Castilian word for cherry-tree."--_Stirling's +Artists of Spain_, p. 1033. There are, however, many prints and +pictures of the Virgin and Child seated in a tree. It was one of the +fantastic conceptions of an unhealthy period of religion and art.] + +5. The Virgin and Child enthroned. On the right of the Virgin, St. +John the Baptist and St. Zenobio, the two protectors of Florence. The +latter wears his episcopal cope richly embroidered with figures. On +the left stand St. Peter and St. Dominick, protectors of the company +for whom the picture was painted. In front kneel St. Jerome and St. +Francis. This picture was originally placed in San Marco, a church +belonging to the Dominicans.[1] + +[Footnote 1: I saw and admired this fine and valuable picture in +the Rinuccini Palace at Florence in 1847; it was purchased for our +National Gallery in 1855.] + +6. When the Virgin or the Child holds the Rosary, it is then a +_Madonna del Rosario_, and painted for the Dominicans. The Madonna by +Murillo, in the Dulwich Gallery, is an example. There is an instance +in which the Madonna and Child enthroned are distributing rosaries to +the worshippers, and attended by St. Dominick and St. Peter Martyr, +the two great saints of the Order. (Caravaggio, Belvedere Gal., +Vienna.) + + * * * * * + +7. Very important in pictures is the Madonna as more particularly the +patroness of the Carmelites, under her well-known title of "Our Lady +of Mount Carmel," or _La Madonna del Carmine_. The members of this +Order received from Pope Honorius III. the privilege of styling +themselves the "Family of the Blessed Virgin," and their churches are +all dedicated to her under the title of _S. Maria del Carmine_. She +is generally represented holding the infant Christ, with her robe +outspread, and beneath its folds the Carmelite brethren and their +chief saints.[1] There is an example in a picture by Pordenone which +once belonged to Canova. (Acad. Venice.) The Madonna del Carmine is +also portrayed as distributing to her votaries small tablets on which +is a picture of herself. + +[Footnote 1: v. Legends of the Monastic Orders, "The Carmelites".] + +8. The Virgin, as patroness of the Order of Mercy, also distributes +tablets, but they bear the badge of the Order, and this distinguishes +"Our Lady of Mercy," so popular in Spanish, art, from "Our Lady of +Mount Carmel." (v. Monastic Orders.) + +A large class of these Madonna pictures are votive offerings for +public or private mercies. They present some most interesting +varieties of character and arrangement. + +A votive Mater Misericordiae, with the Child, in her arms, is often +standing with her wide ample robe extended, and held up on each side +by angels. Kneeling at her feet are the votaries who have consecrated +the picture, generally some community or brotherhood instituted for +charitable purposes, who, as they kneel, present the objects of +their charity--widows, orphans, prisoners, or the sick and infirm. +The Child, in her arms, bends forward, with the hand raised in +benediction. I have already spoken of the Mater Misericordiae _without_ +the Child. The sentiment is yet more beautiful and complete where +the Mother of Mercy holds the infant Redeemer, the representative and +pledge of God's infinite mercy, in her arms. + +There is a "Virgin of Mercy," by Salvator Rosa, which is singular and +rather poetical in the conception. She is seated in heavenly glory; +the infant Christ, on her knee, bends benignly forward. Tutelary +angels are represented as pleading for mercy, with eager outstretched +arms; other angels, lower down, are liberating the souls of repentant +sinners from torment. The expression in some of the heads, the +contrast between the angelic pitying spirits and the anxious haggard +features of the "_Anime del Purgatorio_" are very fine and animated. +Here the Virgin is the "Refuge of Sinners," _Refugium Peccatorum_. +Such pictures are commonly met with in chapels dedicated to services +for the dead. + + * * * * * + +Another class of votive pictures are especial acts of +thanksgiving:--1st. For victory, as _La Madonna della Vittoria, Notre +Dame des Victoires._ The Virgin, on her throne, is then attended +by one or more of the warrior saints, together with the patron or +patroness of the victors. She is then our Lady of Victory. A very +perfect example of these victorious Madonnas exists in a celebrated +picture by Andrea Mantegna. The Virgin is seated on a lofty throne, +embowered by garlands of fruit, leaves, and flowers, and branches +of coral, fancifully disposed as a sort of canopy over her head. +The Child stands on her knee, and raises his hand in the act of +benediction. On the right of the Virgin appear the warlike saints, St. +Michael and St. Maurice; they recommend to her protection the Marquis +of Mantua, Giovan Francesco Gonzaga, who kneels in complete armour.[1] +On the left stand St. Andrew and St. Longinus, the guardian saints +of Mantua; on the step of the throne, the young St. John the Baptist, +patron of the Marquis; and more in front, a female figure, seen +half-length, which some have supposed to be St. Elizabeth, the mother +of the Baptist, and others, with more reason, the wife of the Marquis, +the accomplished Isabella d'Este.[2] This picture was dedicated in +celebration of the victory gained by Gonzaga over the French, near +Fornone, in 1495.[3] There is something exceedingly grand, and, at +the same time, exceedingly fantastic and poetical, in the whole +arrangement; and besides its beauty and historical importance, it is +the most important work of Andrea Mantegna. Gonzaga, who is the hero +of the picture, was a poet as well as a soldier. Isabella d'Este +shines conspicuously, both for virtue and talent, in the history of +the revival of art during the fifteenth century. She was one of the +first who collected gems, antiques, pictures, and made them available +for the study and improvement of the learned. Altogether, the picture +is most interesting in every point of view. It was carried off by the +French from Milan in 1797; and considering the occasion on which it +was painted, they must have had a special pleasure in placing it in +their Louvre, where it still remains. + +[Footnote 1: "Qui rend graces du _pretendu_ succes obtenu sur Charles +VIII. a la bataille de Fornone," as the French catalogue expresses +it.] + +[Footnote 2: Both, however, may be right; for St. Elizabeth was +the patron saint of the Marchesana: the head has quite the air of a +portrait, and may be Isabella in likeness of a saint.] + +[Footnote 3: "Si les soldats avaient mieux seconde la bravoure de +leur chef, l'armie de Charles VIII. etait perdue sans ressource--Ils +se disperserent pour piller et laisserent aux Francais le temps de +continuer leur route."] + +There is a very curious and much more ancient Madonna of this class +preserved at Siena, and styled the "Madonna del Voto." The Sienese +being at war with Florence, placed their city under the protection of +the Virgin, and made a solemn vow that, if victorious, they would make +over their whole territory to her as a perpetual possession, and hold +it from her as her loyal vassals. After the victory of Arbia, which +placed Florence itself for a time in such imminent danger, a picture +was dedicated by Siena to the Virgin _della Vittoria_. She is +enthroned and crowned, and the infant Christ, standing on her knee, +holds in his hand the deed of gift. + + * * * * * + +2dly. For deliverance from plague and pestilence, those scourges of +the middle ages. In such pictures the Virgin is generally attended by +St. Sebastian, with St. Roch or St. George; sometimes, also, by St. +Cosmo and St. Damian, all of them protectors and healers in time of +sickness and calamity. These intercessors are often accompanied by the +patrons of the church or locality. + +There is a remarkable picture of this class by Matteo di Giovanni +(Siena Acad.), in which the Virgin and Child are throned between St. +Sebastian and St. George, while St. Cosmo and St. Damian, dressed as +physicians, and holding their palms, kneel before the throne. + +In a very famous picture by Titian. (Rome, Vatican), the Virgin and +Child are seated in heavenly glory. She has a smiling and gracious +expression, and the Child holds a garland, while angels scatter +flowers. Below stand St. Sebastian, St. _Nicholas_, St. Catherine, St. +Peter, and St. _Francis_. The picture was an offering to the Virgin, +after the cessation of a pestilence at Venice, and consecrated in a +church of the _Franciscans_ dedicated to St. _Nicholas_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: San Nicolo de' Frari, since destroyed, and the picture +has been transferred to the Vatican.] + +Another celebrated votive picture against pestilence is Correggio's +"Madonna di San Sebastiano." (Dresden Gal.) She is seated in heavenly +glory, with little angels, not so much adoring as sporting and +hovering round her; below are St. Sebastian and St. Roch, the latter +asleep. (There would be an impropriety in exhibiting St. Roch sleeping +but for the reference to the legend, that, while he slept, an angel +healed him, which lends the circumstance a kind of poetical beauty.) +St. Sebastian, bound, looks up on the other side. The introduction of +St. Geminiano, the patron of Modena, shows the picture to have been +painted for that city, which had been desolated by pestilence in 1512. +The date of the picture is 1515. + +We may then take it for granted, that wherever the Virgin and Child +appear attended by St. Sebastian and St. Roch, the picture has been a +votive offering against the plague; and there is something touching in +the number of such memorials which exist in the Italian churches. (v. +Sacred and Legendary Art.) The brotherhoods instituted in most of the +towns of Italy and Germany, for attending the sick and plague-stricken +in times of public calamity, were placed under the protection of +the Virgin of Mercy, St. Sebastian, and St. Roch; and many of these +pictures were dedicated by such communities, or by the municipal +authorities of the city or locality. There is a memorable example in a +picture by Guido, painted, by command of the Senate of Bologna, after +the cessation of the plague, which desolated the city in 1830. (Acad. +Bologna.) The benign Virgin, with her Child, is seated in the skies: +the rainbow, symbol of peace and reconciliation, is under her feet. +The infant Christ, lovely and gracious, raises his right hand in +the act of blessing; in the other he holds a branch of olive: angels +scatter flowers around. Below stand the guardian saints, the "_Santi +Protettori_" of Bologna;--St. Petronius, St. Francis, St. Dominick; +the warrior-martyrs, St. Proculus and St. Florian, in complete armour; +with St. Ignatius and St. Francis Xavier. Below these is seen, as +if through a dark cloud and diminished, the city of Bologna, where +the dead are borne away in carts and on biers. The upper part of +this famous picture is most charming for the gracious beauty of the +expression, the freshness and delicacy of the colour. The lower part +is less happy, though the head of St. Francis, which is the portrait +of Guido's intimate friend and executor, Saulo Guidotti, can hardly +be exceeded for intense and life-like truth. The other figures are +deficient in expression and the execution hurried, so that on the +whole it is inferior to the votive Pieta already described. Guido, it +is said, had no time to prepare a canvas or cartoons, and painted the +whole on a piece of white silk. It was carried in grand procession, +and solemnly dedicated by the Senate, whence it obtained the title by +which it is celebrated in the history of art, "Il Pallione del Voto." + +3dly. Against inundations, flood, and fire, St. George is the great +protector. This saint and St. Barbara, who is patroness against +thunder and tempest, express deliverance from such calamities, when in +companionship. + +The "Madonna di San Giorgio" of Correggio (Dresden Gal.) is a votive +altar-piece dedicated on the occasion of a great inundation of the +river Secchia. She is seated on her throne, and the Child looks +down on the worshippers and votaries. St. George stands in front +victorious, his foot on the head of the dragon. The introduction of +St. Geminiano tells us that the picture was painted for the city of +Modena; the presence of St. John the Baptist and St. Peter Martyr show +that it was dedicated by the Dominicans, in their church of St. John. +(See Legends of the Monastic Orders.) + + * * * * * + +Not less interesting are those votive Madonnas dedicated by the piety +of families and individuals. In the family altar-pieces, the votary is +often presented on one side by his patron saint, and his wife by her +patron on the other. Not seldom a troop of hopeful sons attend the +father, and a train of gentle, demure-looking daughters kneel behind +the mother. Such memorials of domestic affection and grateful piety +are often very charming; they are pieces of family biography:[1] we +have celebrated examples both in German and Italian art. + +[Footnote 1: Several are engraved, as illustrations, in Litta's great +History of the Italian Families.] + +1. The "Madonna della Famiglia Bentivoglio" was painted by Lorenzo +Costa, for Giovanni II., lord or tyrant of Bologna from 1462 to 1506, +The history of this Giovanni is mixed up in an interesting manner with +the revival of art and letters; he was a great patron of both, and +among the painters in his service were Francesco Francia and Lorenzo +Costa. The latter painted for him his family chapel in the church of +San Giacomo at Bologna; and, while the Bentivogli have long since been +chased from their native territory, their family altar still remains +untouched, unviolated. The Virgin, as usual, is seated on a lofty +throne bearing her divine Child; she is veiled, no hair seen, and +simply draped; she bends forward with mild benignity. To the right of +the throne kneels Giovanni with his four sons; on the left his wife, +attended by six daughters: all are portraits, admirable studies for +character and costume. Behind the daughters, the head of an old woman +is just visible,--according to tradition the old nurse of the family. + +2. Another most interesting family Madonna is that of Ludovico Sforza +il Moro, painted for the church of Sant' Ambrogio at Milan.[1] The +Virgin sits enthroned, richly dressed, with long fair hair hanging +down, and no veil or ornament; two angels hold a crown over her head. +The Child lies extended on her knee. Round her throne are the four +fathers, St. Ambrose, St. Gregory, St. Jerome, and St. Augustine. In +front of the throne kneels Ludovico il Moro, Duke of Milan, in a rich +dress and unarmed; Ambrose, as protector of Milan, lays his hand upon +his shoulder. At his side kneels a boy about five years old. Opposite +to him is the duchess, Beatrice d'Este, also kneeling; and near her +a little baby in swaddling clothes, holding up its tiny hands in +supplication, kneels on a cushion. The age of the children shows the +picture to have been painted about 1496. The fate of Ludovico il +Moro is well known: perhaps the blessed Virgin deemed a traitor and +an assassin unworthy of her protection. He died in the frightful +prison of Loches after twelve years of captivity; and both his sons, +Maximilian and Francesco, were unfortunate. With them the family of +Sforza and the independence of Milan were extinguished together in +1535. + +[Footnote 1: By an unknown painter of the school of Lionardo, and now +in the gallery, of the Brera.] + +3. Another celebrated and most precious picture of this class is the +Virgin of the Meyer family, painted by Holbein for the burgomaster +Jacob Meyer of Basle.[1] According to a family tradition, the youngest +son of the burgomaster was sick even to death, and, through the +merciful intercession of the Virgin, was restored to his parents, who, +in gratitude, dedicated this offering. She stands on a pedestal in a +richly ornamented niche; over her long fair hair, which falls down +her shoulders to her waist, she wears a superb crown; and her robe +of a dark greenish blue is confined by a crimson girdle. In purity, +dignity, humility, and intellectual grace, this exquisite Madonna has +never been surpassed; not even by Raphael; the face, once seen, haunts +the memory. The Child in her arms is generally supposed to be the +infant Christ. I have fancied, as I look on the picture, that it may +be the poor sick child recommended to her mercy, for the face is very +pathetic, the limbs not merely delicate but attenuated, while, on +comparing it with the robust child who stands below, the resemblance +and the contrast are both striking. To the right of the Virgin +kneels the burgomaster Meyer with two of his sons, one of whom holds +the little brother who is restored to health, and seems to present +him to the people. On the left kneel four females--the mother, the +grandmother, and two daughters. All these are portraits, touched +with that homely, vigorous truth, and finished with that consummate +delicacy, which characterized Holbein in his happiest efforts; and, +with their earnest but rather ugly and earthly faces, contrasting with +the divinely compassionate and refined being who looks down on them +with an air so human, so maternal, and yet so unearthly. + +[Footnote 1: Dresden Gal. The engraving by Steinle is justly +celebrated.] + + * * * * * + +Sometimes it is a single votary who kneels before the Madonna. In the +old times he expressed his humility by placing himself in a corner and +making himself so diminutive as to be scarce visible afterwards, the +head of the votary or donor is seen life-size, with hands joined in +prayer, just above the margin at the foot of the throne; care being +taken to remove him from all juxtaposition with the attendant saints. +But, as the religious feeling in art declined, the living votaries +are mingled with the spiritual patrons--the "human mortals" with the +"human immortals,"--with a disregard to time and place, which, if +it be not so lowly in spirit, can be rendered by a great artist +strikingly poetical and significant. + +1. The renowned "Madonna di Foligno," one of Raphael's masterpieces, +is a votive picture of this class. It was dedicated by Sigismund Conti +of Foligno; private secretary to Pope Julius II., and a distinguished +man in other respects, a writer and a patron of learning. It +appears that Sigismund having been in great danger from a meteor +or thunderbolt, vowed an offering to the blessed Virgin, to whom he +attributed his safety, and in fulfilment of his vow consecrated this +precious picture. In the upper part of the composition sits the Virgin +in heavenly glory; by her side the infant Christ, partly sustained +by his mother's veil, which is drawn round his body: both look down +benignly on the votary Sigismund Conti, who, kneeling below, gazes up +with an expression of the most intense gratitude and devotion. It is +a portrait from the life, and certainly one of the finest and most +life-like that exists in painting. Behind him stands St. Jerome, who, +placing his hand upon the head of the votary, seems to present him +to his celestial protectress. On the opposite side John the Baptist, +the meagre wild-looking prophet of the desert, points upward to the +Redeemer. More in front kneels St. Francis, who, while he looks up +to heaven with trusting and imploring love, extends his right hand +towards the worshippers, supposed to be assembled in the church, +recommending them also to the protecting grace of the Virgin. In the +centre of the picture, dividing these two groups, stands a lovely +angel-boy holding in his hand a tablet, one of the most charming +figures of this kind Raphael ever painted; the head, looking up, has +that sublime, yet perfectly childish grace, which strikes us in those +awful angel-boys in the "Madonna di San Sisto." The background is a +landscape, in which appears the city of Foligno at a distance; it is +overshadowed by a storm-cloud, and a meteor is seen falling; but above +these bends a rainbow, pledge of peace and safety. The whole picture +glows throughout with life and beauty, hallowed by that profound +religious sentiment which suggested the offering, and which the +sympathetic artist seems to have caught from the grateful donor. It +was dedicated in the church of the Ara-Coeli at Rome, which belongs +to the Franciscans; hence St. Francis is one of the principal figures. +When I was asked, at Rome, why St. Jerome had been introduced into the +picture, I thought it might be thus accounted for:--The patron saint +of the donor, St. Sigismund, was a king and a warrior, and Conti +might possibly think that it did not accord with his profession, as +an humble ecclesiastic, to introduce him here. The most celebrated +convent of the Jeronimites in Italy is that of St. Sigismund near +Cremona, placed under the special protection of St. Jerome, who +is also in a general sense the patron of all ecclesiastics; hence, +perhaps, he figures here as the protector of Sigismund Conti. The +picture was painted, and placed over the high altar of the Ara-Coeli +in 1511, when Raphael was in his twenty-eighth year. Conti died +in 1512, and in 1565 his grandniece, Suora Anna Conti, obtained +permission to remove it to her convent at Foligno, whence it was +carried off by the French in 1792. Since the restoration of the works +of art in Italy, in 1815, it has been placed among the treasures of +the Vatican. + + * * * * * + +2. Another perfect specimen of a votive picture of this kind, in a +very different style, I saw in the museum at Rouen, attributed there +to Van Eyck. It is, probably, a fine work by a later master of the +school, perhaps Hemmelinck. In the centre, the Virgin is enthroned; +the Child, seated on her knee, holds a bunch of grapes, symbol of +the eucharist. On the right of the Virgin is St. Apollonia; then two +lovely angels in white raiment, with lutes in their hands; and then +a female head, seen looking from behind, evidently a family portrait. +More in front, St. Agnes, splendidly dressed in green and sable, her +lamb at her feet, turns with a questioning air to St. Catherine, +who, in queenly garb of crimson and ermine seems to consult her book. +Behind her another member of the family, a man with a very fine face; +and more in front St. Dorothea, with a charming expression of modesty, +looks down on her basket of roses. On the left of the Virgin is St. +Agatha; then two angels in white with viols; then St. Cecilia; and +near her a female head, another family portrait; next St. Barbara +wearing a beautiful head-dress, in front of which is worked her tower, +framed like an ornamental jewel in gold and pearls; she has a missal +in her lap. St. Lucia next appears; then another female portrait. +All the heads are about one fourth of the size of life. I stood in +admiration before this picture--such miraculous finish in all the +details, such life, such spirit, such delicacy in the heads and hands, +such brilliant colour in the draperies! Of its history I could learn +nothing, nor what family had thus introduced themselves into celestial +companionship. The portraits seemed to me to represent a father, a +mother, and two daughters. + + * * * * * + +I must mention some other instances of votive Madonnas, interesting +either from their beauty or their singularity. + +3. Rene, Duke of Anjou, and King of Sicily and Jerusalem, the father +of our Amazonian queen, Margaret of Anjou, dedicated, in the church +of the Carmelites, at Aix, the capital of his dominions, a votive +picture, which is still to be seen there. It is not only a monument +of his piety, but of his skill; for, according to the tradition of the +country, he painted it himself. The good King Rene was no contemptible +artist; but though he may have suggested the subject, the hand of a +practised and accomplished painter is too apparent for us to suppose +it his own work. + +This altar-piece in a triptychon, and when the doors are closed +it measures twelve feet in height, and seven feet in width. On the +outside of the doors is the Annunciation: to the left, the angel +standing on a pedestal, under a Gothic canopy; to the right, the +Virgin standing with her book, under a similar canopy: both graceful +figures. On opening the doors, the central compartment exhibits the +Virgin and her Child enthroned in a burning bush; the bush which +burned with fire, and was not consumed, being a favourite type of the +immaculate purity of the Virgin. Lower down, in front, Moses appears +surrounded by his flocks, and at the command of an angel is about to +take off his sandals. The angel is most richly dressed, and on the +clasp of his mantle is painted in miniature Adam and Eve tempted +by the serpent. Underneath this compartment, is the inscription, +"_Rubum quem viderat Moyses, incombustum, conservatam agnovimus tuam +laudabilem Virginitatem, Sancta Dei Genitrix[1]_." On the door to +the right of the Virgin kneels King Rene himself before an altar, on +which lies an open book and his kingly crown. He is dressed in a robe +trimmed with ermine, and wears a black velvet cap. Behind him, Mary +Magdalene (the patroness of Provence), St. Antony, and St. Maurice. +On the other door, Jeanne de Laval, the second wife of Rene, kneels +before an open book; she is young and beautiful, and richly attired; +and behind her stand St. John (her patron saint), St. Catherine +(very noble and elegant), and St. Nicholas. I saw this curious and +interesting picture in 1846. It is very well preserved, and painted +with great finish and delicacy in the manner of the early Flemish +school. + +[Footnote 1: For the relation of Moses to the Virgin (as attribute) v. +the Introduction.] + +4. In a beautiful little picture by Van Eyck (Louvre, No. 162. Ecole +Allemande), the Virgin is seated on a throne, holding in her arms the +infant Christ, who has a globe in his left hand, and extends the right +in the act of benediction. The Virgin is attired as a queen, in a +magnificent robe falling in ample folds around her, and trimmed with +jewels; an angel, hovering with outspread wings, holds a crown over +her head. On the left of the picture, a votary, in the dress of a +Flemish burgomaster, kneels before a Prie-Dieu, on which is an open +book, and with clasped hands adores the Mother and her Child. The +locality represents a gallery or portico paved with marble, and +sustained by pillars in a fantastic Moorish style. The whole picture +is quite exquisite for the delicacy of colour and execution. In the +catalogue of the Louvre, this picture, is entitled "St. Joseph adoring +the Infant Christ,"--an obvious mistake, if we consider the style of +the treatment and the customs of the time. + +5. All who have visited the church of the Frari at Venice will +remember--for once seen, they never can forget--the ex-voto +altar-piece which adorns the chapel of the Pesaro family. The +beautiful Virgin is seated on a lofty throne to the right of the +picture, and presses to her bosom the _Dio Bambinetto_, who turns from +her to bless the votary presented by St. Peter. The saint stands on +the steps of the throne, one hand on a book; and behind him kneels one +of the Pesaro family, who was at once bishop of Paphos and commander +of the Pope's galleys: he approaches to consecrate to the Madonna +the standards taken from the Turks, which are borne by St. George, as +patron of Venice. On the other side appear St. Francis and St. Antony +of Padua, as patrons of the church in which the picture is dedicated. +Lower down, kneeling on one side of the throne, is a group of various +members of the Pesaro family, three of whom are habited in crimson +robes, as _Cavalieri di San Marco_; the other, a youth about fifteen, +looks out of the picture, astonishingly _alive_, and yet sufficiently +idealized to harmonize with the rest. This picture is very remarkable +for several reasons. It is a piece of family history, curiously +illustrative of the manners of the time. The Pesaro here commemorated +was an ecclesiastic, but appointed by Alexander VI. to command the +galleys with which he joined the Venetian forces against the Turks in +1503. It is for this reason that St. Peter--as representative here of +the Roman pontiff--introduces him to the Madonna, while St. George, +as patron of Venice, attends him. The picture is a monument of the +victory gained by Pesaro, and the gratitude and pride of his family. +It is also one of the finest works of Titian; one of the earliest +instances in which a really grand religious composition assumes almost +a dramatic and scenic form, yet retains a certain dignity and symmetry +worthy of its solemn destination.[1] + +[Footnote 1: We find in the catalogue of pictures which belonged to +our Charles I. one which represented "a pope preferring a general of +his navy to St. Peter." It is Pope Alexander VI. presenting this very +Pesaro to St. Peter; that is, in plain unpictorial prose, giving him +the appointment of admiral of the galleys of the Roman states. This +interesting picture, after many vicissitudes, is now in the Museum at +Antwerp. (See the _Handbook to the Royal Galleries_, p. 201.)] + +6. I will give one more instance. There is in our National Gallery +a Venetian picture which is striking from its peculiar and +characteristic treatment. On one side, the Virgin with her Infant is +seated on a throne; a cavalier, wearing armour and a turban, who looks +as if he had just returned from the eastern wars, prostrates himself +before her: in the background, a page (said to be the portrait of the +painter) holds the horse of the votary. The figures are life-size, +or nearly so, as well as I can remember, and the sentimental dramatic +treatment is quite Venetian. It is supposed to represent a certain +Duccio Constanzo of Treviso, and was once attributed to Giorgione: it +is certainly of the school of Bellini. (Nat. Gal. Catalogue, 234.) + + * * * * * + +As these enthroned and votive Virgins multiplied, as it became more +and more a fashion to dedicate them as offerings in churches, want +of space, and perhaps, also, regard to expense, suggested the idea of +representing the figures half-length. The Venetians, from early time +the best face painters in the world, appear to have been the first +to cut off the lower part of the figure, leaving the arrangement +otherwise much the same. The Virgin is still a queenly and majestic +creature, sitting there to be adored. A curtain or part of a carved +chair represents her throne. The attendant saints are placed to the +right and to the left; or sometimes the throne occupies one side of +the picture, and the saints are ranged on the other. From the shape +and diminished size of these votive pictures the personages, seen +half-length, are necessarily placed very near to each other, and the +heads nearly on a level with that of the Virgin, who is generally +seen to the knees, while the Child is always full-length. In such +compositions we miss the grandeur of the entire forms, and the +consequent diversity of character and attitude; but sometimes +the beauty and individuality of the heads atone for all other +deficiencies. + + * * * * * + +In the earlier Venetian examples, those of Gian Bellini particularly, +there is a solemn quiet elevation which renders them little inferior, +in religious sentiment, to the most majestic of the enthroned and +enskied Madonnas. + + * * * * * + +There is a sacred group by Bellini, in the possession of Sir Charles +Eastlake, which has always appeared to me a very perfect specimen of +this class of pictures. It is also the earliest I know of. The Virgin, +pensive, sedate, and sweet, like all Bellini's Virgins, is seated in +the centre, and seen in front. The Child, on her knee, blesses with +his right hand, and the Virgin places hers on the head of a votary, +who just appears above the edge of the picture, with hands joined in +prayer; he is a fine young man with an elevated and elegant profile. +On the right are St. John the Baptist pointing to the Saviour, and +St. Catherine; on the left, St. George with his banner, and St. Peter +holding his book. A similar picture, with Mary Magdalene and St. +Jerome on the right, St. Peter and St. Martha on the left, is in the +Leuchtenberg Gallery at Munich. Another of exquisite beauty is in the +Venice Academy, in which the lovely St. Catherine wears a crown of +myrtle. + +Once introduced, these half-length enthroned Madonnas became very +common, spreading from the Venetian states through the north of Italy; +and we find innumerable examples from the best schools of art in +Italy and Germany, from the middle of the fifteenth to the middle of +the sixteenth century. I shall particularize a few of these, which +will be sufficient to guide the attention of the observer; and we +must carefully discriminate between the sentiment proper to these +half-length enthroned Madonnas, and the pastoral or domestic sacred +groups and Holy Families, of which I shall have to treat hereafter. + +Raphael's well-known Madonna _della Seggiola_ and Madonna _della +Candelabra_, are both enthroned Virgins in the grand style, though +seen half-length. In fact, the air of the head ought, in the higher +schools of art, at once to distinguish a Madonna, _in trono_, even +where only the head is visible. + + * * * * * + +In a Milanese picture, the Virgin and Child appear between St. +Laurence and St. John. The mannered and somewhat affected treatment +is contrasted with the quiet, solemn simplicity of a group by Francia, +where the Virgin and Child appear as objects of worship between St. +Dominick and St. Barbara. + +The Child, standing or seated on a table or balustrade in front, +enabled the painter to vary the attitude, to take the infant +Christ out of the arms of the Mother, and to render his figure more +prominent. It was a favourite arrangement with the Venetians; and +there is an instance in a pretty picture in our National Gallery, +attributed to Perugino. + +Sometimes, even where the throne and the attendant saints and angels +show the group to be wholly devotional and exalted, we find the +sentiment varied by a touch of the dramatic,--by the introduction +of an action; but it must be one of a wholly religious significance, +suggestive of a religious feeling, or the subject ceases to be +properly _devotional_ in character. + +There is a picture by Botticelli, before which, in walking up the +corridor of the Florence Gallery, I used, day after day, to make an +involuntary pause of admiration. The Virgin, seated in a chair of +state, but seen only to the knees, sustains her divine Son with one +arm; four angels are in attendance, one of whom presents an inkhorn, +another holds before her an open book, and she is in the act of +writing the Magnificat, "My soul doth magnify the Lord!" The head of +the figure behind the Virgin is the portrait of Lorenzo de' Medici +when a boy. There is absolutely no beauty of feature, either in +the Madonna, or the Child, or the angels, yet every face is full of +dignity and character. + +In a beautiful picture by Titian (Bel. Gal., Vienna. Louvre, No. +458), the Virgin is enthroned on the left, and on the right appear St. +George and St. Laurence as listening, while St. Jerome reads from his +great book. A small copy of this picture is at Windsor. + + * * * * * + +The old German and Flemish painters, in treating the enthroned +Madonna, sometimes introduced accessories which no painter of the +early Italian school would have descended to; and which tinge with a +homely sentiment their most exalted conceptions. Thus, I have seen +a German Madonna seated on a superb throne, and most elaborately +and gorgeously arrayed, pressing her Child to her bosom with a truly +maternal air; while beside her, on a table, is a honeycomb, some +butter, a dish of fruit, and a glass of water. (Bel. Gal., Vienna.) +It is possible that in this case, as in the Virgin suckling her Child, +there may be a religious allusion:--"_Butter and honey shall he eat_," +&c. + + + + +THE MATER AMABILIS. + + +_Ital._ La Madonna col Bambino. La Madonna col celeste suo figlio. +_Fr._ La Vierge et l'enfant Jesus. _Ger._ Maria mit dem Kind. + + +There is yet another treatment of the Madonna and Child, in which the +Virgin no longer retains the lofty goddess-like exaltation given to +her in the old time. She is brought nearer to our sympathies. She +is not seated in a chair of state with the accompaniments of earthly +power; she is not enthroned on clouds, nor glorified and star-crowned +in heaven; she is no longer so exclusively the VERGINE DEA, nor the +VIRGO DEI GENITRIX; but she is still the ALMA MATER REDEMPTORIS, the +young, and lovely, and most pure mother of a divine Christ. She is +not sustained in mid-air by angels; she dwells lowly on earth; but +the angels leave their celestial home to wait upon her. Such effigies, +when conceived in a strictly ideal and devotional sense, I shall +designate as the MATER AMABILIS. + +The first and simplest form of this beautiful and familiar subject, we +find in those innumerable half-length figures of the Madonna, holding +her Child in her arms, painted chiefly for oratories, private or +way-side chapels, and for the studies, libraries, and retired chambers +of the devout, as an excitement to religious feeling, and a memorial +of the mystery of the Incarnation, where large or grander subjects, +or more expensive pictures, would be misplaced. Though unimportant in +comparison with the comprehensive and magnificent church altar-pieces +already described, there is no class of pictures so popular and so +attractive, none on which the character of the time and the painter +is stamped more clearly and intelligibly, than on these simple +representations. + +The Virgin is not here the dispenser of mercy; she is simply the +mother of the Redeemer. She is occupied only by her divine Son. She +caresses him, or she gazes on him fondly. She presents him to the +worshipper. She holds him forth with a pensive joy as the predestined +offering. If the profound religious sentiment of the early masters was +afterwards obliterated by the unbelief and conventionalism of later +art, still this favourite subject could not be so wholly profaned by +degrading sentiments and associations, as the mere portrait heads of +the Virgin alone. No matter what the model for the Madonna, might +have been,--a wife, a mistress, a _contadina_ of Frascati, a Venetian +_Zitella_, a _Madchen_ of Nuremberg, a buxom Flemish _Frau_,--for the +Child was there; the baby innocence in her arms consecrated her into +that "holiest thing alive," a mother. The theme, however inadequately +treated as regarded its religious significance, was sanctified in +itself beyond the reach of a profane thought. Miserable beyond the +reach of hope, dark below despair, that moral atmosphere which the +presence of sinless unconscious infancy cannot for a moment purify +or hallow! + +Among the most ancient and most venerable of the effigies of the +Madonna, we find the old Greek pictures of the _Mater Amabilis_, if +that epithet can be properly applied to the dark-coloured, sad-visaged +Madonnas generally attributed to St. Luke, or transcripts of those +said to be painted by him, which exist in so many churches, and are, +or were, supposed by the people to possess a peculiar sanctity. These +are almost all of oriental origin, or painted to imitate the pictures +brought from the East in the tenth or twelfth century. There are a few +striking and genuine examples of these ancient Greek Madonnas in the +Florentine Gallery, and, nearer at hand, in the Wallerstein collection +at Kensington Palace. They much resemble each other in the general +treatment. + +The infinite variety which painters have given to this most simple +_motif_, the Mother and the Child only, without accessories or +accompaniments of any kind, exceeds all possibility of classification, +either as to attitude or sentiment. Here Raphael shone supreme: +the simplicity, the tenderness, the halo of purity and virginal +dignity, which he threw round the _Mater Amabilis_ have, never been +surpassed--in his best pictures, never equalled. The "Madonna del +Gran-Duca," where the Virgin holds the Child seated on her arm; the +"Madonna Tempi," where she so fondly presses her check to his,--are +perhaps the most remarkable for simplicity. The Madonna of the +Bridgewater Gallery, where the Infant lies on her knees, and the +Mother and Son look into each other's eyes; the little "Madonna +Conestabile," where she holds the book, and the infant Christ, with +a serious yet perfectly childish grace, bends to turn over the +leaf,--are the most remarkable for sentiment. + +Other Madonnas by Raphael, containing three or more figures, do not +belong to this class of pictures. They are not strictly devotional, +but are properly Holy Families, groups and scenes from the domestic +life of the Virgin. + +With regard, to other painters before or since his time, the examples +of the _Mater Amabilis_ so abound la public and private galleries, and +have been so multiplied in prints, that comparison is within the reach +of every observer. I will content myself with noticing a few of the +most remarkable for beauty or characteristic treatment. Two painters, +who eminently excelled in simplicity and purity of sentiment, are Gian +Bellini of Venice, and Bernardino Luini of Milan. Squarcione, though +often fantastic, has painted one or two of these Madonnas, remarkable +for simplicity and dignity, as also his pupil Mantegna; though in +both the style of execution is somewhat hard and cold. In the one by +Fra Bartolomeo, there is such a depth of maternal tenderness in the +expression and attitude, we wonder where the good monk found his +model. In his own heart? in his dreams? A _Mater Amabilis_ by one of +the Caracci or by Vandyck is generally more elegant and dignified than +tender. The Madonna, for instance, by Annibal, has something of the +majestic sentiment of an enthroned Madonna. Murillo excelled in this +subject; although most of his Virgins have a portrait air of common +life, they are redeemed by the expression. In one of these, the +Child, looking out of the picture with extended arms and eyes full +of divinity, seems about to spring forth to fulfil his mission. In +another he folds his little hands, and looks up to Heaven, as if +devoting himself to his appointed suffering, while the Mother looks +down upon him with a tender resignation. (Leuchtenberg Gal.) In a +noble Madonna by Vandyck (Bridgewater Gal.), it is she herself who +devotes him to do his Father's will; and I still remember a picture +of this class, by Carlo Cignani (Belvedere Gal., Vienna), which made +me start, with the intense expression: the Mother presses to her the +Child, who holds a cross in his baby hand; she looks up to heaven with +an appealing look of love and anguish,--almost of reproach. Guido +did not excel so much in children, as in the Virgin alone. Poussin, +Carlo Dolce, Sasso Ferrato, and, in general, all the painters of the +seventeenth century, give us pretty women and pretty children. We may +pass them over. + +A second version of the Mater Amabilis, representing the Virgin +and Child full-length, but without accessories, has been also very +beautifully treated. She is usually seated in a landscape, and +frequently within the mystical enclosure (_Hortus clausus_), which is +sometimes in the German pictures a mere palisade of stakes or boughs. + +Andrea Mantegna, though a fantastic painter, had generally some +meaning in his fancies. There is a fine picture of his in which the +Virgin and Child are seated in a landscape, and in the background is +a stone-quarry, where a number of figures are seen busily at work; +perhaps hewing the stone to build the new temple of which our Saviour +was the corner-stone. (Florence Gal.) In a group by Cristofano Allori, +the Child places a wreath of flowers on the brow of his Mother, +holding in his other hand his own crown of thorns: one of the +_fancies_ of the later schools of art. + +The introduction of the little St. John into the group of the Virgin +and Child lends it a charming significance and variety, and is very +popular; we must, however, discriminate between the familiarity of +the domestic subject and the purely religious treatment. When the +Giovannino adores with folded hands, as acknowledging in Christ a +superior power, or kisses his feet humbly, or points to him exulting, +then it is evident that we have the two Children in their spiritual +character, the Child, Priest and King, and the Child, Prophet. + +In a picture by Lionardo da Vinci (Coll. of the Earl of Suffolk), +the Madonna, serious and beautiful, without either crown or veil, and +adorned only by her long fair hair, is seated on a rock. On one side, +the little Christ, supported in the arms of an angel, raises his hand +in benediction; on the other side, the young St. John, presented by +the Virgin, kneels in adoration. + +Where the Children are merely embracing each other, or sporting at +the feet of the Virgin, or playing with the cross, or with a bird, or +with the lamb, or with flowers, we might call the treatment domestic +or poetical; but where St. John is taking the cross from the hand of +Christ, it is clear, from the perpetual repetition of the theme, that +it is intended to express a religious allegory. It is the mission of +St. John as Baptist and Prophet. He receives the symbol of faith ere +he goes forth to preach and to convert, or as it has been interpreted, +he, in the sense used by our Lord, "takes up the cross of our Lord." +The first is, I think, the meaning when the cross is enwreathed with +the _Ecce Agnus Dei_; the latter, when it is a simple cross. + +In Raphael's "Madonna della Famiglia Alva," (now in the Imp. Gal., St. +Petersburg), and in his Madonna of the Vienna Gallery, Christ gives +the cross to St. John. In a picture of the Lionardo school in the +Louvre we have the same action; and again in a graceful group by +Guido, which, in the engraving, bears this inscription, "_Qui non +accipit crucem suam non est me dignus_." (Matt. x. 38.) This, of +course, fixes the signification. + +Another, and, as I think, a wholly fanciful interpretation, has been +given to this favourite group by Treck and by Monckton Milnes. The +Children contend for the cross. The little St. John begs to have it. + + "Give me the cross, I pray you, dearest Jesus. + O if you knew how much I wish to have it, + You would not hold it in your hand so tightly. + Something has told me, something in my breast here, + Which I am sure is true, that if you keep it, + If you will let no other take it from you, + Terrible things I cannot bear to think of + Must fall upon you. Show me that you love me: + Am I not here to be your little servant, + Follow your steps, and wait upon your wishes?" + +But Christ refuses to yield the terrible plaything, and claims his +privilege to be the elder "in the heritage of pain." + +In a picture by Carlo Maratti, I think this action is evident--Christ +takes the cross, and St. John yields it with reluctance. + +A beautiful version of the Mater Amabilis is the MADRE PIA, where the +Virgin in her divine Infant acknowledges and adores the Godhead. We +must be careful to distinguish this subject from the Nativity, for +it is common, in the scene of the birth of the Saviour at Bethlehem, +to represent the Virgin adoring her new-born Child. The presence of +Joseph--the ruined shed or manger--the ox and ass,--these express the +_event_. But in the MADRE PIA properly so called, the locality, and +the accessories, if any, are purely ideal and poetical, and have +no reference to time or place. The early Florentines, particularly +Lorenzo di Credi, excelled in this charming subject. + +There is a picture by Filippino Lippi, which appears to me eminently +beautiful and poetical. Here the mystical garden is formed of a +balustrade, beyond which is seen a hedge all in a blush with roses. +The Virgin kneels in the midst, and adores her Infant, who has his +finger on his lip (_Verbum sum!_); an angel scatters rose-leaves +over him, while the little St. John also kneels, and four angels, +in attitudes of adoration, complete the group. + +But a more perfect example is the Madonna by Francia in the Munich +Gallery, where the divine Infant lies on the flowery turf; and the +mother, standing before him and looking down on him, seems on the +point of sinking on her knees in a transport of tenderness and +devotion. This, to my feeling, is one of the most perfect pictures in +the world; it leaves nothing to be desired. With all the simplicity of +the treatment it is strictly devotional. The Mother and her Child are +placed within the mystical garden enclosed in a treillage of roses, +alone with each other, and apart from all earthly associations, all +earthly communion. + +The beautiful altar-piece by Perugino in our National Gallery is +properly a Madre Pia; the child seated on a cushion is sustained by an +angel, the mother kneels before him. + +The famous Correggio in the Florentine Gallery is also a Madre Pia. +It is very tender, sweet, and maternal. The Child lying on part of +his mother's blue mantle, so arranged that while she kneels and bends +over him, she cannot change her attitude without disturbing him, is +a _concetto_ admired by critics in sentiment and Art; but it appears +to me very inferior and commonplace in comparison to the Francia at +Munich. + +In a group by Botticelli, angels sustain the Infant, while the mother, +seated, with folded hands, adores him: and in a favourite composition +by Guido he sleeps. + +And, lastly, we have the Mater Amabilis in a more complex, and +picturesque, though still devotional, form. The Virgin, seen at full +length, reclines on a verdant bank, or is seated under a tree. She +is not alone with her Child. Holy personages, admitted to a communion +with her, attend around her, rather sympathizing than adoring. The +love of varied nature, the love of life under all its aspects, became +mingled with the religious conception. Instead of carefully avoiding +whatever may remind us of her earthly relationship, the members of her +family always form a part of her _cortege_. This pastoral and dramatic +treatment began with the Venetian and Paduan schools, and extended to +the early German schools, which were allied to them in feeling, though +contrasted with them in form and execution. + +The perpetual introduction of St. Joseph, St. Elizabeth, and other +relatives of the Virgin (always avoided in a Madonna dell Trono), +would compose what is called a Holy Family, but that the presence +of sainted personages whose existence and history belong to a +wholly different era--St. Catherine, St. George, St. Francis, or +St. Dominick--takes the composition out of the merely domestic and +historical, and lifts it at once into the ideal and devotional line +of art. Such a group cannot well be styled a _Sacra Famiglia_; it is a +_Sacra Conversazione_ treated in the pastoral and lyrical rather than +the lofty epic style. + +In this subject the Venetians, who first introduced it, excel all +other painters. There is no example by Raphael. The German and Flemish +painters who adopted this treatment were often coarse and familiar; +the later Italians became flippant and fantastic. The Venetians alone +knew how to combine the truest feeling for nature with a sort of +Elysian grace. + +I shall give a few examples. + +1. In a picture by Titian (Dresden Gal.), the Virgin is seated on +a green bank enamelled with flowers. She is simply dressed like a +_contadina_, in a crimson tunic, and a white veil half shading her +fair hair. She holds in her arms her lovely Infant, who raises his +little hand in benediction. St. Catherine kneels before him on one +side; on the other, St. Barbara. St. John the Baptist, not as a child, +and the contemporary of our Saviour, but in likeness of an Arcadian +shepherd, kneels with his cross and his lamb--the _Ecce Agnus Dei_, +expressed, not in words, but in form. St. George stands by as a +guardian warrior. And St. Joseph, leaning on his stick behind, +contemplates the group with an air of dignified complacency. + +2. There is another instance also from Titian. In a most luxuriant +landscape thick with embowering trees, and the mountains of Cadore in +the background, the Virgin is seated on a verdant bank; St. Catherine +has thrown herself on her knees, and stretches out her arms to the +divine Child in an ecstasy of adoration, in which there is nothing +unseemly or familiar. At a distance St. John the Baptist approaches +with his Lamb. + +3. In another very similar group, the action of St. Catherine is +rather too familiar,--it is that of an eider sister or a nurse: the +young St. John kneels in worship. + +4. Wonderfully fine is a picture of this class by Palma, now in the +Dresden Gallery. The noble, serious, sumptuous loveliness of the +Virgin; the exquisite Child, so thoughtful, yet so infantine; the +manly beauty of the St. John; the charming humility of the St. +Catherine as she presents her palm, form one of the most perfect +groups in the world. Childhood, motherhood, maidenhood, manhood, +were never, I think, combined in so sweet a spirit of humanity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: When I was at Dresden, in 1860, I found Steinle, so +celebrated for his engravings of the Madonna di San Sisto and the +Holbein Madonna, employed on this picture; and, as far as his +art could go, transferring to his copper all the fervour and the +_morbidezza_ of the original.] + +5. In another picture by Palma, in the same gallery, we have the same +picturesque arrangement of the Virgin and Child, while the _little_ +St. John adores with folded hands, and St. Catherine sits by in tender +contemplation. + +This Arcadian sentiment is carried as far as could well be allowed in +a picture by Titian (Louvre, 459), known as the _Vierge au Lapin_. The +Virgin holds a white rabbit, towards which the infant Christ, in the +arms of St. Catherine, eagerly stretches his hand. In a picture by +Paris Bordone it is carried, I think, too far. The Virgin reclines +under a tree with a book in her hand; opposite to her sits St. Joseph +holding an apple; between them, St. John the Baptist, as a bearded +man, holds in his arms the infant Christ, who caressingly puts one arm +round his neck, and with the other clings to the rough hairy raiment +of his friend. + + * * * * * + +It will be observed, that in these Venetian examples St. Catherine, +the beloved protectress of Venice, is seldom omitted. She is not +here the learned princess who confounded tyrants and converted +philosophers, but a bright-haired, full-formed Venetian maiden, +glowing with love and life, yet touched with a serious grace, +inexpressibly charming. + +St. Dorothea is also a favourite saint in these sacred pastorals. +There is an instance in which she is seated by the Virgin with her +basket of fruits and flowers; and St. Jerome, no longer beating +his breast in penance, but in likeness of a fond old grandfather, +stretches out his arms to the Child. Much finer is a picture now in +the possession of Sir Charles Eastlake. The lovely Virgin is seated +under a tree: on one side appears the angel Raphael, presenting Tobit; +on the other, St. Dorothea, kneeling, holds up her basket of celestial +fruit, gathered for her in paradise.[1] + +[Footnote 1: See Sacred and legendary Art, for the beautiful Legend of +St. Dorothea] + +When St. Ursula, with her standard, appears in these Venetian +pastorals, we may suppose the picture to have been painted for the +famous brotherhood (_Scuola di Sant' Orsola_) which bears her name. +Thus, in a charming picture by Palma, she appears before the Virgin, +accompanied by St. Mark a protector of Venice. (Vienna, Belvedere +Gal.) + +Ex-voto pictures in this style are very interesting, and the votary, +without any striking impropriety, makes one of the Arcadian group. +Very appropriate, too, is the marriage of St. Catherine, often treated +in this poetical style. In a picture by Titian, the family of the +Virgin attend the mystical rite, and St. Anna places the hand of St. +Catherine in that of the Child. + +In a group by Signorelli, Christ appears as if teaching St. Catherine; +he dictates, and she, the patroness of "divine philosophy," writes +down his words. + +When the later painters in their great altar-pieces imitated this +idyllic treatment, the graceful Venetian conception became in their +hands heavy, mannered, tasteless,--and sometimes worse. The monastic +saints or mitred dignitaries, introduced into familiar and irreverent +communion with the sacred and ideal personages, in spite of the +grand scenery, strike us as at once prosaic and fantastic "we marvel +how they got there." Parmigiano, when he fled from the sack of Rome +in 1527, painted at Bologna, for the nuns of Santa Margherita, an +altar-piece which has been greatly celebrated. The Madonna, holding +her Child, is seated in a landscape under a tree, and turns her head +to the Bishop St. Petronius, protector of Bologna. St. Margaret, +kneeling and attended by her great dragon, places one hand, with a +free and easy air, on the knee of the Virgin, and with the other seems +to be about to chuck the infant Christ under the chin. In a large +picture by Giacomo Francia, the Virgin, walking in a flowery meadow +with the infant Christ and St. John, and attended by St. Agnes and +Mary Magdalene, meets St. Francis and St. Dominick, also, apparently, +taking a walk. (Berlin Gal. No. 281.) And again;--the Madonna and St. +Elizabeth meet with their children in a landscape, while St. Peter, +St. Paul, and St. Benedict stand behind in attitudes of attention +and admiration. Now, such pictures may be excellently well painted, +greatly praised by connoisseurs, and held in "_somma venerazione_," +but they are offensive as regards the religious feeling, and, are, in +point of taste, mannered, fantastic, and secular. + + * * * * * + + +Here we must end our discourse concerning the Virgin and Child as +a devotional subject. Very easily and delightfully to the writer, +perhaps not painfully to the reader, we might have gone on to the end +of the volume; but my object was not to exhaust the subject, to point +out every interesting variety of treatment, but to lead the lover +of art, wandering through a church or gallery, to new sources of +pleasure; to show him what infinite shades of feeling and character +may still be traced in a subject which, with all its beauty and +attractiveness, might seem to have lost its significant interest, +and become trite from endless repetition; to lead the mind to some +perception of the intention of the artist in his work,--under what +aspect he had himself contemplated and placed before the worshipper +the image of the mother of Christ,--whether crowned and enthroned as +the sovereign lady of Christendom; or exalted as the glorious empress +of heaven and all the spiritual world; or bending benignly over us, +the impersonation of sympathizing womanhood, the emblem of relenting +love, the solace of suffering humanity, the maid and mother, dear and +undefiled-- + + "Created beings all in lowliness + Surpassing, as in height above them all." + +It is time to change the scene,--to contemplate the Virgin, as she +has been exhibited to us in the relations of earthly life, as the mere +woman, acting and suffering, loving, living, dying, fulfilling the +highest destinies in the humblest state, in the meekest spirit. So +we begin her history as the ancient artists have placed it before us, +with that mingled _naivete_ and reverence, that vivid dramatic power, +which only faith, and love, and genius united, could impart. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART I. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM HER BIRTH TO HER MARRIAGE WITH +JOSEPH. + + 1. THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + 2. THE NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. + 3. THE DEDICATION IN THE TEMPLE. + 4. THE MARRIAGE WITH JOSEPH. + + +THE LEGEND OF JOACHIM AND ANNA. + +_Ital._ La Leggenda di Sant' Anna Madre della Gloriosa Vergine Maria, +e di San Gioacchino. + + +Of the sources whence are derived the popular legends of the life of +the Virgin Mary, which, mixed up with the few notices in Scripture, +formed one continuous narrative, authorized by the priesthood, and +accepted and believed in by the people, I have spoken at length in the +Introduction. We have now to consider more particularly the scenes and +characters associated with her history; to show how the artists of the +Middle Ages, under the guidance and by the authority of the Church, +treated in detail these favourite themes in ecclesiastical decoration. + +In early art, that is, up to the end of the fifteenth century, Joachim +and Anna, the parents of the Virgin, never appear except in the series +of subjects from her life. In the devotional groups and altar-pieces, +they are omitted. St. Bernard, the great theological authority of +those times, objects to the invocation of any saints who had lived +before the birth of Christ, consequently to their introduction +into ecclesiastical edifices in any other light than as historical +personages. Hence, perhaps, there were scruples relative to the +representations of St. Anna, which, from the thirteenth to the +fifteenth century, placed the artists under certain restrictions. + +Under the name of Anna, the Church has honoured, from remote times, +the memory of the mother of the Virgin. The Hebrew name, signifying +_Grace_, or _the Gracious_, and all the traditions concerning her, +came to us from the East, where she was so early venerated as a +saint, that a church was dedicated to her by the Emperor Justinian, +in 550. Several other churches were subsequently dedicated to her in +Constantinople during the sixth and seventh centuries, and her remains +are said to have been deposited there in 710. In the West, she first +became known in the reign of Charlemagne; and the Greek apocryphal +gospels, or at least stories and extracts from them, began to be +circulated about the same period. From these are derived the historic +scenes and legendary subjects relating to Joachim and Anna which +appear in early art. It was about 1500, in the beginning of the +sixteenth century, that the increasing veneration for the Virgin Mary +gave to her parents, more especially to St. Anna, increased celebrity +as patron saints; and they became, thenceforward, more frequent +characters in the sacred groups. The feast of St. Anna was already +general and popular throughout Europe long before it was rendered +obligatory in 1584.[1] The growing enthusiasm for the doctrine of +the Immaculate Conception gave, of course, additional splendour and +importance to her character. Still, it is only in later times that we +find the effigy of St. Anna separated from that of the Virgin. There +is a curious picture by Cesi (Bologna Gal.), in which St. Anna kneels +before a vision of her daughter before she is born--the Virgin of the +Immaculate Conception. A fine model of a bearded man was now sometimes +converted into a St. Joachim reading or meditating, instead of a +St. Peter or a St. Jerome, as heretofore. In the Munich Gallery are +two fine ancient-looking figures of St. Joachim the father, and St. +Joseph the husband, of the Virgin, standing together; but all these +as separate representations, are very uncommon; and, of those which +exhibit St. Anna devotionally, as enthroned with the Virgin and Child, +I have already spoken. Like St. Elizabeth, she should be an elderly, +but not a _very_ old woman. Joachim, in such pictures, never appears +but as an attendant saint, and then very rarely; always very old, and +sometimes in the dress of a priest, which however, is a mistake on the +part of the artist. + +[Footnote 1: In England we have twenty-eight churches dedicated in the +name of St. Anna.] + + * * * * * + +A complete series of the history of the Blessed Virgin, as imaged +forth by the early artists, always begins with the legend of Joachim +and Anna, which is thus related. + +"There was a man of Nazareth, whose name was Joachim, and he had for +his wife a woman of Bethlehem, whose name was Anna, and both were of +the royal race of David. Their lives were pure and righteous, and they +served the Lord with singleness of heart. And being rich, they divided +their substance into three portions, one for the service of the +temple, one for the poor and the strangers, and the third for their +household. On a certain feast day, Joachim brought double offerings to +the Lord according to his custom, for he said, 'Out of my superfluity +will I give for the whole people, that I may find favour in the sight +of the Lord, and forgiveness for my sins.' And when the children of +Israel brought their gifts, Joachim also brought his; but the high +priest Issachar stood over against him and opposed him, saying, 'It is +not lawful for thee to bring thine offering, seeing that thou hast not +begot issue in Israel.' And Joachim was exceeding sorrowful, and went +down to his house; and he searched through all the registers of the +twelve tribes to discover if he alone had been childless in Israel. +And he found that all the righteous men, and the patriarchs who had +lived before him, had been the fathers of sons and daughters. And he +called to mind his father Abraham, to whom in his old age had been +granted a son, even Isaac. + +"And Joachim was more and more sorrowful; and he would not be seen by +his wife, but avoided her, and went away into the pastures where were +the shepherds and the sheep-cotes. And he built himself a hut, and +fasted forty days and forty nights; for he said 'Until the Lord God +look upon me mercifully, prayer shall be my meat and my drink.' + +"But his wife Anna remained lonely in her house, and mourned with a +twofold sorrow, for her widowhood and for her barrenness. + +"Then drew near the last day of the feast of the Lord; and Judith +her handmaid said to Anna, 'How long wilt thou thus afflict thy soul? +Behold the feast of the Lord is come, and it is not lawful for thee +thus to mourn. Take this silken fillet, which was bestowed on me by +one of high degree whom I formerly served, and bind it round thy head, +for it is not fit that I who am thy handmaid should wear it, but it is +fitting for thee, whose brow is as the brow of a crowned queen.' And +Anna replied, 'Begone! such things are not for me, for the Lord hath +humbled me. As for this fillet, some wicked person hath given it to +thee; and art thou come to make me a partaker in thy sin?' And Judith +her maid answered, 'What evil shall I wish thee since thou wilt not +hearken to my voice? for worse I cannot wish thee than that with which +the Lord hath afflicted thee, seeing that he hath shut up thy womb, +that thou shouldst not be a mother in Israel.' + +"And Anna hearing these words was sorely troubled. And she laid aside +her mourning garments, and she adorned her head, and put on her bridal +attire; and at the ninth hour she went forth into her garden, and +sat down under a laurel tree and prayed earnestly. And looking up to +heaven, she saw within the laurel bush a sparrow's nest; and mourning +within herself she said, 'Alas! and woe is me! who hath begotten me? +who hath brought me forth? that I should be accursed in the sight of +Israel, and scorned and shamed before my people, and cast out of the +temple of the Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? I cannot be +likened to the fowls of heaven, for the fowls of heaven are fruitful +in thy sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to +the unreasoning beasts of the earth, for they are fruitful in thy +sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what shall I be likened? Not to these +waters, for they are fruitful in thy sight, O Lord! Woe is me! to what +shall I be likened? Not unto the earth, for the earth bringeth forth +her fruit in due season, and praiseth thee, O Lord!' + +"And behold an angel of the Lord stood by her and said, 'Anna, thy +prayer is heard, thou shalt bring forth, and thy child shall be +blessed throughout the whole world.' And Anna said, 'As the Lord +liveth, whatever I shall bring forth, be it a man-child or a maid, +I will present it an offering to the Lord.' And behold another angel +came and said to her, 'See, thy husband Joachim is coming with his +shepherds;' for an angel had spoken to him also, and had comforted him +with promises. And Anna went forth to meet her husband, and Joachim +came from the pasture with his herds, and they met at the golden gate; +and Anna ran and embraced her husband, and hung upon his neck, saying, +'Now know I that the Lord hath blessed me. I who was a widow am no +longer a widow; I who was barren shall become a joyful mother.' + +"And they returned home together. + +"And when her time was come, Anna brought forth a daughter; and she +said, 'This day my soul magnifieth the Lord.' And she laid herself +down in her bed; and she called, the name of her child Mary, which +in the Hebrew is Miriam." + + * * * * * + +With the scenes of this beautiful pastoral begins the life of the +Virgin. + +1. We have first Joachim rejected from the temple. He stands on the +steps before the altar holding a lamb; and the high priest opposite +to him, with arm upraised, appears to refuse his offering. Such is +the usual _motif_; but the incident has been variously treated--in +the earlier and ruder examples, with a ludicrous want of dignity; for +Joachim is almost tumbling down the steps of the temple to avoid the +box on the ear which Issachar the priest is in the act of bestowing in +a most energetic fashion. On the other hand, the group by Taddeo Gaddi +(Florence, Baroncelli Chapel, S. Croce), though so early in date, +has not since been excelled either in the grace or the dramatic +significance of the treatment. Joachim turns away, with his lamb +in his arms, repulsed, but gently, by the priest. To the right are +three personages who bring offerings, one of whom, prostrate on his +knees, yet looks up at Joachim with a sneering expression--a fine +representation of the pharisaical piety of one of the elect, rejoicing +in the humiliation of a brother. On the other side are three persons +who appear to be commenting on the scene. In the more elaborate +composition by Ghirlandajo (Florence, S. Maria Novella), there is +a grand view into the interior of the temple, with arches richly +sculptured. Joachim is thrust forth by one of the attendants, while in +the background the high priest accepts the offering of a more favoured +votary. On each side are groups looking on, who express the contempt +and hatred they feel for one, who, not having children, presumes to +approach the altar. All these, according to the custom of Ghirlandajo, +are portraits of distinguished persons. The first figure on the right +represents the painter Baldovinetti; next to him, with his hand on +his side, Ghirlandajo himself; the third, with long black hair, +is Bastiano Mainardi, who painted the Assumption in the Baroncelli +Chapel, in the Santa Croce; and the fourth, turning his back, is David +Ghirlandajo. These real personages are so managed, that, while they +are not themselves actors, they do not interfere with the main action, +but rather embellish and illustrate it, like the chorus in a Greek +tragedy. Every single figure in this fine fresco is a study for manly +character, dignified attitude, and easy grand drapery. + +In the same scene by Albert Durer,[1] the high priest, standing behind +a table, rejects the offering of the lamb, and his attendant pushes +away the doves. Joachim makes a gesture of despair, and several +persons who bring offerings look at him with disdain or with sympathy. + +[Footnote 1: In the set of wood-cuts of the Life of the Virgin.] + +The same scene by Luini (Milan, Brera) is conceived with much pathetic +as well as dramatic effect. But as I have said enough to reader the +subject easily recognized, we proceed. + + * * * * * + +2. "Joachim herding his sheep on the mountain, and surrounded by his +shepherds, receives the message of the angel." This subject may so +nearly resemble the Annunciation to the Shepherds in St. Luke's Gospel, +that we must be careful to distinguish them, as, indeed, the best of +the old painters have done with great taste and feeling. + +Is the fresco by Taddeo Gaddi (in the Baroncelli Chapel), Joachim +is seated on a rocky mountain, at the base of which his sheep are +feeding, and turns round to listen to the voice of the angel. In the +fresco by Giotto in the Arena at Padua, the treatment is nearly the +same.[1] In the series by Luini, a stream runs down the centre of +the picture: on one side is Joachim listening to the angel, on the +other, Anna is walking in her garden. This incident is omitted by +Ghirlandajo. In Albert Durer's composition, Joachim is seen in the +foreground kneeling, and looking up at an angel, who holds out in +both hands a sort of parchment roll looking like a diploma with seals +appended, and which we may suppose to contain the message from on +high (if it be not rather the emblem of the _sealed book_, so often +introduced, particularly by the German masters). A companion of +Joachim also looks up with amazement, and farther in the distance are +sheep and shepherds. + +[Footnote 1: The subject will be found in the set of wood-cuts +published by the Arundel Society.] + +The Annunciation to St. Anna may be easily mistaken for the +Annunciation to the Virgin Mary;--we must therefore be careful to +discriminate, by an attention to the accessories. Didron observes that +in Western art the annunciation to St. Anna usually takes place in a +chamber. In the East it takes place in a garden, because there "_on +vit feu dans les maisons et beaucoup en plein air_;" but, according +to the legend, the locality ought to be a garden, and under a laurel +tree, which is not always attended to. + +3. The altercation between St. Anna and her maid Judith I have never +met with but once, in the series by Luini, where the disconsolate +figure and expression of St. Anna are given with infinite grace and +sentiment. (Milan, Brera.) + + * * * * * + +4. "The meeting of Joachim and Anna before the golden gate." This is +one of the most important subjects. It has been treated by the very +early artists with much _naivete_, and in the later examples with +infinite beauty and sentiment; and, which is curious, it has been +idealized into a devotional subject, and treated apart. The action is +in itself extremely simple. The husband and wife affectionately and +joyfully embrace each other. In the background is seen a gate, richly +ornamented. Groups of spectators and attendants are sometimes, not +always, introduced. + +In the composition of Albert Durer nothing can be more homely, hearty, +and conjugal. A burly fat man, who looks on with a sort of wondering +amusement in his face, appears to be a true and animated transcript +from nature, as true as Ghirlandajo's attendant figures--but how +different! what a contrast between the Florentine citizen and the +German burgher! In the simpler composition by Taddeo Gaddi, St. Anna +is attended by three women, among whom the maid Judith is conspicuous, +and behind Joachim is one of his shepherds[1]. + +[Footnote 1: In two compartments of a small altar-piece (which +probably represented in the centre the Nativity of the Virgin), I +found on one side the story of St. Joachim, on the other the story of +St. Anna.--_Collection of Lord Northwick, No. 513, in his Catalogue_.] + +The Franciscans, those enthusiastic defenders of the Immaculate +Conception, were the authors of a fantastic idea, that the birth of +the Virgin was not only _immaculate_, but altogether _miraculous_, and +that she owed her being to the joyful kiss which Joachim gave his wife +when they met at the gate. Of course the Church gave no countenance to +this strange poetical fiction, but it certainly modified some of the +representations; for example, there is a picture by Vittore Carpaccio, +wherein St. Joachim and Anna tenderly embrace. On one side stands +St. Louis of Toulouse as bishop; on the other St. Ursula with her +standard, whose presence turns the incident into a religious mystery. +In another picture, painted by Ridolfo Ghirlandajo, we have a still +more singular and altogether mystical treatment. In the centre St. +Joachim and St. Anna embrace; behind St. Joachim stands St. Joseph +with his lily wand and a book; behind St. Anna, the Virgin Mary (thus +represented as existing before she was born[1]), and beyond her St. +Laurence; in the corner is seen the head of the votary, a Servite +monk; above all, the Padre Eterno holds an open book with the _Alpha_ +and _Omega_. This singular picture was dedicated and placed over the +high altar of the Conception in the church of the Servi, who, under +the title of _Serviti di Maria_, were dedicated to the especial +service of the Virgin Mary. (v. Legends of the Monastic Orders.) + +[Footnote 1: Prov. viii 22, 23. These texts are applied to the +Madonna.] + + + + +THE NATIVITY OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN. + +_Ital._ La Nascita della B. Vergine. _Fr._ La Naissance de la S. +Vierge. _Ger._ Die Geburt Maria. + + +This is, of course, a very important subject. It is sometimes treated +apart as a separate scene; and a series of pictures dedicated to the +honour of the Virgin, and comprising only a few of the most eventful +scenes in her history, generally begins with her Nativity. The +primitive treatment is Greek, and, though varied in the details and +the sentiment, it has never deviated much from the original _motif_. + +St. Anna reclines on a couch covered with drapery, and a pillow under +her head; two handmaids sustain her; a third fans her, or presents +refreshments; more in front a group of women are busied about the +new-born child. It has been the custom, I know not on what authority, +to introduce neighbours and friends, who come to congratulate the +parents. The whole scene thus treated is sure to come home to the +bosom of the observer. The most important event in the life of a +woman, her most common and yet most awful experience, is here so +treated as to be at once ennobled by its significance and endeared +by its thoroughly domestic character. + +I will give some examples. 1. The first is by an unknown master of the +Greco-Italian school, and referred by d'Agincourt to the thirteenth +century, but it is evidently later, and quite in the style of the +Gaddi. + +2. There is both dignity and simplicity in the fresco by Taddeo +Gaddi. (Florence, Baroncelli Chapel.) St. Anna is sitting up in bed; +an attendant pours water over her hands. In front, two women are +affectionately occupied with the child a lovely infant with a glory +round its head. Three other attendants are at the foot of the bed. + +3. We have next in date, the elegant composition by Ghirlandajo. As +Joachim and Anna were "exceedingly rich," he has surrounded them with +all the luxuries of life. The scene is a chamber richly decorated; a +frieze of angelic boys ornaments the alcove; St. Anna lies on a couch. +Vasari says "certain women are ministering to her." but in Lasinio's +engraving they are not to be found. In front a female attendant pours +water into a vase; two others seated hold the infant. A noble lady, +habited in the elegant Florentine costume of the fifteenth century, +enters with four others--all portraits, and, as is usual with +Ghirlandajo, looking on without taking any part in the action. The +lady in front is traditionally said to be Ginevra Benci, celebrated +for her beauty. + +4. The composition by Albert Durer[1] gives us an exact transcript +of antique German life, quite wonderful for the homely truth of the +delineation, but equally without the simplicity of a scriptural or +the dignity of an historical scene. In an old-fashioned German chamber +lies St. Anna in an old-fashioned canopied bedstead. Two women bring +her a soup and something to drink, while the midwife, tired with her +exertions, leans her head on the bedside and has sank to sleep. A +crowd of women fill up the foreground, one of whom attends to the +new-born child: others, who appear to have watched through the night, +as we may suppose from the nearly extinguished candles, are intent on +good cheer; they congratulate each other; they eat, drink, and repose +themselves. It would be merely a scene of German _commerage_, full +of nature and reality, if an angel hovering above, and swinging a +censer, did not remind us of the sacred importance of the incident +represented. + +[Footnote 1: In the set of wood-cuts of the "Life of the Virgin +Mary."] + +5. In the strongest possible contrast to the homely but animated +conception of Albert Durer, is the grand fresco by Andrea del Sarto, +in the church of the Nunziata at Florence. The incidents are nearly +the same: we have St. Anna reclining in her bed and attended by her +women; the nurses waiting on the lovely new-born child; the visitors +who enter to congratulate; but all, down to the handmaidens who bring +refreshments, are noble and dignified, and draped in that magnificent +taste which distinguished Andrea, Angels scatter flowers from above +and, which is very uncommon, Joachim is seen, after the anxious night +reposing on a couch. Nothing in fresco can exceed the harmony and +brilliancy of the colouring, and the softness of the execution. It +appeared to me a masterpiece as a picture. Like Ghirlandajo, Andrea +has introduced portraits; and in the Florentine lady who stands in the +foreground we recognize the features of his worthless wife Lucrezia, +the original model of so many of his female figures that the ignoble +beauty of her face has become quite familiar. + + + + +THE PRESENTATION OF THE VIRGIN. + +_Ital._ La Presentazione, ove nostra Signora piccioletta sale i gradi +del Tempio. _Ger._ Joachim und Anna weihen ihre Tochter Maria im +Tempel. Die Vorstellung der Jungfrau im Tempel. Nov. 21. + + +In the interval between the birth of Mary and her consecration in the +temple, there is no incident which I can remember as being important +or popular as a subject of art. + +It is recorded with what tenderness her mother Anna watched over +her, "how she made of her bedchamber a holy place, allowing nothing +that was common or unclean to enter in;" and called to her "certain +daughters of Israel, pure and gentle," whom she appointed to attend +on her. In some of the early miniature illustrations of the Offices of +the Virgin, St. Anna thus ministers to her child; for instance, in a +beautiful Greek MS. in the Vatican, she is tenderly putting her into +a little bed or cradle and covering her up. (It is engraved in +d'Agincourt.) + +It is not said anywhere that St. Anna instructed her daughter. It has +even been regarded as unorthodox to suppose that the Virgin, enriched +from her birth, and before her birth, with all the gifts of the Holy +Spirit, required instruction from any one. Nevertheless, the subject +of the "Education of the Virgin" has been often represented in later +times. There is a beautiful example by Murillo; while Anna teaches her +child to read, angels hover over them with wreaths of roses. (Madrid +Gal.) Another by Rubens, in which, as it is said, he represented his +young wife, Helena Forman. (Musee, Antwerp.) There is also a picture +in which St. Anna ministers to her daughter, and is intent on braiding +and adorning her long golden hair, while the angels look on with +devout admiration. (Vienna, Lichtenstein Gal.) In all these examples +Mary is represented as a girl of ten or twelve years old. Now, as the +legend expressly relates that she was three years old when she became +an inmate of the temple, such representations must be considered as +incorrect. + + * * * * * + +The narrative thus proceeds:-- + +"And when the child was _three years old_, Joachim said, 'Let us +invite the daughters of Israel, and they shall take each a taper or +a lamp, and attend on her, that the child may not turn back from the +temple of the Lord.' And being come to the temple, they placed her on +the first step, and she ascended alone all the steps to the altar: +and the high priest received her there, kissed her, and blessed her, +saying, 'Mary, the Lord hath magnified thy name to all generations, +and in thee shall be made known the redemption of the children of +Israel.' And being placed before the altar, she danced with her feet, +so that all the house of Israel rejoiced with her, and loved her. Then +her parents returned home, blessing God because the maiden had not +turned back from the temple." + + * * * * * + +Such is the incident, which, in artistic representation, is sometimes +styled the "Dedication," but more generally "THE PRESENTATION OF THE +VIRGIN." + +It is a subject of great importance, not only as a principal incident +in a series of the Life of the Virgin, but because this consecration +of Mary to the service of the temple being taken in a general sense, +it has often been given in a separate form, particularly for the +nunneries. Hence it has happened that we find "The Presentation of the +Virgin" among some of the most precious examples of ancient and modern +art. + +The _motif_ does not vary. The child Mary, sometimes in a blue, but +oftener in a white vesture, with long golden hair, ascends the steps +which lead to the porch of the temple, which steps are always fifteen +in number. She ought to be an infant of three years of age; but in +many pictures she is represented older, veiled, and with a taper in +her hand instead of a lamp, like a young nun; but this is a fault. The +"fifteen steps" rest on a passage in Josephus, who says, "between the +wall which separated the men from the women, and the great porch of +the temple, were fifteen steps;" and these are the steps which Mary +is supposed to ascend. + +1. It is sometimes treated with great simplicity; for instance, in +the bas-relief by Andrea Orcagna, there are only three principal +figures--the Virgin in the centre (too old, however), and Joachim and +Anna stand on each side. (Florence, Or San Michele.) + +2. In the fresco by Taddeo Gaddi we have the same artless grace, the +same dramatic grouping, and the same faults of drawing and perspective +as in the other compartments of the series. (Florence, Baroncelli +Chapel.) + +3. The scene is represented by Ghirlandajo with his usual luxury of +accessories and accompaniments. (Florence, S. Maria Novella.) The +locality is the court of the temple; on the right a magnificent porch; +the Virgin, a young girl of about nine or ten years old, is seen +ascending the steps with a book in her hand; the priest stretches out +his arms to receive her; behind him is another priest; and "the young +virgins who were to be her companions" are advancing joyously to +receive her. (Adducentur Regi Virgines post eam. Ps. xlv.) At the +foot of the steps are St. Anna and St. Joachim, and farther off a +group of women and spectators, who watch the event in attitudes of +thanksgiving and joyful sympathy. Two venerable, grand-looking Jews, +and two beautiful boys fill the foreground; and the figure of the +pilgrim resting on the steps is memorable in art as one of the +earliest examples of an undraped figure, accurately and gracefully +drawn. The whole composition is full of life and character, and that +sort of _elegance_ peculiar to Ghirlandajo. + +4. In the composition of Albert Durer we see the entrance of the +temple on the left, and the child Mary with flowing hair ascending the +steps; behind her stand her parents and other personages, and in front +are venders of provisions, doves, &c., which are brought as offerings. + +5. The scene, as given by Carpaccio, appears to me exceedingly +graceful. The perfectly childish figure of Mary with her light +flowing tresses, the grace with which she kneels on the steps, and the +disposition of the attendant figures, are all beautifully conceived. +Conspicuous in front is a page holding a unicorn, the ancient emblem +of chastity, and often introduced significantly into pictures of the +Virgin. (Venice Academy.) + +6. But the most celebrated example is the Presentation by Titian, +in the academy at Venice, originally painted for the church of the +brotherhood of charity (_Scuola della Carita_), and still to be seen +there--the Carita being now the academy of art. + +In the general arrangement, Titian seems to have been indebted to +Carpaccio; but all that is simple and poetical in the latter becomes +in Titian's version sumptuous and dramatic. Here Mary does not +kneel, but, holding up her light-blue drapery, ascends the steps with +childish grace and alacrity. The number of portrait-heads adds to the +value and interest of the picture. Titian himself is looking up, and +near him stands his friend, Andrea de' Franceschi, grand-chancellor +of Venice,[1] robed as a _Cavaliero di San Marco_. In the fine +bearded head of the priest, who stands behind the high-priest, we may +recognize, I think, the likeness of Cardinal Bembo. In the foreground, +instead of the poetical symbol of the unicorn, we have an old woman +selling eggs and fowls, as in Albert Durer's print, which must have +been well known to Titian. Albert Durer published his Life of the +Virgin in 1520, and Titian painted his picture about 1550. (Venice +Academy.) + +[Footnote 1: "_Amorevolissime del Pittare_," says Ridolfi. It is the +same person whom Titian introduced, with himself, in the picture at +Windsor; there, by a truly unpardonable mistake, called "Titian and +Aretino."] + + * * * * * + +From the life of the Virgin in the temple, we have several beautiful +pictures. As she was to be placed before women as an example of every +virtue, so she was skilled in all feminine accomplishments; she was +as studious, as learned, as wise, as she was industrious, chaste, and +temperate. + +She is seen surrounded by her young companions, the maidens who were +brought up in the temple with her, in a picture by Agnolo Gaddi. +(Florence, Carmine.) She is instructing her companions, in a charming +picture by Luini: here she appears as a girl of seven or eight years +old, seated on a sort of throne, dressed in a simple light-blue tunic, +with long golden hair; while the children around her look up and +listen with devout faces. (Milan, Brera.) + + * * * * * + +Some other scenes of her early life, which, in the Protevangelion, are +placed after her marriage with Joseph, in pictures usually precede it. +Thus, she is chosen by lot to spin the fine purple for the temple, +to weave and embroider it. Didron mentions a fine antique tapestry at +Rheims, in which Mary is seated at her embroidery, while two unicorns +crouching on each side look up in her face. + + * * * * * + +I remember a fine drawing, in which the Virgin is seated at a large +tapestry frame. Behind her are two maidens, one of whom is reading; +the other, holding a distaff, lays her hand on the shoulder of the +Virgin, as if about to speak. The scene represents the interior of the +temple with rich architecture. (Vienna, Col. of Archduke Charles.) + +In a small but very pretty picture by Guido, the Virgin, as a young +girl, sits embroidering a _yellow_ robe. (Lord Ellesmere's Gal.) She +is attended by four angels, one of whom draws aside a curtain It is +also related that among the companions of Mary in the temple was +Anna the prophetess; and that this aged and holy woman, knowing by +inspiration of the Holy Spirit the peculiar grace vouchsafed to Mary, +and her high destiny, beheld her with equal love and veneration; +and, notwithstanding the disparity of age, they become true and dear +friends. + +In an old illumination, the Virgin is seated spinning, with an angel +by her side. (Office of the Virgin, 1408. Oxford, Bodleian.) + + * * * * * + +It is recorded that the angels daily ministered to her, and fed her +with celestial food. Hence in some early specimens of art an angel +brings her a loaf of bread and a pitcher of water,--the _bread of +life_ and the _water of life_ from Paradise. In this subject, as we +find it carved on the stalls of the cathedral of Amiens, Mary holds a +book, and several books are ranged on a shelf in the background: there +is, besides, a clock, such as was in use in the fifteenth century, to +indicate the studious and regular life led by Mary in the temple. + + * * * * * + +St. Evode, patriarch of Antioch, and St. Germanus, assert as +an indubitable tradition of the Greek Church, that Mary had the +privilege--never granted to one of her sex before or since--of +entering the Holy of Holies, and praying before the ark of the +covenant. Hence, in some of the scenes from her early life, the ark is +placed in the background. We must also bear in mind that the ark was +one of the received types of her who bore the Logos within her bosom. + + * * * * * + +In her fourteenth year, Mary was informed by the high priest that it +was proper that she should be married; but she modestly replied that +her parents had dedicated her to the service of the Lord, and that, +therefore, she could not comply. But the high-priest, who had received +a revelation from an angel concerning the destiny of Mary, informed +her thereof, and she with all humility submitted herself to the divine +will. This scene between Mary and the high-priest has been painted by +Luini, and it is the only example with which I am acquainted. + +Pictures of the Virgin in her girlhood, reading intently the Book of +Wisdom, while angels watch over her, are often of great beauty. + + + + +THE MARRIAGE OF THE VIRGIN + +_Ital._ Il Sposalizio. _Fr._ Le Mariage de la Vierge. _Ger._ Die +Trauung Mariae. Jan. 23. + + +This, as an artistic subject, is of great consequence, from the beauty +and celebrity of some of the representations, which, however, are +unintelligible without the accompanying legends. And it is worth +remarking, that while the incident is avoided in early Greek art, +it became very popular with the Italian and German painters from the +fourteenth century. + +In the East, the prevalence of the monastic spirit, from the fourth +century, had brought marriage into disrepute; by many of the ascetic +writers of the West it was considered almost in the light of a +necessary evil. This idea, that the primal and most sacred ordinance +of God and nature was incompatible with the sanctity and purity +acceptable to God, was the origin of the singular legends of the +Marriage of the Virgin. One sees very clearly that, if possible, it +would have been denied that Mary had ever been married at all; but, +as the testimony of the Gospel was too direct and absolute to be +set aside, it became necessary, in the narrative, to give to this +distasteful marriage the most recondite motives, and in art, to +surround it with the most poetical and even miraculous accessories. + +But before we enter on the treatment of the subject, it is necessary +to say a few words on the character of Joseph, wonderfully selected to +be the husband and guardian of the consecrated mother of Christ, and +foster-father of the Redeemer; and so often introduced into all the +pictures which refer to the childhood of our Lord. + +From the Gospels we learn nothing of him but that he was of the tribe +of Judah and the lineage of David; that he was a _just_ man; that he +followed the trade of a carpenter, and dwelt in the little city of +Nazareth. We infer from his conduct towards Mary, that he was a mild, +and tender, and pure-hearted, as well as an upright man. Of his age +and personal appearance nothing is said. These are the points on which +the Church has not decided, and on which artists, left to their own +devices, and led by various opinions, have differed considerably. + +The very early painters deemed it right to represent Joseph as very +old, almost decrepit with age, and supported by a crutch. According +to some of the monkish authorities, he was a widower, and eighty-four +years old when he was espoused to Mary. On the other hand, it was +argued, that such a marriage would have been quite contrary to the +custom of the Jews; and that to defend Mary, and to provide for her +celestial Offspring, it was necessary that her husband should be a +man of mature age, but still strong and robust, and able to work +at his trade; and thus, with more propriety and better taste, the +later painters have represented him. In the best Italian and Spanish +pictures of the Holy Family, he is a man of about forty or fifty, +with a mild, benevolent countenance, brown hair, and a short, curled +beard: the crutch, or stick, however, is seldom omitted; it became a +conventional attribute. + +In the German pictures, Joseph is not only old, but appears almost in +a state of dotage, like a lean, wrinkled mendicant, with a bald head, +a white beard, a feeble frame, and a sleepy or stupid countenance. +Then, again, the later Italian painters have erred as much on the +other side; for I have seen pictures in which St. Joseph is not only a +young man not more than thirty, but bears a strong resemblance to the +received heads of our Saviour. + +It is in the sixteenth century that we first find Joseph advanced to +the dignity of a saint in his own right; and in the seventeenth he +became very popular, especially in Spain, where St. Theresa had chosen +him for her patron saint, and had placed her powerful order of the +reformed Carmelites under his protection. Hence the number of pictures +of that time, which represent Joseph, as the foster-father of Christ, +carrying the Infant on his arm and caressing him, while in the other +hand he bears a lily, to express the sanctity and purity of his +relations with the Virgin. + + * * * * * + +The legend of "the Marriage of Joseph and Mary" is thus given in the +Protevangelion and the History of Joseph the Carpenter:-- + + "When Mary was fourteen years old, the priest Zacharias (or + Abiathar, as he is elsewhere called) inquired of the Lord + concerning her, what was right to be done; and an angel came + to him and said, 'Go forth, and call together all the widowers + among the people, and let each bring his rod (or wand) in his + hand, and he to whom the Lord shall show a sign, let him be + the husband of Mary. And Zacharias did as the angel commanded, + and made proclamation accordingly. And Joseph the carpenter, a + righteous man, throwing down his axe, and taking his staff in + his hand, ran out with the rest. When he appeared before the + priest, and presented his rod, lo! a dove issued out of it--a + dove dazzling white as the snow,--and after settling on his + head, flew towards heaven. Then the high priest said to him, + 'Thou art the person chosen to take the Virgin of the Lord, + and to keep her for him.' And Joseph was at first afraid, and + drew back, but afterwards he took her home to his house, and + said to her, 'Behold, I have taken thee from the temple of + the Lord, and now I will leave thee in my house, for I must + go and follow my trade of building. I will return to thee, + and meanwhile the Lord be with thee and watch over thee.' So + Joseph left her, and Mary remained in her house." + +There is nothing said of any marriage ceremony, some have even +affirmed that Mary was only betrothed to Joseph, but for conclusive +reasons it remains an article of faith that she was married to him. + +I must mention here an old tradition cited by St. Jerome, and which +has been used as a text by the painters. The various suitors who +aspired to the honour of marrying the consecrated "Virgin of the +Lord," among whom was the son of the high-priest, deposited their +wands in the temple over night,[1] and next morning the rod of Joseph +was found, like the rod of Aaron, to have budded forth into leaves +and flowers. The other suitors thereupon broke their wands in rage and +despair; and one among them, a youth of noble lineage, whose name was +Agabus, fled to Mount Carmel, and became an anchorite, that is to say, +a Carmelite friar. + +[Footnote 1: The suitors kneeling with their wands before the altar in +the Temple, is one of the series by Giotto in the Arena at Padua.] + +According to the Abbe Orsini, who gives a long description of the +espousals of Mary and Joseph, they returned after the marriage +ceremony to Nazareth, and dwelt in the house of St. Anna. + + * * * * * + +Now, with regard to the representations, we find that many of the +early painters, and particularly the Italians, have carefully attended +to the fact, that, among the Jews, marriage was a civil contract, +not a religious rite. The ceremony takes place in the open air, in a +garden, or in a landscape, or in front of the temple. Mary, as a meek +and beautiful maiden of about fifteen, attended by a train of virgins, +stands on the right; Joseph, behind whom are seen the disappointed +suitors, is on the left. The priest joins their hands, or Joseph is +in the act of placing the ring on the finger of the bride. This is the +traditional arrangement from Giotto down to Raphael. In the series by +Giotto, in the Arena at Padua, we have three scenes from the marriage +legend. 1. St. Joseph and the other suitors present their wands to the +high-priest. 2. They kneel before the altar, on which their wands are +deposited, waiting for the promised miracle. 3. The marriage ceremony. +It takes place before an altar, in the _interior_ of the temple. The +Virgin, a most graceful figure, but rather too old, stands attended +by her maidens; St. Joseph holds his wand with the flower and the holy +Dove resting on it: one of the disappointed suitors is about to strike +him; another breaks his wand against his knee. Taddeo Gaddi, Angelico, +Ghirlandajo, Perugino, all followed this traditional conception of the +subject, except that they omit the altar, and place the locality in +the open air, or under a portico. Among the relics venerated in the +Cathedral of Perugia, is the nuptial ring of the blessed Virgin; and +for the altar of the sacrament there, Perugino painted the appropriate +subject of the Marriage of the Virgin.[1] Here the ceremony takes +place under the portico of the temple, and Joseph of course puts the +ring on her finger. It is a beautiful composition, which has been +imitated more or less by the painters of the Perugino school, and +often repeated in the general arrangement. + +[Footnote 1: It was carried off from the church by the French, sold in +France, and is now to be seen in the Musee at Caen.] + +But in this subject, Raphael, while yet a youth, excelled his +master and all who had gone before him. Every one knows the famous +"SPOSALIZIO of the Brera."[1] It was painted by Raphael in his +twenty-first year, for the church of S. Francesco, in Citta di +Castello; and though he has closely followed the conception of +his master, it is modified by that ethereal grace which even then +distinguished him. Here Mary and Joseph stand in front of the temple, +the high-priest joins their hands, and Joseph places the ring on the +finger of the bride; he is a man of about thirty, and holds his wand, +which has blossomed into a lily, but there is no Dove upon it. Behind +Mary is a group of the virgins of the temple; behind Joseph the group +of disappointed suitors; one of whom, in the act of breaking his wand +against his knee, a singularly graceful figure, seen more in front +and richly dressed, is perhaps the despairing youth mentioned in the +legend.[2] With something of the formality of the elder schools, the +figures are noble and dignified; the countenances of the principal +personages have a characteristic refinement and beauty, and a +soft, tender, enthusiastic melancholy, which lends a peculiar and +appropriate charm to the subject. In fact, the whole scene is here +idealized; It is like a lyric poem, (Kugler's Handbook, 2d edit.) + +[Footnote 1: At Milan. The fine engraving by Longhi is well known.] + +[Footnote 2: In the series by Giotto at Padua, we have the youth +breaking his wand across his knee.] + +In Ghirlandajo's composition (Florence, S. Maria Novella), Joseph +is an old man with a bald head; the architecture is splendid; the +accessory figures, as is usual with Ghirlandajo, are numerous and +full of grace. In the background are musicians playing on the pipe +and tabor, an incident which I do not recollect to have seen in other +pictures. + +The Sposalizio by Girolamo da Cotignola (Bologna Gal.), painted for +the church of St. Joseph, is treated quite in a mystical style. Mary +and Joseph stand before an altar, on the steps of which are seated, on +one side a prophet, on the other a sibyl. + + * * * * * + +By the German painters the scene is represented with a characteristic +homely neglect of all historic propriety. The temple is a Gothic +church; the altar has a Gothic altar-piece; Joseph looks like an old +burgher arrayed in furs and an embroidered gown; and the Virgin is +richly dressed in the costume of the fifteenth century. The suitors +are often knights and cavaliers with spurs and tight hose. + + * * * * * + +It is not said anywhere that St. Anna and St. Joachim were present at +the marriage of their daughter; hence they are supposed to have been +dead before it took place. This has not prevented some of the old +German artists from introducing them, because, according to their +ideas of domestic propriety, they _ought_ to have been present. + + * * * * * + +I observe that the later painters who treated the subject, Rubens and +Poussin for instance, omit the disappointed suitors. + + * * * * * + +After the marriage, or betrothal, Joseph conducts his wife to his +house. The group of the returning procession has been beautifully +treated in Giotto's series at Padua;[1] still more beautifully by +Luigi in the fragment of fresco now in the Brera at Milan. Here Joseph +and Mary walk together hand in hand. He looks at her, just touching +her fingers with an air of tender veneration; she looks down, serenely +modest. Thus they return together to their humble home; and with this +scene closes the first part of the life of the Virgin Mary. + +[Footnote 1: Cappella dell' Arena, engraved for the Arundel Society.] + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART II + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE ANNUNCIATION TO THE RETURN FROM +EGYPT. + +1. THE ANNUNCIATION. 2. THE SALUTATION OF ELIZABETH. 3. THE JOUBNEY TO +BETHLEHEM. 4. THE NATIVITY. 6. THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. 6. +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. 7. THE PRESENTATION IN THE TEMPLE. 8. THE +FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. 9. THE RIPOSO. 10. THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION. + +_Ital._ L' Annunciazione. La B. Vergine Annunziata. _Fr._ +L'Annonciation. La Salutation Angelique. _Ger._ Die Verkuendi gung. Der +Englische Gruss. March 25. + + +The second part of the life of the Virgin Mary begins with the +Annunciation and ends with the Crucifixion, comprising all those +scriptural incidents which connect her history with that of her divine +Son. + +But to the scenes narrated in the Gospels the painters did not confine +themselves. Not only were the simple scripture histories coloured +throughout by the predominant and enthusiastic veneration paid to the +Virgin--till the life of Christ was absolutely merged in that of His +mother, and its various incidents became "the seven joys and the seven +sorrows of Mary,"--but we find the artistic representations of her +life curiously embroidered and variegated by the introduction of +traditional and apocryphal circumstances, in most cases sanctioned +by the Church authorities of the time. However doubtful or repulsive +some of these scenes and incidents, we cannot call them absolutely +unmeaning or absurd; on the contrary, what was _supposed_ grew up very +naturally, in the vivid and excited imaginations of the people, out of +what was _recorded_; nor did they distinguish accurately between what +they were allowed and what they were commanded to believe. Neither can +it be denied that the traditional incidents--those at least which we +find artistically treated--are often singularly beautiful, poetical, +and instructive. In the hands of the great religions artists, who +worked in their vocation with faith and simplicity, objects and scenes +the most familiar and commonplace became sanctified and glorified by +association with what we deem most holy and most venerable. In the +hands of the later painters the result was just the reverse--what +was most spiritual, most hallowed, most elevated, became secularized, +materialized, and shockingly degraded. + +No subject has been more profoundly felt and more beautifully handled +by the old painters, nor more vilely mishandled by the moderns, than +the ANNUNCIATION, of all the scenes in the life of Mary the most +important and the most commonly met with. Considered merely as an +artistic subject, it is surely eminently beautiful: it places before +us the two most graceful forms which the hand of man was ever called +on to delineate;--the winged spirit fresh from paradise; the woman +not less pure, and even more highly blessed--the chosen vessel of +redemption, and the personification of all female loveliness, all +female excellence, all wisdom, and all purity. + + * * * * * + +We find the Annunciation, like many other scriptural incidents, +treated in two ways--as a mystery, and as an event. Taken in the +former sense, it became the expressive symbol of a momentous article +of faith, _The Incarnation of the Deity_. Taken in the latter sense, +it represented the announcement of salvation to mankind, through the +direct interposition of miraculous power. In one sense or the other, +it enters into every scheme of ecclesiastical decoration; but +chiefly it is set before us as a great and awful mystery, of which +the two figures of Gabriel, the angel-messenger, and Mary the +"highly-favoured," placed in relation to each other, became the +universally accepted symbol, rather than the representation. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION AS A MYSTERY. + + +Considering the importance given to the Annunciation in its mystical +sense, it is strange that we do not find it among the very ancient +symbolical subjects adopted in the first ages of Christian art. It +does not appear on the sarcophagi, nor in the early Greek carvings and +diptychs, nor in the early mosaics--except once, and then as a part of +the history of Christ, not as a symbol; nor can we trace the mystical +treatment of this subject higher than the eleventh century, when +it first appears in the Gothic sculpture and stained glass. In the +thirteenth, and thenceforward, the Annunciation appears before +us, as the expression in form of a theological dogma, everywhere +conspicuous. It became a primal element in every combination of sacred +representations; the corner-stone, as it were, of every architectural +system of religious decoration. It formed a part of every altar-piece, +either in sculpture or painting. Sometimes the Virgin stands on +one side of the altar, the angel on the other, carved in marble or +alabaster, or of wood richly painted and gilt; or even, as I have +seen in some instances, of solid silver. Not seldom, we find the two +figures placed in niches against the pillars, or on pedestals at the +entrance of the choir. It was not necessary, when thus symbolically +treated, to place the two figures in proximity to signify their +relation to each other; they are often divided by the whole breadth +of the chancel. + +Whatever the subject of the altar-piece--whether the Nativity, or the +Enthroned Madonna, or the Coronation, or the Crucifixion, or the +Last Supper,--the Annunciation almost invariably formed part of the +decoration, inserted either into the spandrels of the arches above, or +in the predella below; or, which is very common, painted or carved on +the doors of a tabernacle or triptychon. + +If the figures are full-length, a certain symmetry being required, +they are either both standing or both kneeling; it is only in later +times that the Virgin sits, and the angel kneels. When disposed in +circles or semicircles, they are often merely busts, or half-length +figures, separated perhaps by a framework of tracery, or set on each +side of the principal subject, whatever that may be. Hence it is +that we so often find in galleries and collections, pictures of the +Annunciation in two separate parts, the angel in one frame, the +Virgin in another; and perhaps the two pictures, thus disunited, +may have found their way into different countries and different +collections,--the Virgin being in Italy and the angel in England. + +Sometimes the Annunciation--still as a mystical subject--forms an +altar-piece of itself. In many Roman Catholic churches there is +a chapel or an altar dedicated expressly to the mystery of the +Annunciation, the subject forming of course the principal decoration. +At Florence there is a church--one of the most splendid and +interesting of its many beautiful edifices--dedicated to the +Annunciation, or rather to the Virgin in her especial character and +dignity, as the Instrument of the Incarnation, and thence styled +the church _della Santissima Nunziata_. The fine mosaic of the +Annunciation by Ghirlandajo is placed over the principal entrance. Of +this church, and of the order of the Servi, to whom it belongs, I have +already spoken at length. Here, in the first chapel on the left, as +we enter, is to be found the miraculous picture of the Annunciation, +formerly held in such veneration, not merely by all Florence, but +all Christendom:--found, but not seen--for it is still concealed from +profane eyes, and exhibited to the devout only on great occasions. The +name of the painter is disputed; but, according to tradition, it is +the work of a certain Bartolomeo; who, while he sat meditating on the +various excellences and perfections of our Lady, and most especially +on her divine beauty, and thinking, with humility, how inadequate were +his own powers to represent her worthily, fell asleep; and on awaking, +found the head of the Virgin had been wondrously completed, either by +the hand of an angel, or by that of St. Luke, who had descended from +heaven on purpose. Though this curious relic has been frequently +restored, no one has presumed to touch the features of the Virgin, +which are, I am told--for I have never been blessed with a sight +of the original picture--marvellously sweet and beautiful. It is +concealed by a veil, on which is painted a fine head of the Redeemer, +by Andrea del Sarto; and forty-two lamps of silver burn continually +round it. There is a copy in the Pitti Palace, by Carlo Dolce. + +It is evident that the Annunciation, as a mystery, admits of a style +of treatment which would not be allowable in the representation of +an event. In the former case, the artist is emancipated from all +considerations of locality or circumstance. Whether the background +be of gold, or of blue, or star-bespangled sky,--a mere curtain, or a +temple of gorgeous architecture; whether the accessories be the most +simple or the most elaborate, the most real or the most ideal; all +this is of little moment, and might be left to the imagination of the +artist, or might be modified according to the conditions imposed by +the purpose of the representation and the material employed, so long +as the chief object is fulfilled--the significant expression of an +abstract dogma, appealing to the faith, not to the senses or the +understanding, of the observer. + +To this class, then, belong all those church images and pictures of +the Annunciation, either confined to the two personages, with just +sufficient of attitude and expression to place them in relation to +each other, or with such accompaniments as served to carry out the +mystical idea, still keeping it as far as possible removed from the +region of earthly possibilities. In the fifteenth century--that age of +mysticism--we find the Annunciation, not merely treated as an abstract +religious emblem, but as a sort of divine allegory or poem, which +in old French and Flemish art is clothed in the quaintest, the most +curious forms. I recollect going into a church at Breslau, and +finding over one of the altars a most elaborate carving in wood of +the Annunciation. Mary is seated within a Gothic porch of open tracery +work; a unicorn takes refuge in her bosom: outside, a kneeling angel +winds a hunting horn; three or four dogs are crouching near him. I +looked and wondered. At first I could make nothing of this singular +allegory; but afterwards found the explanation, in a learned French +work on the "Stalles d'Amiens." I give the original passage, for it +will assist the reader to the comprehension of many curious works of +art; but I do not venture to translate it. + +"On sait qu'an XVI siecle, le mystere de l'Incarnation etoit souvent +represente par une allegorie ainsi concue: Une licorne se refugiant +au sein d'une vierge pure, quatre levriers la pressant d'une course +rapide, un veneur aile sonnant de la trompette. La science de la +zoologie mystique du temps aide a en trouver l'explication; le +fabuleux animal dont l'unique corne ne blessait que pour purger de +tout venin l'endroit du corps qu'elle avoit touche, figuroit Jesus +Christ, medecin et sauveur des ames; on donnait aux levriers agiles +les noms de Misericordia, Veritas, Justitia, Pax, les quatre raisons +qui ont presse le Verbe eternel de sortir de son repos mais comme +c'etoit par la Vierge Marie qu'il avoit voulu descendre parmi les +hommes et se mettre en leur puissance, on croyoit ne pouvoir mieux +faire que de choisir dans la fable, le fait d'une pucelle pouvant +seule servir de piege a la licorne, en l'attirant par le charme +et le parfum de son sein virginal qu'elle lui presentoit; enfin +l'ange Gabriel concourant au mystere etoit bien reconnoissable sous +les traits du venenr aile lancant les levriers et embouchant la +trompette." + + * * * * * + +It appears that this was an accepted religious allegory, as familiar +in the sixteenth century as those of Spenser's "Fairy Queen" or the +"Pilgrim's Progress" are to us. I have since found it frequently +reproduced in the old French and German prints: there is a specimen +in the British Museum; and there is a picture similarly treated in the +Musee at Amiens. I have never seen it in an Italian picture or print; +unless a print after Guido, wherein a beautiful maiden is seated under +a tree, and a unicorn has sought refuge in her lap, be intended to +convey the same far-fetched allegory. + +Very common, however, in Italian art, is a less fantastic, but still +wholly poetical version of the Annunciation, representing, in fact, +not the Annunciation, but the Incarnation. Thus, in a picture by +Giovanni Sanzio (the father of Raphael) (Brera, Milan), Mary stands +under a splendid portico; she appears as if just risen from her seat +her hands are meekly folded over her bosom; her head declined. The +angel kneels outside the portico, holding forth his lily; while above, +in the heavens, the Padre Eterno sends forth the Redeemer, who, in +form of the infant Christ bearing his cross, floats downwards towards +the earth, preceded by the mystic Dove. This manner of representing +the Incarnation is strongly disapproved of by the Abbe Mery (v. +Theologie des Peintres), as not only an error, but a heresy: yet it +was frequently repeated in the sixteenth century. + +The Annunciation is also a mystery when certain emblems are introduced +conveying a certain signification; as when Mary is seated on a throne, +wearing a radiant crown of mingled gems and flowers, and receives the +message of the angel with all the majesty that could be expressed by +the painter; or is seated, in a garden enclosed by a hedge of roses +(the _Hortus clausus_ or _conclusus_ of the Canticles); or where the +angel holds in his hands the sealed book, as in the famous altar-piece +at Cologne. + +In a picture by Simone Memmi, the Virgin seated on a Gothic throne +receives, as the higher and superior being, yet with a shrinking +timidity, the salutation of the angel, who comes as the messenger +of peace, olive-crowned, and bearing a branch of olive in his hand. +(Florence Gal.) This poetical version is very characteristic of the +early Siena school, in which we often find a certain fanciful and +original way of treating well known subjects. Taddeo Bartoli, another +Sienese, and Martin Schoen, the most poetical of the early Germans, +also adopted the olive-symbol; and we find it also in the tabernacle +of King Rene, already described. + +The treatment is clearly devotional and ideal where attendant +saints and votaries stand or kneel around, contemplating with devout +gratitude or ecstatic wonder the divine mystery. Thus, in a remarkable +and most beautiful picture by Fra Bartolomeo, the Virgin is seated on +her throne; the angel descends from on high bearing his lily: around +the throne attend St. John the Baptist and St. Francis, St. Jerome, +St. Paul, and St. Margaret. (Bologna Gal.) Again, in a very beautiful +picture by Francia, Mary stands in the midst of an open landscape; her +hands, folded over each other, press to her bosom a book closed and +clasped: St. Jerome stands on the right, John the Baptist on the left; +both look up with a devout expression to the angel descending from +above. In both these examples Mary is very nobly and expressively +represented as the chosen and predestined vehicle of human redemption. +It is not here the Annunciation, but the "_Sacratissima Annunziata_" +we see before us. In a curious picture by Francesco da Cotignola, +Mary stands on a sculptured pedestal, in the midst of an architectural +decoration of many-coloured marbles, most elaborately painted: through +an opening is seen a distant landscape, and the blue sky; on her +right stands St. John the Baptist, pointing upwards; on her left St. +Francis, adoring; the votary kneels in front. (Berlin Gal.) Votive +pictures of the Annunciation were frequently expressive offerings from +those who desired, or those who had received, the blessing of an heir; +and this I take to be an instance. + +In the following example, the picture is votive in another sense, +and altogether poetical. The Virgin Mary receives the message of the +angel, as usual; but before her, at a little distance, kneels the +Cardinal Torrecremata, who presents three young girls, also kneeling, +to one of whom the Virgin gives a purse of money. This curious and +beautiful picture becomes intelligible, when we find that it was +painted for a charitable community, instituted by Torrecremata, +for educating and endowing poor orphan girls, and styled the +"_Confraternita dell' Annunziata_."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Benozzo Gozzoli, in S. Maria sopra Minerva, Rome.] + +In the charming Annunciation by Angelico, the scene is in the cloister +of his own convent of St. Mark. A Dominican (St. Peter Martyr) +stands in the background with hands folded in prayer. I might add +many beautiful examples from Fra Bartolomeo, and in sculpture from +Benedetto Maiano, Luca della Robbia, and others, but have said enough +to enable the observer to judge of the intention of the artist. The +Annunciation by Sansovino among the bas-reliefs, which cover the +chapel at Loretto is of great elegance. + +I must, however, notice one more picture. Of six Annunciations +painted by Rubens, five represent the event; the sixth is one of his +magnificent and most palpable allegories, all glowing with life and +reality. Here Mary kneels on the summit of a flight of steps; a dove, +encompassed by cherubim, hovers over her head. Before her kneels +the celestial messenger; behind him Moses and Aaron, with David and +other patriarchal ancestors of Christ. In the clouds above is seen +the heavenly Father; on his right are two female figures, Peace and +Reconciliation; on his left, angels bear the ark of the covenant. In +the lower part of the picture, stand Isaiah and Jeremiah, with four +sibyls:--thus connecting the prophecies of the Old Testament, and +the promises made to the Gentile nations through the sibyls, with the +fulfilment of both in the message from on high. + + + + +THE ANNUNCIATION AS AN EVENT. + + +Had the Annunciation to Mary been merely mentioned as an awful and +incomprehensible vision, it would have been better to have adhered to +the mystical style of treatment, or left it alone altogether; but the +Scripture history, by giving the whole narration as a simple fact, a +real event, left it free for representation as such; and, as such, the +fancy of the artist was to be controlled and limited only by the words +of Scripture as commonly understood and interpreted, and by those +proprieties of time, place, and circumstance, which would be required +in the representation of any other historical incident or action. + +When all the accompaniments show that nothing more was in the mind +of the artist than the aim to exhibit an incident in the life of the +Virgin, or an introduction to that of our Lord, the representation is +no longer mystical and devotional, but historical. The story was to be +told with all the fidelity, or at least all the likelihood, that was +possible; and it is clear that, in this case, the subject admitted, +and even required, a more dramatic treatment, with such accessories +and accompaniments as might bring the scene within the sphere of the +actual. In this sense it is not to be mistaken. Although the action is +of itself so very simple, and the actors confined to two persons, it +is astonishing to note the infinite variations of which this favourite +theme has been found susceptible. Whether all these be equally +appropriate and laudable, is quite another question; and in how far +the painters have truly interpreted the Scriptural narration, is now +to be considered. + +And first, with regard to the time, which is not especially mentioned. +It was presumed by the Fathers and early commentators on Scripture, +that the Annunciation must have taken place in early spring-time, at +eventide, soon after sunset, the hour since consecrated as the "Ave +Maria," as the bell which announces it is called the "Angelus;"[1] +but other authorities say that it was rather at midnight, because +the nativity of our Lord took place at the corresponding hour in the +following December. This we find exactly attended to by many of the +old painters, and indicated either by the moon and stars in the sky, +or by a taper or a lamp burning near. + +[Footnote 1: So Lord Byron:-- + + "Ave Maria! blessed be the hour! + The time, the clime, the spot, where I so oft + Have felt that moment in its fullest power + Sink o'er the earth so beautiful and soft, + While swung the deep bell in the distant tower, + Or the faint dying day-hymn stole aloft, + And not a breath crept through the rosy air, + And yet the forest leaves seem'd stirr'd with prayer"] + + * * * * * + +With regard to the locality, we are told by St. Luke that the angel +Gabriel was sent from God, and that "he came _in_ to Mary" (Luke i. +28), which seems to express that she was _within_ her house. + +In describing the actual scene of the interview between the angel and +Mary, the legendary story of the Virgin adheres very closely to the +scriptural text. But it also relates, that Mary went forth at evening +to draw water from the fountain; that she heard a voice which said, +"Hail thou that art full of grace!" and thereupon being troubled, she +looked to the right and to the left, and seeing no one, returned to +her _house_, and sat down to her work, (Protevangelion, ix. 7.) Had +any exact attention been paid to oriental customs, Mary might have +been working or reading or meditating on the roof of her house; but +this has not suggested itself in any instance that I can remember. We +have, as the scene of the interview, an interior which is sometimes +like an oratory, sometimes a portico with open arcades; but more +generally a bedroom. The poverty of Joseph and Mary, and their humble +condition in life, are sometimes attended to, but not always; for, +according to one tradition, the house at Nazareth was that which Mary +had inherited from her parents, Joachim and Anna, who were people of +substance. Hence, the painters had an excuse for making the chamber +richly furnished, the portico sustained by marble pillars, or +decorated with sculpture. In the German and Flemish pictures, the +artist, true to the national characteristic of _naive_ and literal +illustration, gives us a German or a Gothic chamber, with a lattice +window of small panes of glass, and a couch with pillows, or a +comfortable four-post bedstead, furnished with draperies, thus +imparting to the whole scene an air of the most vivid homely reality. + +As for the accessories, the most usual, almost indispensable, is the +pot of lilies, the symbolical _Fleur de Marie_, which I have already +explained at length. There is also a basket containing needle work and +implements of female industry, as scissors, &c.; not merely to express +Mary's habitual industry, but because it is related that when she +returned to her house, "she took the purple linen, and sat down to +work it." The work-basket is therefore seldom omitted. Sometimes a +distaff lies at her feet, as in Raphael's Annunciation. In old German +pictures we have often a spinning-wheel. To these emblems of industry +is often added a basket, or a dish, containing fruit; and near it a +pitcher of water to express the temperance of the blessed Virgin. + +There is grace and meaning in the introduction of birds, always +emblems of the spiritual. Titian places a tame partridge at the feet +of Mary, which expresses her tenderness; but the introduction of a +cat, as in Barroccio's picture, is insufferable. + + * * * * * + +The archangel Gabriel, "one of those who stand continually in the +presence of God," having received his mission, descends to earth. +In the very earliest representation of the Annunciation, as an event +(Mosaic, S. Maria Maggiore), we have this descent of the winged spirit +from on high; and I have seen other instances. There is a small and +beautiful sketch by Garofalo (Alton Towers), in which, from amidst +a flood of light, and a choir of celestial spirits, such as Milton +describes as adoring the "divine sacrifice" proclaimed for sinful man +(Par. Lost, b. iii.), the archangel spreads his lucid wings, and seems +just about to take his flight to Nazareth. He was accompanied, says +the Italian legend, by a train of lower angels, anxious to behold +and reverence their Queen; these remained, however, at the door, or +"before the gate," while Gabriel entered. + +The old German masters are fond of representing him as entering by +a door in the background, while the serene Virgin, seated in front, +seems aware of his presence without seeing him. + +In some of the old pictures, he comes in flying from above, or he is +upborne by an effulgent cloud, and surrounded by a glory which lights +the whole picture,--a really _celestial_ messenger, as in a fresco +by Spinello Aretino. In others, he comes gliding in, "smooth sliding +without step;" sometimes he enters like a heavenly ambassador, and +little angels hold up his train. In a picture by Tintoretto, he comes +rushing in as upon a whirlwind, followed by a legion of lesser angels; +while on the outside of the building, Joseph the carpenter is seen +quietly at his work. (Venice, School of S. Rocco.) + +But, whether walking or flying, Gabriel bears, of course, the +conventional angelic form, that of the human creature, winged, +beautiful, and radiant with eternal youth, yet with a grave and +serious mien, in the later pictures, the drapery given to the angel is +offensively scanty; his sandals, and bare arms, and fluttering robe, +too much _a l'antique_; he comes in the attitude of a flying Mercury, +or a dancer in a ballet. But in the early Italian pictures his dress +is arranged with a kind of solemn propriety: it is that of an acolyte, +white and full, and falling in large folds over his arms, and in +general concealing his feet. In the German pictures, he often wears +the priestly robe, richly embroidered, and clasped in front by a +jewel. His ambrosial curls fall over this cope in "hyacinthine +flow." The wings are essential, and never omitted. They are white, or +many-coloured, eyed like the peacock's train, or bedropped with gold. +He usually bears the lily in his hand, but not always. Sometimes it is +the sceptre, the ancient attribute of a herald; and this has a scroll +around it, with the words, "Ave Maria gratia plena!" The sceptre or +wand is, occasionally surmounted by a cross. + +In general, the palm is given to the angel who announces the death of +Mary. In one or two instances only I have seen the palm given to the +angel Gabriel, as in a predella by Angelico; for which, however, the +painter had the authority of Dante, or Dante some authority earlier +still. He says of Gabriel, + + "That he bore the _palm_ + Down unto Mary when the Son of God + Vouchsafed to clothe him in terrestrial weeds." + +The olive-bough has a mystical sense wherever adopted: it is the +symbol of _peace_ on earth. Often the angel bears neither lily, nor +sceptre, nor palm, nor olive. His hands are folded on his bosom; or, +with one hand stretched forth, and the other pointing upwards, he +declares his mission from on high. + +In the old Greek pictures, and in the most ancient Italian examples, +the angel stands; as in the picture by Cimabue, wherein the Greek +model is very exactly followed. According to the Roman Catholic +belief, Mary is Queen of heaven, and of angels--the superior being; +consequently, there is propriety in making the angel deliver his +message kneeling: but even according to the Protestant belief the +attitude would not be unbecoming, for the angel, having uttered +his salutation, might well prostrate himself as witness of the +transcending miracle, and beneath the overshadowing presence of +the Holy Spirit. + +Now, as to the attitude and occupation of Mary at the moment the +angel entered, authorities are not agreed. It is usual to exhibit her +as kneeling in prayer, or reading with a large book open on a desk +before her. St. Bernard says that she was studying the book of the +prophet Isaiah, and as she recited the verse, "Behold, a Virgin shall +conceive, and bear a son," she thought within her heart, in her great +humility, "How blessed the woman of whom these words are written! +Would I might be but her handmaid to serve her, and allowed, to kiss +her feet!"--when, in the same instant, the wondrous vision burst +upon her, and the holy prophecy was realized in herself. (Il perfetto +Legendario.) + +I think it is a manifest fault to disturb the sublime tenor of the +scene by representing Mary as starting up in alarm; for, in the first +place, she was accustomed, as we have seen, to the perpetual ministry +of angels, who daily and hourly attended on her. It is, indeed, said +that Mary was troubled; but it was not the presence, but the "saying" +of the angel which troubled her--it was the question "how this should +be?" (Luke i. 29.) The attitude, therefore, which some painters have +given to her, as if she had started from her seat, not only in terror, +but in indignation, is altogether misplaced. A signal instance is +the statue of the Virgin by Mocchi in the choir of the cathedral at +Orvieto, so grand in itself, and yet so offensive as a devotional +figure. Misplaced is also, I think, the sort of timid shrinking +surprise which is the expression in some pictures. The moment is +much too awful, the expectance much too sublime, for any such human, +girlish emotions. If the painter intend to express the moment in which +the angel appears and utters the salutation, "Hail!" then Mary may be +standing, and her looks directed towards him, as in a fine majestic +Annunciation of Andrea del Sarto. Standing was the antique attitude +of prayer; so that if we suppose her to have been interrupted in her +devotions, the attitude is still appropriate. But if that moment +be chosen in which she expressed her submission to the divine will, +"Behold the handmaid of the Lord! let it be unto me according to thy +word!" then she might surely kneel with bowed bead, and folded hands, +and "downcast eyes beneath th' almighty Dove." No attitude could be +too humble to express that response; and Dante has given us, as the +most perfect illustration of the virtue of humility, the sentiment and +attitude of Mary when submitting herself to the divine will. (Purg. +x., Cary's Trans.) + + "The angel (who came down to earth + With tidings of the peace to many years + Wept for in vain, that op'd the heavenly gates + From their long interdict) before us seem'd + In a sweet act so sculptur'd to the life, + He look'd no silent image. One had sworn + He had said 'Hail!' for SHE was imag'd there, + By whom the key did open to God's love; + And in her act as sensibly imprest + That word, 'Behold the handmaid of the Lord,' + As figure seal'd on wax." + +And very beautifully has Flaxman transferred the sculpture "divinely +wrought upon the rock of marble white" to earthly form. + + * * * * * + +The presence of the Holy Spirit in the historical Annunciations is to +be accounted for by the words of St. Luke, and the visible form of the +Dove is conventional and authorized. In many pictures, the celestial +Dove enters by the open casement. Sometimes it seems to brood +immediately over the head of the Virgin; sometimes it hovers towards +her bosom. As for the perpetual introduction of the emblem of the +Padre Eterno, seen above the sky, under the usual half-figure of a +kingly ancient man, surrounded by a glory of cherubim, and sending +forth upon a beam of light the immaculate Dove, there is nothing to +be said but the usual excuse for the mediaeval artists, that certainly +there was no _conscious_ irreverence. The old painters, great as they +were in art, lived in ignorant but zealous times--in times when +faith was so fixed, so much a part of the life and soul, that it was +not easily shocked or shaken; as it was not founded in knowledge or +reason, so nothing that startled the reason could impair it. Religion, +which now speaks to us through words, then spoke to the people through +visible forms universally accepted; and, in the fine arts, we accept +such forms according to the feeling which _then_ existed in men's +minds, and which, in its sincerity, demands our respect, though now we +might not, could not, tolerate the repetition. We must also remember +that it was not in the ages of ignorance and faith that we find +the grossest materialism in art. It was in the learned, half-pagan +sixteenth and the polished seventeenth century, that this materialized +theology became most offensive. Of all the artists who have sinned +in the Annunciation--and they are many--Nicolo Poussin is perhaps +the worst. Yet he was a good, a pious man, as well as a learned and +accomplished painter. All through the history of the art, the French +show themselves as the most signal violators of good taste, and what +they have invented a word for--_bienseance_. They are worse than the +old Germans; worse than the modern Spaniards--and that is saying much. + +In Raphael's Annunciation, Mary is seated in a reclining attitude, +leaning against the side of her couch, and holding a book. The angel, +whose attitude expresses a graceful _empressement_, kneels at some +distance, holding the lily. + + * * * * * + +Michael Angelo gives us a most majestic Virgin standing on the steps +of a prie-Dieu, and turning with hands upraised towards the angel, who +appears to have entered by the open door; his figure is most clumsy +and material, and his attitude unmeaning and ungraceful. It is, I +think, the only instance in which Michael Angelo has given wings to +an angelic being: for here they could not be dispensed with. + +In a beautiful Annunciation by Johan Van Eyck (Munich Gal., Cabinet +iii. 35), the Virgin kneels at a desk with a book before her. She has +long fair hair, and a noble intellectual brow. Gabriel, holding his +sceptre, stands in the door-way. The Dove enters by the lattice. A +bed is in the background, and in front a pot of lilies. In another +Annunciation by Van Eyck, painted on the Ghent altar-piece, we have +the mystic, not the historical, representation, and a very beautiful +effect is produced by clothing both the angel and Mary in robes of +pure white. (Berlin Gal., 520, 521.) + +In an engraving after Rembrandt, the Virgin kneels by a fountain, +and the angel kneels on the opposite side. This seems to express the +legendary scene. + +These few observations on the general arrangement of the theme, +whether mystical or historical, will, I hope, assist the observer in +discriminating for himself. I must not venture further, for we have a +wide range of subjects before us. + + + + +THE VISITATION. + +_Ital._ La Visitazione di Maria. _Fr._ La Visitation de la Vierge +_Ger._ Die Heimsuchung Mariae. July 2. + + +After the Annunciation of the angel, the Scripture goes on to relate +how "Mary arose and went up into the hill country with haste, to +the house of her cousin Elizabeth, and saluted her." This meeting +of the two kinswomen is the subject styled in art the "Visitation," +and sometimes the "Salutation of Elizabeth." It is of considerable +importance, in a series of the life of the Virgin, as an event; and +also, when taken separately in its religious significance, as being +the first recognition of the character of the Messiah. "Whence is this +to me," exclaims Elizabeth, "that the mother of my Lord should come to +me?" (Luke i. 43); and as she spoke this through the influence of the +Holy Spirit, and not through knowledge, she is considered in the light +of a prophetess. + +Of Elizabeth I must premise a few words, because in many +representations relating to the life of the Virgin, and particularly +in those domestic groups, the Holy Families properly so called, she +is a personage of great importance, and we ought to be able, by some +preconceived idea of her bearing and character, to test the propriety +of that impersonation usually adopted by the artists. We must remember +that she was much older than her cousin, a woman "well stricken +in years;" but it is a, great mistake to represent her as old, as +wrinkled and decrepit, as some painters have done. We are told that +she was righteous before the Lord, "walking in all his commandments +blameless:" the manner in which she received the visit of Mary, +acknowledging with a glad humility the higher destinies of her young +relative, show her to have been free from all envy and jealousy. +Therefore all pictures of Elizabeth should exhibit her as an elderly, +but not an aged matron; a dignified, mild, and gracious creature; one +selected to high honour by the Searcher of hearts, who, looking down +on hers, had beheld it pure from any secret taint of selfishness, even +as her conduct had been blameless before man.[1] + +[Footnote 1: For a full account of the legends relating to Elizabeth, +the mother of the Baptist, see the fourth series of Sacred and +Legendary Art.] + + * * * * * + +Such a woman as we believe Mary to have been must have loved and +honoured such a woman as Elizabeth. Wherefore, having heard that +Elizabeth had been exalted to a miraculous motherhood, she made haste +to visit her, not to ask her advice,--for being graced with all good +gifts of the Holy Spirit, and herself the mother of Wisdom, she could +not need advice,--but to sympathize with her cousin and reveal what +had happened to herself. + +Thus then they met, "these two mothers of two great princes, of whom +one was pronounced the greatest born of woman, and the other was his +Lord:" happiest and most exalted of all womankind before or since, +"needs must they have discoursed like seraphim and the most ecstasied +order of Intelligences!" Such was the blessed encounter represented in +the Visitation. + + * * * * * + +The number of the figures, the locality and circumstances, vary +greatly. Sometimes we have only the two women, without accessories +of any kind, and nothing interferes with the high solemnity of that +moment in which Elizabeth confesses the mother of her Lord. The better +to express this willing homage, this momentous prophecy, she is often +kneeling. Other figures are frequently introduced, because it could +not be supposed that Mary made the journey from Nazareth to the +dwelling of Zacharias near Jerusalem, a distance of fifty miles, +alone. Whether her husband Joseph accompanied her, is doubtful; +and while many artists have introduced him, others have omitted him +altogether. According to the ancient Greek formula laid down for the +religious painters, Mary is accompanied by a servant or a boy, who +carries a stick across his shoulder, and a basket slung to it. The old +Italians who followed the Byzantine models seldom omit this attendant, +but in some instances (as in the magnificent composition of Michael +Angelo, in the possession of Mr. Bromley, of Wootten) a handmaid +bearing a basket on her head is substituted for the boy. In many +instances Joseph, attired as a traveller, appears behind the Virgin, +and Zacharias, in his priestly turban and costume, behind Elizabeth. + +The locality is often an open porch or a garden in front of a house; +and this garden of Zacharias is celebrated in Eastern tradition. It is +related that the blessed Virgin, during her residence with her cousin +Elizabeth, frequently recreated herself by walking in the garden +of Zacharias, while she meditated on the strange and lofty destiny +to which she was appointed; and farther, that happening one day to +touch a certain flower, which grew there, with her most blessed hand, +from being inodorous before, it became from that moment deliciously +fragrant. The garden therefore was a fit place for the meeting. + + * * * * * + +1. The earliest representation of the Visitation to which I can refer +is a rude but not ungraceful drawing, in the Catacombs at Rome, of two +women embracing. It is not of very high antiquity, perhaps the seventh +or eighth century, but there can be so doubt about the subject. +(Cemetery of Julius, v. Bosio, Roma sotterana.) + +2. Cimabue has followed the Greek formula, and his simple group +appears to me to have great feeling and simplicity. + +3. More modern instances, from the date of the revival of art, abound +in every form. Almost every painter who has treated subjects from the +life of the Virgin has treated the Visitation. In the composition by +Raphael (Madrid Gal.) there are the two figures only; and I should +object to this otherwise perfect picture, the bashful conscious look +of the Virgin Mary. The heads are, however, eminently beautiful and +dignified. In the far background is seen the Baptism of Christ--very +happily and significantly introduced, not merely as expressing the +name of the votary who dedicated the picture, _Giovan-Battista_ +Branconio, but also as expressing the relation between the two unborn +Children--the Christ and his Prophet. + +4. The group by Sebastian del Piombo is singularly grand, showing in +every part the influence of Michael Angelo, but richly coloured in +Sebastian's best manner. The figures are seen only to the knees. In +the background, Zacharias is seen hurrying down some steps to receive +the Virgin.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, 1224. There is, in the Louvre, another Visitation +of singular and characteristic beauty by D. Ghirlandajo.] + +5. The group by Pinturicchio, with the attendant angels, is remarkable +for its poetic grace; and that by Lucas v. Leyden is equally +remarkable for affectionate sentiment. + +6. Still more beautiful, and more dramatic and varied, is another +composition by Pinturicchio in the Sala Borgia. (Vatican, Rome.) The +Virgin and St. Elizabeth, in the centre, take each other's hands. +Behind the Virgin is St. Joseph, a maiden with a basket on her head, +and other attendants. Behind St. Elizabeth, we have a view into the +interior of her house, through arcades richly sculptured; and within, +Zacharias is reading, and the handmaids of Elizabeth, are spinning and +sewing. This elegant fresco was painted for Alexander VI. + +7. There is a fine picture of this subject, by Andrea Sabattini of +Salerno, the history of which is rather curious. "It was painted at +the request of the Sanseverini, princes of Salerno, to be presented to +a nunnery, in which one of that noble family had taken the veil. Under +the form of the blessed Virgin, Andrea represented the last princess +of Salerno, who was of the family of Villa Marina; under that of St. +Joseph, the prince her husband; an old servant of the family figures +as St. Elizabeth; and in the features of Zacharias we recognize those +of Bernardo Tasso, the father of Torquato Tasso, and then secretary +to the prince of Salerno. After remaining for many years over the high +altar of the church, it was removed through the scruples of one of +the Neapolitan archbishops, who was scandalized by the impropriety of +placing the portraits of well-known personages in such a situation." +The picture, once removed from its place, disappeared, and by some +means found its way to the Louvre. Andrea, who was one of the most +distinguished of the scholars of Raphael, died in 1545.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture is thus described in the old catalogues of +the Louvre (No. 1207); but is not to be found in that of Villot.] + +8. The composition by Rubens has all that scenic effect and dramatic +movement which was characteristic of the painter. The meeting takes +place on a flight of steps leading to the house of Zacharias. The +Virgin wears a hat, as one just arrived from a journey; Joseph +and Zacharias greet each other; a maiden with a basket on her head +follows; and in the foreground a man unloads the ass. + +I will mention two other example, each perfect in its way, in two most +opposite styles of treatment. + +9. The first is the simple majestic composition of Albertinelli. +(Florence Gal.) The two women, standing alone under a richly +sculptured arch, and relieved against the bright azure sky, embrace +each other. There are no accessories. Mary is attired in dark-blue +drapery, and Elizabeth wears an ample robe of a saffron or rather +amber colour. The mingled grandeur, power, and grace, and depth of +expression in these two figures, are quite extraordinary; they look +like what they are, and worthy to be mothers of the greatest of kings +and the greatest of prophets. Albertinelli has here emulated his +friend Bartolomeo--his friend, whom he so loved, that when, after the +horrible execution of Savonarola, Bartolomeo, broken-hearted, threw +himself into the convent of St. Mark, Albertinelli became almost +distracted and desperate. He would certainly, says Vasari, have gone +into the same convent, but for the hatred be bore the monks, "of whom +he was always saying the most injurious things." + +Through some hidden influence of intense sympathy, Albertinelli, +though in point of character the very antipodes of his friend, often +painted so like him, that his pictures--and this noble picture more +particularly--might be mistaken for the work of the Frate. + + * * * * * + +10. We will now turn to a conception altogether different, and equally +a masterpiece; it is the small but exquisitely finished composition +by Rembrandt. (Grosvenor Gal.) The scene is the garden in front of +the house of Zacharias; Elizabeth is descending the steps in haste +to receive and embrace with outstretched arms the Virgin Mary, who +appears to have just alighted from her journey. The aged Zacharias, +supported by a youth, is seen following Elizabeth to welcome their +guest. Behind Mary stands a black female attendant, in the act of +removing a mantle from her shoulders; in the background a servant, +or (as I think) Joseph, holds the ass on which Mary has journeyed; a +peacock with a gem-like train, and a hen with a brood of chickens (the +latter the emblem of maternity), are in the foreground. Though the +representation thus conceived appears like a scene of every-day life, +nothing can be more poetical than the treatment, more intensely true +and noble than the expression of the diminutive figures, more masterly +and finished than the execution, more magical and lustrous than the +effect of the whole. The work of Albertinelli, in its large and solemn +beauty and religious significance, is worthy of being placed over an +altar, on which we might offer up the work of Rembrandt as men offer +incense, gems, and gold. + +As the Visitation is not easily mistaken, I have said enough of it +here; and we pass to the next subject,--The Dream of Joseph. + + * * * * * + +Although the feast of the Visitation is fixed for the 2d of July, it +was, and is, a received opinion, that Mary began her journey to the +hill country but a short time, even a few days, after the Annunciation +of the angel. It was the sixth month with Elizabeth, and Mary +sojourned with her three months. Hence it is supposed, by many +commentators, that Mary must have been present at the birth of John +the Baptist. It may seem surprising that the early painters should not +have made use of this supposition. I am not aware that there exists +among the numerous representations of the birth of St. John, any +instance of the Virgin being introduced; it should seem that the lofty +ideas entertained of the Mater Dei rendered it impossible to place her +in a scene where she would necessarily take a subordinate position: +this I think sufficiently accounts for her absence.[1] Mary then +returned to her own dwelling at Nazareth; and when Joseph (who in +these legendary stories is constantly represented as a house-carpenter +and builder, and travelling about to exercise his trade in various +places) also came back to his home, and beheld his wife, the +suspicion entered his mind that she was about to become a mother, +and very naturally his mind was troubled "with sorrow and insecure +apprehensions; but being a just man, that is, according to the +Scriptures and other wise writers, a good, a charitable man, he would +not openly disgrace her, for he found it more agreeable to justice to +treat an offending person with the easiest sentence, than to render +her desperate, and without remedy, and provoked by the suffering of +the worst of what she could fear. No obligation to justice can force +a man to be cruel; pity, and forbearance, and long-suffering, and +fair interpretation, and excusing our brother" (and our sister), "and +taking things in the best sense, and passing the gentlest sentence, +are as certainly our duty, and owing to every person who _does_ offend +and _can_ repent, as calling men to account can be owing to the law." +(v. Bishop Taylor's Life of Christ.) Thus says the good Bishop Taylor, +praising Joseph, that he was too truly just to call furiously for +justice, and that, waiving the killing letter of the law, he was +"minded to dismiss his wife privily;" and in this he emulated the +mercy of his divine foster-Son, who did not cruelly condemn the woman +whom he knew to be guilty, but dismissed her "to repent and sin no +more." But while Joseph was pondering thus in his heart, the angel +of the Lord, the prince of angels, even Gabriel, appeared to him in a +dream, saying, "Joseph, thou son of David, fear not to take unto thee +Mary thy wife!" and he awoke and obeyed that divine voice. + +[Footnote 1: There is, however, in the Liverpool Museum, a very +exquisite miniature of the birth of St. John the Baptist, in which the +female figure standing near represents, I think, the Virgin Mary. It +was cut out of a choral book of the Siena school.] + +This first vision of the angel is not in works of art easily +distinguished from the second vision but there is a charming fresco by +Luini, which can bear no other interpretation. Joseph is seated by the +carpenter's bench, and leans his head on his hand slumbering. (Milan, +Brera.) An angel stands by him pointing to Mary who is seen at a +window above, busied with needlework. + +On waking from this vision, Joseph, says the legend, "entreated +forgiveness of Mary for having wronged her even in thought." This is +a subject quite unknown, I believe, before the fifteenth century, and +not commonly met with since, but there are some instances. On one of +the carved stalls of the Cathedral of Amiens it is very poetically +treated. (Stalles d'Amiens, p. 205.) Mary is seated on a throne under +a magnificent canopy; Joseph, kneeling before her and presented by two +angels, pleads for pardon. She extends one hand to him; in the other +is the volume of the Holy Scriptures. There is a similar version of +the text in sculpture over one of the doors of Notre-Dame at Paris. +There is also a picture by Alessandro Tiarini (Le repentir de Saint +Joseph, Louvre, 416), and reckoned by Malvasia, his finest work, +wherein Joseph kneels before the Virgin, who stands with a dignified +air, and, while she raises him with one hand, points with the other +up to heaven. Behind is seen the angel Gabriel with his finger on +his lip, as commanding silence, and two other angels. The figures are +life-size, the execution and colour very fine; the whole conception in +the grand but mannered style of the Guido school. + + + + +THE NATIVITY. + +_Ital._ Il Presepio. Il Nascimento del Nostro Signore. _Fr._ La +Nativite. _Ger._ Die Geburt Christi. Dec. 25. + + +The birth of our Saviour is related with characteristic simplicity +and brevity in the Gospels; but in the early Christian traditions this +great event is preceded and accompanied by several circumstances +which have assumed a certain importance and interest in the artistic +representations. + +According to an ancient legend, the Emperor Augustus Caesar repaired +to the sibyl Tiburtina, to inquire whether he should consent to allow +himself to be worshipped with divine honours, which the Senate had +decreed to him. The sibyl, after some days of meditation, took the +Emperor apart, and showed him an altar; and above the altar, in the +opening heavens, and in a glory of light, he beheld a beautiful Virgin +holding an Infant in her arms, and at the same time a voice was heard +saying, "This is the altar of the Son of the living God;" whereupon +Augustus caused an altar to be erected on the Capitoline Hill, with +this inscription, _Ara primogeniti Dei_; and on the same spot, in +later times, was built the church called the _Ara-Coeli_, well known, +with its flight of one hundred and twenty-four marble steps, to all +who have visited Rome. + +Of the sibyls, generally, in their relation to sacred art, I have +already spoken.[1] This particular prophecy of the Tiburtine sibyl +to Augustus rests on some very antique traditions, pagan as well as +Christian. It is supposed to have suggested the "Pollio" of Virgil, +which suggested the "Messiah" of Pope. It is mentioned by writers of +the third and fourth centuries, and our own divines have not wholly +rejected it, for Bishop Taylor mentions the sibyl's prophecy among +"the great and glorious accidents happening about the birth of Jesus." +(Life of Jesus Christ, sec. 4.) + +[Footnote 1: Introduction. The personal character and history of the +Sibyls will be treated in detail in the fourth series of Sacred and +Legendary Art.] + +A very rude but curious bas-relief preserved in the church of the +Ara-Coeli is perhaps the oldest representation extant. The Church +legend assigns to it a fabulous antiquity; but it must be older than +the twelfth century, as it is alluded to by writers of that period. +Here the Emperor Augustus kneels before the Madonna and Child and at +his side is the sibyl, Tiburtina, pointing upwards. + +Since the revival of art, the incident has been frequently treated. It +was painted by Cavallini, about 1340, on the vault of the choir of +the Ara-Coeli. In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it became +a favourite subject. It admitted of those classical forms, and that +mingling of the heathen and the Christian in style and costume, which +were calculated to please the churchmen and artists of the time, and +the examples are innumerable. + +The most celebrated, I believe, is the fresco by Baldassare Peruzzi, +in which the figure of the sibyl is certainly very majestic, but +the rest of the group utterly vulgar and commonplace. (Siena, Fonte +Giusta.) Less famous, but on the whole preferable in point of taste, +is the group by Garofalo, in the palace of the Quirinal; and there +is another by Titian, in which the scene is laid in a fine landscape +after his manner. Vasari mentions a cartoon of this subject, painted +by Rosso for Francis I., "among the best things Rosso ever produced," +and introducing the King and Queen of France, their guards, and a +concourse of people, as spectators of the scene. In some instances the +locality is a temple, with an altar, before which kneels the Emperor, +having laid upon it his sceptre and laurel crown: the sibyl points to +the vision seen through a window above. I think it is so represented +in a large picture at Hampton Court, by Pietro da Cortona. + + * * * * * + +The sibylline prophecy is supposed to have occurred a short tune +before the Nativity, about the same period when the decree went forth +"that all the world should be taxed." Joseph, therefore, arose and +saddled his ass, and set his wife upon it, and went up from Nazareth +to Bethlehem. The way was long, and steep, and weary; "and when Joseph +looked back, he saw the face of Mary that it was sorrowful, as of one +in pain; but when he looked back again, she smiled. And when they, +were come to Bethlehem, there was no room for them in the inn, because +of the great concourse of people. And Mary said to Joseph, "Take me +down for I suffer." (Protevangelion.) + +The journey to Bethlehem, and the grief and perplexity of Joseph, have +been often represented. 1. There exists a very ancient Greek carving +in ivory, wherein Mary is seated on the ass, with an expression of +suffering, and Joseph tenderly sustains her; she has one arm round his +neck, leaning on him: an angel leads the ass, lighting the way with +a torch. It is supposed that this curious relic formed part of the +ornaments of the ivory throne of the Exarch of Ravenna, and that it is +at least as old as the sixth century.[1] 2. There is an instance more +dramatic in an engraving after a master of the seventeenth century. +Mary, seated on the ass, and holding the bridle, raises her eyes to +heaven with an expression of resignation; Joseph, cap in hand, humbly +expostulates with the master of the inn, who points towards the +stable; the innkeeper's wife looks up at the Virgin with a strong +expression of pity and sympathy. 3. I remember another print of the +same subject, where, in the background, angels are seen preparing the +cradle in a cave. + +[Footnote 1: It is engraved in Gori's "Thesaurus," and described in +Muenter's "Sinnbilder."] + +I may as well add that the Virgin, in this character of mysterious, +and religious, and most pure maternity, is venerated under the title +of _La Madonna del Parto_.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Every one who has visited Naples will remember the +church on the Mergellina, dedicated to the _Madonna del Parto_, where +lies, beneath his pagan tomb, the poet Sannazzaro. Mr. Hallam, in +a beautiful passage of his "History of the Literature of Europe," +has pointed out the influence of the genius of Tasso on the whole +school of Bolognese painters of that time. Not less striking was the +influence of Sannazzaro and his famous poem on the Nativity (_De Partu +Virginis_), on the contemporary productions of Italian art, and more +particularly as regards the subject under consideration: I can trace +it through all the schools of art, from Milan to Naples, during the +latter half of the sixteenth century. Of Sannazzaro's poem, Mr. +Hallam says, that "it would be difficult to find its equal for purity, +elegance, and harmony of versification." It is not the less true, that +even its greatest merits as a Latin poem exercised the most perverse +influence on the religious art of that period. It was, indeed, only +_one_ of the many influences which may be said to have demoralized the +artists of the sixteenth century, but it was one of the greatest.] + +The Nativity of our Saviour, like the Annunciation, has been treated +in two ways, as a mystery and as an event, and we must be careful to +discriminate between them. + + +THE NATIVITY AS A MYSTERY. + +In the first sense the artist has intended simply to express the +advent of the Divinity on earth in the form of an Infant, and the +_motif_ is clearly taken from a text in the Office of the Virgin, +_Virgo quem genuit, adoravit._ In the beautiful words of Jeremy +Taylor, "She blessed him, she worshipped him, and she thanked him that +he would be born of her;" as, indeed, many a young mother has done +before and since, when she has hung in adoration over the cradle of +her first-born child;--but _here_ the child was to be a descended +God; and nothing, as it seems to me, can be more graceful and more +profoundly suggestive than the manner in which some of the early +Italian artists have expressed this idea. When, in such pictures, the +locality is marked by the poor stable, or the rough rocky cave, it +becomes "a temple full of religion, full of glory, where angels are +the ministers, the holy Virgin the worshipper, and Christ the Deity." +Very few accessories are admitted, merely such as serve to denote that +the subject is "a Nativity," properly so called, and not the "Madre +Pia," as already described. The divine Infant lies in the centre of +the picture, sometimes on a white napkin, sometimes with no other +bed than the flowery turf; sometimes his head rests on a wheat-sheaf, +always here interpreted as "the bread of life." He places his finger +on his lip, which expresses the _Verbum sum_ (or, _Vere Verbum hoc +est abbreviatum_), "I am the word," or "I am the bread of life" (_Ego +sum panis ille vitae._ John vi. 48), and fixes his eyes on the heavens +above, where the angels are singing the _Gloria in excelsis._ In +one instance, I remember, an angel holds up the cross before him; in +another, he grasps it in his hand; or it is a nail, or the crown of +thorns, anticipative of his earthly destiny. The Virgin kneels on one +side; St. Joseph, when introduced, kneels on the other; and frequently +angels unite with them in the act of adoration, or sustain the +new-born Child. In this poetical version of the subject, Lorenzo +di Credi, Perugino, Francia, and Bellini, excelled all others[1]. +Lorenzo, in particular, became quite renowned for the manner in which +he treated it, and a number of beautiful compositions from his hand +exist in the Florentine and other galleries. + +[Footnote 1: There are also most charming examples in sculpture by +Luca della Robbia, Donatello, and other masters of the Florentine +school.] + +There are instances in which attendant saints and votaries are +introduced as beholding and adoring this great mystery. 1. For +instance, in a picture by Cima, Tobit and the angel are introduced +on one side, and St. Helena and St. Catherine on the other. 2. In a +picture by Francia (Bologna Gal.), the Infant, reclining upon a white +napkin, is adored by the kneeling Virgin, by St. Augustine, and by two +angels also kneeling. The votary, Antonio Galeazzo Bentivoglio, for +whom the picture was painted, kneels in the habit of a pilgrim.[1] He +had lately returned from a pilgrimage to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, thus +poetically expressed in the scene of the Nativity, and the picture was +dedicated as an act of thanksgiving as well as of faith. St. Joseph +and St. Francis stand on one side; on the other is a shepherd crowned +with laurel. Francia, according to tradition, painted his own portrait +as St. Francis; and his friend the poet, Girolamo Casio de' Medici, +as the shepherd. 3. In a large and famous Nativity by Giulio Romano +(Louvre, 293), which once belonged to our Charles I., St. John the +Evangelist, and St. Longinus (who pierced our Saviour's side with his +lance), are standing on each side as two witnesses to the divinity of +Christ;--here strangely enough placed on a par: but we are reminded +that Longinus had lately been inaugurated as patron of Mantua, (v. +Sacred and Legendary Art.) + +[Footnote 1: "An excellent likeness," says Vasari. It is engraved as +such in Litta's Memorials of the Bentivogli. Girolamo Casio received +the laurel crown from the hand of Clement VII. in 1523. A beautiful +votive Madonna, dedicated by Girolamo Casio and his son Giacomo, and +painted by Beltraffio, is in the Louvre.] + +In a triptych by Hans Hemling (Berlin Gal.) we have in the centre the +Child, adored, as usual, by the Virgin mother and attending angels, +the votary also kneeling: in the compartment on the right, we find the +manifestation of the Redeemer to the _west_ exhibited in the prophecy +of the sibyl to Augustus; on the left, the manifestation of the +Redeemer to the _east_ is expressed by the journey of the Magi, and +the miraculous star--"we have seen his star _in the east_." + +But of all these ideal Nativities, the most striking is one by Sandro +Botticelli, which is indeed a comprehensive poem, a kind of hymn on +the Nativity, and might be set to music. In the centre is a shed, +beneath which the Virgin, kneeling, adores the Child, who has +his finger on his lip. Joseph is seen a little behind, as if in +meditation. On the right hand, the angel presents three figures +(probably the shepherds) crowned with olive; on the left is a similar +group. On the roof of the shed, three angels, with olive-branches in +their hands, sing the _Gloria in excelsis_. Above these are twelve +angels dancing or floating round in a circle, holding olive-branches +between them. In the foreground, in the margin of the picture, +three figures rising out of the flames of purgatory are received and +embraced by angels. With all its quaint fantastic grace and dryness of +execution, the whole conception is full of meaning, religious as well +as poetical. The introduction of the olive, and the redeemed, souls, +may express "peace on earth, good will towards men;" or the olive may +likewise refer to that period of universal peace in which the _Prince +of Peace_ was born into the world.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This singular picture, formerly in the Ottley collection, +was, when I saw it, in the possession of Mr. Fuller Maitland, of +Stensted Park.] + +I must mention one more instance for its extreme beauty. In a picture +by Lorenzo di Credi (Florence, Pal. Pitti) the Infant Christ lies on +the ground on a part of the veil of the Virgin, and holds in his hand +a bird. In the background, the miraculous star sheds on the earth a +perpendicular blaze of light, and farther off are the shepherds. On +the other side, St. Jerome, introduced, perhaps, because he made his +abode at Bethlehem, is seated beside his lion. + + +THE NATIVITY AS AN EVENT. + +We now come to the Nativity historically treated, in which time, +place, and circumstance, have to be considered as in any other actual +event. + +The time was the depth of winter, at midnight; the place a poor +stable. According to some authorities, this stable was the interior +of a cavern, still shown at Bethlehem as the scene of the Nativity, in +front of which was a ruined house, once inhabited by Jesse, the father +of David, and near the spot where David pastured his sheep: but the +house was now a shed partly thatched, and open at that bitter mason to +all the winds of heaven. Here it was that the Blessed Virgin "brought +forth her first-born Son, wrapped him in swaddling clothes, and laid +him in a manger." + +We find in the early Greek representations, and in the early Italian +painters who imitated the Byzantine models, that in the arrangement +a certain pattern was followed: the locality is a sort of +cave--literally a hole in a rock; the Virgin Mother reclines on a +couch; near her lies the new-born Infant wrapped in swaddling clothes. +In one very ancient example (a miniature of the ninth century in a +Greek Menologium), an attendant is washing the Child. + +But from the fourteenth century we find this treatment discontinued. +It gave just offence. The greatest theologians insisted that the birth +of the Infant Christ was as pure and miraculous as his conception; and +it was considered little less than heretical to portray Mary reclining +on a couch as one exhausted by the pangs of childbirth (Isaiah lxvi. +7), or to exhibit assistants as washing the heavenly Infant. "To her +alone," says St. Bernard, "did not the punishment of Eve extend." "Not +in sorrow," says Bishop Taylor, "not in pain, but in the posture and +guise of worshippers (that is, kneeling), and in the midst of glorious +thoughts and speculations, did Mary bring her Son into the world." + +We must seek for the accessories and circumstances usually introduced +by the painters in the old legendary traditions then accepted and +believed. (Protevangelion, xiv.) Thus one legend relates that +Joseph went to seek a midwife, and met a woman coming down from the +mountains, with whom he returned to the stable. But when they entered +it was filled with light greater than the sun at noonday; and as the +light decreased and they were able to open their eyes, they beheld +Mary sitting there with her Infant at her bosom. And the Hebrew woman +being amazed said, "Can this be true?" and Mary answered, "It is true; +as there is no child like unto my son, so there is no woman like unto +his mother." + + * * * * * + +These circumstances we find in some of the early representations, +more or less modified by the taste of the artist. I have seen, for +instance, an old German print, in which the Virgin "in the posture +and guise of worshippers," kneels before her Child as usual; while the +background exhibits a hilly country, and Joseph with a lantern in his +hand is helping a woman over a stile. Sometimes there are two women, +and then the second is always Mary Salome, who, according to a passage +in the same popular authority, visited the mother in her hour of +travail. + +The angelic choristers in the sky, or upon the roof of the stable, +sing the _Gloria in excelsis Deo_; they are never, I believe, omitted, +and in early pictures are always three in number; but in later +pictures, the mystic _three_ become a chorus of musicians Joseph is +generally sitting by, leaning on his staff in profound meditation, or +asleep as one overcome by fatigue; or with a taper or a lantern in his +hand, to express the night-time. + +Among the accessories, the ox and the ass are indispensable. The +introduction of these animals rests on an antique tradition mentioned +by St. Jerome, and also on two texts of prophecy: "The ox knoweth his +owner, and the ass his master's crib" (Isaiah i. 3); and Habakkuk iii. +4, is rendered, in the Vulgate, "He shall lie down between the ox and +the ass." From the sixth century, which is the supposed date of +the earliest extant, to the sixteenth century, there was never any +representation of the Nativity without these two animals; thus in the +old carol so often quoted-- + + "Agnovit bos et asinus + Quod Puer erat Dominus!" + +In some of the earliest pictures the animals kneel, "confessing the +Lord." (Isaiah xliii. 20.) In some instances they stare into the +manger with a most _naive_ expression of amazement at what they find +there. One of the old Latin hymns, _De Nativitate Domini_, describes +them, in that wintry night, as warming the new-born Infant with their +breath; and they have always been interpreted as symbols, the ox as +emblem of the Jews, the ass of the Gentiles. + +I wonder if it has ever occurred to those who have studied the +inner life and meaning of these old representations,--owed to them, +perhaps, homilies of wisdom, as well as visions of poetry,--that the +introduction of the ox and the ass, those symbols of animal servitude +and inferiority, might be otherwise translated;--that their pathetic +dumb recognition of the Saviour of the world might be interpreted +as extending to them also a participation in his mission of love and +mercy;--that since to the lower creatures it was not denied to be +present at that great manifestation, they are thus brought nearer to +the sympathies of our humanity, as we are, thereby, lifted to a nearer +communion with the universal spirit of love;--but this is "considering +too deeply," perhaps, for the occasion. Return we to our pictures. +Certainly we are not in danger of being led into any profound or +fanciful speculations by the ignorant painters of the later schools of +art. In their "Nativities," the ox and ass are not, indeed, omitted; +they must be present by religious and prescriptive usage; but they +are to be made picturesque, as if they were in the stable by right, +and as if it were only a stable, not a temple hallowed to a diviner +significance. The ass, instead of looking devoutly into the cradle, +stretches out his lazy length in the foreground; the ox winks his eyes +with a more than bovine stupidity. In some of the old German pictures, +while the Hebrew ox is quietly chewing the cud, the Gentile ass "lifts +up his voice" and brays with open mouth, as if in triumph. + +One version of this subject, by Agnolo Gaddi, is conceived with much +simplicity and originality. The Virgin and Joseph are seen together +within a rude and otherwise solitary building. She points expressively +to the manger where lies the divine Infant, while Joseph leans on his +staff and appears lost in thought. + +Correggio has been much admired for representing in his famous +Nativity the whole picture as lighted by the glory which proceeds from +the divine Infant, as if the idea had been new and original. ("_La +Notte_," Dresden Gal.) It occurs frequently before and since his time, +and is founded on the legendary story quoted above, which describes +the cave or stable filled with a dazzling and supernatural light. + + * * * * * + +It is not often we find the Nativity represented as an historical +event without the presence of the shepherds; nor is the supernatural +announcement to the shepherds often treated as a separate subject: it +generally forms part of the background of the Nativity; but there are +some striking examples. + +In a print by Rembrandt, he has emulated, in picturesque and poetical +treatment, his famous Vision of Jacob, in the Dulwich Gallery. The +angel (always supposed to be Gabriel) appears in a burst of radiance +through the black wintry midnight, surrounded by a multitude of the +heavenly host. The shepherds fall prostrate, as men amazed and "sore +afraid;" the cattle flee different ways in terror (Luke ii. 9.) I do +not say that this is the most elevated way of expressing the scene; +but, as an example of characteristic style, it is perfect. + + + + +THE ADORATION OF THE SHEPHERDS. + +_Ital._ L' Adorazione del Pastori. _Fr._ L'Adoration des Bergers. +_Ger._ Die Anbetung der Hirten. + + +The story thus proceeds:--When the angels were gone away into heaven, +the shepherds came with haste, "and found Mary, and Joseph, and the +young Child lying in a manger." + +Being come, they present their pastoral offerings--a lamb, or doves, +or fruits (but these, considering the season, are misplaced); they +take off their hats with reverence, and worship in rustic fashion. +In Raphael's composition, the shepherds, as we might expect from him, +look as if they had lived in Arcadia. In some of the later Italian +pictures, they pipe and sing. It is the well-known custom in Italy +for the shepherds of the Campagna, and of Calabria, to pipe before the +Madonna and Child at Christmas time; and these _Piffereri_, with their +sheepskin jackets, ragged hats, bagpipes, and tabors, were evidently +the models reproduced in some of the finest pictures of the Bolognese +school; for instance, in the famous Nativity by Annibale Caracci, +where a picturesque figure in the corner is blowing into the bagpipes +with might and main. In the Venetian pictures of the Nativity, the +shepherds are accompanied by their women, their sheep, and even their +dogs. According to an old legend, Simon and Jude, afterwards apostles, +were among these shepherds. + +When the angels scatter flowers, as in compositions by Raphael and +Ludovico Caracci, we must suppose that they were not gathered on +earth, but in heaven. + +The Infant is sometimes asleep:--so Milton sings-- + + "But see the Virgin blest + Hath laid her Babe to rest!" + +In a drawing by Raphael, the Child slumbers, and Joseph raises the +coverlid, to show him to a shepherd. We have the same idea in several +other instances. In a graceful composition by Titian, it is the Virgin +Mother who raises the veil from the face of the sleeping Child. + + * * * * * + +From the number of figures and accessories, the Nativity thus treated +as an historical subject becomes capable of almost endless variety; +but as it is one not to be mistaken, and has a universal meaning and +interest, I may now leave it to the fancy and discrimination of the +observer. + + + + +THE ADORATION OF THE MAGI. + +_Ital._ L' Adorazione de' Magi. L' Epifania. _Fr._ L'Adoration des +Rois Mages. _Ger._ Die Anbetung der Weisen aus dem Morgenland. Die +heiligen drei Koenige. Jan. 6. + + +This, the most extraordinary incident in the early life of our +Saviour, rests on the authority of one evangelist only. It is +related by St. Matthew so briefly, as to present many historical and +philosophical difficulties. I must give some idea of the manner in +which these difficulties were elucidated by the early commentators, +and of the notions which prevailed in the middle ages relative to the +country of the Three Kings, before it will be possible to understand +or to appreciate the subject as it has been set before us in every +style of art, in every form, in every material, from the third century +to the present time. + +In the first place, who were these Magi, or these kings, as they are +sometimes styled? "To suppose," says the antique legend, "that they +were called Magi because they were addicted to magic, or exercised +unholy or forbidden arts, would be, heaven save us! a rank heresy." +No! Magi, in the Persian tongue, signifies "wise men." They were, +in their own country, kings or princes, as it is averred by all the +ancient fathers; and we are not to be offended at the assertion, +that they were at once princes and _wise_ men,--"Car a l'usage de ce +temps-la les princes et les rois etoient tres sages!"[1] + +[Footnote 1: Quoted literally from the legend in the old French +version of the _Flos Sanctorum_.] + +They came from the eastern country, but from what country is not +said; whether from the land of the Arabians, or the Chaldeans, or the +Persians, or the Parthians. + +It is written in the Book of Numbers, that when Balaam, the son of +Beor, was called upon to curse the children of Israel, he, by divine +inspiration, uttered a blessing instead of a curse. And he took up +this parable, and said, "I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold +him, but not nigh: there shall come a star out of Jacob, and a sceptre +shall rise out of Israel." And the people of that country, though +they were Gentiles, kept this prophecy as a tradition among them, and +waited with faith and hope for its fulfilment. When, therefore, their +princes and wise men beheld a star different in its appearance and +movement from those which they had been accustomed to study (for they +were great astronomers), they at once knew its import, and hastened +to follow its guidance. According to an ancient commentary on St. +Matthew, this star, on its first appearance, had the form of a radiant +child bearing a sceptre or cross. In a fresco by Taddeo Gaddi, it is +thus figured; and this is the only instance I can remember. But to +proceed with our story. + +When the eastern sages beheld this wondrous and long-expected star, +they rejoiced greatly; and they arose, and taking leave of their lands +and their vassals, their relations and their friends, set forth on +their long and perilous journey across vast deserts and mountains, +and broad rivers, the star going before them, and arrived at length at +Jerusalem, with a great and splendid train of attendants. Being come +there, they asked at once, "Where is he who is born king of the Jews?" +On hearing this question, King Herod was troubled, and all the city +with him; and he inquired of the chief priests where Christ should +be born. And they said to him, "in Bethlehem of Judea." Then Herod +privately called the wise men, and desired they would go to Bethlehem, +and search for the young child (he was careful not to call him +_King_), saying, "When ye have found him, bring me word, that I may +come and worship him also." So the Magi departed, and the star which +they had seen in the east went before them, until it stood over the +place where the young child was--he who was born King of kings. They +had travelled many a long and weary mile; "and what had they come for +to see?" Instead of a sumptuous palace, a mean and lowly dwelling; in +place of a monarch surrounded by his guards and ministers and all the +terrors of his state, an infant wrapped in swaddling clothes and laid +upon his mother's knee, between the ox and the ass. They had come, +perhaps, from some far-distant savage land, or from some nation +calling itself civilized, where innocence had never been accounted +sacred, where society had as yet taken no heed of the defenceless +woman, no care for the helpless child; where the one was enslaved, +and the other perverted: and here, under the form of womanhood +and childhood, they were called upon to worship the promise of +that brighter future, when peace should inherit the earth, and +righteousness prevail over deceit, and gentleness with wisdom reign +for ever and ever! How must they have been amazed! How must they have +wondered in their souls at such a revelation!--yet such was the faith +of these wise men and excellent kings, that they at once prostrated +themselves, confessing in the glorious Innocent who smiled upon them +from his mother's knee, a greater than themselves--the image of a +truer divinity than they had ever yet acknowledged. And having bowed +themselves down--first, as was most fit, offering _themselves_,--they +made offering of their treasure, as it had been written in ancient +times, "The kings of Tarshish and the isles shall bring presents, +and the kings of Sheba shall offer gifts." And what were these gifts? +Gold, frankincense, and myrrh; by which symbolical oblation they +protested a threefold faith;--by gold, that he was king; by incense, +that he was God; by myrrh, that he was man, and doomed to death. In +return for their gifts, the Saviour bestowed upon them others of more +matchless price. For their gold he gave them charity and spiritual +riches; for their incense, perfect faith; and for their myrrh, perfect +truth and meekness: and the Virgin, his mother, also bestowed on them +a precious gift and memorial, namely, one of those linen bands in +which she had wrapped the Saviour, for which they thanked her with +great humility, and laid it up amongst their treasures. When they had +performed their devotions and made their offerings, being warned in a +dream to avoid Herod, they turned back again to their own dominions; +and the star which had formerly guided them to the west, now went +before them towards the east, and led them safely home. When they were +arrived there, they laid down their earthly state; and in emulation of +the poverty and humility in which they had found the Lord of all power +and might, they distributed their goods and possessions to the poor, +and went about in mean attire, preaching to their people the new king +of heaven and earth, the CHILD-KING, the Prince of Peace. We are not +told what was the success of their mission; neither is it anywhere +recorded, that from that time forth, every child, as it sat on +its mother's knee, was, even for the sake of that Prince of Peace, +regarded as sacred--as the heir of a divine nature--as one whose tiny +limbs enfolded a spirit which was to expand into the man, the king, +the God. Such a result was, perhaps, reserved for other times, when +the whole mission of that divine Child should be better understood +than it was then, or is _now_. But there is an ancient oriental +tradition, that about forty years later, when St. Thomas the apostle +travelled into the Indies, he found these Wise Men there, and did +administer to them the rite of baptism; and that afterwards, in +carrying the light of truth into the far East, they fell among +barbarous Gentiles, and were put to death; thus each of them receiving +in return for the earthly crowns they had cast at the feet of the +Saviour, the heavenly crown of martyrdom and of everlasting life. + +Their remains, long afterwards discovered, were brought to +Constantinople by the Empress Helena; thence in the time of the first +Crusade they were transported to Milan, whence they were carried off +by the Emperor Barbarossa, and deposited in the cathedral at Cologne, +where they remain to this day, laid in a shrine of gold and gems; and +have performed divers great and glorious miracles. + + * * * * * + +Such, in few words, is the church legend of the Magi of the East, +the "three Kings of Cologne," as founded on the mysterious Gospel +incident. Statesmen and philosophers, not less than ecclesiastics, +have, as yet, missed the whole sense and large interpretation of the +mythic as well as the scriptural story; but well have the artists +availed themselves of its picturesque capabilities! In their hands +it has gradually expanded from a mere symbol into a scene of the +most dramatic and varied effect and the most gorgeous splendour. As a +subject it is one of the most ancient in the whole range of Christian +art. Taken in the early religions sense, it signified the calling +of the Gentiles; and as such we find it carved in bas-relief on +the Christian sarcophagi of the third and fourth centuries, and +represented with extreme simplicity. The Virgin mother is seated on a +chair, and holds the Infant upright on her knee. The Wise Men, always +three in number, and all alike, approach in attitudes of adoration. +In some instances they wear Phrygian caps, and their camels' heads +are seen behind them, serving to express the land whence they came, +the land of the East, as well as their long journey; as on one of the +sarcophagi in the Christian Museum of the Vatican. The star in these +antique sculptures is generally omitted; but in one or two instances +it stands immediately over the chair of the Virgin. On a sarcophagus +near the entrance of the tomb of Galla Placidia, at Ravenna, they are +thus represented. + +The mosaic in the church of Santa Maria Maggiore at Rome, is somewhat +later in date than these sarcophagi (A.D. 440), and the representation +is very peculiar and interesting. Here the Child is seated alone on a +kind of square pedestal, with his hand raised in benediction; behind +the throne stand two figures, supposed to be the Virgin and Joseph; on +each side, two angels. The kings approach, dressed as Roman warriors, +with helmets on their heads. + +In the mosaic in the church of Sant' Appollinare-Novo, at Ravenna +(A.D. 534), the Virgin receives them seated on a throne, attended +by the archangels; they approach, wearing crowns on their heads, +and bending in attitudes of reverence: all three figures are exactly +alike, and rather less in proportion than the divine group. + + * * * * * + +Immediately on the revival of art we find the Adoration of the Kings +treated in the Byzantine style, with few accessories. Very soon, +however, in the early Florentine school, the artists began to avail +themselves of that picturesque variety of groups of which the story +admitted. + +In the legends of the fourteenth century, the kings had become +distinct personages, under the names of Caspar (or Jasper), Melchior, +and Balthasar: the first being always a very aged man, with a long +white beard; the second, a middle-aged man; the third is young, and +frequently he is a Moor or Negro, to express the King of Ethiopia +or Nubia, and also to indicate that when the Gentiles were called +to salvation, all the continents and races of the earth, of whatever +complexion, were included. The difference of ages is indicated in +the Greek formula; but the difference of complexion is a modern +innovation, and more frequently found in the German than in the +Italian schools. In the old legend of the Three Kings, as inserted in +Wright's "Chester Mysteries," Jasper, or Caspar, is King of Tarsus, +the land of merchants; he makes the offering of gold. Melchior, the +King of Arabia and Nubia, offers frankincense; and Balthasar, King of +Saba,--"the land of spices and all manner of precious gums,"--offers +myrrh.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The names of the Three Kings appear for the first time in +a piece of rude sculpture over the door of Sant' Andrea at Pistoia, to +which is assigned the date 1166. (_Vide_ D'Agincourt, _Scultura_, pl. +xxvii.)] + +It is very usual to find, in the Adoration of the Magi, the angelic +announcement to the shepherds introduced into the background; or, more +poetically, the Magi approaching on one side, and the shepherds on the +other. The intention is then to express a double signification; it is +at once the manifestation to the Jews, and the manifestation to the +Gentiles. + +The attitude of the Child varies. In the best pictures he raises his +little hand in benediction. The objection that he was then only an +infant of a few days old is futile: for he was from his birth the +CHRIST. It is also in accordance with the beautiful and significant +legend which describes him as dispensing to the old wise men the +spiritual blessings of love, meekness, and perfect faith, in return +for their gifts and their homage. It appears to me bad taste, +verging on profanity, to represent him plunging his little hand into +the coffer of gold, or eagerly grasping one of the gold pieces. +Neither should he be wrapped up in swaddling clothes, nor in any +way a subordinate figure in the group; for it is the Epiphany, the +Manifestation of a divine humanity to Jews and Gentiles, which is +to be expressed; and there is meaning as well as beauty in those +compositions which represent the Virgin at lifting a veil and showing +him to the Wise Man. + +The kingly character of the adorers, which became in the thirteenth +century a point of faith, is expressed by giving them all the +paraphernalia and pomp of royalty according to the customs of the +time in which the artist lived. They are followed by a vast train +of attendants, guards, pages, grooms, falconers with hawks; and, in +a picture by Gaudenzio Ferrari, we have the court-dwarf, and, in a +picture by Titian, the court-fool, both indispensable appendages of +royal state in those times. The Kings themselves wear embroidered +robes, crowns, and glittering weapons, and are booted and spurred as +if just alighted from a long journey; even on one of the sarcophagi +they are seen in spurs. + +The early Florentine and Venetian painters profited by the commercial +relations of their countries with the Levant, and introduced all kinds +of outlandish and oriental accessories to express the far country +from which the strangers had arrived; thus we have among the presents, +apes, peacocks, pheasants, and parrots. The traditions of the crusades +also came in aid, and hence we have, the plumed and jewelled turbans, +the armlets and the scymitars, and, in the later pictures, even +umbrellas and elephants. I remember, in an old Italian print of this +subject, a pair of hunting leopards or _chetas_. + +It is a question whether Joseph was present--whether he _ought_ to +have been present: in one of the early legends, it is asserted that +he hid himself and would not appear, out of his great humility, and +because it should not be supposed that he arrogated any relationship +to the divine Child. But this version of the scene is quite +inconsistent with the extreme veneration afterwards paid to Joseph; +and in later times, that is, from the fifteenth century, he is seldom +omitted. Sometimes he is seen behind the chair of the Virgin, leaning +on his stick, and contemplating the scene with a quiet admiration. +Sometimes he receives the gifts offered to the Child, acting the part +of a treasurer or chamberlain. In a picture by Angelico one of the +Magi grasps his hand as if in congratulation. In a composition by +Parmigiano one of the Magi embraces him. + +It was not uncommon for pious votaries to have themselves painted +in likeness of one of the adoring Kings. In a picture by Sandro +Botticelli, Cosmo de' Medici is thus introduced; and in a large and +beautifully arranged composition by Leonardo da Vinci, which unhappily +remains as a sketch only, the three Medici of that time, Cosmo, +Lorenzo, and Giuliano, are figured as the three Kings. (Both these +pictures are in the Florence Gal.) + +A very remarkable altar-piece, by Jean Van Eyck, represents the +worship of the Magi. In the centre, Mary and her Child are seated +within a ruined temple; the eldest of the three Kings kneeling, does +homage by kissing the hand of the Child: it is the portrait of Philip +the Good, Duke of Burgundy. The second, prostrate behind him with a +golden beaker in his hand, is supposed to be one of the great officers +of his household. The third King exhibits the characteristic portrait +of Charles the Bold; there is no expression of humility or devotion +either in his countenance or attitude; he stands upright, with a lofty +disdainful air, as if he were yet unresolved whether he would kneel +or not. On the right of the Virgin, a little in the foreground, stands +Joseph in a plain red dress, holding his hat in his hand, and looking +with as air of simple astonishment at his magnificent guests. All the +accessories in this picture, the gold and silver vessels, the dresses +of the three Kings sparking with jewels and pearls, the velvets, +silks, and costly furs, are painted with the most exquisite finish and +delicacy, and exhibit to us the riches of the court of Burgundy, in +which Van Eyck then resided. (Munich Gal, 45.) + +In Raphael's composition, the worshippers wear the classical, not the +oriental costume; but an elephant with a monkey on his back is seen +in the distance, which at once reminds us of the far East. (Rome, +Vatican.) + +Ghirlandajo frequently painted the Adoration of the Magi, and shows +in his management of the accessories much taste and symmetry. In one +of his compositions, the shed forms a canopy in the centre; two of +the Kings kneel in front. The country of the Ethiopian King is not +expressed by making him of a black complexion, but by giving him +a Negro page, who is in the act of removing his master's crown. +(Florence, Pitti Pal.) + +A very complete example of artificial and elaborate composition may be +found in the drawing by Baldassare Peruzzi in our National Gallery. +It contains at least fifty figures; in the centre, a magnificent +architectural design; and wonderful studies of perspective to the +right and left, in the long lines of receding groups. On the whole, +it is a most skilful piece of work; but to my taste much like a +theatrical decoration,--pompous without being animated. + +A beautiful composition by Francia I must not pass over.[1] Here, to +the left of the picture, the Virgin is seated on the steps of a ruined +temple, against which grows a fig-tree, which, though it be December, +is in full leaf. Joseph kneels at her side, and behind her are two +Arcadian shepherds, with the ox and the ass. The Virgin, who has +a charming air of modesty and sweetness, presents her Child to the +adoration of the Wise Men: the first of these kneels with joined +hands; the second, also kneeling, is about to present a golden vase; +the Negro King, standing, has taken off his cap, and holds a censer +in his hand; and the divine infant raises his hand in benediction. +Behind the Kings are three figures on foot, one a beautiful youth in +an attitude of adoration. Beyond these are five or six figures on +horseback, and a long train upon horses and camels is seen approaching +in the background. The landscape is very beautiful and cheerful: the +whole picture much in the style of Francia's master, Lorenzo Costa. I +should at the first glance have supposed it to be his, but the head of +the Virgin is unmistakably Francia. + +[Footnote 1: Dresden Gal. Arnold, the well-known print-seller at +Dresden, has lately published a very beautiful and finished engraving +of this fine picture; the more valuable, because engravings after +Francia are very rare.] + +There are instances of this subject idealized into a mystery; for +example, in a picture by Palma Vecchio (Milan, Brera), St. Helena +stands behind the Virgin, in allusion to the legend which connects +her with the history of the Kings. In a picture by Garofalo, the star +shining above is attended by angels bearing the instruments of the +Passion, while St. Bartholomew, holding his skin, stands near the +Virgin and Child: it was painted for the abbey of St. Bartholomew, at +Ferrara. + +Among the German examples, the picture by Albert Durer, in the tribune +of the Florence Gallery; and that of Mabuse, in the collection of Lord +Carlisle, are perhaps the most perfect of their kind. + +In the last-named picture the Virgin, seated, in a plain dark-blue +mantle, with the German physiognomy, but large browed, and with a very +serious, sweet expression, holds the Child. The eldest of the Kings, +as usual, offers a vase of gold, out of which Christ has taken a +piece, which be holds in his hand. The name of the King, JASPER, is +inscribed on the vase; a younger King behind holds a cup. The black +Ethiopian king, Balthasar, is conspicuous on the left; he stands, +crowned and arrayed in gorgeous drapery, and, as if more fully to mark +the equality of the races--at least in spiritual privileges--his train +is borne by a white page. An exquisite landscape is seen through the +arch behind, and the shepherds are approaching in the middle distance. +On the whole, this is one of the most splendid pictures of the early +Flemish school I have ever seen; for variety of character, glow of +colour, and finished execution, quite unsurpassed. + +In a very rich composition by Lucas van Leyden, Herod is seen in the +background, standing in the balcony of his palace, and pointing out +the scene to his attendants. + +As we might easily imagine, the ornamental painters of the Venetian +and Flemish schools delighted in this subject, which allowed them full +scope for their gorgeous colouring, and all their scenic and dramatic +power. Here Paul Veronese revelled unreproved in Asiatic magnificence: +here his brocaded robes and jewelled diadems harmonized with his +subject; and his grand, old, bearded, Venetian senators figured, +not unsuitably, as Eastern Kings. Here Rubens lavished his ermine +and crimson draperies, his vases, and ewers, and censers of flaming +gold;--here poured over his canvas the wealth "of Ormuz and of Ind." +Of fifteen pictures of this subject, which he painted at different +times, the finest undoubtedly is that in the Madrid Gallery. Another, +also very fine, is in the collection of the Marquis of Westminster. +In both these, the Virgin, contrary to all former precedent, is +not seated, but _standing_, as she holds up her Child for worship. +Afterwards we find the same position of the Virgin in pictures by +Vandyck, Poussin, and other painters of the seventeenth century. It is +quite an innovation on the old religious arrangement; but in the utter +absence of all religious feeling, the mere arrangement of the figures, +except in an artistic point of view, is of little consequence. + +As a scene of oriental pomp, heightened by mysterious shadows and +flashing lights, I know nothing equal to the Rembrandt in the +Queen's Gallery; the procession of attendants seen emerging from the +background through the transparent gloom is quite awful; but in this +miraculous picture, the lovely Virgin Mother is metamorphosed into a +coarse Dutch _vrow_, and the divine Child looks like a changeling imp. + +In chapels dedicated to the Nativity or the Epiphany, we frequently +find the journey of the Wise Men painted round the walls. They +are seen mounted on horseback, or on camels, with a long train of +attendants, here ascending a mountain, there crossing a river; here +winding through a defile, there emerging from a forest; while the +miraculous star shines above, pointing out the way. Sometimes we have +the approach of the Wise Men on one side of the chapel, and their +return to their own country on the other. On their homeward journey +they are, in some few instances, embarking in a ship: this occurs in +a fresco by Lorenzo Costa, and in a bas-relief in the cathedral of +Amiens. The allusion is to a curious legend mentioned by Arnobius the +Younger, in his commentary on the Psalms (fifth century). He says, +in reference to the 48th Psalm, that when Herod found that the three +Kings had escaped from him "in ships of Tarsus," in his wrath he +burned all the vessels in the port. + +There is a beautiful fresco of the journey of the Magi in the Riccardi +Chapel at Florence, painted by Benozzo Gozzoli for the old Cosmo de' +Medici. + +"The Baptism of the Magi by St. Thomas," is one of the compartments +of the Life of the Virgin, painted by Taddeo Gaddi, in the Baroncelli +Chapel at Florence, and this is the only instance I can refer to. + + * * * * * + +Before I quit this subject--one of the most interesting in the whole +range of art--I must mention a picture by Giorgione in the Belvedere +Gallery, well known as one of the few undoubted productions of that +rare and fascinating painter, and often referred to because of its +beauty. Its signification has hitherto escaped all writers on art, as +far as I am acquainted with them, and has been dismissed as one of his +enigmatical allegories. It is called in German, _Die Feldmaesser_ (the +Land Surveyors), and sometimes styled in English the _Geometricians_, +or the _Philosophers_, or the _Astrologers_. It represents a wild, +rocky landscape, in which are three men. The first, very aged, in as +oriental costume, with a long gray beard, stands holding in his hand +an astronomical table; the next, a man in the prime of life, seems +listening to him; the third, a youth, seated and looking upwards, +holds a compass. I have myself no doubt that this beautiful picture +represents the "three wise men of the East," watching on the Chaldean +hills the appearance of the miraculous star, and that the light +breaking in the far horizon, called in the German description the +rising sun, is intended to express the rising of the star of Jacob.[1] +In the sumptuous landscape, and colour, and the picturesque rather +than religious treatment, this picture is quite Venetian. The +interpretation here suggested I leave to the consideration of the +observer; and without allowing myself to be tempted on to further +illustration, will only add, in conclusion, that I do not remember +any Spanish picture of this subject remarkable either for beauty or +originality.[2] + +[Footnote 1: There is also a print by Giulio Bonasoni, which appears +to represent the wise men watching for the star. (_Bartsch_, xv. +156.)] + +[Footnote 2: In the last edition of the Vienna Catalogue, this picture +has received its proper title.] + + + + +THE PURIFICATION OF THE VIRGIN, THE PRESENTATION, AND THE CIRCUMCISION +OF CHRIST. + +_Ital._ La Purificazione della B. Vergine. _Ger._ Die Darbringung im +Tempel. Die Beschneidung Christi. + + +After the birth of her Son, Mary was careful to fulfil all the +ceremonies of the Mosaic law. As a first-born son, he was to be +redeemed by the offering of five shekels, or a pair of young pigeons +(in memory of the first-born of Egypt). But previously, being born +of the children of Abraham, the infant Christ was submitted to the +sanguinary rite which sealed the covenant of Abraham, and received +the name of JESUS--"that name before which every knee was to bow, +which was to be set above the powers of magic, the mighty rites +of sorcerers, the secrets of Memphis, the drugs of Thessaly, the +silent and mysterious murmurs of the wise Chaldees, and the spells +of Zoroaster; that name which we should engrave on our hearts, and +pronounce with our most harmonious accents, and rest our faith on, and +place our hopes in, and love with the overflowing of charity, joy, and +adoration." (v. Bishop Taylor's Life of Christ.) + +The circumcision and the naming of Christ have many times been painted +to express the first of the sorrows of the Virgin, being the first of +the pangs which her Son was to suffer on earth. But the Presentation +in the Temple has been selected with better taste for the same +purpose; and the prophecy of Simeon, "Yea, a sword shall pierce +through thy own soul also," becomes the first of the Seven Sorrows. +It is an undecided point whether the Adoration of the Magi took +place thirteen days, or one year and thirteen days after the birth of +Christ. In a series of subjects artistically arranged, the Epiphany +always precedes, in order of time, that scene in the temple which +is sometimes styled the Purification, sometimes the Presentation and +sometimes the _Nunc Dimitis_. They are three distinct incidents; but, +as far as I can judge, neither the painters themselves, nor those who +have named pictures, have been careful to discriminate between them. +On a careful examination of various compositions, some of special +celebrity, which are styled, in a general way, the Presentation in +the Temple, it will appear, I think, that the idea uppermost in the +painter's mind has been to represent the prophecy of Simeon. + +No doubt, in later times, the whole scene, as a subject of art, was +considered in reference chiefly to the Virgin, and the intention was +to express the first of her Seven Sorrows. But in ancient art, and +especially in Greek art, the character of Simeon assumed a singular +significance and importance, which so long as modern art was +influenced by the traditional Byzantine types, modified, in some +degree, the arrangement and sentiment of this favourite subject. + +It is related that when Ptolemy Philadelphus about 260 years before +Christ, resolved to have the Hebrew Scriptures translated into +Greek, for the purpose of placing them in his far-famed library, +he despatched messengers to Eleazar, the High Priest of the Jews, +requiring him to send scribes and interpreters learned in the Jewish +law to his court at Alexandria. Thereupon Eleazar selected six of +the most learned Rabbis from each of the twelve tribes of Israel, +seventy-two persons in all, and sent them to Egypt, in obedience to +the commands of King Ptolemy, and among these was Simeon, a priest, +and a man full of learning. And it fell to the lot of Simeon to +translate the book of the prophet Isaiah. And when he came to that +verse where it is written, "Behold a Virgin shall conceive and bear +a son," he began to misdoubt, in his own mind, how this could be +possible; and, after long meditation, fearing to give scandal and +offence to the Greeks, he rendered the Hebrew word _Virgin_ by a Greek +word which signifies merely a _young woman_; but when he had written +it down, behold an angel effaced it, and substituted the right word. +Thereupon he wrote it again and again; and the same thing happened +three times; and he remained astonished and confounded. And while he +wondered what this should mean, a ray of divine light penetrated his +soul; it was revealed to him that the miracle which, in his human +wisdom he had presumed to doubt, was not only possible, but that he, +Simeon, "should not see death till he had seen the Lord's Christ." +Therefore he tarried on earth, by the divine will, for nearly three +centuries, till that which he had disbelieved had come to pass. He was +led by the Spirit to the temple on the very day when Mary came there +to present her Son, and to make her offering, and immediately, taking +the Child in his arms, he exclaimed, "Lord, _now_ lettest thou thy +servant depart in peace, according to thy word." And of the Virgin +Mother, also, he prophesied sad and glorious things. + +Anna the Prophetess, who was standing by, also testified to the +presence of the theocratic King: but she did not take him in her arms, +as did Simeon. (Luke ii. 82.) Hence, she was early regarded as a +type of the synagogue, which prophesied great things of the Messiah, +but, nevertheless, did not embrace him when he appeared, as did the +Gentiles. + +That these curious legends relative to Simeon and Anna, and their +symbolical interpretation, were well known to the old painters, there +can be no doubt; and both were perhaps in the mind of Bishop Taylor +when he wrote his eloquent chapter on the Presentation. "There be +some," he says, "who wear the name of Christ on their heads, to make +a show to the world; and there be some who have it always in their +mouths; and there be some who carry Christ on their shoulders, as +if he were a burthen too heavy to bear; and there be some--who is +me!--who trample him under their feet, but _he_ is the true Christian +who, _like Simeon_, embraces Christ, and takes him to his heart." + +Now, it seems to me that it is distinctly the acknowledgment of +Christ by Simeon,--that is, Christ received by the Gentiles,--which +is intended to be placed before us in the very early pictures of the +Presentation, or the _Nunc dimittis_, as it is always styled in Greek +art. The appearance of an attendant, bearing the two turtle-doves, +shows it to be also the so-called Purification of the Virgin. In +an antique formal Greek version we have the Presentation exactly +according to the pattern described by Didron. The great gold censer is +there; the cupola, at top; Joseph carrying the two young pigeons, and +Anna behind Simeon. + + * * * * * + +In a celebrated composition by Fra Bartolomeo, there is the same +disposition of the personages, but an additional female figure. This +is not Anna, the mother of the Virgin (as I have heard it said), but +probably Mary Salome, who had always attended on the Virgin ever since +the Nativity at Bethlehem. + +The subject is treated with exquisite simplicity by Francia; we have +just the same personages as in the rude Greek model, but disposed with +consummate grace. Still, to represent the Child as completely undraped +has been considered as a solecism. He ought to stretch out his hands +to his mother and to look as if he understood the portentous words +which foretold his destiny. Sometimes the imagination is assisted by +the choice of the accessories; thus Fra Bartolomeo has given us, in +the background of his group, Moses holding the _broken_ table of the +old law; and Francia represents in the same manner the sacrifice +of Abraham; for thus did Mary bring her Son as an offering. In many +pictures Simeon raises his eyes to heaven in gratitude; but those +painters who wished to express the presence of the Divinity in the +person of Christ, made Simeon looking at the Child, and addressing +_him_ as "Lord." + + + + +THE FLIGHT INTO EGYPT. + +_Ital._ La Fuga in Egitto. _Fr._ La Fuite de la Sainte Famille en +Egypte. _Ger._ Die Flucht nach AEgypten. + + +The wrath of Herod against the Magi of the East who had escaped from +his power, enhanced by his fears of the divine and kingly Infant, +occasioned the massacre of the Innocents, which led to the flight +of the Holy Family into Egypt. Of the martyred children, in their +character of martyrs, I have already spoken, and of their proper place +in a scheme of ecclesiastical decoration. There is surely something +very pathetic in that feeling which exalted these infant victims into +objects of religious veneration, making them the cherished companions +in heavenly glory of the Saviour for whose sake they were sacrificed +on earth. He had said, "Suffer little children to come unto me;" +and to these were granted the prerogatives of pain, as well as the +privileges of innocence. If, in the day of retribution, they sit at +the feet of the Redeemer, surely they will appeal against us, then and +there;--against us who, in these days, through our reckless neglect, +slay, body and soul, legions of innocents,--poor little unblest +creatures, "martyrs by the pang without the palm,"--yet dare to call +ourselves Christians. + + * * * * * + +The Massacre of the Innocents, as an event, belongs properly to the +life of Christ: it is not included in a series of the life of the +Virgin, perhaps from a feeling that the contrast between the most +blessed of women and mothers, and those who wept distracted for their +children, was too painful, and did not harmonize with the general +subject. In pictures of the Flight into Egypt, I have seen it +introduced allusively into the background; and in the architectural +decoration of churches dedicated to the Virgin Mother, as Notre Dame +de Chartres, it finds a place, but not often a conspicuous place;[1] +it is rather indicated than represented. I should pass over the +subject altogether, best pleased to be spared the theme, but +that there are some circumstances connected with it which require +elucidation, because we find them introduced incidentally into +pictures of the Flight and the _Riposo_. + +[Footnote 1: It is conspicuous and elegantly treated over the door of +the Lorenz Kirche at Nuremberg.] + +Thus, it is related that among the children whom Herod was bent on +destroying, was St. John the Baptist; but his mother Elizabeth fled +with him to a desert place, and being pursued by the murderers, "the +rock opened by a miracle, and close upon Elizabeth and her child;" +which means, as we may presume, that they took refuge in a cavern, +and were concealed within it until the danger was over. Zacharias, +refusing to betray his son, was slain "between the temple and the +altar," (Matt, xxiii. 35.) Both these legends are to be met with +in the Greek pictures, and in the miniatures of the thirteenth and +fourteenth centuries.[1] + +[Footnote 1: They will be found treated at length in the artistic +subjects connected with St. John the Baptist.] + +From the butchery which made so many mothers childless, the divine +Infant and his mother were miraculously saved; for an angel spoke to +Joseph in a dream, saying, "Arise, and take the young child and his +mother, and flee into Egypt." This is the second of the four angelic +visions which are recorded of Joseph. It is not a frequent subject +in early art, but is often met with in pictures of the later schools. +Joseph is asleep in his chair, the angel stands before him, and, with +a significant gesture, points forward--"arise and flee!" + +There is an exquisite little composition by Titian, called a _Riposo_, +which may possibly represent the preparation for the Flight. Here Mary +is seated under a tree nursing her Infant, while in the background is +a sort of rude stable, in which Joseph is seen saddling the ass, while +the ox is on the outside. + +In a composition by Tiarini, we see Joseph holding the Infant, while +Mary, leaning one hand on his shoulder, is about to mount the ass. + +In a composition by Poussin, Mary, who has just seated herself on the +ass, takes the Child from the arms of Joseph. Two angels lead the ass, +a third kneels in homage, and two others are seen above with a curtain +to pitch a tent. + + * * * * * + +I must notice here a tradition that both the ox and the ass who stood +over the manger at Bethlehem, accompanied the Holy Family into Egypt. +In Albert Durer's print, the ox and the ass walk side by side. It is +also related that the Virgin was accompanied by Salome, and Joseph by +three of his sons. This version of the story is generally rejected +by the painters; but in the series by Giotto in the Arena at Padua, +Salome and the three youths attend on Mary and Joseph; and I remember +another instance, a little picture by Lorenzo Monaco, in which Salome, +who had vowed to attend on Christ and his mother as long as she lived, +is seen following the ass, veiled, and supporting her steps with a +staff. + +But this is a rare exception. The general treatment confines the group +to Joseph, the mother, and the Child. To Joseph was granted, in those +hours of distress and danger, the high privilege of providing for +the safety of the Holy Infant--a circumstance much enlarged upon in +the old legends, and to express this more vividly, he is sometimes +represented in early Greek art as carrying the Child in his arms, or +on his shoulder, while Mary follows on the ass. He is so figured +on the sculptured doors of the cathedral of Beneventum, and in the +cathedral of Monreale, both executed by Greek artists.[1] But we are +not to suppose that the Holy Family was left defenceless on the long +journey. The angels who had charge concerning them were sent to guide +them by day, to watch over them by night, to pitch their tent before +them, and to refresh them with celestial fruit and flowers. By the +introduction of these heavenly ministers the group is beautifully +varied. + +[Footnote 1: 11th century. Also at Citta di Castello; same date.] + +Joseph, says the Gospel story, "arose by night;" hence there is both +meaning and propriety in those pictures which represent the Flight +as a night-scene, illuminated by the moon and stars, though I believe +this has been done more to exhibit the painter's mastery over effects +of dubious light, than as a matter of biblical accuracy. Sometimes an +angel goes before, carrying a torch or lantern, to light them on the +way; sometimes it is Joseph who carries the lantern. + +In a picture by Nicolo Poussin, Mary walks before, carrying the +Infant; Joseph follows, leading the ass; and an angel guides them. + +The journey did not, however, comprise one night only. There is, +indeed, an antique tradition, that space and time were, on this +occasion, miraculously shortened to secure a life of so much +importance; still, we are allowed to believe that the journey extended +over many days and nights; consequently it lay within the choice of +the artist to exhibit the scene of the Flight either by night or by +day. + +In many representations of the Flight into Egypt, we find in the +background men sowing or cutting corn. This is in allusion to the +following legend:-- + +When it was discovered that the Holy Family had fled from Bethlehem, +Herod sent his officers in pursuit of them. And it happened that when +the Holy Family had travelled some distance, they came to a field +where a man was sowing wheat. And the Virgin said to the husbandman, +"If any shall ask you whether we have passed this way, ye shall +answer, 'Such persons passed this way when I was sowing this corn.'" +For the holy Virgin was too wise and too good to save her Son by +instructing the man to tell a falsehood. But behold, a miracle! For +by the power of the Infant Saviour, in the space of a single night, +the seed sprung up into stalk, blade, and ear, fit for the sickle. +And next morning the officers of Herod came up, and inquired of the +husbandman, saying, "Have you seen an old man with a woman and a Child +travelling this way?" And the man, who was reaping his wheat, in great +wonder and admiration, replied "Yes." And they asked again, "How long +is it since?" And he answered. "When I was sowing this wheat." Then +the officers of Herod turned back, and left off pursuing the Holy +Family. + +A very remarkable example of the introduction of this legend occurs +in a celebrated picture by Hans Hemling (Munich Gal., Cabinet iv. 69), +known as "Die Sieben Freuden Mariae." In the background, on the left, +is the Flight into Egypt; the men cutting and reaping corn, and the +officers of Herod in pursuit of the Holy Family. By those unacquainted +with the old legend, the introduction of the cornfield and reapers +is supposed to be merely a decorative landscape, without any peculiar +significance. + + * * * * * + +In a very beautiful fresco by Pinturicchio, (Rome, St. Onofrio), the +Holy Family are taking their departure from Bethlehem. The city, +with the massacre of the Innocents, is seen in the background. In the +middle distance, the husbandman cutting corn; and nearer, the palm +tree bending down. + + * * * * * + +It is supposed by commentators that Joseph travelled from Bethlehem +across the hilly country of Judea, taking the road to Joppa, and then +pursuing the way along the coast. Nothing is said in the Gospel of the +events of this long and perilous journey of at least 400 miles, which, +in the natural order of things, must have occupied five or six weeks; +and the legendary traditions are very few. Such as they are, however, +the painters have not failed to take advantage of them. + +We are told that on descending from the mountains, they came down +upon a beautiful plain enamelled with flowers, watered by murmuring +streams, and shaded by fruit trees. In such a lovely landscape have +the painters delighted to place some of the scenes of the Flight into +Egypt. On another occasion, they entered a thick forest, a wilderness +of trees, in which they must have lost their way, had they not been +guided by an angel. Here we encounter a legend which has hitherto +escaped, because, indeed, it defied, the art of the painter. As the +Holy Family entered this forest, all the trees bowed themselves down +in reverence to the Infant God; only the aspen, in her exceeding pride +and arrogance, refused to acknowledge him, and stood upright. Then the +Infant Christ pronounced a curse against her, as he afterwards cursed +the barren fig tree; and at the sound of his words the aspen began to +tremble through all her leaves, and has not ceased to tremble even to +this day. + +We know from Josephus the historian, that about this time Palestine +was infested by bands of robbers. There is an ancient tradition, that +when the Holy Family travelling through hidden paths and solitary +defiles, had passed Jerusalem, and were descending into the plains of +Syria, they encountered certain thieves who fell upon them; and one +of them would have maltreated and plundered them, but his comrade +interfered, and said, "Suffer them, I beseech thee, to go in peace, +and I will give thee forty groats, and likewise my girdle;" which +offer being accepted, the merciful robber led the Holy Travellers +to his stronghold on the rock, and gave them lodging for the night. +(Gospel of Infancy, ch. viii.) And Mary said to him, "The Lord God +will receive thee to his right hand, and grant thee pardon of thy +sins!" And it was so: for in after times these two thieves were +crucified with Christ, one on the right hand, and one on the left; +and the merciful thief went with the Saviour into Paradise. + +The scene of this encounter with the robbers, near Ramla, is still +pointed out to travellers, and still in evil repute as the haunt of +banditti. The crusaders visited the spot as a place of pilgrimage; +and the Abbe Orsini considers the first part of the story as +authenticated; but the legend concerning the good thief he admits +to be doubtful. (Vie de la Ste. Vierge.) + +As an artistic subject this scene has been seldom treated. I have seen +two pictures which represent it. One is a fresco by Giovanni di San +Giovanni, which, having been cut from the wail of some suppressed +convent, is now in the academy at Florence. The other is a composition +by Zuccaro. + +One of the most popular legends concerning the Flight into Egypt is +that of the palm or date tree, which at the command of Jesus bowed +down its branches to shade and refresh his mother; hence, in the scene +of the Flight, a palm tree became a usual accessory. In a picture by +Antonello Mellone, the Child stretches out his little hand and lays +hold of the branch: sometimes the branch is bent down by angel hands. +Sozomenes relates, that when the Holy Family reached the term of +their journey, and approached the city of Heliopolis in Egypt, a tree +which grew before the gates of the city, and was regarded with great +veneration as the seat of a god, bowed down its branches at the +approach of the Infant Christ. Likewise it is related (not in legends +merely, but by grave religious authorities) that all the idols of the +Egyptians fell with their faces to the earth. I have seen pictures of +the Flight into Egypt, in which broken idols lie by the wayside. + + * * * * * + +In the course of the journey the Holy Travellers had to cross rivers +and lakes; hence the later painters, to vary the subject, represented +them as embarking in a boat, sometimes steered by an angel. The first, +as I have reason to believe, who ventured on this innovation, was +Annibale Caracci. In a picture by Poussin, the Holy Family are about +to embark. In a picture by Giordano, an angel with one knee bent, +assists Mary to enter the boat. In a pretty little picture by Teniers, +the Holy Family and the ass are seen in a boat crossing a ferry by +moonlight; sometimes they are crossing a bridge. + +I must notice here a little picture by Adrian Vander Werff, in which +the Virgin, carrying her Child, holds by the hand the old decrepit +Joseph, who is helping her, or rather is helped by her, to pass a +torrent on some stepping-stones. This is quite contrary to the feeling +of the old authorities, which represent Joseph as the vigilant and +capable guardian of the Mother and her Child: but it appears to have +here a rather particular and touching significance; it was painted by +Vander Werff for his daughter in his old age, and intended to express +her filial duty and his paternal care. + +The most beautiful Flight into Egypt I have ever seen, is a +composition by Gaudenzio Ferrari. The Virgin is seated and sustained +on the ass with a quite peculiar elegance. The Infant, standing on her +knee, seems to point out the way; an angel leads the ass, and Joseph +follows with the staff and wallet. In the background the palm tree +inclines its branches. (At Varallo, in the church of the Minorites.) + +Claude has introduced the Flight of the Holy Family as a landscape +group into nine different pictures. + + + + +THE REPOSE OF THE HOLY FAMILY. + +_Ital._ Il Riposo. _Fr._ Le Repos de la Sainte Famille. _Ger._ Die +Ruhe in AEgypten. + + +The subject generally styled a "Riposo" is one of the most graceful +and most attractive in the whole range of Christian art. It is not, +however, an ancient subject, for I cannot recall an instance earlier +than the sixteenth century; it had in its accessories that romantic +and pastoral character which recommended it to the Venetians and to +the landscape-painters of the seventeenth century, and among these we +must look for the most successful and beautiful examples. + +I must begin by observing that it is a subject not only easily +mistaken by those who have studied pictures; but perpetually +misconceived and misrepresented by the painters themselves. Some +pictures which erroneously bear this title, were never intended to +do so. Others, intended to represent the scene, are disfigured +and perplexed by mistakes arising either from the ignorance or the +carelessness of the artist. + +We must bear in mind that the Riposo, properly so called, is not +merely the Holy Family seated in a landscape; it is an episode of +the Flight into Egypt, and is either the rest on the journey, or at +the close of the journey; quite different scenes, though all go by +the same name. It is not an ideal religious group, but a reality, a +possible and actual scene; and it is clear that the painter, if he +thought at all, and did not merely set himself to fabricate a pretty +composition, was restricted within the limits of the actual and +possible, at least according to the histories and traditions of the +time. Some of the accessories introduced would stamp the intention at +once; as the date tree, and Joseph gathering dates; the ass feeding in +the distance; the wallet and pilgrim's staff laid beside Joseph; the +fallen idols; the Virgin scooping water from a fountain; for all these +are incidents which properly belong to the Riposo. + +It is nowhere recorded; either in Scripture or in the legendary +stories, that Mary and Joseph in their flight were accompanied by +Elizabeth and the little St. John; therefore, where either of these +are introduced, the subject is not properly a _Riposo_, whatever the +intention of the painter may have been: the personages ought to be +restricted to the Virgin, her Infant, and St. Joseph, with attendant +angels. An old woman is sometimes introduced, the same who is +traditionally supposed to have accompanied them in their flight. If +this old woman be manifestly St. Anna or St. Elizabeth, then it is not +a _Riposo_, but merely a _Holy Family_. + +It is related that the Holy Family finally rested, after their long +journey, in the village of Matarea, beyond the city of Hermopolis (or +Heliopolis), and took up their residence in a grove of sycamores, a +circumstance which gave the sycamore tree a sort of religions interest +in early Christian times. The crusaders imported it into Europe; and +poor Mary Stuart may have had this idea, or this feeling when she +brought from France, and planted in her garden, the first sycamores +which grew in Scotland. + +Near to this village of Matarea, a fountain miraculously sprung up +for the refreshment of the Holy Family. It still exists, as we +are informed by travellers, and is still styled by the Arabs, "The +Fountain of Mary."[1] This fountain is frequently represented, as in +the well-known Riposo by Correggio, where the Virgin is dipping a bowl +into the gushing stream, hence called the "Madonna _della Scodella_" +(Parma): in another by Baroccio (Grosvenor Gal.), and another by +Domenichino (Louvre, 491). + +[Footnote 1: The site of this fountain is about four miles N.E. of +Cairo.] + +In this fountain, says another legend, Mary washed the linen of the +Child. There are several pictures which represent the Virgin washing +linen in a fountain; for example, one by Lucio Massari, where, in a +charming landscape, the little Christ takes the linen out of a basket, +and Joseph hangs it on a line to dry. (Florence Gal.) + +The ministry of the angels is here not only allowable, but beautifully +appropriate; and never has it been more felicitously and more +gracefully expressed than in a little composition by Lucas Cranach, +where the Virgin and her Child repose under a tree, while the angels +dance in a circle round them. The cause of the Flight--the Massacre +of the Innocents--is figuratively expressed by two winged boys, who, +seated on a bough of the tree, are seen robbing a nest, and wringing +the necks of the nestlings, while the parent-birds scream and flutter +over their heads: in point of taste, this significant allegory had +been better omitted; it spoils the harmony of composition. There +is another similar group, quite as graceful, by David Hopfer. +Vandyck seems to have had both in his memory when he designed the +very beautiful Riposo so often copied and engraved (Coll. of Lord +Ashburton); here the Virgin is seated under a tree, in an open +landscape, and holds her divine Child; Joseph, behind, seems asleep; +in front of the Virgin, eight lovely angels dance in a round, while +others, seated in the sky, make heavenly music. + +In another singular and charming Riposo by Lucas Cranach, the Virgin +and Child are seated under a tree; to the left of the group is a +fountain, where a number of little angels appear to be washing linen; +to the right, Joseph approaches leading the ass, and in the act of +reverently removing his cap. + +There is a Riposo by Albert Durer which I cannot pass over. It is +touched with all that homely domestic feeling, and at the same time +all that fertility of fancy, which are so characteristic of that +extraordinary man. We are told that when Joseph took up his residence +at Matarea in Egypt, he provided for his wife and Child by exercising +his trade as a carpenter. In this composition he appears in the +foreground dressed as an artisan with an apron on, and with an axe in +his hand is shaping a plank of wood. Mary sits on one side spinning +with her distaff, and watching her Infant slumbering in its cradle. +Around this domestic group we have a crowd of ministering angels; some +of these little winged spirits are assisting Joseph, sweeping up the +chips and gathering them into baskets; others are merely "sporting at +their own sweet will." Several more dignified-looking angels, having +the air of guardian spirits, stand or kneel round the cradle, bending +over it with folded hands.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the famous set of wood cuts of the Life of the Virgin +Mary.] + +In a Riposo by Titian, the Infant lies on a pillow on the ground, and +the Virgin is kneeling before him, while Joseph leans on his pilgrim's +staff, to which is suspended a wallet. In another, two angels, +kneeling, offer fruits in a basket; in the distance, a little angel +waters the ass at a stream. (All these are engraved.) + +The angels, according to the legend, not only ministered to the Holy +Family, but pitched a tent nightly, in which they were sheltered. +Poussin, in an exquisite picture, has represented the Virgin and Child +reposing under a curtain suspended from the branches of a tree and +partly sustained by angels, while others, kneeling, offer fruit. +(Grosvenor Gal.) + +Poussin is the only painter who has attempted to express the locality. +In one of his pictures the Holy Family reposes on the steps of an +Egyptian temple; a sphinx and a pyramid are visible in the background. +In another Riposo by the same master, an Ethiopian boy presents fruits +to the Infant Christ. Joseph is frequently asleep, which is hardly +consonant with the spirit of the older legends. It is, however, a +beautiful idea to make the Child and Joseph both reposing, while the +Virgin Mother, with eyes upraised to heaven, wakes and watches, as +in a picture by Mola (Louvre, 269); but a yet more beautiful idea to +represent the Virgin and Joseph sunk in sleep, while the divine Infant +lying in his mother's arms wakes and watches for both, with his little +hands joined in prayer, and his eyes fixed on the hovering angels or +the opening skies above. + +In a Riposo by Rembrandt, the Holy Family rest by night, and are +illuminated only by a lantern suspended on the bough of a tree, the +whole group having much the air of a gypsy encampment. But one of +Rembrandt's imitators has in his own way improved on this fancy; the +Virgin sleeps on a bank with the Child on her bosom; Joseph, who looks +extremely like an old tinker, is doubling his fist at the ass, which +has opened its mouth to bray. + + * * * * * + +Before quitting the subject of the Riposo, I must mention a very +pretty and poetical legend, which I have met with in one picture only; +a description of it may, however, lead to the recognition of others. + +There is, in the collection of Lord Shrewsbury, at Alton Towers, a +Riposo attributed to Giorgione, remarkable equally for the beauty and +the singularity of the treatment. The Holy Family are seated in the +midst of a wild but rich landscape, quite in the Venetian style; +Joseph is asleep; the two children are playing with a lamb. The +Virgin, seated holds a book, and turns round, with an expression of +surprise and alarm, to a female figure who stands on the right. This +woman has a dark physiognomy, ample flowing drapery of red and white, +a white turban twisted round her head, and stretches out her hand with +the air of a sibyl. The explanation of this striking group I found +in an old ballad-legend. Every one who has studied the moral as well +as the technical character of the various schools of art, must have +remarked how often the Venetians (and Giorgione more especially) +painted groups from the popular fictions and ballads of the time; and +it has often been regretted that many of these pictures are becoming +unintelligible to us from our having lost the key to them, in losing +all trace of the fugitive poems or tales which suggested them. + +The religious ballad I allude to must have been popular in the +sixteenth century; it exists in the Provencal dialect, in German, +and in Italian; and, like the wild ballad of St. John Chrysostom, it +probably came in some form or other from the East. The theme is, in +all these versions, substantially the same. The Virgin, on her arrival +in Egypt, is encountered by a gypsy (Zingara or Zingarella), who +crosses the Child's palm after the gypsy manner, and foretells all the +wonderful and terrible things which, as the Redeemer of mankind, he +was destined to perform and endure on earth. + +An Italian version which lies before me is entitled, _Canzonetta +nuova, sopra la Madonna, quando si parto in Egitto col Bambino Gesu +e San Giuseppe_, "A new Ballad of our Lady, when she fled into Egypt +with the Child Jesus and St. Joseph." + +It begins with a conversation between the Virgin, who has just arrived +from her long journey, and the gypsy-woman, who thus salutes her:-- + + ZINGARELLA. + Dio ti salvi, bella Signora, + E ti dia buona ventura. + Ben venuto, vecchiarello, + Con questo bambino bello! + + MADONNA. + Ben trovata, sorella mia, + La sua grazia Dio ti dia. + Ti perdoni i tuoi peccati + L' infinita sua bontade. + + ZINGARELLA. + Siete stanchi e meschini, + Credo, poveri pellegrini + Che cercate d' alloggiare. + Vuoi, Signora, scavalcare? + + MADONNA. + Voi che siete, sorella mia, + Tutta piena di cortesia, + Dio vi renda la carita + Per l'infinita sua bonta. + Noi veniam da Nazaretta, + Siamo senza alcun ricetto, + Arrivati all' strania + Stanchi e lassi dalla via! + + GYPSY. + God save thee, fair Lady, and give thee good luck + Welcome, good old man, with this thy fair Child! + + MARY. + Well met, sister mine! God give thee grace, and of + his infinite mercy forgive thee thy sins! + + GYPSY. + Ye are tired and drooping, poor pilgrims, as I think, + seeking a night's lodging. Lady, wilt thou choose to alight? + + MARY. + + O sister mine! full of courtesy, God of his infinite goodness + reward thee for thy charity. We are come from + Nazareth, and we are without a place to lay our heads, + arrived in a strange land, all tired and weary with the way! + +The Zingarella then offers them a resting-place, and straw and fodder +for the ass, which being accepted, she asks leave to tell their +fortune, but begins by recounting, in about thirty stanzas, all the +past history of the Virgin pilgrim; she then asks to see the Child-- + + Ora tu, Signora mia. + Che sei piena di cortesia, + Mostramelo per favore + Lo tuo Figlio Redentore! + + And now, O Lady mine, that art full of courtesy, grant + me to look upon thy Son, the Redeemer! + +The Virgin takes him from the arms of Joseph-- + + Datemi, o caro sposo, + Lo mio Figlio grazioso! + Quando il vide sta meschina + Zingarella, che indovina! + + Give me, dear husband, my lovely boy, that this poor + gypsy, who is a prophetess, may look upon him. + +The gypsy responds with becoming admiration and humility, praises +the beauty of the Child, and then proceeds to examine his palm: which +having done, she breaks forth into a prophecy of all the awful future, +tells how he would be baptized, and tempted, scourged, and finally +hung upon a cross-- + + Questo Figlio accarezzato + Tu lo vedrai ammazzato + Sopra d'una dura croce, + Figlio bello! Figlio dolce! + +but consoles the disconsolate Mother, doomed to honour for the sake of +us sinners-- + + Sei arrivata a tanti onori + Per noi altri Peccatori! + +and ends by begging an alms-- + + Non ti vo' piu infastidire, + Bella Signora; so chi hai a fare. + Dona la limosinella + A sta povera Zingarella +true repentance and eternal life. + + Vo' una vera contrizione + Per la tua intercezione, + Accio st' alma dopo morte + Tragga alle celesti porte! + +And so the story ends. + +There can be no doubt, I think, that we have here the original theme +of Giorgione's picture, and perhaps of others. + +In the Provencal ballad, there are three gypsies, men, not women, +introduced, who tell the fortune of the Virgin and Joseph, as well +as that of the Child, and end by begging alms "to wet their thirsty +throats." Of this version there is a very spirited and characteristic +translation by Mr. Kenyon, under the title of "a Gypsy Carol."[1] + +[Footnote 1: A Day at Tivoli, with other Verses, by John Kenyon, p. +149.] + + +THE RETURN FROM EGYPT. + +According to some authorities, the Holy Family sojourned in Egypt +during a period of seven years, but others assert that they returned +to Judea at the end of two years. + +In general the painters have expressed the Return from Egypt by +exhibiting Jesus as no longer an infant sustained in his mother's +arms, but as a boy walking at her side. In a picture by Francesco +Vanni, he is a boy about two or three years old, and carries a little +basket full of carpenter's tools. The occasion of the Flight and +Return is indicated by three or four of the martyred Innocents, who +are lying on the ground. In a picture by Domenico Feti two of the +Innocents are lying dead on the roadside. In a very graceful, animated +picture by Rubens, Mary and Joseph lead the young Christ between them, +and the Virgin wears a large straw hat. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS. + + + + +PART III. + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE SOJOURN IN EGYPT TO THE +CRUCIFIXION OF OUR LORD. + +1. THE HOLY FAMILY. 2. THE VIRGIN SEEKS HER SON. 3. THE DEATH OF +JOSEPH. 4. THE MARRIAGE AT CANA. 5. "LO SPASIMO." 6. THE CRUCIFIXION. +7. THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS. 8. THE ENTOMBMENT. + + +THE HOLY FAMILY. + +When the Holy Family under divine protection, had returned safely from +their sojourn in Egypt, they were about to repair to Bethlehem; but +Joseph hearing that Archelaus "did reign in Judea in the room of his +father Herod, he was afraid to go thither; and being warned of God +in a dream, he turned aside into Galilee," and came to the city of +Nazareth, which was the native place and home of the Virgin Mary. +Here Joseph dwelt, following in peace his trade of a carpenter, and +bringing up his reputed Son to the same craft: and here Mary nurtured +her divine Child; "and he grew and waxed strong in spirit, and the +grace of God was upon him." No other event is recorded until Jesus had +reached his twelfth, year. + + * * * * * + +This, then, is the proper place to introduce some notice of those +representations of the domestic life of the Virgin and the infancy +of the Saviour, which, in all their endless variety, pass under the +general title of THE HOLY FAMILY--the beautiful title of a beautiful +subject, addressed in the loveliest and most familiar form at once to +the piety and the affections of the beholder. + +These groups, so numerous, and of such perpetual recurrence, that they +alone form a large proportion of the contents of picture galleries +and the ornaments of churches, are, after all, a modern innovation in +sacred art. What may be called the _domestic_ treatment of the history +of the Virgin cannot be traced farther back than the middle of the +fifteenth century. It is, indeed, common to class all those pictures +as Holy Families which include any of the relatives of Christ grouped +with the Mother and her Child; but I must here recapitulate and +insist upon the distinction to be drawn between the _domestic_ and +the _devotional_ treatment of the subject; a distinction I have been +careful to keep in view throughout the whole range of sacred art, +and which, in this particular subject, depends on a difference in +sentiment and intention, more easily felt than set down in words. It +is, I must repeat, a _devotional_ group where the sacred personages +are placed in direct relation to the worshippers, and where their +supernatural character is paramount to every other. It is a _domestic_ +or an _historical_ group, a Holy Family properly so called, when the +personages are placed in direct relation to each other by some link +of action or sentiment, which expresses the family connection between +them, or by some action which has a dramatic rather than a religious +significance. The Italians draw this distinction in the title "_Sacra +Conversazione_" given to the first-named subject, and that of "_Sacra +Famiglia_" given to the last. For instance, if the Virgin, watching +her sleeping Child, puts her finger on her lip to silence the little +St. John; there is here no relation between the spectator and the +persons represented, except that of unbidden sympathy: it is a +family group; a domestic scene. But if St. John, looking out of the +picture, points to the Infant, "Behold the Lamb of God!" then the +whole representation changes its significance; St. John assumes the +character of precursor, and we, the spectators, are directly addressed +and called upon to acknowledge the "Son of God, the Saviour of +mankind." + +If St. Joseph, kneeling, presents flowers to the Infant Christ, while +Mary looks on tenderly (as in a group by Raphael), it is an act of +homage which expresses the mutual relation of the three personages; it +is a Holy Family: whereas, in the picture by Murillo, in our National +Gallery, where Joseph and Mary present the young Redeemer to the +homage of the spectator, while the form of the PADRE ETERNO, and +the Holy Spirit, with attendant angels, are floating above, we have +a devotional group, a "_Sacra Conversazione_:"--it is, in fact a +material representation of the Trinity; and the introduction of Joseph +into such immediate propinquity with the personages acknowledged +as divine is one of the characteristics of the later schools of +theological art. It could not possibly have occurred before the end +of the sixteenth or the beginning of the seventeenth century. + +The introduction of persons who could not have been contemporary, as +St. Francis or St. Catherine, renders the group ideal and devotional. +On the other hand, as I have already observed, the introduction of +attendant angels does not place the subject out of the domain of the +actual; for the painters literally rendered what in the Scripture text +is distinctly set down and literally interpreted, "He shall give his +angels charge concerning thee." Wherever lived and moved the Infant +Godhead, angels were always _supposed_ to be present; therefore it lay +within the province of an art addressed especially to our senses, to +place them bodily before us, and to give to these heavenly attendants +a visible shape and bearing worthy of their blessed ministry. + +The devotional groups, of which I have already treated most fully, +even while placed by the accessories quite beyond the range of actual +life, have been too often vulgarized and formalized by a trivial or +merely conventional treatment.[1] In these really domestic scenes, +where the painter sought unreproved his models in simple nature, and +trusted for his effect to what was holiest and most immutable in our +common humanity, he must have been a bungler indeed if he did not +succeed in touching some responsive chord of sympathy in the bosom of +the observer. This is, perhaps, the secret of the universal, and, in +general, deserved popularity of these Holy Families. + +[Footnote 1: See the "Mater Amabilis" and the "Pastoral Madonnas," p. +229, 239.] + + +TWO FIGURES. + +The simplest form of the family group is confined to two figures, +and expresses merely the relation between the Mother and the Child. +The _motif_ is precisely the same as in the formal, goddess-like, +enthroned Madonnas of the antique time; but here quite otherwise +worked out, and appealing to other sympathies. In the first instance, +the intention was to assert the contested pretensions of the human +mother to divine honours; here it was rather to assert the humanity of +her divine Son; and we have before us, in the simplest form, the first +and holiest of all the social relations. + +The primal instinct, as the first duty, of the mother, is the +nourishment of the life she has given. A very common subject, +therefore, is Mary in the act of feeding her Child from her bosom. I +have already observed that, when first adopted, this was a theological +theme; an answer, _in form_, to the challenge of the Nestorians, +"Shall we call him _God_, who hath sucked his mother's breast?" Then, +and for at least 500 years afterwards, the simple maternal action +involved a religious dogma, and was the visible exponent of a +controverted article of faith. All such controversy had long ceased, +and certainly there was no thought of insisting on a point of +theology in the minds of those secular painters of the sixteenth and +seventeenth centuries, who have set forth the representation with such +an affectionate and delicate grace; nor yet in the minds of those who +converted the lovely group into a moral lesson. For example, we find +in the works of Jeremy Taylor (one of the lights of our Protestant +Church) a long homily "Of nursing children, in imitation of the +blessed Virgin Mother;" and prints and pictures of the Virgin thus +occupied often bear significant titles and inscriptions of the same +import; such as "Le premier devoir d'une mere," &c. + +I do not find this _motif_ in any known picture by Raphael: but in +one of his designs, engraved by Marc Antonio, it is represented with +characteristic grace and delicacy. + +Goethe describes with delight a picture by Correggio, in which the +attention of the Child seems divided between the bosom of his mother, +and some fruit offered by an angel. He calls this subject "The Weaning +of the Infant Christ." Correggio, if not the very first, is certainly +among the first of the Italians who treated this _motif_ in the simple +domestic style. Others of the Lombard school followed him; and I know +not a more exquisite example than the maternal group by Solario, now +in the Louvre, styled _La Vierge a l'Oreiller verd_, from the colour +of the pillow on which the Child is lying. The subject is frequent in +the contemporary German and Flemish schools of the sixteenth century. +In the next century, there are charming examples by the Bologna +painters and the _Naturalisti_, Spanish, Italian, and Flemish. I would +particularly point to one by Agostino Caracci (Parma), and to another +by Vandyck (that engraved by Bartolozzi), as examples of elegance; +while in the numerous specimens by Rubens we have merely his own +wife and son, painted with all that coarse vigorous life, and homely +affectionate expression, which his own strong domestic feelings could +lend them. + +We have in other pictures the relation between the Mother and Child +expressed and varied in a thousand ways; as where she contemplates him +fondly--kisses him, pressing his cheeks to hers; or they sport with a +rose, or an apple, or a bird; or he presents it to his mother; these +originally mystical emblems being converted into playthings. In +another sketch she is amusing him by tinkling a bell:--the bell, +which has a religious significance, is here a plaything. One or more +attendant angels may vary the group, without taking it out of the +sphere of reality. In a quaint but charming picture in the Wallerstein +Collection, an angel is sporting with the Child at his mother's +feet--is literally his playfellow; and in a picture by Cambiaso, Mary, +assisted by an angel, is teaching her Child to walk. + + * * * * * + +To represent in the great enthroned Madonnas, the Infant Saviour of +the world asleep, has always appeared to me a solecism: whereas in +the domestic subject the Infant slumbering on his mother's knee, or +cradled in her arms, or on her bosom, or rocked by angels, is a most +charming subject. Sometimes angels are seen preparing his bed, or +looking on while he sleeps, with folded hands and overshadowing wings. +Sometimes Marry hangs over his pillow; "pondering in her heart" +the wondrous destinies of her Child. A poetess of our own time has +given us an interpretation worthy of the most beautiful of these +representations, in the address of the Virgin Mary to the Child +Jesus,--"Sleep, sleep, mine Holy One!" + + "And are thou come for saving, baby-browed + And speechless Being? art thou come for saving? + The palm that grows beside our door is bowed + By treadings of the low wind from the south, + A restless shadow through the chamber waving, + Upon its bough a bird sings in the sun. + But thou, with that close slumber on thy mouth, + Dost seem of wind and sun already weary, + Art come for saving, O my weary One? + + "Perchance this sleep that shutteth out the dreary + Earth-sounds and motions, opens on thy soul + High dreams on fire with God; + High songs that make the pathways where they roll + More bright than stars do theirs; and visions new + Of thine eternal nature's old abode. + Suffer this mother's kiss, + Best thing that earthly is, + To glide the music and the glory through, + Nor narrow in thy dream the broad upliftings + Of any seraph wing. + Thus, noiseless, thus!--Sleep, sleep, my dreaming One."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Poems by Elizabeth Barrett Browning, vol. ii. p. 174.] + +Such high imaginings might be suggested by the group of Michael +Angelo,--his famous "Silenzio:" but very different certainly are the +thoughts and associations conveyed by some of the very lovely, but at +the same time familiar and commonplace, groups of peasant-mothers and +sleeping babies--the countless productions of the later schools--even +while the simplicity and truth of the natural sentiment go straight to +the heart. + +I remember reading a little Italian hymn composed for a choir of nuns, +and addressed to the sleeping Christ, in which he is prayed to awake +or if he will not, they threaten to pull him by his golden curls until +they rouse him to listen! + + * * * * * + +I have seen a graceful print which represents Jesus as a child +standing at his mother's knee, while she feeds him from a plate or cap +held by an angel; underneath is the text, "_Butter and honey shall he +eat, that he may know to refuse the evil and choose the good_" And +in a print of the same period, the mother suspends her needlework +to contemplate the Child, who, standing at her side, looks down +compassionately on two little birds, which flutter their wings and +open their beaks expectingly; underneath is the test, "Are not two +sparrows sold for a farthing?" + +Mary employed in needlework, while her cradled Infant slumbers at her +side, is a beautiful subject. Rossini, in his _Storia della Pittura_, +publishes a group, representing the Virgin mending or making a little +coat, while Jesus, seated at her feet, without his coat, is playing +with a bird; two angels are hovering above. It appears to me that +there is here some uncertainty as regards both the subject and the +master. In the time of Giottino, to whom Rossini attributes the +picture, the domestic treatment of the Madonna and Child was unknown. +If it be really by him, I should suppose it to represent Hannah and +her son Samuel. + + * * * * * + +All these, and other varieties of action and sentiment connecting the +Mother and her Child, are frequently accompanied by accessory figures, +forming, in their combination, what is properly a Holy Family. The +personages introduced, singly or together, are the young St. John, +Joseph, Anna, Joachim, Elizabeth, and Zacharias. + + +THREE FIGURES. + +The group of three figures most commonly met with, is that of the +Mother and Child, with St. John. One of the earliest examples of the +domestic treatment of this group is a quaint picture by Botticelli, +in which Mary, bending down, holds forth the Child to be caressed by +St. John,--very dry in colour and faulty in drawing, but beautiful +for the sentiment. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) Perhaps the most perfect +example which could be cited from the whole range of art, is +Raphael's "Madonna del Cardellino" (Florence Gal.); another is his +"Belle Jardiniere" (Louvre, 375); another, in which the figures are +half-length, is his "Madonna del Giglio" (Lord Garvagh's Coll.). As +I have already observed, where the Infant Christ takes the cross from +St. John, or presents it to him, or where St. John points to him as +the Redeemer, or is represented, not as a child, but as a youth or a +man, the composition assumes a devotional significance. + +The subject of the Sleeping Christ is beautifully varied by the +introduction of St. John; as where Mary lifts the veil and shows her +Child to the little St. John, kneeling with folded hands: Raphael's +well-known "Vierge a la Diademe" is an instance replete with grace and +expression.[1] Sometimes Mary, putting her finger to her lip, exhorts +St. John to silence, as in a famous and oft-repeated subject by +Annibale Caracci, of which there is a lovely example at Windsor. Such +a group is called in Italian, _Il Silenzio_, and in French _le Sommeil +de Jesus_. + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, 376. It is also styled _la Vierge au Linge_] + + * * * * * + +Another group of three figures consists of the Mother, the Child, and +St. Joseph as foster-father. This group, so commonly met with in the +later schools of art, dates from the end of the fifteenth century. +Gerson, an ecclesiastic distinguished at the Council of Constance for +his learning and eloquence, had written a poem of three thousand lines +in praise of St. Joseph, setting him up as the Christian, example +of every virtue; and this poem, after the invention of printing, was +published and widely disseminated. Sixtus IV. instituted a festival +in honour of the "Husband of the Virgin," which, as a novelty +and harmonizing with the tone of popular feeling, was everywhere +acceptable. As a natural consequence, the churches and chapels were +filled with pictures, which represented the Mother and her Child, +with Joseph standing or seated by, in an attitude of religious +contemplation or affectionate sympathy; sometimes leaning on his +stick, or with his tools lying beside him; and always in the old +pictures habited in his appropriate colours, the saffron-coloured robe +over the gray or green tunic. + +In the Madonna and Child, as a strictly devotional subject, the +introduction of Joseph rather complicates the idea; but in the +domestic Holy Family his presence is natural and necessary. It is +seldom that he is associated with the action, where there is one; +but of this also there are some beautiful examples. + + * * * * * + +1. In a well-known composition by Raphael (Grosvenor Gal.), the mother +withdraws the covering from the Child, who seems to have that moment +awaked, and, stretching out his little arms, smiles in her face: +Joseph looks on tenderly and thoughtfully. + +2. In another group by Raphael (Bridgewater Gal.), the Infant is +seated on the mother's knee, and sustained by part of her veil; +Joseph, kneeling, offers flowers to his divine foster-Son, who eagerly +stretches out his little hand to take them. + +In many pictures, Joseph is seen presenting cherries; as in the +celebrated _Vierge aux Cerises_ of Annibale Caracci. (Louvre.) The +allusion is to a quaint old legend, often introduced in the religious +ballads and dramatic mysteries of the time. It is related, that before +the birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary wished to taste of certain +cherries which hung upon a tree high above her head; she requested +Joseph to procure them for her, and he reaching to pluck them, the +branch bowed down to his hand. + +3. There is a lovely pastoral composition by Titian, in which Mary +is seated under some trees, with Joseph leaning on his staff, and the +Infant Christ standing between them: the little St. John approaches +with his lap full of cherries; and in the background a woman is seen +gathering cherries. This picture is called a Ripose; but the presence +of St. John, and the cherry tree instead of the date tree, point out a +different signification. Angels presenting cherries on a plate is also +a frequent circumstance, derived from the same legend. + +4. In a charming picture by Garofalo, Joseph is caressing the Child, +while Mary--a rather full figure, calm, matronly, and dignified, as is +usual with Garofalo--sits by, holding a book in her hand, from which +she has just raised her eyes. (Windsor Gal.) + +5. In a family group by Murillo, Joseph, standing, holds the Infant +pressed to his bosom; while Mary, seated near a cradle, holds out her +arms to take it from him: a carpenter's bench is seen behind. + +6. A celebrated picture by Rembrandt, known as _le Menage du +Menuisier_, exhibits a rustic interior; the Virgin is seated with the +volume of the Scriptures open on her knees--she turns, and lifting +the coverlid of the cradle, contemplates the Infant asleep: in the +background Joseph is seen at his work; while angels hover above, +keeping watch over the Holy Family. Exquisite for the homely +natural sentiment, and the depth of the colour and chiaro-oscuro. +(Petersburg.) + +7. Many who read these pages will remember the pretty little picture +by Annibale Caracci, known as "le Raboteur."[1] It represents Joseph +planing a board, while Jesus, a lovely boy about six or seven years +old, stands by, watching the progress of his work. Mary is seated on +one side plying her needle. The great fault of this picture is the +subordinate and utterly commonplace character given to the Virgin +Mother: otherwise it is a very suggestive and dramatic subject, and +one which might be usefully engraved in a cheap form for distribution. + +[Footnote 1: In the Coll. of the Earl of Suffolk, at Charlton.] + + * * * * * + +Sometimes, in a Holy Family of three figures, the third figure is +neither St. John nor St. Joseph, but St. Anna. Now, according to +some early authorities, both Joachim and Anna died either before the +marriage of Mary and Joseph, or at least before the return from Egypt. +Such, however, was the popularity of these family groups, and the +desire to give them all possible variety, that the ancient version of +the story was overruled by the prevailing taste, and St. Anna became +an important personage. One of the earliest groups in which the mother +of the Virgin is introduced as a third personage, is a celebrated, +but to my taste not a pleasing, composition, by Lionardo da Vinci, +in which St. Anna is seated on a sort of chair, and the Virgin on her +knees bends down towards the Infant Christ, who is sporting with a +lamb. (Louvre, 481.) + + +FOUR FIGURES. + +In a Holy Family of four figures, we have frequently the Virgin, the +Child, and the infant St. John, with St. Joseph standing by. Raphael's +Madonna del Passeggio is an example. In a picture by Palma Vecchio, +St. John presents a lamb, while St. Joseph kneels before the Infant +Christ, who, seated on his mother's knee, extends his arms to his +foster-father. Nicole Poussin was fond of this group, and has repeated +it at least ten times with variations. + +But the most frequent group of four figures consists of the Virgin and +Child, with St. John and his mother, St. Elizabeth--the two mothers +and the two sons. Sometimes the children are sporting together, +or embracing each other, while Mary and Elizabeth look on with a +contemplative tenderness, or seem to converse on the future destinies +of their sons. A very favourite and appropriate action is that of St. +Elizabeth presenting St. John, and teaching him to kneel and fold his +hands, as acknowledging in his little cousin the Infant Saviour. We +have then, in beautiful contrast, the aged coifed head of Elizabeth, +with its matronly and earnest expression; the youthful bloom and soft +virginal dignity of Mary; and the different character of the boys, the +fair complexion and delicate proportions of the Infant Christ, and +the more robust and brown-complexioned John. A great painter will be +careful to express these distinctions, not by the exterior character +only, but will so combine the personages, that the action represented +shall display the superior dignity of Christ and his mother. + + +FIVE OR SIX FIGURES. + +The addition of Joseph as a fifth figure, completes the domestic +group. The introduction of the aged Zacharias renders, however, yet +more full and complete, the circle of human life and human affection. +We have then, infancy, youth, maturity, and age,--difference of sex +and various degrees of relationship, combined into one harmonious +whole; and in the midst, the divinity of innocence, the Child-God, +the brightness of a spiritual power, connecting our softest earthly +affections with our highest heavenward aspirations.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The inscription under a Holy Family in which the children +are caressing each other is sometimes _Delicae meae esse cum filiis +hominum_ (Prov. viii. 31, "My delights were with the sons of men").] + + * * * * * + +A Holy Family of more than six figures (the angels not included) is +very unusual. But there are examples of groups combining all those +personages mentioned in the Gospels as being related to Christ, +though the nature and the degree of this supposed relationship has +embarrassed critics and commentators, and is not yet settled. + +According to an ancient tradition, Anna, the mother of the Virgin +Mary, was three times married, Joachim being her third husband: the +two others were Cleophas and Salome. By Cleophas she had a daughter, +also called Mary, who was the wife of Alpheus, and the mother +of Thaddeus, James Minor, and Joseph Justus. By Salome she had a +daughter, also Mary, married to Zebedee, and the mother of James Major +and John the Evangelist. This idea that St. Anna was successively the +wife of three husbands, and the mother of three daughters, all of +the name of Mary, has been rejected by later authorities; but in the +beginning of the sixteenth century it was accepted, and to that period +may be referred the pictures, Italian and German, representing a +peculiar version of the Holy Family more properly styled "the Family +of the Virgin Mary." + +A picture by Lorenzo di Pavia, painted about 1513, exhibits a very +complete example of this family group. Mary is seated in the centre, +holding in her lap the Infant Christ; near her is St. Joseph. Behind +the Virgin stand St. Anna, and three men, with their names inscribed, +Joachim, Cleophas, and Salome. On the right of the Virgin is Mary the +daughter of Cleophas, Alpheus her husband, and her children Thaddeus, +James Minor, and Joseph Justus. On the left of the Virgin is Mary the +daughter of Salome, her husband Zebedee, and her children James Major +and John the Evangelist.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture I saw in the Louvre some years ago, but it +is not in the New Catalogue by M. Villot.] + +A yet more beautiful example is a picture by Perugino in the Musee +at Marseilles, which I have already cited and described (Sacred and +Legendary Art): here also the relatives of Christ, destined to be +afterwards his apostles and the ministers of his word, are grouped +around him in his infancy. In the centre Mary is seated and holding +the child; St. Anna stands behind, resting her hands affectionately on +the shoulders of the Virgin. In front, at the feet of the Virgin, are +two boys, Joseph and Thaddeus; and near them Mary, the daughter of +Cleophas, holds the hand of her third son James Minor. To the right is +Mary Salome, holding in her arms her son John the Evangelist, and at +her feet is her other son, James Major. Joseph, Zebedee, and other +members of the family, stand around. The same subject I have seen in +illuminated MSS., and in German prints. It is worth remarking that all +these appeared about the same time, between 1505 and 1520, and that +the subject afterwards disappeared; from which I infer that it was +not authorized by the Church; perhaps because the exact degree of +relationship between these young apostles and the Holy Family was +not clearly made out, either by Scripture or tradition. + +In a composition by Parmigiano, Christ is standing at his mother's +knee; Elizabeth presents St. John the Baptist; the other little St. +John kneels on a cushion. Behind the Virgin are St. Joachim and St. +Anna; and behind Elizabeth, Zebedee and Mary Salome, the parents of +St. John the Evangelist. In the centre, Joseph looks on with folded +hands. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue _raisonnee_ of the Holy Families painted by distinguished +artists including from two to six figures would fill volumes: I +shall content myself with directing attention to some few examples +remarkable either for their celebrity, their especial beauty, or for +some peculiarity, whether commendable or not, in the significance or +the treatment. + +The strictly domestic conception may be said to have begun with +Raphael and Correggio; and they afford the most perfect examples +of the tender and the graceful in sentiment and action, the softest +parental feeling, the loveliest forms of childhood. Of the purely +natural and familiar treatment, which came into fashion in the +seventeenth century, the pictures of Guido, Rubens, and Murillo +afford the most perfect specimens. + +1. Raphael. (Louvre, 377.) Mary, a noble queenly creature, is seated, +and bends towards her Child, who is springing from his cradle to meet +her embrace; Elizabeth presents St. John; and Joseph, leaning on his +hand, contemplates the group: two beautiful angels scatter flowers +from above. This is the celebrated picture once supposed to have been +executed expressly for Francis I.; but later researches prove it to +have been painted for Lorenzo de' Medici, Duke of Urbino.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It appears from the correspondence relative to this +picture and the "St. Michael," that both pictures were painted by +order of this Lorenzo de' Medici, the same who is figured in Michael +Angelo's _Pensiero_, and that they were intended as presents to +Francis I. (See Dr. Gaye's _Carteggio_, ii. 146, and also the new +Catalogue of the Louvre by F. Villot.) I have mentioned this Holy +Family not as the finest of Raphael's Madonnas, but because there is +something peculiarly animated and dramatic in the _motif_, considering +the time at which it was painted. It was my intention to have given +here a complete list of Raphael's Holy Families; but this has been +so well done in the last English edition of Kugler's Handbook, that +it has become superfluous as a repetition. The series of minute +and exquisite drawings by Mr. George Scharf, appended to Kugler's +Catalogue, renders it easy to recognize all the groups described in +this and the preceding pages.] + +2. Correggio. Mary holds the Child upon her knee, looking down upon +him fondly. Styled, from the introduction of the work-basket, _La +Vierge au Panier_. A finished example of that soft, yet joyful, +maternal feeling for which Correggio was remarkable. (National Gal. +23.) + +3. Pinturicchio. In a landscape, Mary and Joseph are seated together; +near them are some loaves and a small cask of wine. More in front the +two children, Jesus and St. John, are walking arm in arm; Jesus holds +a book and John a pitcher, as if they were going to a well. (Siena +Acad.) + +4. Andrea del Sarto. The Virgin is seated on the ground, and holds the +Child; the young St. John is in the arms of St. Elizabeth, and Joseph +is seen behind. (Louvre, 439.) This picture, another by the same +painter in the National Gallery, a third in the collection of Lord +Lansdowne, and in general all the Holy Families of Andrea, may +be cited as examples of fine execution and mistaken or defective +character. No sentiment, no action, connects the personages either +with each other, or with the spectator. + +5. Michael Angelo. The composition, in the Florence Gallery, styled +a Holy Family, appears to me a signal example of all that should be +avoided. It is, as a conception, neither religious nor domestic; in +execution and character exaggerated and offensive, and in colour hard +and dry. + +Another, a bas-relief, in which the Child is shrinking from a +bird held up by St. John, is very grand in the forms: the mistake +in sentiment, as regards the bird, I have pointed out in the +Introduction. (Royal Academy.) A third, in which the Child leans +pensively on a book lying open on his mother's knee, while she looks +out on the spectator, is more properly a _Mater Amabilis_. + +There is an extraordinary fresco still preserved in the Casa +Buonarotti at Florence, where it was painted on the wall by Michael +Angelo, and styled a Holy Family, though the exact meaning of the +subject has been often disputed. It appears to me, however, very +clear, and one never before or since attempted by any other artist. +(This fresco is engraved in the _Etruria Pittrice_.) Mary is seated +in the centre; her Child is reclining on the ground between her knees; +and the little St. John holding his cross looks on him steadfastly. +A man coming forward seems to ask of Mary, "Whose son is this?" She +most expressively puts aside Joseph with her hand, and looks up, as +if answering, "Not the son of an earthly, but of a heavenly Father!" +There are five other figures standing behind, and the whole group is +most significant. + +6. Albert Durer. The Holy Family seated under a tree; the Infant is +about to spring from the knee of his mother into the outstretched arms +of St. Anna; Joseph is seen behind with his hat in his hand; and to +the left sits the aged Joachim contemplating the group. + +7. Mary appears to have just risen from her chair, the Child bends +from her arms, and a young and very little angel, standing on tiptoe, +holds up to him a flower--other flowers in his lap:--a beautiful old +German print. + +8. Giulio Romano. (_La Madonna del Bacino_.) (Dresden Gal.) The Child +stands in a basin, and the young St. John pours water upon him from +a vase, while Mary washes him. St. Elizabeth stands by, holding +a napkin; St. Joseph, behind, is looking on. Notwithstanding the +homeliness of the action, there is here a religious and mysterious +significance, prefiguring the Baptism. + +9. N. Poussin. Mary, assisted by angels, washes and dresses her Child. +(Gal. of Mr. Hope.) + +10. V. Salimbeni.--An Interior. Mary and Joseph are occupied by the +Child. Elizabeth is spinning. More in front St. John is carrying two +puppies in the lappet of his coat, and the dog is leaping up to him. +(Florence, Pitti Pal.) This is one out of many instances in which +the painter, anxious to vary the oft-repeated subject, and no longer +restrained by refined taste or religious veneration, has fallen into +a most offensive impropriety. + +11. Ippolito Andreasi. Mary, seated, holds the Infant Christ between +her knees; Elizabeth leans over the back of her chair; Joseph leans on +his staff behind the Virgin; the little St. John and an angel present +grapes, while four other angels are gathering and bringing them. +A branch of vine, loaded with grapes, is lying in the foreground. +Christ looks like a young Bacchus; and there is something mannered and +fantastic in the execution. (Louvre, 38.) With this domestic scene is +blended a strictly religious symbol, "_I am the vine_." + +12. Murilio. Mary is in the act of swaddling her Child (Luke ii, 7), +while two angels, standing near him, solace the divine Infant with +heavenly music. (Madrid Gal.) + +13. Rubens. Mary, seated on the ground, holds the Child with a +charming maternal expression, a little from her, gazing on him with +rapturous earnestness, while he looks up with responsive tenderness in +her face. His right hand rests on a cross presented by St. John, who +is presented by St. Elizabeth. Wonderful for the intensely natural and +domestic expression, and the beauty of the execution. (Florence, Pitti +Pal.) + +14. D. Hopfer. Within the porch of a building, Mary is seated on one +side, reading intently. St. Anna, on the other side, holds out her +arms to the Child, who is sitting on the ground between them; an angel +looks in at the open door behind. (Bartsch., viii. 483.) + +15. Rembrandt. (_Le Menage du Menuisier_.) A rustic interior. Mary, +seated in the centre, is suckling her Child. St. Anna, a fat Flemish +grandame, has been reading the volume of the Scriptures, and bends +forward in order to remove the covering and look in the Infant's face. +A cradle is near. Joseph is seen at work in the background. (Louvre.) + +16. Le Brun. (_The Benedicite_.) Mary, the Child, and Joseph, are +seated at a frugal repast. Joseph is in the act of reverently saying +grace, which gives to the picture the title by which it is known.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Louvre, Ecole Francaise 57. There is a celebrated +engraving by Edelinck.] + + * * * * * + +It is distinctly related that Joseph brought up his foster-Son as a +carpenter, and that Jesus exercised the craft of his reputed father. +In the Church pictures, we do not often meet with this touching +and familiar aspect of the life of our Saviour. But in the small +decorative pictures painted for the rich ecclesiastics, and for +private oratories, and in the cheap prints which were prepared for +distribution among the people, and became especially popular during +the religious reaction of the seventeenth century, we find this +homely version of the subject perpetually, and often most pleasingly, +exhibited. The greatest and wisest Being who ever trod the earth was +thus represented, in the eyes of the poor artificer, as ennobling +and sanctifying labour and toil; and the quiet domestic duties +and affections were here elevated, and hallowed, by religious +associations, and adorned by all the graces of Art. Even where +the artistic treatment was not first-rate, was not such as the +painters--priests and poets as well as painters--of the fourteenth +and fifteenth centuries would have lent to such themes,--still if the +sentiment and significance were but intelligible to those especially +addressed, the purpose was accomplished, and the effect must have been +good. + +I have before me an example in a set of twelve prints, executed in the +Netherlands, exhibiting a sort of history of the childhood of Christ, +and his training under the eye of his mother. It is entitled _Jesu +Christi Del Domini Salvatoris nostri Infantia_, "The Infancy of our +Lord God and Saviour Jesus Christ;" and the title-page is surrounded +by a border composed of musical instruments, spinning-wheels, +distaffs, and other implements, of female industry, intermixed with +all kinds of mason's and carpenter's tools. To each print is appended +a descriptive Latin verse; Latin being chosen, I suppose, because the +publication was intended for distribution in different countries, and +especially foreign missions, and to be explained by the priests to the +people. + +1. The figure of Christ is seen in a glory surrounded by cherubim, &c. + +2. The Virgin is seated on the hill of Sion. The Infant in her lap, +with outspread arms, looks up to a choir of angels, and is singing +with them. + +3. Jesus, slumbering in his cradle, is rocked by two angels, while +Mary sits by, engaged in needlework.[1] + +[Footnote 1: The Latin stanza beneath, is remarkable for its elegance, +and because it has been translated by Coleridge, who mentions that he +found the print and the verse under it in a little inn in Germany. + + Dormi, Jesu, mater ridet, + Quae tam dulcem somnum videt, + Dormi, Jesu, blandule! + Si non dormis mater plorat, + Inter fila cantans orat, + Blande, veni, somnule! + + Sleep, sweet babe! my cares beguiling, + Mother sits beside thee smiling, + Sleep, my darling, tenderly! + If thou sleep not, mother mourneth, + Singing as her wheel she turneth" + Come, soft slumber, balmily!"] + +4. The interior of a carpenter's shop. Joseph is plying his work, +while Joachim stands near him. The Virgin is measuring linen, and St. +Anna looks on. Two angels are at play with the Infant Christ, who is +blowing soap-bubbles. + +5. While Mary is preparing the family meal, and watching a pot which +is boiling on the fire, Joseph is seen behind chopping wood: more +in front, Jesus is sweeping together the chips, and two angels are +gathering them up. + +6. Mary is reeling off a skein of thread; Joseph is squaring a plank; +Jesus is picking up the chips, assisted by two angels. + +7. Mary is seated at her spinning-wheel; Joseph, assisted by Jesus, is +sawing through a large beam; two angels looking on. + +8. Mary is spinning with a distaff; behind, Joseph is sawing a beam, +on which Jesus is standing above; and two angels are lifting a plank. + +9. Joseph is seen building up the framework of a house, assisted by an +angel; Jesus is boring a hole with a large gimlet: an angel helps him; +Mary is winding thread. + +10. Joseph is busy roofing in the house; Jesus, assisted by the +angels, is carrying a beam of wood up a ladder; below, in front, Mary +is carding wool or flax. + +11. Joseph is building a boat, assisted by Jesus, who has a hammer +and chisel in his hand: two angels help him. The Virgin is knitting +a stocking; and the new-built house is seen in the background. + +12. Joseph is erecting a fence round a garden; Jesus, assisted by +the angels, is fastening the palings together; while Mary is weaving +garlands of roses. + +Justin Martyr mentions, as a tradition of his time, that Jesus +assisted his foster-father in making yokes and ploughs. In +Holland, where these prints were published, the substitution of +the boat-building seems very natural. St. Bonaventura, the great +Franciscan theologian, and a high authority in all that relates to +the life and character of Mary, not only described her as a pattern +of female industry, but alludes particularly to the legend of the +distaff, and mentions a tradition, that, when in Egypt, the Holy +Family was so reduced by poverty, that Mary begged from door to door +the fine flax which she afterwards spun into a garment for her Child. + + * * * * * + +As if to render the circle of maternal duties, and thereby the +maternal example, more complete, there are prints of Mary leading her +Son to school. I have seen one in which he carries his hornbook in +his hand. Such representations, though popular, were condemned by the +highest church authorities as nothing less than heretical. The Abbe +Mery counts among the artistic errors "which endanger the faith +of good Christians," those pictures which represent Mary or Joseph +instructing the Infant Christ; as if all learning, all science, +divine and human, were not his by intuition, and without any earthly +teaching, (v. Theologie des Peintres.) A beautiful Holy Family, +by Schidone, is entitled, "The Infant Christ learning to read" +(Bridgewater Gal.); and we frequently meet with pictures in which the +mother holds a book, while the divine Child, with a serious intent +expression, turns over the leaves, or points to the letters: but I +imagine that these, and similar groups, represent Jesus instructing +Mary and Joseph, as he is recorded to have done. There is also a +very pretty legend, in which he is represented as exciting the +astonishment, of the schoolmaster Zaccheus by his premature wisdom. +On these, and other details respecting the infancy of our Saviour, I +shall have to say much more when treating of the History of Christ. + + + + +THE DISPUTE IN THE TEMPLE. + +_Ital._ La Disputa nel Tempio. _Fr._ Jesus au milieu des Docteurs. + + +The subject which we call the Dispute in the Temple, or "Christ +among the Doctors," is a scene of great importance in the life of +the Redeemer (Luke ii. 41, 52). His appearance in the midst of the +doctors, at twelve years old, when he sat "hearing them and asking +them questions, and all who heard him were astonished at his +understanding and his answers," has been interpreted as the first +manifestation of his high character as teacher of men, as one come +to throw a new light on the prophecies,-- + + "For trailing clouds of glory had he come + From heaven, which was his home;" + +and also as instructing as that those who are to become teachers of +men ought, when young, to listen to the voice of age and experience; +and that those who have grown old may learn lessons of wisdom +from childish innocence. Such is the historical and scriptural +representation. But in the life of the Virgin, the whole scene changes +its signification. It is no longer the wisdom of the Son, it is the +sorrow of the Mother which is the principal theme. In their journey +home from Jerusalem, Jesus has disappeared; he who was the light of +her eyes, whose precious existence had been so often threatened, has +left her care, and gone, she knows not whither. "No fancy can imagine +the doubts, the apprehensions, the possibilities of mischief, the +tremblings of heart, which the holy Virgin-mother feels thronging in +her bosom. For three days she seeks him in doubt and anguish." (Jeremy +Taylor's "Life of Christ.") At length he is found seated in the temple +in the midst of the learned doctors, "hearing them, and asking them +questions." And she said unto him, "Son, why hast thou thus dealt with +us? behold, I and thy father have sought thee sorrowing." And he said +unto them, "How is it that ye sought me? Wise ye not that I must be +about my Father's business?" + +Now there are two ways of representing this scene. In all the earlier +pictures it is chiefly with reference to the Virgin Mother: it is one +of the sorrowful mysteries of the Rosary. The Child Jesus sits in the +temple, teaching with hand uplifted; the doctors round him turn over +the leaves of their great books, searching the law and the prophets. +Some look up at the young inspired Teacher--he who was above the law, +yet came to obey the law and fulfil the prophecies--with amazement. +Conspicuous in front, stand Mary and Joseph, and she is in act to +address to him the tender reproach, "I and thy father have sought +thee sorrowing." In the early examples she is a principal figure, but +in later pictures she is seen entering in the background; and where +the scene relates only to the life of Christ, the figures of Joseph +and Mary are omitted altogether, and the Child teacher becomes the +central, or at least the chief, personage in the group. + +In a picture by Giovanni da Udine, the subject is taken out of the +region of the actual, and treated altogether as a mystery. In the +centre sits the young Redeemer, his hand raised, and surrounded by +several of the Jewish doctors; while in front stand the four fathers +of the Church, who flourished in the interval between the fourth and +sixth centuries after Christ; and these, holding their books, point to +Jesus, or look to him, as to the source of their wisdom;--a beautiful +and poetical version of the true significance of the story, which +the critics of the last century would call a chronological mistake. +(Venice, Academy.) + +But those representations which come under our especial consideration +at present, are such as represent the moment in which Mary appears +before her Son. The earliest instance of this treatment is a group by +Giotto. Dante cites the deportment of the Virgin on this occasion, and +her mild reproach, "_con atto dolce di madre_," as a signal lesson of +gentleness and forbearance. (Purgatorio, c. xv.) It is as if he had +transferred the picture of Giotto into his Vision; for it is as a +picture, not an action, that it is introduced. Another, by Simon +Memmi, in the Roscoe Collection at Liverpool, is conceived in a +similar spirit. In a picture by Garofalo, Mary does not reproach her +Son, but stands listening to him with her hands folded on her bosom. +In a large and fine composition by Pinturicchio, the doctors throw +down their books before him, while the Virgin and Joseph are entering +on one side. The subject is conspicuous in Albert Durer's Life of +the Virgin, where Jesus is seated on high, as one having authority, +teaching from a chair like that of a professor in a university, and +surrounded by the old bearded doctors; and Mary stands before her Son +in an attitude of expostulation. + +After the restoration of Jesus to his parents, they conducted him +home; "but his mother kept all these sayings in her heart." The return +to Nazareth, Jesus walking humbly between Joseph and Mary, was painted +by Rubens for the Jesuit College at Antwerp, as a lesson to youth. +Underneath is the text, "And he was subject unto them."[1] + +[Footnote 1: It has been called by mistake "The Return from Egypt"] + + + + +THE DEATH OF JOSEPH. + +_Ital._ La Morte di San Giuseppe. _Fr._ La Mort de St. Joseph _Ger._ +Josef's Tod. + + +Between the journey to Jerusalem and the public appearance of Jesus, +chronologers place the death of Joseph, but the exact date is not +ascertained: some place it in the eighteenth year of the life of our +Saviour, and others in his twenty-seventh year, when, as they assert, +Joseph was one hundred and eleven years old. + +I have already observed, that the enthusiasm for the character of +Joseph, and his popularity as a saint and patron of power, date from +the fifteenth century; and late in the sixteenth century I find, for +the first time, the death of Joseph treated as a separate subject. It +appears that the supposed anniversary of his death (July 20) had long +been regarded in the East as a solemn festival, and that it was the +custom to read publicly, on this occasion, some homily relating to his +life and death. The very curious Arabian work, entitled "The History +of Joseph the Carpenter," is supposed to be one of these ancient +homilies, and, in its original form, as old as the fourth century.[1] +Here the death of Joseph is described with great detail, and with many +solemn and pathetic circumstances; and the whole history is put into +the mouth of Jesus, who is supposed to recite it to his disciples: +he describes the pious end of Joseph; he speaks of himself as being +present, and acknowledged by the dying man as "Redeemer and Messiah," +and he proceeds to record the grief of Mary:-- + +"And my mother, the Virgin, arose, and she came nigh to me and said, +'O my beloved Son now must the good old man die!' and I answered and +said unto her, 'O my most dear mother, needs must all created beings +die; and death will have his rights, even over thee, beloved mother; +but death to him and to thee is no death, only the passage to eternal +life; and this body I have derived from thee shall also undergo +death.'" + +[Footnote 1: The Arabic MS. in the library at Paris is of the year +1299, and the Coptic version as old as 1367. Extracts from these +were become current in the legends of the West, about the fifteenth +century.--See the "Neu Testamentlichen Apokryphen," edited in German +by Dr. K.F. Borberg.] + +And they sat, the Son and the mother, beside Joseph; and Jesus held +his hand, and watched the last breath of life trembling on his lips; +and Mary touched his feet, and they were cold; and the daughters and +the sons of Joseph wept and sobbed around in their grief; and then +Jesus adds tenderly, "I, and my mother Mary, we wept with them." + +Then follows a truly Oriental scene, of the evil angels rising up with +Death, and rejoicing in his power over the saint, while Jesus rebukes +them; and at his prayer God sends down Michael, prince of the angelic +host, and Gabriel, the herald of light, to take possession of the +departing spirit, enfold it in a robe of brightness thereby to +preserve it from the "dark angels," and carry it up into heaven. + +This legend of the death of Joseph was, in many forms, popular in +the sixteenth century; hence arose the custom of invoking him as +Intercessor to obtain a blessed and peaceful end, so that he became, +in some sort, the patron saint of death-beds; and it is at this time +we find the first representations of the death of Joseph, afterwards +a popular subject in the churches and convents of the Augustine canons +and Carmelite friars, who had chosen him for their patron saint; and +also in family chapels consecrated to the memory or the repose of the +dead. + +The finest example I have seen, is by Carlo Maratti, in the Vienna +Gallery. St. Joseph is on a couch; Christ is seated near him; and the +Virgin stands by with folded hands, in a sad, contemplative attitude. + + * * * * * + +I am not aware that the Virgin has ever been introduced into any +representation of the temptation or the baptism of our Saviour. These +subjects, so important and so picturesque, are reserved till we enter +upon the History of Christ. + + + + +THE MARRIAGE AT CANA IN GALILEE. + +_Ital._ Le Nozze di Cana. _Fr._ Les Noces de Cana. _Ger._ Die Hochzeit +zu Cana. + + +After his temptation and baptism, the first manifestation of the +divine mission and miraculous power of Jesus was at the wedding +feast at Cana in Galilee; and those who had devoted themselves to the +especial glorification of the Virgin Mother did not forget that it was +at her request this first miracle was accomplished:--that out of her +tender and sympathetic commiseration for the apparent want, arose +her appeal to him,--not, indeed, as requiring anything from him, but, +looking to him with habitual dependence on his goodness and power. She +simply said, "They have no wine!" He replied, "Woman, what have I to +do with thee? Mine hour is not yet come." The term _woman_, thus used, +sounds harsh to us; but in the original is a term of respect. Nor did +Jesus intend any denial to the mother, whom he regarded with dutiful +and pious reverence:--it was merely an intimation that he was not +yet entered into the period of miraculous power. He anticipated +it, however, for her sake, and because of her request. Such is the +view taken of this beautiful and dramatic incident by the early +theologians; and in the same spirit it has been interpreted by the +painters. + +The Marriage at Cana appears very seldom in the ancient +representations taken from the Gospel. All the monkish institutions +then prevalent discredited marriage; and it is clear that this +distinct consecration of the rite by the presence of the Saviour and +his mother did not find favour with the early patrons of art. + +There is an old Greek tradition, that the Marriage at Cana was that +of John the Evangelist. In the thirteenth century, when the passionate +enthusiasm for Mary Magdalene was at its height, it was a popular +article of belief, that the Marriage which Jesus graced with his +presence was that of John the Evangelist and Mary Magdalene; and +that immediately after the wedding feast, St. John and Mary, devoting +themselves to an austere and chaste religious life, followed Christ, +and ministered to him. + +As a scene in the life of Christ, the Marriage at Cana, is of course +introduced incidentally; but even here, such were the monastic +principles and prejudices, that I find it difficult to point out any +very early example. In the "Manual of Greek Art," published by Didron, +the rules for the representation are thus laid down:--"A table; +around it Scribes and Pharisees; one holds up a cup of wine, and +seems astonished. In the midst, the bride and bridegroom are seated +together. The bridegroom is to have 'grey hair and a round beard +(_cheveux gris et barbe arrondie_); both are to be crowned with +flowers; behind them, a servitor. Christ, the Virgin, and Joseph are +to be on one side, and on the other are six jars: the attendants are +in the act of filling them with water from leathern buckets." + +The introduction of Joseph is quite peculiar to Greek art; and the +more curious, that in the list of Greek subjects there is not one from +his life, nor in which he is a conspicuous figure. On the other hand, +the astonished "ruler of the feast" (the _Architriclino_), so dramatic +and so necessary to the comprehension of the scene, is scarcely ever +omitted. The apostles whom we may imagine to be present, are Peter, +Andrew, James, and John. + + * * * * * + +As a separate subject, the Marriage at Cana first became popular in +the Venetian school, and thence extended to the Lombard and German +schools of the same period--that is, about the beginning of the +sixteenth century. + +The most beautiful representation I have ever seen is a fresco, +by Luini, in the church of San Maurizio, at Milan. It belongs to a +convent of nuns; and I imagine, from its introduction there, that it +had a mystic signification, and referred to a divine _Sposalizio_. +In this sense, the treatment is perfect. There are just the number +of figures necessary to tell the story, and no more. It is the bride +who is here the conspicuous figure, seated in the centre, arrayed in +spotless white, and represented as a nun about to make her profession; +for this is evidently the intended signification. The bridegroom is at +her side, and near to the spectator. Christ, and the Virgin are seated +together, and appear to be conversing. A man presents a cup of wine. +Including guests and attendants, there are only twelve figures. +The only fault of this exquisite and graceful composition, is the +introduction of a cat and dog in front: we feel that they ought to +have been omitted, as giving occasion for irreverent witticisms.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This beautiful fresco, which is seldom seen, being behind +the altar, was in a very ruined condition when I saw it last in 1855.] + +In contrast with this picture, and as a gorgeous specimen of the +Venetian style of treatment, we may turn to the "Marriage at Cana" in +the Louvre, originally painted to cover one side of the refectory of +the convent of _San Giorgio Maggiore_ at Venice, whence it was carried +off by the French in 1796. This immense picture is about thirty-six +feet in length, and about twenty feet in height, and contains more +than a hundred figures above life-size. In the centre Christ is +seated, and beside him the Virgin Mother. Both heads are merely +commonplace, and probably portraits, like those of the other +personages at the extremity of the table. On the left are seated the +bride and bridegroom. In the foreground a company of musicians are +performing a concert; behind the table is a balustrade, where are +seen numerous servants occupied in cutting up the viands and serving +dishes, with attendants and spectators. The chief action to be +represented, the astonishing miracle performed by him at whose command +"the fountain blushed into wine," is here quite a secondary matter; +and the value of the picture lies in its magnitude and variety as +a composition, and the portraits of the historical characters and +remarkable personages introduced,--Francis I., his queen Eleanora of +Austria, Charles V. and others. In the group of musicians in front we +recognize Titian and Tintoretto, old Bassano, and Paolo himself. + +The Marriage at Cana, as a refectory subject, had been unknown till +this time: it became popular, and Paolo afterwards repeated it several +times. The most beautiful of all, to my feeling, is that in the +Dresden Gallery, where the "ruler of the feast," holding up the glass +of wine with admiration, seems to exclaim, "Thou hast kept the good +wine until now." In another, which is at Milan, the Virgin turns round +to the attendant, and desires him to obey her Son;--"Whatsoever he +saith unto you, do it!" + +As the Marriage at Cana belongs, as a subject, rather to the history +of Christ, than to that of the Virgin his mother, I shall not enter +into it further here, but proceed. + + * * * * * + +After the marriage at Cana in Galilee, which may be regarded as the +commencement of the miraculous mission of our Lord, we do not hear +anything of his mother, the Virgin, till the time approached when he +was to close his ministry by his death. She is not once referred to +by name in the Gospels until the scene of the Crucifixion. We are +indeed given to understand, that in the journeys of our Saviour, and +particularly when he went up from Nazareth to Jerusalem, the women +followed and ministered to him (Matt. xxvii. 55, Luke, viii. 2): and +those who have written the life of the Virgin for the edification of +the people, and those who have translated it into the various forms +of art, have taken it for granted that SHE, his mother, could not have +been absent or indifferent where others attended with affection and +zeal: but I do not remember any scene in which she is an actor, or +even a conspicuous figure. + +Among the carvings on the stalls at Amiens, there is one which +represents the passage (Matt. xii. 46.) wherein our Saviour, preaching +in Judea, is told that his mother and his brethren stand without. +"But he answering, said to him that told him, 'Who is my mother? +and who are my brethren?' And he stretched forth his hand toward +his disciples, and said, 'Behold my mother and my brethren!'" The +composition exhibits on one side Jesus standing and teaching his +disciples; while on the other, through an open door, we perceive the +Virgin and two or three others. This representation is very rare. The +date of these stalls is the sixteenth century; and such a group in a +series of the life of the Virgin could not, I think, have occurred +in the fifteenth. It would have been quite inconsistent with all the +religious tendencies of that time, to exhibit Christ as preaching +_within_, while his "divine and most glorious" Mother was standing +_without_. + +The theologians of the middle ages insist on the close and mystical +relation which they assure us existed between Christ and his mother: +however far separated, there was constant communion between them; and +wherever he might be--in whatever acts of love, or mercy, or benign +wisdom occupied for the good of man--_there_ was also his mother, +present with him in the spirit. I think we can trace the impress +of this mysticism in some of the productions of the fourteenth and +fifteenth centuries. For example, among the frescoes by Angelico da +Fiesole in the cloisters of St. Mark, at Florence, there is one of +the Transfiguration, where the Saviour stands glorified with arms +outspread--a simple and sublime conception,--and on each side, half +figures of Moses and Elias: lower down appear the Virgin and St. +Dominick. There is also in the same series a fresco of the Last Supper +as the Eucharist, in which the Virgin is kneeling, glorified, on one +side of the picture, and appears as a partaker of the rite. Such a +version of either subject must be regarded as wholly mystical and +exceptional, and I am not acquainted with any other instance. + + + + +LO SPASIMO. + + "O what avails me now that honour high, + To have conceived of God, and that salute, + 'Hail highly favoured among woman blest! + While I to sorrows am no less advanced, + And fears as eminent, above the lot + Of other women by the birth I bore." + --"This is my favoured lot, + My exaltation to afflictions high." + + MILTON. + + +In the Passion of our Lord, taken in connection with the life of the +Virgin Mother, there are three scenes in which she is associated with +the action as an important, if not a principal, personage. + +We are told in the Gospel of St. John (chap. xvii), that Christ took a +solemn farewell of his disciples: it is therefore supposed that he did +not go up to his death without taking leave of his Mother,--without +preparing her for that grievous agony by all the comfort that his +tender and celestial pity and superior nature could bestow. This +parting of Christ and his Mother before the Crucifixion is a modern +subject. I am not acquainted with any example previous to the +beginning of the sixteenth century. The earliest I have met with is by +Albert Durer, in the series of the life of the Virgin, but there are +probably examples more ancient, or at least contemporary. In Albert +Durer's composition, Mary is sinking to the earth, as if overcome with +affliction, and is sustained in the arms of two women; she looks up +with folded hands and streaming eyes to her Son who stands before her; +he, with one hand extended, looks down upon her compassionately, and +seems to give her his last benediction. I remember another instance, +by Paul Veronese, full of that natural affectionate sentiment which +belonged to the Venetian school. (Florence Gal.) In a very beautiful +picture by Carotto of Verona, Jesus _kneels_ before his Mother, and +receives her benediction before he departs: this must be regarded +as an impropriety, a mistake in point of sentiment, considering the +peculiar relation between the two personages; but it is a striking +instance of the popular notions of the time respecting the high +dignity of the Virgin Mother. I have not seen it repeated.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Verona, San Bernardino. It is worth remarking, with +regard to this picture, that the Intendant of the Convent rebuked +the artist, declaring that he had made the Saviour show _too little_ +reverence for his Mother, seeing that he knelt to her on one knee +only.--See the anecdote in _Vasari_, vol. i. p. 651. Fl. Edit. 1838.] + + * * * * * + +It appears from the Gospel histories, that the women who had attended +upon Christ during his ministry failed not in their truth and their +love to the last. In the various circumstances of the Passion of +our Lord, where the Virgin Mother figures as an important personage, +certain of these women are represented as always near her, and +sustaining her with a tender and respectful sympathy. Three are +mentioned by name,--Mary Magdalene; Mary the wife of Cleophas; +and Mary, the mother of James and John. Martha, the sister of Mary +Magdalene, is also included, as I infer from her name, which in +several instances is inscribed in the nimbus encircling her head. I +have in another place given the story of Martha, and the legends +which in the fourteenth century converted her into a very important +character in sacred art, (First Series of Sacred and Legendary Art.) +These women, therefore, form, with the Virgin, the group of _five_ +female figures which are generally included in the scriptural scenes +from the Life of Christ. + +Of course, these incidents, and more especially the "Procession to +Calvary," and the "Crucifixion," belong to another series of subjects, +which I shall have to treat hereafter in the History of our Lord; +but they are also included in a series of the Rosary, as two of the +mystical SORROWS; and under this point of view I must draw attention +to the peculiar treatment of the Virgin in some remarkable examples, +which will serve as a guide to others. + + * * * * * + +The Procession to Calvary (_Il Portamento della Croce_) followed a +path leading from the gate of Jerusalem to Mount Calvary, which has +been kept in remembrance and sanctified as the _Via Dolorosa_, and +there is a certain spot near the summit of the hill, where, according +to a very ancient tradition, the Virgin Mother, and the women her +companions, placed themselves to witness the sorrowful procession; +where the Mother, beholding her divine Son dragged along, all bleeding +from the scourge, and sinking under his cross, in her extreme agony +sank, fainting, to the earth. This incident gave rise to one of the +mournful festivals of the Passion Week, under the title, in French, +of _Notre Dame du Spasme_ or _de la Pamoison_; in Italian _La Madonna +dello Spasimo_, or _Il Pianto di Maria_; and this is the title given +to some of those representations in which the affliction of Mary is a +prominent part of the tragic interest of the scene. She is sometimes +sinking to the earth, sustained by the women or by St. John; sometimes +she stands with clasped hands, mute and motionless with excess of +anguish; sometimes she stretches out her arms to her Son, as Jesus, +sinking under the weight of his cross, turns his benign eyes upon her, +and the others who follow him: "Daughters of Jerusalem, weep not for +me!" + +This is the moment chosen by Raphael in that sublime composition +celebrated under the title "_Lo Spasimo di Sicilia_" (Madrid Gal.); +so called because it was originally painted for the high altar of the +church of the Sicilian Olivetans at Palermo, dedicated to the _Madonna +dello Spasimo_. It was thence removed, by order of Philip IV. of +Spain, early in the seventeenth century, and is now placed in the +gallery at Madrid. Here the group of the five women forms an important +part of the picture, occupying the foreground on the right. The +expression in the face of the Mother, stretching forth her arms to +her Son with a look of appealing agony, has always been cited as one +of the great examples of Raphael's tragic power. It is well known +that in this composition the attitude of Christ was suggested by the +contemporary engraving of Martin Schoen; but the prominence given to +the group of women, the dramatic propriety and pathetic grace in the +action of each, and the consummate skill shown in the arrangement +of the whole, belong only to Raphael.[1] In Martin Schoen's vivid +composition, the Virgin, and the women her companions, are seen far +off in the background, crouching in the "hollow way" between two +cliffs, from which spot, according to the old tradition, they beheld +the sad procession. We have quite a contrary arrangement in an early +composition by Lucas van Leyden. The procession to Calvary is seen +moving along in the far distance, while the foreground is occupied by +two figures only, Mary in a trance of anguish sustained by the weeping +St. John. + +[Footnote 1: The veneration at all times entertained for this picture +was probably enhanced by a remarkable fact in its history. Raphael +painted it towards the close of the year 1517, and when finished, it +was embarked at the port of Ostia, to be consigned to Palermo. A storm +came on, the vessel foundered at sea, and all was lost except the case +containing this picture, which was floated by the currents into the +Bay of Genoa; and, on being landed, the wondrous masterpiece of art +was taken out unhurt. The Genoese at first refused to give it up, +insisting that it had been preserved and floated to their shores by +the miraculous interposition of the blessed Virgin herself; and it +required a positive mandate from the Pope before they would restore +it to the Olivetan fathers.--See _Passavant's Rafael_, i. 292.] + +In a very fine "Portamento del Croce," by Gaudenzio Ferrari, one of +the soldiers or executioners, in repulsing the sorrowful mother, +lifts up a stick as if to strike her;--a gratuitous act of ferocity, +which shocks at once the taste and the feelings, and, without adding +anything to the pathos of the situation, detracts from the religious +dignity of the theme. It is like the soldier kicking our Saviour, +which I remember to have seen in a version of the subject by a much +later painter, Daniele Crespi. + +Murillo represents Christ as fainting under the weight of the cross, +while the Virgin sits on the ground by the way-side, gazing on +him with fixed eyes and folded hands, and a look of unutterable +anguish.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This picture, remarkable for the intense expression, was +in the collection of Lord Orford, and sold in June, 1856.] + + * * * * * + +The Ecce Homo, by Correggio, in our National Gallery, is treated in +a very peculiar manner with reference to the Virgin, and is, in fact, +another version of _Lo Spasimo_, the fourth of her ineffable sorrows. +Here Christ, as exhibited to the people by Pilate, is placed in the +distance, and is in all respects the least important part of the +picture, of which we have the real subject in the far more prominent +figure of the Virgin in the foreground. At sight of the agony and +degradation of her Son, she closes her eyes, and is on the point +of swooning. The pathos of expression in the half-unconscious face +and helpless, almost lifeless hands, which seem to seek support, is +particularly fine. + + +THE CRUCIFIXION. + + "Verum stabas, optima Mater, juxta crucem Filli tui, non solum + corpore, sed mentis constatia." + +This great subject belongs more particularly to the Life of Christ. It +is, I observe, always omitted in a series of the Life of the Virgin, +unless it be the Rosary, in which the "Vigil of the Virgin by the +Cross" is the fifth and greatest of the Seven Sorrows. + +We cannot fail to remark, that whether the Crucifixion be treated as a +mystery or as an event, Mary is always an important figure. + +In the former case she stands alone on the right of the cross, and St. +John on the left.[1] She looks up with an expression of mingled grief +and faith, or bows her head upon her clasped hands in resignation. In +such a position she is the idealized Mater Dolorosa, the Daughter of +Jerusalem, the personified Church mourning for the great Sacrifice; +and this view of the subject I have already discussed at length. + +[Footnote 1: It has been a question with the learned whether the +Virgin Mary, with St. John, ought not to stand on the left of the +cross, in allusion to Psalm cxlii. (always interpreted as prophetic +of the Passion of Christ) ver. 4: "_I looked on my right hand, and be +held, but there was none who would know me._"] + +On the other hand, when the Crucifixion is treated as a great +historical event, as a living scene acted before our eyes, then the +position and sentiment given to the Virgin are altogether different, +but equally fixed by the traditions of art. That she was present, and +near at hand, we must presume from the Gospel of St. John, who was an +eye-witness; and most of the theological writers infer that on this +occasion her constancy and sublime faith were even greater than her +grief, and that her heroic fortitude elevated her equally above the +weeping women and the timorous disciples. This is not, however, the +view which the modern painters have taken, and even the most ancient +examples exhibit the maternal grief for a while overcoming the +constancy. She is standing indeed, but in a fainting attitude, as if +about to sink to the earth, and is sustained in the arms of the two +Marys, assisted, sometimes, but not generally, by St. John; Mary +Magdalene is usually embracing the foot of the cross. With very little +variation this is the visual treatment down to the beginning of the +sixteenth century. I do not know who was the first artist who placed +the Mother prostrate on the ground; but it must be regarded as a +fault, and as detracting from the high religious dignity of the +scene. In all the greatest examples, from Cimabue, Giotto, and Pietro +Cavallini, down to Angelico, Masaccio, and Andrea Mantegna, and their +contemporaries, Mary is uniformly standing. + +In a Crucifixion by Martin Schoen, the Virgin, partly held up in the +arms of St. John, embraces with fervour the foot of the cross: a very +rare and exceptional treatment, for this is the proper place of Mary +Magdalene. In Albert Durer's composition, she is just in the act of +sinking to the ground in a very natural attitude, as if her limbs had +given way under her. In Tintoretto's celebrated Crucifixion, we have +an example of the Virgin placed on the ground, which if not one of the +earliest, is one of the most striking of the more modern conceptions. +Here the group at the foot of the cross is wonderfully dramatic and +expressive, but certainly the reverse of dignified. Mary lies fainting +on the earth; one arm is sustained by St. John, the other is round the +neck of a woman who leans against the bosom of the Virgin, with eyes +closed, as if lost in grief. Mary Magdalene and another look up to the +crucified Saviour, and more in front a woman kneels wrapped up in a +cloak, and hides her face. (Venice, S. Rocco.) + +Zani has noticed the impropriety here, and in other instances, of +exhibiting the "_Grandissima Donna_" as prostrate, and in a state +of insensibility; a style of treatment which, in more ancient times, +would have been inadmissible. The idea embodied by the artist should +be that which Bishop Taylor has _painted_ in words:--"By the cross +stood the holy Virgin Mother, upon whom old Simeon's prophecy was now +verified; for now she felt a sword passing through her very soul. +She stood without clamour and womanish noises sad, silent, and with +a modest grief, deep as the waters of the abyss, but smooth as the +face of a pool; full of love, and patience, and sorrow, and hope!" +To suppose that this noble creature lost all power over her emotions, +lost her consciousness of the "high affliction" she was called to +suffer, is quite unworthy of the grand ideal of womanly perfection +here placed before us. It is clear, however, that in the later +representations, the intense expression of maternal anguish in the +hymn of the Stabat Mater gave the key to the prevailing sentiment. +And as it is sometimes easier to faint than to endure; so it was +easier for certain artists to express the pallor and prostration of +insensibility, than the sublime faith and fortitude which in that +extremest hour of trial conquered even a mother's unutterable woe. + +That most affecting moment, in which the dying Saviour recommends his +Mother to the care of the best beloved of his disciples, I have never +seen worthily treated. There are, however, some few Crucifixions in +which I presume the idea to have been indicated; as where the Virgin +stands leaning on St. John, with his sustaining arm reverently round +her, and both looking up to the Saviour, whose dying face is turned +towards them. There is an instance by Albert Durer (the wood-cut +in the "Large Passion"); but the examples are so few as to be +exceptional. + + * * * * * + +THE DESCENT FROM THE CROSS, and the DEPOSITION, are two separate +themes. In the first, according to the antique formula, the Virgin +should stand; for here, as in the Crucifixion, she must be associated +with the principal action, and not, by the excess of her grief, +disabled from taking her part in it. In the old legend it is said, +that when Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus wrenched out the nails +which fastened the hands of our Lord to the cross, St. John took them +away secretly, that his mother might not see them--"_affin que la +Vierge Marie ne les veit pas, crainte que le coeur ne lui amolist_." +And then, while Nicodemus drew forth the nails which fastened his +feet, Joseph of Arimathea sustained the body, so that the head and +arms of the dead Saviour hung over his shoulder. And the afflicted +Mother, seeing this, arose on her feet and she took the bleeding hands +of her Son, as they hung down, and clasped them in her own, and kissed +him tenderly. And then, indeed, she sank to the earth, because of the +great anguish she suffered, lamenting her Son, whom the cruel Jews had +murdered.[1] + +[Footnote 1: "---- tant qu'il n'y a coeur si dur, ni entendement +d'homme qui n'y deust penser. 'Lasse, mon confort! m'amour et ma joye, +que les Juifz ont faict mourir a grand tort et sans cause pour ce +qu'il leur monstrait leurs faltes et enseignoit leur saulvement! O +felons et mauvais Juifz, ne m'epargnez pas! puisque vous crucifiez +mon enfant crucifiez moy--moy qui suis sa dolente mere, et me tuez +d'aucune mort affin que je meure avec luy!'" v. _The old French +Legend_, "_Vie de Notre-Dame la glorieuse Vierge Marie._"] + +The first action described in this legend (the afflicted Mother +embracing the arm of her Son) is precisely that which was adopted by +the Greek masters, and by the early Italians who followed them, Nicolo +Pisano, Cimabue, Giotto, Puccio Capanna, Duccio di Siena, and others +from the thirteenth to the fifteenth century. But in later pictures, +the Virgin in the extremity of her grief has sunk to the ground. In an +altar-piece by Cigoli, she is seated on the earth, looking out of the +picture, as if appealing, "Was ever sorrow like unto my sorrow?" while +the crown of thorns lies before her. This is very beautiful; but even +more touching is the group in the famous "Descent from the Cross," the +masterpiece of Daniel di Volterra (Rome, Trinita di Monte): here the +fainting form of the Virgin, extended on the earth, and the dying +anguish in her face, have never been exceeded, and are, in fact, the +chief merit of the picture. In the famous Descent at Antwerp, the +masterpiece of Rubens, Mary stands, and supports the arm of her Son as +he is let down from the cross. This is in accordance with the ancient +version; but her face and figure are the least effective part of this +fine picture. + +In a beautiful small composition, a print, attributed to Albert Durer, +there are only three figures. Joseph of Arimathea stands on a ladder, +and detaches from the cross the dead form of the Saviour, who is +received into the arms of his Mother. This is a form of the _Mater +Dolorosa_ which is very uncommon, and must be regarded as exceptional, +and ideal, unless we are to consider it as a study and an incomplete +group. + + * * * * * + +The DEPOSITION is properly that moment which succeeds the DESCENT from +the Cross; when the dead form of Christ is deposed or laid upon the +ground, resting on the lap of his Mother, and lamented by St. John, +the Magdalene, and others. The ideal and devotional form of this +subject, styled a Pieta, may be intended to represent one of those +festivals of the Passion Week which commemorate the participation of +the holy Virgin Mother in the sufferings of her Son.[1] I have already +spoken at length of this form of the Mater Dolorosa; the historical +version of the same subject is what we have now to consider, but only +so far as regards the figure of the Virgin. + +[Footnote 1: "C'est ce que l'on a juge a propos d'appeler _La +Compassion_ de la Vierge, autrement _Notre Dame de Pitie_."--Vide +_Baillet_, "Les Fetes Mobiles."] + +In a Deposition thus dramatically treated, there are always from four +to six or eight figures. The principal group consists of the dead +Saviour and his Mother. She generally holds him embraced, or bends +over him contemplating his dead face, or lays her cheek to his with +an expression of unutterable grief and love: in the antique conception +she is generally fainting; the insensibility, the sinking of the whole +frame through grief, which in the Crucifixion is misplaced, both in +regard to the religious feeling and the old tradition, is here quite +proper.[1] Thus she appears in the genuine Greek and Greco-Italian +productions of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, as well as in +the two finest examples that could be cited in more modern times. + +[Footnote 1: The reason given is curious:--"_Perche quando Gesu pareva +tormentato essendo vivo, il dolore si partiva fra la santissima madre +e lui; ma quando poi egli era morto, tutto il dolore rimaneva per la +sconsolata madre._"] + +1. In an exquisite composition by Raphael, usually styled a Pieta, +but properly a Deposition, there are six figures: the extended form +of Christ; the Virgin swooning in the arms of Mary Salome and Mary +Cleophas; Mary Magdalene sustains the feet of Christ, while her sister +Martha raises the veil of the Virgin, as if to give her air; St. John +stands by with clasped hands; and Joseph of Arimathea looks on the +sorrowing group with mingled grief and pity.[1] + +[Footnote 1: This wonderful drawing (there is no _finished_ picture) +was in the collection of Count Fries, and then belonged to Sir T. +Lawrence. There is a good engraving by Agricola.] + +2. Another, an admirable and celebrated composition by Annibale +Caracci, known as the Four Marys, omits Martha and St. John. The +attention of Mary Magdalene is fixed on the dead Saviour; the other +two Marys are occupied by the fainting Mother. (Castle Howard.) On +comparing this with Raphael's conception, we find more of common +nature, quite as much pathos, but in the forms less of that pure +poetic grace, which softens at once, and heightens the tragic effect. + +Besides Joseph of Arimathea, we have sometimes Nicodemus; as in the +very fine Deposition by Perugino, and in one, not loss fine, by Albert +Durer. In a Deposition by Ambrogio Lorenzetti, Lazarus, whom Jesus +raised from the dead, stands near his sister Martha. + +In a picture by Vandyke, the Mother closes the eyes of the dead +Redeemer: in a picture by Rubens, she removes a thorn from his wounded +brow:--both natural and dramatic incidents very characteristic of +these dramatic painters. + +There are some fine examples of this subject in the old German school. +In spite of ungraceful forms, quaint modern costumes, and worse +absurdities, we often find _motifs_, unknown in the Italian school, +most profoundly felt, though not always happily expressed, I remember +several instances in which the Madonna does not sustain her Son; but +kneeling on one side, and, with clasped hands, she gazes on him with +a look, partly of devotion, partly of resignation; both the devotion +and the resignation predominating over the maternal grief. I have +been asked, "why no painter has ever yet represented the Great Mother +as raising her hands in thankfulness that her Son _had_ drank the +cup--_had_ finished the work appointed for him on earth?" This would +have been worthy of the religions significance of the moment; and I +recommend the theme to the consideration of artists.[1] + +[Footnote 1: In the most modern Deposition I have seen (one of +infinite beauty, and new in arrangement, by Paul Delaroche), the +Virgin, kneeling at some distance, and a little above, contemplates +her dead Son. The expression and attitude are those of intense +anguish, and _only_ anguish. It is the bereaved Mother; it is a +craving desolation, which is in the highest degree human and tragic; +but it is not the truly religious conception.] + + * * * * * + +The entombment follows, and when treated as a strictly historical +scene, the Virgin Mother is always introduced, though here as a less +conspicuous figure, and one less important to the action. Either +she swoons, which is the ancient Greek conception; or she follows, +with streaming eyes and clasped hands, the pious disciples who bear +the dead form of her Son, as in Raphael's wonderful picture in the +Borghese Palace, and Titian's, hardly less beautiful, in the Louvre, +where the compassionate Magdalene sustains her veiled and weeping +figure;--or she stands by, looking on disconsolate, while the beloved +Son is laid in the tomb. + + * * * * * + +All these fine and important themes belong properly to a series of +the History of Christ. In a series of the Life of the Virgin, the +incidents of the Passion of our Lord are generally omitted; whereas, +in the cycle of subjects styled the ROSARY, the Bearing of the Cross, +the Crucifixion, and the Deposition, are included in the fourth and +fifth of the "Sorrowful Mysteries." I shall have much more to say on +these subjects when treating of the artistic representations from +the History of Christ. I will only add here, that their frequency as +_separate_ subjects, and the preeminence given to the figure of the +Virgin as the mother of Pity, are very suggestive and affecting when +we come to consider their _intention_ as well as their significance. +For, in the first place, they were in most instances the votive +offerings of those who had lost the being most dear to them, and +thus appealed so the divine compassion of her who had felt that sword +"pierce through her own heart also." In this sense they were often +suspended as memorials in the chapels dedicated to the dead, of which +I will cite one very beautiful and touching example. There is a votive +Deposition by Giottino, in which the general conception is that which +belonged to the school, and very like Giotto's Deposition in the Arena +at Padua. The dead Christ is extended on a white shroud, and embraced +by the Virgin; at his feet kneels the Magdalene, with clasped hands +and flowing hair; Mary Salome kisses one of his hands, and Martha +(as I suppose) the other; the third Mary, with long hair, and +head dropping with grief, is seated in front to the right. In the +background, in the centre, stands St. John, bending over the group in +profound sorrow; on his left hand Joseph of Arimathea stands with the +vase of "spices and ointments," and the nails; near him Nicodemus. +On the right of St. John kneels a beautiful young girl, in the rich +Florentine costume, who, with a sorrowful earnestness and with her +hands crossed over her bosom, contemplates the dead Saviour. St. +Romeo (or San Remigio) patron of the church in which the picture was +dedicated, lays his hand paternally on her head; beside her kneels a +Benedictine nun, who in the game manner is presented by St. Benedict. +These two females, sisters perhaps, are the bereaved mourners who +dedicated the picture, certainly one of the finest of the Giottesque +school.[1] + +[Footnote 1: It is now in the gallery of the Uffizii, at Florence. In +the Florentine edition of Vasari the name of the church in which this +picture was originally placed is called San _Romeo_, who is St. Remi +(or Remigio), Bishop of Reims. The painter, Giottino, the greatest and +the most interesting, personally, of the Giottesque artists, was, as +Vasari says, "of a melancholy temperament, and a lover of solitude;" +"more desirous of glory than of gain;" "contented with little, and +thinking more of serving and gratifying others than of himself;" +"taking small care for himself, and perpetually engrossed by the works +he had undertaken." He died of consumption, in 1356, at the age of +thirty two.] + +Secondly, we find that the associations left in the minds of the +people by the expeditions of the Crusaders and the pilgrimages to +the Holy Sepulchre, rendered the Deposition and the Entombment +particularly popular and impressive as subjects of art, even down to +a late period. "Ce que la vaillante epee des ayeux avait glorieusement +defendu, le ciscaux des enfans aimait a le reproduire, leur piete a +l'honorer." I think we may trace these associations in many examples, +particularly in a Deposition by Raphael, of which there is a fine old +engraving. Here, in the centre, stands a circular building, such as +the church at Jerusalem was always described; in front of which are +seen the fainting Virgin and the mournful women: a grand and solemn +group, but poetically rather than historically treated. + + * * * * * + +In conclusion, I must notice one more form of the Mater Dolorosa, one +of the dramatic conceptions of the later schools of art; as far as I +knew, there exist no early examples. + +In a picture by Guercino (Louvre), the Virgin and St. Peter lament the +death of the Saviour. The Mother, with her clasped hands resting on +her knees, appears lost in resigned sorrow: she mourns her Son. Peter, +weeping, as with a troubled grief, seems to mourn at once his Lord +and Master, and his own weak denial. This picture has the energetic +feeling and utter want of poetic elevation which generally +characterized Guercino. + +There is a similar group by Ludovico Caracci in the Duonio at Bologna. + +In a picture by Tiarini, the _Madre Addolorata_ is seated, holding +in her hand the crown of thorns; Mary Magdalene kneels before her, +and St. John stands by--both expressing the utmost veneration and +sympathy. These and similar groups are especially to be found in the +later Bologna school. In all the instances known to me, they have been +painted for the Dominicans, and evidently intended to illustrate the +sorrows of the Rosary. + +In one of the services of the Passion Week, and in particular +reference to the maternal anguish of the Virgin, it was usual to read, +as the Epistle, a selection from the first chapter of the Lamentations +of Jeremiah, eloquent in the language of desolation and grief. The +painters seemed to have filled their imagination with the images +there presented; and frequently in the ideal _Pieta_ the daughter +of Jerusalem "sits solitary, with none to comfort her." It is the +contrary in the dramatic version: the devotion of the women, the +solicitude of the affectionate Magdalene, and the filial reverence of +St. John, whom the scriptural history associates with the Virgin in a +manner so affecting, are never forgotten. + +In obedience to the last command of his dying Master, John the +Evangelist-- + + "He, into whose keeping, from the cross, + The mighty charge was given--" + + DANTE. + +conducted to his own dwelling the Mother to whom he was henceforth to +be as a Son. This beautiful subject, "John conducting the Virgin to +his home," was quite unknown, as far as I am aware, in the earlier +schools of art, and appears first in the seventeenth century. An +eminent instance is a fine solemn group by Zurbaran. (Munich.) Christ +was laid in the sepulchre by night, and here, in the gray dawn, John +and the veiled Virgin are seen as returning from the entombment, and +walking mournfully side by side. + + * * * * * + +We find the peculiar relation between the Mother of Christ and St. +John, as her adopted son, expressed in a very tender and ideal manner, +on one of the wings of an altar-piece, attributed to Taddeo Gaddi. +(Berlin Gal., No. 1081.) Mary and St. John stand in front; he holds +one of her hands clasped in both his own, with a most reverent and +affectionate expression. Christ, standing between them, lays one hand +on the shoulder of each; the sentiment of this group is altogether +very unusual; and very remarkable. + + + + +HISTORICAL SUBJECTS + + + + +PART IV. + + + + +THE LIFE OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM THE RESURRECTION OF OUR LORD TO THE +ASSUMPTION. + +1. THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. 2. THE ASCENSION. 3. +THE DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST. 4. THE DEATH OF THE VIRGIN. 5. THE +ASSUMPTION AND CORONATION. + + +THE APPARITION OF CHRIST TO HIS MOTHER. + +The enthusiastic and increasing veneration for the Madonna, the large +place she filled in the religious teaching of the ecclesiastics and +the religious sentiments of the people, are nowhere more apparent, +nor more strikingly exhibited, than in the manner in which she was +associated with the scenes which followed the Passion;--the manner +in which some incidents were suggested, and treated with a peculiar +reference to her, and to her maternal feelings. It is nowhere said +that the Virgin Mother was one of the Marys who visited the tomb on +the morning of the resurrection, and nowhere is she so represented. +But out of the human sympathy with that bereaved and longing heart, +arose the beautiful legend of the interview between Christ and his +Mother after he had risen from the dead. + +There existed a very ancient tradition (it is mentioned by St. +Ambrose in the fourth century, as being then generally accepted by +Christians), that Christ, after his return from Hades, visited his +Mother even before he appeared to Mary Magdalene in the garden. +It is not indeed so written in the Gospel; but what of that? The +reasoning which led to the conclusion was very simple. He whose last +earthly thought was for his Mother would not leave her without that +consolation it was in his power to give; and what, as a son, it was +his duty to do (for the _humanity_ of Christ is never forgotten by +those who most intensely believed in his _divinity_,) that, of course, +he did do. + +The story is thus related:--Mary, when all was "finished," retired +to her chamber, and remained alone with her grief--not wailing, not +repining, not hopeless, but waiting for the fulfilment of the promise. +Open before her lay the volume of the prophecies; and she prayed +earnestly, and she said, "Thou, didst promise, O my most dear Son! +that thou wouldst rise again on the third day. Before yesterday was +the day of darkness and bitterness, and, behold, this is the third +day. Return then to me thy Mother; O my Son, tarry not, but come!" +And while thus she prayed, lo! a bright company of angels, who entered +waving their palms and radiant with joy; and they surrounded her, +kneeling and singing the triumphant Easter hymn, _Regina Coeli laetare, +Alleluia!_[1] And then came Christ partly clothed in a white garment, +having in his left hand the standard of the cross, as one just +returned from the nether world, and victorious over the powers of +sin and death. And with him came the patriarchs and prophets, whose +long-imprisoned spirits he had released from Hades.[2] All these knelt +before the Virgin, and saluted her, and blessed her, and thanked her, +because through her had come their deliverance. But, for all this, the +Mother was not comforted till she had heard the voice of her Son. Then +he, raising his hand in benediction, spoke and said, "I salute thee, +O my Mother!" and she, weeping tears of joy, responded, "Is it thou +indeed, my most dear Son?" and she fell upon his neck, and he embraced +her tenderly, and showed her the wounds he had received for sinful +man. Then he bid her be comforted and weep no more, for the pain +of death had passed away, and the gates of hell had not prevailed +against him. And she thanked him meekly on her knees, for that he had +been pleased to bring redemption to man, and to make her the humble +instrument of his great mercy. And they sat and talked together, until +he took leave of her to return to the garden, and to show himself to +Mary Magdalene, who, next to his glorious Mother, had most need of +consolation.[3] + +[Footnote 1: + + "Regina Coeli laetare Alleluia! + Quia quem meruisti portare, Alleluia! + Resurrexit sicut dixit, Alleluia! + Ora pro nobis Deum, Alleluia!"] + +[Footnote 2: The legend of the "Descent into Hades" (or limbo), often +treated of in art, will be given at length in the History of our +Lord.] + +[Footnote 3: I have given the legend from various sources; but there +is something quite untranslatable and perfectly beautiful in the +naivete of the old Italian version. After describing the celestial +music of the angels, the rejoicing of the liberated patriarchs, and +the appearance of Christ, _allegro, e bello e tutto lucido_, it thus +proceeds: "_Quando ella lo vidde, gli ando incontro ella ancora con +le braccia aperte, e quasi tramortita per l'allegrazza. Il benedetto +Gesu l'abbraccio teneressimamente, ed ella glidesse; 'Ahi, figliuolo +mio cordialissimo, sei tu veramente il mio Gesu, o pur m'inganna +l'affetto!' 'Io sono il tuo figliuolo, madre mia, dolcissima,' disse +il Signore: 'cessino hormai le tue lagrime, non fare ch'io ti veda +piu di mala voglia, Gia son finiti li tuoi e li miei travagli e dolori +insieme!' Erano rimase alcune lagrime negli occhi della Vergine.... +e per la grande allegrezza non poteva proferire parola alcuna ... +ma quando al fine pote parlare, lo ringrazio per parte di tutto +il genere humano, per la redenzione, operata e fatta, per tutto +generalmente."--v. Il Perfetto Legendario_] + +The pathetic sentiment, and all the supernatural and mystical +accompaniments of this beautiful myth of the early ages, have been +very inadequately rendered by the artists. It is always treated as a +plain matter-of-fact scene. The Virgin kneels; the Saviour, bearing +his standard, stands before her; and where the delivered patriarchs +are introduced, they are generally either Adam and Eve, the authors +of the fall or Abraham and David, the progenitors of Christ and the +Virgin. The patriarchs are omitted in the earliest instance I can +refer to, one of the carved panels of the stalls in the Cathedral of +Amiens: also in the composition by Albert Durer, not included in his +life of the Virgin, but forming one of the series of the Passion. +Guido has represented the scene in a very fine picture, wherein an +angel bears the standard of victory, and behind our Saviour are Adam +and Eve. (Dresden Gal.) + +Another example, by Guercino (Cathedral, Cento), is cited by Goethe +as an instance of that excellence in the expression of the natural +and domestic affections which characterized the painter. Mary kneels +before her Son, looking up in his face with unutterable affection; +he regards her with a calm, sad look, "as if within his noble soul +there still remained the recollection of his sufferings and hers, +outliving the pang of death, the descent into the grave, and which +the resurrection had not yet dispelled." This, however, is not the +sentiment, at once affectionate and joyously triumphant, of the +old legend. I was pleased with a little picture in the Lichtenstein +Gallery at Vienna, where the risen Saviour, standing before his +Mother, points to the page of the book before her, as if he said, "See +you not that thus it is written?" (Luke xxiv. 46.) Behind Jesus is +St. John the Evangelist bearing the cup and the cross, as the cup of +sorrow and the cross of pain, not the mere emblems. There is another +example, by one of the Caracci, in the Fitzwilliam Collection at +Cambridge. + +A picture by Albano of this subject, in which Christ comes flying or +floating on the air, like an incorporeal being, surrounded by little +fluttering cherubim, very much like Cupids, is an example of all that +is most false and objectionable in feeling and treatment. (Florence, +Pitti Pal.) + +The popularity of this scene in the Bologna school of art arose, I +think, from its being adopted as one of the subjects from the Rosary, +the first of "the five Glorious Mysteries;" therefore especially +affected by the Dominicans, the great patrons of the Caracci at that +time. + + * * * * * + +The ASCENSION, though one of the "Glorious Mysteries," was also +accounted as the seventh and last of the sorrows of the Virgin, for +she was then left alone on earth. All the old legends represent her +as present on this occasion, and saying, as she followed with uplifted +eyes the soaring figure of Christ, "My Son, remember me when thou +comest to thy kingdom! Leave me not long after thee, my Son!" In +Giotto's composition in the chapel of the Arena, at Padua, she is by +far the most prominent figure. In almost all the late pictures of the +Ascension, she is introduced with the other Marys, kneeling on one +side, or placed in the centre among the apostles. + + * * * * * + +The DESCENT OF THE HOLY GHOST is a strictly scriptural subject. I +have heard it said that the introduction of Mary is not authorized by +the scripture narrative. I must observe, however that, without any +wringing of the text for an especial purpose, the passage might be +so interpreted. In the first chapter of the Acts (ver. 14), after +enumerating the apostles by name, it is added, "These all continued +with one accord in prayer and supplication, with the women and Mary +the mother of Jesus, and with his brethren." And in the commencement +of the second chapter the narrative thus proceeds: "And when the day +of Pentecost was fully come, they were _all_ with one accord in +one place." The word _all_ is, in the Concordance, referred to the +previous text (ver. 14), as including Mary and the women: thus they +who were constant in their love were not refused a participation in +the gifts of the Spirit. Mary, in her character of the divine Mother +of Wisdom, or even Wisdom herself,[1] did not, perhaps, need any +accession of intellectual light; but we must remember that the Holy +Spirit was the Comforter, as well as the Giver of wisdom; therefore, +equally needed by those, whether men or women, who were all equally +called upon to carry out the ministry of Christ in love and service, +in doing and in suffering. + +[Footnote 1: The sublime eulogium of Wisdom (Prov. viii. 22), is, in +the Roman Catholic Church, applied to the Virgin Mary.] + +In the account of the apostles I have already described at length the +various treatment and most celebrated examples of this subject, and +shall only make one or two observations with especial reference to +the figure of the Virgin. It was in accordance with the feelings and +convictions prevalent in the fifteenth century, that if Mary were +admitted to be present, she would take the principal place, as Queen +and Mother of the Apostles (_Regina et Mater Apostolorum_). She +is, therefore, usually placed either in front, or in the centre +on a raised seat or dais; and often holding a book (as the _Mater +Sapientiae_); and she receives the divine affusion either with veiled +lids and meek rejoicing; or with uplifted eyes, as one inspired, she +pours forth the hymn, _Veni, Sancte Spiritus_. + +I agree with the critics that, as the Spirit descended in form +of cloven tongues of fire, the emblem of the Dove, almost always +introduced, is here superfluous, and, indeed, out of place. + + * * * * * + +I must mention here another subject altogether apocryphal, and +confined to the late Spanish and Italian schools: The Virgin receives +the sacramental wafer from the hand of St. John the Evangelist. +This is frequently misunderstood, and styled the Communion of Mary +Magdalene. But the long hair and uncovered head of the Magdalene, and +the episcopal robe of St. Maximin, are in general distinguishable from +the veiled matronly head of the Virgin Mother, and the deacon's vest +of St. John. There is also a legend that Mary received baptism from +St. Peter; but this is a subject I have never met with in art, ancient +or modern. It may possibly exist. + +I am not acquainted with any representations taken from the sojourn on +earth of the Blessed Virgin from this time to the period of her death, +the date of which is uncertain. It is, however, generally supposed to +have taken place in the forty-eighth year of our era, and about eleven +years after the Crucifixion, therefore in her sixtieth year. There +is no distinct record, either historical or legendary, as to the +manner in which she passed these years. There are, indeed, floating +traditions alluded to by the early theological writers, that when the +first persecution broke out at Jerusalem, Mary accompanied St. John +the Evangelist to Ephesus, and was attended thither by the faithful +and affectionate Mary Magdalene. Also that she dwelt for some time on +Mount Carmel, in an oratory erected there by the prophet Elijah, and +hence became the patroness of the Carmelites, under the title of Our +Lady of Mount Carmel (_La Madonna del Carmine_, or _del Carmelo_). +If there exist any creations of the artists founded on these obscure +traditions, which is indeed most probable, particularly in the +edifices of the Carmelites in Spain, I have not met with them. + + * * * * * + +It is related that before the apostles separated to obey the command +of their divine Master, and preach the gospel to all the nations of +the earth, they took a solemn leave of the Virgin Mary, and received +her blessing. This subject has been represented, though not by any +distinguished artist. I remember such a picture, apparently of the +sixteenth century, in the Church of S. Maria-in-Capitolio at Cologne, +and another, by Bissoni, in the San Giustina at Padua. (Sacred and +Legendary Art.) + + + + + +THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION Of THE VIRGIN + + +_Lat._ Dormitio, Pausatio, Transitus, Assumptio, B. Virginis. _Ital._ +Il Transito di Maria. Il Sonno della Beata Vergine. L' Assunzione. +_Fr._ La Mort de la Vierge. L'Assomption. _Ger._ Das Absterben der +Maria. Maria Himmelfahrt. August, 13, 15. + + +We approach the closing scenes. + +Of all the representations consecrated to the glory of the Virgin, +none have been more popular, more multiplied through every form of +art, and more admirably treated, than her death and apotheosis. +The latter in particular, under the title of "the Assumption," +became the visible expression of a dogma of faith then universally +received--namely, the exaltation and deification of the Virgin in +the body as well as in the spirit. As such it meets us at every turn +in the edifices dedicated to her; in painting over the altar, in +sculpture over the portal, or gleaming upon us in light from the +shining many-coloured windows. Sometimes the two subjects are +combined, and the death-scene (_Il transito di Maria_) figured below, +is, in fact, only the _transition_ to the blessedness and exaltation +figured above. But whether separate or combined, the two scenes, in +themselves most beautiful and touching,--the extremes of the mournful +and the majestic, the dramatic and the ideal,--offered to the medieval +artists such a breadth of space for the exhibition of feeling and +fancy as no other subject afforded. Consequently, among the examples +handed down to us, are to be found some of the most curious and +important relics of the early schools, while others rank among the +grandest productions of the best ages of art. + +For the proper understanding of these, it is necessary to give the old +apocryphal legend at some length; for, although the very curious and +extravagant details of this legend were not authorized by the Church +as matters of fact or faith, it is clear that the artists were +permitted thence to derive their materials and their imagery. In +what manner they availed themselves of this permission, and how far +the wildly poetical circumstances with which the old tradition was +gradually invested, were allowed to enter into the forms of art, we +shall afterwards consider. + + + THE LEGEND OF THE DEATH AND ASSUMPTION OF THE MOST GLORIOUS + VIRGIN MARY. + + Mary dwelt in the house of John upon Mount Sion looking for + the fulfilment of the promise of deliverance, and she spent + her days in visiting those places which had been hallowed by + the baptism, the sufferings, the burial and resurrection of + her divine Son, but more particularly the tomb wherein he was + laid. And she did not this as seeking the living among the + dead, but for consolation and for remembrance. + + And on a certain day; the heart of the Virgin, being filled + with an inexpressible longing to behold her Son, melted away + within her, and she wept abundantly. And lo! an angel appeared + before her clothed in light as with a garment. And he saluted + her, and said, "Hail, O Mary! blessed by him who hath given + salvation to Israel I bring thee here a branch of palm + gathered in Paradise; command that it be carried before thy + bier in the day of thy death; for in three days they soul + shall leave thy body, and though shalt enter into Paradise, + where thy Son awaits thy coming." Mary, answering, said, "If I + have found grace in thy eyes, tell me first what is thy name; + and grant that the apostles my brethren may be reunited to me + before I die, that in their presence I may give up my soul to + God. Also, I pray thee, that my soul, when delivered from my + body, may not be affrighted by any spirit of darkness, nor + any evil angel be allowed to have any power over me." And the + angel said, "Why dost thou ask my name? My name is the Great + and the Wonderful. And now doubt not that all the apostles + shall be reunited, to thee this day; for he who in former + times transported the prophet Habakkuk from Judea to Jerusalem + by the hair of his head, can as easily bring hither the + apostles. And fear thou not the evil spirit, for hast thou not + bruised his head and destroyed his kingdom?" And having said + these words, the angel departed into heaven; and the palm + branch which he had left behind him shed light from every + leaf, and sparkled as the stars of the morning. Then Mary + lighted, the lamps and prepared her bed, and waited until the + hour was come. And in the same instant John, who was preaching + at Ephesus, and Peter, who was preaching at Antioch, and all + the other apostles who were dispersed in different parts of + the world, were suddenly caught up as by a miraculous power, + and found themselves before the door of the habitation of + Mary. When Mary saw them all assembled round her, she blessed + and thanked the Lord, and she placed in the hands of St. John + the shining palm, and desired that he should bear it before + her at the time of her burial. Then Mary, kneeling down, made + her prayer to the Lord her Son, and the others prayed with + her; then she laid herself down in her bed and composed + herself for death. And John wept bitterly. And about the third + hour of the night, as Peter stood at the head of the bed and + John at the foot, and the other apostles around, a mighty + sound filled the house, and a delicious perfume filled + the chamber. And Jesus himself appeared accompanied by an + innumerable company of angels, patriarchs, and prophets; all + these surrounded the bed of the Virgin, singing hymns of joy. + And Jesus said to his Mother, "Arise, my beloved, mine elect! + come with me from Lebanon, my espoused! receive the crown that + is destined for thee!" And Mary, answering, said, "My heart + is ready; for it was written of me that I should do thy will!" + Then all the angels and blessed spirits who accompanied Jesus + began to sing and rejoice. And the soul of Mary left her body, + and was received into the arms of her Son; and together they + ascended into heaven.[1] And the apostles looked up, saying, + "Oh most prudent Virgin, remember us when thou comest to + glory!" and the angels, who received her into heaven, sung + these words, "Who is this that cometh up from the wilderness + leaning upon her Beloved? she is fairer than all the daughters + of Jerusalem." + +[Footnote 1: In the later French legend, it is the angel +Michael who takes charge of the departing soul. "_Ecce Dominus +venit cum multitudine angelorum_; et Jesus Christ vint en grande +compaignie d'anges; entre lesquels estoit Sainct Michel, et quand +la Vierge Marie le veit elle dit, 'Benoist soit Jesus Christ car il +ne m'a pas oubliee.' Quand elle eut ce dit elle rendit l'esprit, +lequel Sainct Michel print."] + + But the body of Mary remained upon the earth; and three among + the virgins prepared to wash and clothe it in a shroud; but + such a glory of light surrounded her form, that though they + touched it they could not see it, and no human eye beheld + those chaste and sacred limbs unclothed. Then the apostles + took her up reverently and placed her upon a bier, and John, + carrying the celestial palm, went before. Peter sung the 114th + Psalm, "_In exitu Israel de Egypto, domus Jacob de populo + barbaro_," and the angels followed after, also singing. The + wicked Jews, hearing these melodious voices, ran together; and + the high-priest, being seized with fury, laid his hands upon + the bier intending to overturn it on the earth; but both his + arms were suddenly dried up, so that he could not move them, + and he was overcome with fear; and he prayed to St. Peter + for help, and Peter said, "Have faith in Jesus Christ, and + his Mother, and thon shalt be healed;" and it was so. Then + they went on and laid the Virgin in a tomb in the Valley of + Jehoshaphat.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Or Gethsemane. I must observe here, that in the +genuine oriental legend, it is Michael the Archangel who hews off +the hands of the audacious Jew, which were afterwards, at the +intercession of St. Peter, reunited to his body.] + + And on the third day, Jesus said to the angels, "What honour + shall I confer on her who was my mother on earth, and brought + me forth?" And they answered, "Lord, suffer not that body + which was thy temple and thy dwelling to see corruption; but + place her beside thee on thy throne in heaven." And Jesus + consented; and the Archangel Michael brought unto the Lord, + the glorious soul of our Lady. And the Lord said, "Rise up, my + dove, my undefiled, for thou shalt not remain in the darkness + of the grave, nor shall thou see corruption;" and immediately + the soul of Mary rejoined her body, and she arose up glorious + from the tomb, and ascended into heaven surrounded and + welcomed by troops of angels, blowing their silver trumpets, + touching their golden lutes, singing, and rejoicing as they + sung, "Who is she that riseth as the morning, fair as the + moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with banners?" + (Cant. vi. 10.) + + But one among the apostles was absent; and when he arrived + soon after, he would not believe in the resurrection of the + Virgin; and this apostle was the same Thomas, who had formerly + been slow to believe in the resurrection of the Lord; and he + desired that the tomb should be opened before him; and when it + was opened it was found to be full of lilies and roses. Then + Thomas, looking up to heaven, beheld the Virgin bodily, in a + glory of light, slowly mounting towards the heaven; and she, + for the assurance of his faith, flung down to him her girdle, + the same which is to this day preserved in the cathedral of + Prato. And there were present at the death of the Virgin + Mary, besides the twelve apostles, Dionysius the Areopagite, + Timotheus, and Hierotheus; and of the women, Mary Salome, Mary + Cleophas,[1] and a faithful handmaid whose name was Savia. + +[Footnote 1: According to the French legend, Mary Magdalene and her +sister Martha were also present.] + + * * * * * + +This legend of the Death and Assumption of the Virgin has afforded to +the artists seven distinct scenes. + +1. The Angel, bearing the palm, announces to Mary her approaching +death. The announcing angel is usually supposed to be Gabriel, but +it is properly Michael, the "angel of death." 2. She takes leave of +the Apostles. 3. Her Death. 4. She is borne to the Sepulchre. 5. +Her Entombment. 6. Her Assumption, where she rises triumphant and +glorious, "like unto the morning" ("_quasi aurora consurgens_"). 7. +Her Coronation in heaven, where she takes her place beside her Son. + +In early art, particularly in the Gothic sculpture, two or more of +these subjects are generally grouped together. Sometimes we have the +death-scene and the entombment on a line below, and, above these, +the coronation or the assumption, as over the portal of Notre Dame at +Paris, and in many other instances; or we have first her death, above +this, her assumption, and, above all, her coronation; as over the +portal at Amiens and elsewhere. + + * * * * * + +I shall now take these subjects in their order. + +The angel announcing to Mary her approaching death has been rarely +treated. In general, Mary is seated or standing, and the angel kneels +before her, bearing the starry palm brought from Paradise. In the +frescoes at Orvieto, and in the bas-relief of Oreagna,[1] the angel +comes flying downwards with the palm. In a predella by Fra Filippo +Lippi, the angel kneels, reverently presenting a taper, which the +Virgin receives with majestic grace; St. Peter stands behind. It was +the custom to place a taper in the hand of a dying person; and as the +palm is also given sometimes to the angel of the incarnation, while +the taper can have but one meaning, the significance of the scene +is here fixed beyond the possibility of mistake, though there is a +departure from the literal details of the old legend. There is in +the Munich Gallery a curious German example of this subject by Hans +Schauffelein. + +[Footnote 1: On the beautiful shrine in Or-San-Michele, at Florence.] + + * * * * * + +The death of the Virgin is styled in Byzantine and old Italian art +the Sleep of the Virgin, _Il Sonno della Madonna_; for it was an +old superstition, subsequently rejected as heretical, that she did +not really die after the manner of common mortals, only fell asleep +till her resurrection. Therefore, perhaps, it is, that in the early +pictures we have before us, not so much a scene or action, as a sort +of mysterious rite; it is not the Virgin dead or dying in her bed; she +only slumbers in preparation for her entombment; while in the later +pictures, we have a death-bed scene with all the usual dramatic and +pathetic accessories. + +In one sense or the other, the theme has been constantly treated, +from the earliest ages of the revival of art down to the seventeenth +century. + +In the most ancient examples which are derived from the Greek school, +it is always represented with a mystical and solemn simplicity, +adhering closely to the old legend, and to the formula laid down in +the Greek Manual. + +There is such a picture in the Wallerstein Collection at Kensington +Palace. The couch or bier is in the centre of the picture, and Mary +lies upon it wrapped in a veil and mantle with closed eyes and hands +crossed over her bosom. The twelve apostles stand round in attitudes +of grief angels attend bearing tapers. Behind the extended form of the +Virgin is the figure of Christ; a glorious red seraph with expanded +wings hovers above his head. He holds in his arms the soul of the +Virgin in likeness of a new-born child. On each side stand St. +Dionysius the Areopagite, and St. Timothy, Bishop of Ephesas, in +episcopal robes. In front, the archangel Michael bends forward to +strike off the hands of the high-priest Adonijah, who had attempted to +profane the bier. (This last circumstance is rarely expressed, except +in the Byzantine pictures; for in the Italian legend, the hands of the +intruder wither and adhere to the bed or shrine.) In the picture +just described; all is at once simple, and formal, and solemn, and +supernatural; it is a very perfect example in its way of the genuine +Byzantine treatment. There is a similar picture in the Christian +museum of the Vatican. + +Another (the date about the first half of the fourteenth century, +as I think) is curious from the introduction of the women.[1] The +Virgin lies on an embroidered sheet held reverently by angels; at the +feet and at the head other angels bear tapers; Christ receives the +departing soul, which stretches out its arms; St. John kneels in +front, and St. Peter reads the service; the other apostles are behind +him, and there are three women. The execution of this curious picture +is extremely rude, but the heads very fine. Cimabue painted the Death +of the Virgin at Assisi. There is a beautiful example by Giotto, where +two lovely angels stand at the head and two at the feet, sustaining +the pall on which she lies; another most exquisite by Angelico in +the Florence Gallery; another most beautiful and pathetic by Taddeo +Bartoli in the Palazzo Publico at Siena. + +[Footnote 1: At present in the collection of Mr. Bromley, of Wootten.] + +The custom of representing Christ as standing by the couch or tomb of +his mother, in the act of receiving her soul, continued down to the +fifteenth century, at least with slight deviations from the original +conception. The later treatment is quite different. The solemn +mysterious sleep, the transition from one life to another, became a +familiar death-bed scene with the usual moving accompaniments. But +even while avoiding the supernatural incidents, the Italians gave to +the representation much ideal elegance; for instance, in the beautiful +fresco by Ghirlandajo. (Florence, S. Maria-Novella.) + + * * * * * + +In the old German school we have that homely matter-of-fact feeling, +and dramatic expression, and defiance of all chronological propriety, +which belonged to the time and school. The composition by Albert +Durer, in his series of the Life of the Virgin, has great beauty and +simplicity of expression, and in the arrangement a degree of grandeur +and repose which has caused it to be often copied and reproduced as a +picture, though the original form is merely that of a wood-cut.[1] In +the centre is a bedstead with a canopy, on which Mary lies fronting +the spectator, her eyes half closed. On the left of the bed stands +St. Peter, habited as a bishop: he places a taper in her dying hand; +another apostle holds the asperge with which to sprinkle her with +holy water: another reads the service. In the foreground is a priest +bearing a cross, and another with incense; and on the right, the other +apostles in attitudes of devotion and grief. + +[Footnote 1: There is one such copy in the Sutherland Gallery; and +another in the Munich Gallery, Cabinet viii. 161.] + +Another picture by Albert Durer, once in the Fries Gallery, at +Vienna, unites, in a most remarkable manner, all the legendary and +supernatural incidents with the most intense and homely reality. It +appears to have been painted for the Emperor Maximilian, as a tribute +to the memory of his first wife, the interesting Maria of Burgundy. +The disposition of the bed is the same as in the wood-cut, the foot +towards the spectator. The face of the dying Virgin is that of the +young duchess. On the right, her son, afterwards Philip of Spain, +and father of Charles V., stands as the young St. John, and presents +the taper; the other apostles are seen around, most of them praying; +St. Peter, habited as bishop, reads from an open book (this is the +portrait of George a Zlatkonia, bishop of Vienna, the friend and +counsellor of Maximilian); behind him, as one of the apostles, +Maximilian himself, with head bowed down, as in sorrow. Three +ecclesiastics are seen entering by an open door, bearing the cross, +the censer, and the holy water. Over the bed is seen the figure of +Christ; in his arms, the soul of the Virgin, in likeness of an infant +with clasped hands; and above all, in an open glory and like a vision, +her reception and coronation in heaven. Upon a scroll over her head, +are the words, "_Surge propera, amica mea; veni de Libano, veni +coronaberis._" (Cant. iv. 8.) Three among the hovering angels bear +scrolls, on one of which is inscribed the text from the Canticles, +"_Quae est ista quae progreditur quasi aurora consurgens, pulchra ut +luna, electa ut sol, terribilis ut castrorum acies ordinata?_" (Cant. +vi. 10;) on another, "_Quae est ista quae ascendit de deserto deliciis +affluens super dilectum suum?_" (Cant. viii. 5;) and on the third, +"_Quae est ista quae ascendit super dilectum suum ut virgula fumi?_" +(Cant. iii. 6.) This picture bears the date 1518. If it be true, as +is, indeed, most apparent, that it was painted by order of Maximilian +nearly forty years after the loss of the young wife he so tenderly +loved, and only one year before his own death, there is something +very touching in it as a memorial. The ingenious and tender compliment +implied by making Mary of Burgundy the real object of those mystic +texts consecrated to the glory of the MATER DEI, verges, perhaps, +on the profane; but it was not so intended; it was merely that +combination of the pious, and the poetical, and the sentimental, which +was one of the characteristics of the time, in literature, as well as +in art. (Heller's Albrecht Duerer p. 261.) + +The picture by Jan Schoreel, one of the great ornaments of the +Boisseree Gallery,[1] is remarkable for its intense reality and +splendour of colour. The heads are full of character; that of the +Virgin in particular, who seems, with half-closed eyes, in act to +breathe away her soul in rapture. The altar near the bed, having on +it figures of Moses and Aaron, is, however, a serious fault and +incongruity in this fine painting. + +[Footnote 1: Munich (70). The admirable lithograph by Strixner is well +known.] + +I must observe that Mary is not always dead or dying: she is sometimes +preparing for death, in the act of prayer at the foot of her couch, +with the apostles standing round, as in a very fine picture by Martin +Schaffner, where she kneels with a lovely expression, sustained in the +arms of St. John, while St. Peter holds the gospel open before her. +(Munich Gal.) Sometimes she is sitting up in her bed, and reading from +the Book of the Scripture, which is always held by St. Peter. + +In a picture by Cola della Matrice, the Death of the Virgin is treated +at once in a mystical and dramatic style. Enveloped in a dark blue +mantle spangled with golden stars, she lies extended on a couch; +St. Peter, in a splendid scarlet cope as bishop, reads the service; +St. John, holding the palm, weeps bitterly. In front, and kneeling +before the coach or bier, appear the three great Dominican saints +as witnesses of the religious mystery; in the centre, St. Dominick; +on the left, St. Catherine of Siena; and on the right, St. Thomas +Aquinas. In a compartment above is the Assumption. (Rome, Capitol.) + + * * * * * + +Among the later Italian examples, where the old legendary accessories +are generally omitted, there are some of peculiar elegance. One +by Ludovico Caracci, another by Domenichino, and a third by Carlo +Maratti, are treated, if not with much of poetry or religious +sentiment, yet with great dignity and pathos. + +I must mention one more, because of its history and celebrity: +Caravaggio, of whom it was said that he always painted like a ruffian, +because he _was_ a ruffian, was also a genius in his way, and for a +few months he became the fashion at Rome, and was even patronized by +some of the higher ecclesiastics. He painted for the church of _la +Scala in Trastevere_ a picture of the Death of the Virgin, wonderful +for the intense natural expression, and in the same degree grotesque +from its impropriety. Mary, instead of being decently veiled, lies +extended with long scattered hair; the strongly marked features +and large proportions of the figure are those of a woman of the +Trastevere.[1] The apostles stand around; one or two of them--I must +use the word--blubber aloud: Peter thrusts his fists into his eyes to +keep back the tears; a woman seated in front cries and sobs; nothing +can be more real, nor more utterly vulgar. The ecclesiastics for whom +the picture was executed were so scandalized, that they refused to +hang it up in their church. It was purchased by the Duke of Mantua, +and, with the rest of the Mantuan Gallery, came afterwards into the +possession of our unfortunate Charles I. On the dispersion of his +pictures, it found its way into the Louvre, where it now is. It has +been often engraved. + +[Footnote 1: The face has a swollen look, and it was said that +his model had been a common woman whose features were swelled by +intoxication. (Louvre, 32.)] + + * * * * * + +THE APOSTLES CARRY THE BODY OF THE VIRGIN TO THE TOMB. This is a very +uncommon subject. There is a most beautiful example by Taddeo Bartoli +(Siena, Pal. Publico), full of profound religious feeling. There is +a small engraving by Bonasoni, in a series of the Life of the Virgin, +apparently after Parmigiano, in which the apostles bear her on their +shoulders over rocky ground, and appear to be descending into the +Valley of Jehoshaphat: underneath are these lines:-- + + "Portan gli uomini santi in su le spalle + Al Sepolcro il corpo di Maria + Di Josaphat nella famosa valle." + +There is another picture of this subject by Ludovico Caracci, at +Parma. + + * * * * * + +THE ENTOMBMENT. In the early pictures, there is little distinction +between this subject and the Death of the Virgin. If the figure +of Christ stand over the recumbent form, holding in his arms the +emancipated soul, then it is the _Transito_--the death or sleep; but +when a sarcophagus is in the centre of the picture, and the body +lies extended above it on a sort of sheet or pall held by angels or +apostles, it may be determined that it is the Entombment of the Virgin +after her death. In a small and very beautiful picture by Angelico, we +have distinctly this representation.[1] She lies, like one asleep, on +a white pall, held reverently by the mourners. They prepare to lay her +in a marble sarcophagus. St. John, bearing the starry palm, appears +to address a man in a doctor's cap and gown, evidently intended for +Dionysius the Areopagite. Above, in the sky, the soul of the Virgin, +surrounded by most graceful angels, is received into heaven. This +group is distinguished from the group below, by being painted in a +dreamy bluish tint, like solidified light, or like a vision. + +[Footnote 1: This picture, now in the possession of W. Fuller +Maitland, Esq., was exhibited in the British Institution in the summer +of 1852. It is engraved in the Etruria Pittrice.] + + * * * * * + +THE ASSUMPTION. The old painters distinguish between the Assumption +of the soul and the Assumption of the body of the Virgin. In the first +instance, at the moment the soul is separated from the body, Christ +receives it into his keeping, standing in person either beside her +death-bed or above it. But in the Assumption properly so called, we +have the moment wherein the soul of the Virgin is reunited to her +body, which, at the command of Christ, rises up from the tomb. Of all +the themes of sacred art there is not one more complete and beautiful +than this, in what it represents, and in what it suggests. Earth and +its sorrows, death and the grave, are left below; and the pure spirit +of the Mother again clothed in its unspotted tabernacle, surrounded +by angelic harmonies, and sustained by wings of cherubim and seraphim, +soars upwards to meet her Son, and to be reunited to him forever. + + * * * * * + +We must consider this fine subject under two aspects. + +The first is purely ideal and devotional; it is simply the expression +of a dogma of faith, "_Assumpta est Maria Virgo in Coelum_." The +figure of the Virgin is seen within an almond-shaped aureole (the +mandorla), not unfrequently crowned as well as veiled, her hands +joined, her white robe falling round her feet (for in all the early +pictures the dress of the Virgin is white, often spangled with stars), +and thus she seems to cleave the air upwards, while adoring angels +surround the glory of light within which she is enshrined. Such are +the figures which are placed in sculpture over the portals of the +churches dedicated to her, as at Florence.[1] She is not always +standing and upright, but seated on a throne, placed within an aureole +of light, and borne by angels, as over the door of the Campo Santo +at Pisa. I am not sure that such figures are properly styled the +Assumption; they rather exhibit in an ideal form the glorification +of the Virgin, another version of the same idea expressed in the +_Incoronata_. She is here _Varia Virgo Assumpta_, or, in Italian, +_L'Assunta_; she has taken upon her the glory of immortality, though +not yet crowned. + +[Footnote 1: The "Santa Maria del Fiore,"--the Duomo.] + +But when the Assumption is presented to us as the final scene of her +life, and expresses, as it were, a progressive action--when she has +left the empty tomb, and the wondering, weeping apostles on the earth +below, and rises "like the morning" ("_quasi aurora surgens_") from +the night of the grave,--then we have the Assumption of the Virgin in +its dramatic and historical form, the final act and consummation of +her visible and earthly life. As the Church had never settled in what +manner she was translated into heaven, only pronouncing it heresy to +doubt the fact itself, the field was in great measure left open to the +artists. The tomb below, the figure of the Virgin floating in mid-air, +and the opening heavens above, such is the general conception fixed +by the traditions of art; but to give some idea of the manner in which +this has been varied, I shall describe a few examples. + +1. Giunta Pisano, 1230. (Assisi, S. Franceso.) Christ and the Virgin +ascend together in a seated attitude upborne by clouds and surrounded +by angels; his arm is round her. The empty tomb, with the apostles and +others, below. The idea is here taken from the Canticles (ch. viii.), +"Who is this that ariseth from the wilderness leaning upon her +beloved?" + +2. Andrea Orcagna, 1359. (Bas-relief, Or-San-Michele, Florence.) The +Virgin Mary is seated on a rich throne within the _Mandorla_, which +is borne upwards by four angels, while two are playing on musical +instruments. Immediately below the Virgin, on the right, is the +figure of St. Thomas, with hands outstretched, receiving the mystic +girdle: below is the entombment; Mary lies extended on a pall above +a sarcophagus. In the centre stands Christ, holding in his arms the +emancipated soul; he is attended by eight angels. St. John is at the +head of the Virgin, and near him an angel swings a censer; St. James +bends and kisses her hand; St. Peter reads as usual; and the other +apostles stand round, with Dionysius, Timothy, and Hierotheus, +distinguished from the apostles by wearing turbans and caps. The whole +most beautifully treated. + +I have been minutely exact in describing the details of this +composition, because it will be useful as a key to many others of the +early Tuscan school, both in sculpture and painting; for example, the +fine bas-relief by Nanni over the south door of the Duomo at Florence, +represents St. Thomas in the same manner kneeling outside the aureole +and receiving the girdle; but the entombment below is omitted. These +sculptures were executed at the time when the enthusiasm for the +_Sacratissima Cintola della Madonna_ prevailed throughout the length +and breadth of Tuscany, and Prato had become a place of pilgrimage. + +This story of the Girdle was one of the legends imported from the +East. It had certainly a Greek origin;[1] and, according to the Greek +formula, St. Thomas is to be figured apart in the clouds, on the +right of the Virgin, and in the act of receiving the girdle. Such is +the approved arrangement till the end of the fourteenth century; +afterwards we find St. Thomas placed below among the other apostles. + +[Footnote 1: It may be found in the Greek Menologium, iii. p. 225] + + +THE LEGEND OF THE HOLY GIRDLE. + +An account of the Assumption would be imperfect without some notice +of the western legend, which relates the subsequent history of the +Girdle, and its arrival in Italy, as represented in the frescoes of +Agnolo Gaddi at Prato.[1] + +[Footnote 1: _Notizie istoriche intorno alla Sacratissima Cintola +di Maria Vergine, che si conserva, nella Citta di Prato, dal Dottore +Giuseppe Bianchini di Prato_, 1795.] + +The chapel _della Sacratissima Cintola_ was erected from the designs +of Giovanni Pisano about 1320. This "most sacred" relic had long been +deposited under the high altar of the principal chapel, and held in +great veneration; but in the year 1312, a native of Prato, whose name +was Musciatino, conceived the idea of carrying it off, and selling it +in Florence. The attempt was discovered; the unhappy thief suffered +a cruel death; and the people of Prato resolved to provide for the +future custody of the precious relic a new and inviolable shrine. + +The chapel is in the form of a parallelogram, three sides of which are +painted, the other being separated from the choir by a bronze gate of +most exquisite workmanship, designed by Ghiberti, or, as others say, +by Brunelleschi, and executed partly by Simone Donatello. + +On the wall, to the left as we enter, is a series of subjects from the +Life of the Virgin, beginning, as usual, with the Rejection of Joachim +from the temple, and ending with the Nativity of our Saviour. + +The end of the chapel is filled up by the Assumption of the Virgin, +the tomb being seen below, surrounded by the apostles; and above it +the Virgin, as she floats into heaven, is in the act of loosening her +girdle, which St. Thomas, devoutly kneeling, stretches out his arms to +receive. Above this, a circular window exhibits, in stained glass, the +Coronation of the Virgin, surrounded by a glory of angels. + +On the third wall to the right we have the subsequent History of the +Girdle, in six compartments. + +St. Thomas, on the eve of his departure to fulfil his mission as +apostle in the far East, intrusts the precious girdle to the care of +one of his disciples, who receives it from his hands in an ecstasy of +amazement and devotion. + +The deposit remains, for a thousand years, shrouded from the eyes +of the profane; and the next scene shows us the manner in which it +reached the city of Prato. A certain Michael of the Dogomari family +in Prato, joined, with a party of his young townsmen, the crusade +in 1096. But, instead of returning to his native country after the +war was over, this same Michael took up the trade of a merchant, +travelling from land to land in pursuit of gain, until he came to the +city of Jerusalem, and lodged in the house of a Greek priest, to whom +the custody of the sacred relic had descended from a long line of +ancestry; and this priest, according to the custom of the oriental +church, was married, and had "one fair daughter, and no more, the +which he loved passing well," so well, that he had intrusted to her +care the venerable girdle. Now it chanced that Michael, lodging in +the same house, became enamoured of the maiden, and not being able to +obtain the consent of her father to their marriage, he had recourse +to the mother, who, moved by the tears and entreaties of the daughter, +not only permitted their union, but bestowed on her the girdle as a +dowry, and assisted the young lovers in their flight. + +In accordance with this story, we have, in the third compartment, the +Marriage of Michael with the Eastern Maiden, and then the Voyage from +the Holy Land to the Shores of Tuscany. On the deck of the vessel, and +at the foot of the mast, is placed the casket containing the relic, to +which the mariners attribute their prosperous voyage to the shores of +Italy. Then Michael is seen disembarking at Pisa, and, with his casket +reverently carried in his hands, he reenters the paternal mansion in +the city of Prato. + +Then we have a scene of wonder. Michael is extended on his bed in +profound sleep. An angel at his head, and another at his feet, are +about to lift him up; for, says the story, Michael was so jealous +of his treasure, that not only he kindled a lamp every night in its +honour, but, fearing he should be robbed of it, he placed it under +his bed, which action, though suggested by his profound sense of its +value, offended his guardian angels, who every night lifted him from +his bed and placed him on the bare earth, which nightly infliction +this pious man endured rather than risk the loss of his invaluable +relic. But after some years Michael fell sick and died. + +In the last compartment we have the scene of his death. The bishop +Uberto kneels at his side, and receives from him the sacred girdle, +with a solemn injunction to preserve it in the cathedral church of the +city, and to present it from time to time for the veneration of the +people, which injunction Uberto most piously fulfilled; and we see him +carrying it, attended by priests bearing torches, in solemn procession +to the chapel, in which it has ever since remained. + +Agnolo Gaddi was but a second-rate artist, even for his time, yet +these frescoes, in spite of the feebleness and general inaccuracy +of the drawing, are attractive from a certain _naive_ grace; and the +romantic and curious details of the legend have lent them so much of +interest, that, as Lord Lindsay says, "when standing on the spot one +really feels indisposed for criticism."[1] + +[Footnote 1: M. Rio is more poetical. "Comme j'entendais raconter +cette legende pour la premiere fois, il me semblait que le tableau +reflechissait une partie de la poesie qu'elle renferme. Cet amour +d'outre mer mele aux aventures chevaleresques d'une croisade, cette +relique precieuse donnee pour dot a une pauvre fille, la devotion +des deux epoux pour ce gage revere de leur bonheur, leur depart +clandestin, leur navigation prospere avec des dauphins qui leur font +cortege a la surface des eaux, leur arrivee a Prato et les miracles +repetes qui, joints a une maladie mortelle, arracehrent enfin de la +bouche du moribond une declaration publique a la suite de laquelle +la ceinture sacree fut deposee dans la cathedrale, tout ce melange +de passion romanesque et de piete naive, avait efface pour moi les +imperfections techniques qui au raient pu frapper une observateur de +sang-froid."] + +The exact date of the frescoes executed by Agnolo Gaddi is not known, +but, according to Vasari, he was called to Prato _after_ 1348. An +inscription in the chapel refers them to the year 1390, a date too +late to be relied on. The story of Michele di Prato I have never seen +elsewhere; but just as the vicinity of Cologne, the shrine of the +"Three Kings," had rendered the Adoration of the Magi one of the +popular themes in early German and Flemish art; so the vicinity of +Prato rendered the legend of St. Thomas a favourite theme of the +Florentine school, and introduced it wherever the influence of that +school had extended. The fine fresco by Mainardi, in the Baroncelli +Chapel, is an instance; and I must cite one yet finer, that by +Ghirlandajo in the choir of S. Maria-Novella: in this last-mentioned +example, the Virgin stands erect in star-bespangled drapery and +closely veiled. + +We now proceed to other examples of the treatment of the Assumption. + +3. Taddeo Bartoli, 1413. He has represented the moment in which the +soul is reunited to the body. Clothed in a starry robe she appears in +the very act and attitude of one rising up from a reclining position, +which is most beautifully expressed, as if she were partly lifted +up upon the expanded many-coloured wings of a cluster of angels, and +partly drawn up, as it were, by the attractive power of Christ, who, +floating above her, takes her clasped hands in both his. The intense, +yet tender ecstasy in _her_ face, the mild spiritual benignity in +_his_, are quite indescribable, and fix the picture in the heart and +the memory as one of the finest religious conceptions extant. (Siena, +Palazzo Publico.) + +I imagine this action of Christ taking her hands in both his, must be +founded on some ancient Greek model, for I have seen the same _motif_ +in other pictures, German and Italian; but in none so tenderly or so +happily expressed. + +4. Domenico di Bartolo, 1430. A large altar-piece. Mary seated on a +throne, within a glory of encircling cherubim of a glowing red, and +about thirty more angels, some adoring, others playing on musical +instruments, is borne upwards. Her hands are joined in prayer, her +head veiled and crowned, and she wears a white robe, embroidered +with golden flowers. Above, in the opening heaven, is the figure of +Christ, young and beardless (_a l'antique_), with outstretched arms, +surrounded by the spirits of the blessed. Below, of a diminutive +size, as if seen from a distant height, is the tomb surrounded by +the apostles, St. Thomas holding the girdle. This is one of the most +remarkable and important pictures of the Siena school, out of Siena, +with which I am acquainted. (Berlin Gal., 1122.) + +5. Ghirlandajo, 1475. The Virgin stands in star-spangled drapery, with +a long white veil, and hands joined, as she floats upwards. She is +sustained by four seraphim. (Florence, S. Maria-Novella.) + +6. Raphael, 1516. The Virgin is seated within the horns of a crescent +moon, her hands joined. On each side an angel stands bearing a flaming +torch; the empty tomb and the eleven apostles below. This composition +is engraved after Raphael by an anonymous master (_Le Maitre au +de_). It is majestic and graceful, but peculiar for the time. The two +angels, or rather genii, bearing torches on each side, impart to the +whole something of the air of a heathen apotheosis. + +7. Albert Durer. The apostles kneel or stand round the empty tomb; +while Mary, soaring upwards, is received into heaven by her Son; an +angel on each side. + +8. Gaudenzio Ferrari, 1525. Mary, in a white robe spangled with stars, +rises upward as if cleaving the air in an erect position, with her +hands extended, but not raised, and a beautiful expression of mild +rapture, as if uttering the words attributed to her, "My heart is +ready;" many angels, some of whom bear tapers, around her. One angel +presents the end of the girdle to St. Thomas; the other apostles and +the empty tomb lower down. (Vercelli, S. Cristofore.) + +9. Correggio. Cupola of the Duomo at Parma, 1530. This is, perhaps, +one of the earliest instances of the Assumption applied as a grand +piece of scenic decoration; at all events we have nothing in +this luxuriant composition of the solemn simplicity of the older +conception. In the highest part of the Cupola, where the strongest +light falls, Christ, a violently foreshortened figure, precipitates +himself downwards to meet the ascending Madonna, who, reclining amid +clouds, and surrounded by an innumerable company of angels, extends +her arms towards him. One glow of heavenly rapture is diffused over +all; but the scene is vast, confused, almost tumultuous. Below, all +round the dome, as if standing on a balcony, appear the apostles. + +10. Titian, 1540 (about). In the Assumption at Venice, a picture of +world-wide celebrity, and, in its way, of unequalled beauty, we have +another signal departure from all the old traditions. The noble figure +of the Virgin in a flood of golden light is borne, or rather impelled, +upwards with such rapidity, that her veil and drapery are disturbed +by the motion. Her feet are uncovered, a circumstance inadmissible in +ancient art; and her drapery, instead of being white, is of the usual +blue and crimson, her appropriate colours in life. Her attitude, +with outspread arms--her face, not indeed a young or lovely face, +but something far better, sublime and powerful in the expression of +rapture--the divinely beautiful and childish, yet devout, unearthly +little angels around her--the grand apostles below--and the splendour +of colour over all--render this picture an enchantment at once to the +senses and the imagination; to me the effect was like music. + +11. Palma Vecchio, 1535. (Venice Acad.) The Virgin looks down, not +upwards, as is usual, and is in the act of taking off her girdle to +bestow it on St. Thomas, who, with ten other apostles, stands below. + +12. Annibale Caracci, 1600. (Bologna Gal.) The Virgin amid a crowd +of youthful angels, and sustained by clouds, is placed _across_ the +picture with extended arms. Below is the tomb (of sculptured marble) +and eleven apostles, one of whom, with an astonished air, lifts from +the sepulchre a handful of roses. There is another picture wonderfully +fine in the same style by Agostino Caracci. This fashion of varying +the attitude of the Virgin was carried in the later schools to every +excess of affectation. In a picture by Lanfranco. she cleaves the air +like a swimmer, which is detestable. + +13. Rubens painted at least twelve Assumptions with characteristic +_verve_ and movement. Some of these, if not very solemn or poetical, +convey very happily the idea of a renovated life. The largest and most +splendid as a scenic composition is in the Musee at Brussels. More +beautiful, and, indeed, quite unusually poetical for Rubens, is +the small Assumption in the Queen's Gallery, a finished sketch for +the larger picture. The majestic Virgin, arrayed in white and blue +drapery, rises with outstretched arms, surrounded by a choir of +angels; below, the apostles and the women either follow with upward +gaze the soaring ecstatic figure, or look with surprise at the flowers +which spring within the empty tomb. + +In another Assumption by Rubens, one of the women exhibits the +miraculous flowers in her apron, or in a cloth, I forget which; but +the whole conception, like too many of his religious subjects, borders +on the vulgar and familiar. + +14. Guido, as it is well known, excelled in this fine subject,--I +mean, according to the taste and manner of his time and school. His +ascending Madonnas have a sort of aerial elegance, which is very +attractive; but they are too nymph-like. We must be careful to +distinguish in his pictures (and all similar pictures painted after +1615) between the Assumption and the Immaculate Conception; it is a +difference in sentiment which I have already pointed out. The small +finished sketch by Guido in our National Gallery is an Assumption and +Coronation together: the Madonna is received into heaven as _Regina +Angelorum_. The fine large Assumption in the Munich Gallery may be +regarded as the best example of Guido's manner of treating this theme. +His picture in the Bridgewater Gallery, often styled an Assumption, is +an Immaculate Conception. + +The same observations would apply to Poussin, with, however, more of +majesty. His Virgins are usually seated or reclining, and in general +we have a fine landscape beneath. + + * * * * * + +The Assumption, like the Annunciation, the Nativity, and other +historical themes, may, through ideal accessories, assume a purely +devotional form. It ceases then to be a fact or an event, and becomes +a vision or a mystery, adored by votaries, to which attendant saints +bear witness. Of this style of treatment there are many beautiful +examples. + +1. Early Florentine, about 1450. (Coll. of Fuller Maitland, Esq.) +The Virgin, seated, elegantly draped in white, and with pale-blue +ornaments in her hair, rises within a glory sustained by six angels; +below is the tomb full of flowers and in front, kneeling, St. Francis +and St. Jerome. + +2. Ambrogio Borgognone--1506. (Milan, Brera.) She stands, floating +upwards In a fine attitude: two angels crown her; others sustain her; +others sound their trumpets. Below are the apostles and empty tomb; at +each side, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine; behind them, St. Cosimo and +St. Damian; the introduction of these saintly apothecaries stamps the +picture as an ex-voto--perhaps against the plague. It is very fine, +expressive, and curious. + +3. F. Granacci. 1530.[1] The Virgin, ascending in glory, presents +her girdle to St. Thomas, who kneels: on each, side, standing as +witnesses. St. John the Baptist, as patron of Florence, St. Laurence, +as patron of Lorenzo de' Medici, and the two apostles, St. Bartholomew +and St. James. + +[Footnote 1: In the Casa Ruccellai (?) Engraved in the _Etruria +Pittrice_.] + +4. Andrea del Sarto, 1520. (Florence, Pitti Pal.) She is seated +amid vapoury clouds, arrayed in white: on each side adoring angels: +below, the tomb with the apostles, a fine solemn group: and hi front, +St. Nicholas, and that interesting penitent saint, St. Margaret of +Cortona. (Legends of the Monastic Orders.) The head of the Virgin +is the likeness of Andrea's infamous wife; otherwise this is a +magnificent picture. + + * * * * * + +The Coronation of the Virgin follows the Assumption. In some +instances, this final consummation of her glorious destiny supersedes, +or rather includes, her ascension into heaven. As I have already +observed, it is necessary to distinguish this scenic Coronation from +the mystical INCORONATA, properly so called, which is the triumph of +the allegorical church, and altogether an allegorical and devotional +theme; whereas, the scenic Coronation is the last event in a series of +the Life of the Virgin. Here we have before us, not merely the court +of heaven, its argent fields peopled with celestial spirits, and the +sublime personification of the glorified Church exhibited as a vision, +and quite apart from all real, all human associations; but we have +rather the triumph of the human mother;--the lowly woman lifted +into immortality. The earth and its sepulchre, the bearded apostles +beneath, show us that, like her Son, she has ascended into glory by +the dim portal of the grave, and entered into felicity by the path of +pain. Her Son, next to whom she has taken her seat, has himself wiped +the tears from her eyes, and set the resplendent crown upon her head; +the Father blesses her; the Holy Spirit bears witness; cherubim and +seraphim welcome her, and salute her as their queen. So Dante,-- + + "At their joy + And carol smiles the Lovely One of heaven, + That joy is in the eyes of all the blest." + +Thus, then, we must distinguish:-- + +1. The Coronation of the Virgin is a strictly devotional subject where +she is attended, not merely by angels and patriarchs, but by canonized +saints and martyrs, by fathers and doctors of the Church, heads of +religious orders in monkish dresses, patrons and votaries. + +2. It is a dramatic and historical subject when it is the last scene +in a series of the Life of the Virgin; when the death-bed, or the +tomb, or the wondering apostles, and weeping women, are figured on +the earth below. + +Of the former treatment, I have spoken at length. It is that most +commonly met with in early pictures and altar-pieces. + +With regard to the historical treatment, it is more rare as a separate +subject, but there are some celebrated examples both in church +decoration and in pictures. + +1. In the apsis of the Duomo at Spoleto, we have, below, the death +of the Virgin in the usual manner, that is, the Byzantine conception +treated in the Italian style, with Christ receiving her soul, and over +it the Coronation. The Virgin kneels in a white robe, spangled with +golden flowers; and Christ, who is here represented rather as the +Father than the Son, crowns her as queen of heaven. + +2. The composition by Albert Durer, which concludes his fine series +of wood-cuts, the "Life, of the Virgin" is very grand and singular. On +the earth is the empty tomb; near it the bier; around stand the twelve +apostles, all looking up amazed. There is no allusion to the girdle, +which, indeed, is seldom found in northern art. Above, the Virgin +floating in the air, with the rainbow under her feet, is crowned by +the Father and the Son, while over her head hovers the holy Dove. + +3. In the Vatican is the Coronation attributed to Raphael. That he +designed the cartoon, and began the altar-piece, for the nuns of +Monte-Luce near Perugia, seems beyond all doubt; but it is equally +certain that the picture as we see it was painted almost entirely by +his pupils Giulo Romano and Gian Francesco Penni. Here we have the +tomb below, filled with flowers; and around it the twelve apostles; +John and his brother James, in front, looking up; behind John, St. +Peter; more in the background, St. Thomas holds the girdle. Above is +the throne set in heaven, whereon the Virgin, mild and beautiful, sits +beside her divine Son, and with joined hands, and veiled head, and +eyes meekly cast down, bends to receive the golden coronet he is about +to place on her brow. The Dove is omitted, but eight seraphim, with +rainbow-tinted wings, hover above her head. On the right, a most +graceful angel strikes the tambourine; on the left, another, equally +graceful, sounds the viol; and, amidst a flood of light, hosts of +celestial and rejoicing spirits fill up the background. + +Thus, in highest heaven, yet not out of sight of earth, in beatitude +past utterance, in blessed fruition of all that faith creates and love +desires, amid angel hymns and starry glories, ends the pictured life +of Mary, MOTHER OF OUR LORD. + +THE END. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Legends of the Madonna, by Mrs. Jameson + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LEGENDS OF THE MADONNA *** + +***** This file should be named 12047.txt or 12047.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/0/4/12047/ + +Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Keren Vergon, William Flis, and the +Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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