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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:37:46 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:37:46 -0700 |
| commit | 154bc213867b445ba5715bcf43004a939fa96a17 (patch) | |
| tree | f9a70e783f129d17c2610cd822d5f8165cae1948 | |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/11761-0.txt b/11761-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cdaecff --- /dev/null +++ b/11761-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3981 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11761 *** + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--Chlorides in the Rainfall of 1884. + Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.--With description + and 3 figures. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Relative Costs of Fluid and + Solid Fuels. + + The Manufacture of Steel Castings. + + Science in Diminishing Casualties at Sea.--Extract of a paper + read before the British Association by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER. + + Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures. + + The Span of Cabin John Bridge. + + Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures. + + Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--The Blue Print Process.--R.W. JONES. + + Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White Ground.--By + A.H. HAIG. + + A Plan for a Carbonizing House.--With full description and 5 + figures. + + The Scholar's Compasses. + + The Integraph.--With full description and engraving. + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous Beverages. 2 engravings. + + Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure. + + Field Kitchens. 8 figures. + + A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures. + + The Preservation of Timber.--Report of the Committee of the + American Society of Engineers.--The Boucherie + process.--Experiments.--Decay of timber. + +IV. PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.--Apparatus for Measuring + the Force of Explosives.--With engraving. + + Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.--Advantages of gas over + electricity, etc.--By WM. SUGG. 2 figures. + + Ander's Telephone. 1 figure. + + Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 figure. + + Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 figures. + + The Chromatoscope.--An aid to microscopy. + +V. ART AND ARCHITECTURE.--The Barbara Uttmann Statue at + Annaberg, Saxony. + + Improvements in Concrete Construction.--Use of Portland + cement.--System of building in concrete invented by Messrs. F. & + J.P. West, London. + + Albany Buildings. Southport.--An engraving. + +VI. PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.--The Sizes of Blood Corpuscles + in Mammals and Birds.--A table. + + The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by the Skin. + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Missing German Corvette Augusta.--With + engraving. + + The Tails of Comets.--The effect by a disturbance of solar + waves, and not by special matter. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND. + + +The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it has +also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen in a dark +cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, except by very +few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved to purchase the +house and premises, with the object of preserving the pavement _in +situ_, and of giving additional light and better access to it, and, this +purchase having been completed in the beginning of the present year, the +work of improvement began. It was now seen that the pavement was +continuous under the premises of the adjoining house, and under the +public street, and arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex +these adjoining parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. +The pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also the +entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive skill, of +variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least part of the +marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of which the +designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No squared, +artificially colored, or glazed tesseræ, such as we see in a modern +floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but purposely formed of +brick and stone. There are three shades of brick--a bright red, a dull +or Indian red, and a shade between the two; slate from a neighboring +quarry gives a dark bluish gray; an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and +a fine white composition resembling limestone is used for the center +points and borders. In addition, the outside border is formed with +tesseræ of rather larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking +generally, the design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces of the +octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the outer +octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border formed by a +cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, pear-shaped, and +bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and gray bands; and outside +all is the limestone border already described. This border is +constructed with tesseræ about five-eighths of an inch square. The +remaining tesseræ vary from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular +rhomboidal form. The construction of the pavement is remarkable. There +is a foundation of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded +brick and lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesseræ are laid with their roughest side +downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured over the floor, +filling up the interstices, after which the surface would be rubbed down +and polished. + +As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be observed +that the site of this pavement was near the center of the western Roman +town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the military station and +fortress. It was obviously the principal house in the place, and as +clearly, therefore, the residence of the Præfectus, the local +representative of the imperial power of Rome. The Roman occupation of +the district began with the proprætorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. +He was succeeded in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through +Leicester from the Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea +broke out. In the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was +elected consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged education. +He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to the decline of +the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not be far from the +truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the time or even to the +personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years ago.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany had +offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of the Red +Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field hospital. +Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a design for +competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice that his +invention had won the prize. Another instance of the recognition of +American genius abroad. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY. + + +The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was the +inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only introduced it +into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet been solved, +notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid examinations have been +made. It is the general belief, however, that she only introduced the +art, having learned it from a foreigner in the year 1561. The person +from whom she acquired this knowledge is said to have been a Protestant +fugitive from Brabant, who was driven from her native land by the +constables of the Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann +family. However, the probability is that what the fugitive showed +Barbara Uttmann was the stitched, or embroidered, laces--points, so +called--which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the present +time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced Barbara +Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand cushion. + +[Illustration: BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.] + +Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the Saxon +mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner of +extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at Annaberg, +Jan. 14, 1584. + +The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of the +residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as the +occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it frequently +happened that the wages were so low, and the means of sustaining life so +expensive, that some other resource had to be found to make life more +bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was thus a blessing to the +country, and her name is held in high esteem. A monumental fountain is +to be erected at Annaberg, and is to be surmounted by a statue of the +country's benefactress, Barbara Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert +Henze, is to be cast in bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the +costume worn at the time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of +lace, which she has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles +being visible. + +Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a cushion by +hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the pins for giving the +desired pattern to the lace being stuck into the cushion. A yard of hand +cushion lace has been sold in England for as much as $25,000. The +annexed cut, representing the Barbara Uttmann statue, was taken from the +_Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + +A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, one for +himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a furnace +against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air chamber he +had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The owner of the other +house found it very hard to keep his own house warm, and was astounded +at the amount of coal it took to render his family comfortable, while +the "other fellow" kept himself warm at his neighbor's expense nearly a +whole winter before the trick was discovered. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. + + +Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not hydraulically +compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of moisture from the air +to prevent condensation upon the surface of the walls. It not only +resists the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere, but becomes +even harder with the lapse of time. It may also be made in several +different colors, and can be finished off to nearly a polished surface +or can be left quite rough. Walls built of this material may be made so +hard that a nail cannot be driven into them, or they can be made +sufficiently soft to become a fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous +aggregate be used, no damp course is required. Further than this, if +land be bought upon which there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that +can be burnt, the greatest portion of the building material may be +obtained in excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the +(salt) shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be found +to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it may be made +fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in dwellings for the poor +will therefore resist the destructive efforts of the "young barbarian." +Nothing, therefore, can be better as a building material. The system +ordinarily employed to erect structures in concrete consists of first +forming casings of wood, between which the liquid concrete is deposited, +and allowed to become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, +the cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, but +with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. Besides +this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, especially if +it has been applied some time after the concrete forming the body of the +wall has set, and the method of applying ornament is not economical. + +[Illustration: 1.-18.] + +A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by Messrs. +F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we now present. To +this system Messrs. West have given the name of "Concrete Exstruction," +from the Latin "exstructio," which they consider to be a more +appropriate word than "constructio," as applied to concrete building in +general. In Messrs. West's system of building in concrete, instead of +employing wood casings, between which to deposit the concrete or beton, +and removing them when the beton has become hard, casings of concrete +itself are employed. These casings are not removed when the beton has +set, but they become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In +order to form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, which +may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of rectangular +(Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), and indeed of any +other form that will make a complete surface, while for thickness it may +be suited to the work to which it is to be applied, that used for heavy +engineering work differing from that employed in house construction. It +is found that the most convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. +1) is 12 inches and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure +built with slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with +architectural measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to +measure 12 inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of +these slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs are +made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of India-rubber +or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs with their edges +as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can be manufactured. That +portion of the back of the slab which is undercut is formed by means of +soft India-rubber cores. The moulds for making portions of the slabs +have a contrivance by which their length may be adjusted to suit given +dimensions. + +During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a plastic +state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a suitable +key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is finished off to them +(Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be cast with ornaments, etc., +complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but it is more economical to have +separate moulds for the mouldings and other ornaments, and separate +moulds for the slabs, and to apply the mouldings, etc., during the +process of casting the slab. Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be +somewhat similar to the plinth course slab No. 10), and other +constructive features may also be applied in a similar way, or may be +provided for during the casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or +other ornamental solid or even plastic material may be applied to the +face of the slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work +to be finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face +of the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. FIG 20.] + +In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is shown with +the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that the footings are +constructed in the most economical manner by not being stepped. As no +damp-course is required in concrete work, when the aggregate is of a +non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon the top of the footings is +generally laid a horizontal slab, called the wall-base slab, the special +feature of which is that it enables the thickness of the wall to be +gauged accurately, and also provides a fixing for the first course of +slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show such slabs for internal and external angles, +and Fig. 6 shows one for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is +not essential, although it is the more accurate method of building, for +in cases where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, +the slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set behind +them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first course with +breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being keyed to the other +by means of a quick-setting cementing material poured into the key-holes +provided in the edges of the slab for that purpose, a bituminous cement +being preferred. The key-holes are made in several ways, those shown in +the illustrations being of a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed +holes of any other shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an +oblique direction are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or +squint-quoins (Figs. 17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and +16) are manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. This +gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the quoin in +one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course above a +three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or _vice versa_. Thus are the +walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For openings, the jambs and lintels +(and in window-openings the sill) are made solid with a provision for a +key-hole to the mass of concrete filling behind them. That portion of +the jambs against which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a +similar one in the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle +joint by squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a similar +way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.-FIG 25.] + +The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made to +contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of courses +(according to convenience) have been built up, and when set practically +forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to which the face slabs +are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland cements, which are known +to contract in setting, and with those over-limed cements which expand +(both of which are not true Portland cements), the filling in is done in +equal sections, with a vertical space equal to each section left between +them until the first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are +then filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores of +the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where required, +slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails may be driven, +such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt clay, coke, and such +like. Hollow lintels are also made of the slabs keyed together at their +vertical joints, and when in position these are filled in with beton. +This system, however, is only recommended for fire-place openings +instead of arches. + +In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the apsidal +end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 being employed +for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show forms of slabs +suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal axes and domes. In +Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is shown a system of +constructing floors of these slabs. It is only necessary to explain that +the slabs are first keyed to the lower flange of the iron joist by means +of a cement (bituminous preferred), and the combination is then fixed in +position, the edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, +the iron joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening +slabs, the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists are +made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted to iron +girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This provision secures +the covering of the cross girders on their undersides by the ceiling +slabs. The concrete having been deposited upon the slabs, its upper +surface may be finished off in any of the usual ways, while the ceiling +may be treated in any of the ways described for the walls. This system +does not exclude the ordinary methods of constructing floors and roofs, +although it supplies a fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, +and, in fact, any other building material, may be used in conjunction +with the slabs. + +The system of building construction is intended, as in the case with all +concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the various uses to +which they have been applied, and, at the same time, to offer a more +perfect system of building in concrete. Hitherto slab concrete work has +never been erected in a perfectly finished state (i.e., with mouldings, +etc., complete), but has either been left in a rough state or without +ornament, or else has been constructed so as never to be capable of +receiving good ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in +constructing concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to +prevent the slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to form, +with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming the slabs of +L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of internal buttress +and shoring them up from the outside, or of supporting the slabs upon +framing fixed against the faces of the wall, several devices have been +used to obviate this difficulty. + +In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the slabs +forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as soon as the +plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but not before), +these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or cramps have been +used, and, as their name implies, have been allowed to remain in the +wall and to be entirely buried in the plastic filling-in material. These +permanent transverse ties or cramps have been of two kinds: those which +were affixed as soon as the slabs were placed in position, and those +which were made to form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, +slabs of Z or H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the +plastic filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse +tie by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs forming +each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in some cases, +being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being undercut in some +way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in this latter system +generally have wide bases, they may also be bedded or jointed in cement, +and, provided temporary ties be placed across their upper edges to +connect the slabs forming each face of the wall together, the space +between the faces of the wall may then be filled in with the plastic +concrete. + +All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they are only +temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton has become +hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two faces of the +wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of all slab concrete +construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the plastic concrete used in +forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the slabs to the mass which they +themselves have moulded; and (c) to form a facing to the wall. When +these objects shall have been accomplished, there is no further need of +any tie whatever beyond that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. +In West's system, however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, +any kind of transverse tie to be used during the process of +construction, except that used in the starting course, is entirely +dispensed with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the +courses of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the +time that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall. + +[Illustration: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION] + +There is, however, a more decided difference between West's system and +those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact that the slabs +composing the shell of the whole structure in many cases may be built up +before the filling-in is deposited between the slabs, and in none of the +other cases can this be done. In fact, only in the first two cases +before mentioned can more than one course of slabs be laid before +filling-in of some kind must be done. Compared with the ordinary method +of building in concrete, this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and +waste of wood casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside +and outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties encountered +in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of the work by the +ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a face of any of the +usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, besides a facing of any +other material, such as marble, etc., and produces better and more +durable work, at the same time showing a saving in cost, especially in +the better classes of work; all of which is effected with less plant +than ordinarily required. For engineering work, such as sea walls, the +hexagonal slabs, made of greater thickness than those employed for +ordinary walling, will answer admirably, especially if the grooves be +made proportionately larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be +built up with great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the +dwellings of artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to +render them easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves +in order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of the +simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work. + +Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for this +system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. Frank West, +as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be preferred. It not only +supplies the necessary scaffold, but also the necessary arrangements for +hoisting the slabs, as well as for raising the liquid concrete and +depositing it behind the slabs. It is really an independent scaffold, +and may be used wherever a light tramway of contractor's rails can be +laid, which in crowded thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a +staging erected over the footway. The under frame is carried upon two +bogie frames running upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is +enabled to turn sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being +provided at the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of +a climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to the +under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A worm +gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the scaffold, causes +the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, made to act at the curves +as well as on the straight portions of the rail by being attached to a +radial arm fixed to the under frame, assists the stability of the +scaffold where required, but the gauge of the rails is altered to render +the scaffold more or less stable according to its height. Combined with +the same machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used +for the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a triangle be +altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are altered. A portion +of the vertical post up and down which the crane climbs forms the base +of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, together with the stay, forms +the remaining two sides. Hence, by causing the foot of one or the other +to travel upward, by means of the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib +is either elevated or depressed. + +The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless chains +passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is fixed a hopper, +into which is thrown, either by hand or from a concrete mixer running +upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, and from which it gravitates +into a narrow channel, through which pass the buckets (attached to the +chain) with a shovel-like action. The buckets, a motor being applied to +one pair of wheels, thus automatically fill themselves, and on arriving +at top are made to tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically +into a hopper by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which +they are attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken away +to the required destination by means of a worm working in a tube. For +varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are inserted and +secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and secured by a nut. By +using this scaffold, a saving in plant, cartage, and labor is effected. +The elevator may also be used for raising any other material besides +concrete. + +Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding of +Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, and +which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may add in +conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a scaffold +are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS. + +R.W. JONES. + + +1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, with two or +three thicknesses of common blanket or its equivalent. + +2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side uppermost. + +3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by means of a +plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the board. + +4. Expose the whole--in a clear sunlight--from 4 to 6 minutes. In a +winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, from 20 to 30 +minutes. + +5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one or two +minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry. + +The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite quality +in the _paper_ itself being its ability to stand washing. + +Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such a brush +as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part soluble citrate of +iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part red prussiate of potash, +and dissolve in 10 parts of water. + +The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and better +results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until immediately +required. After being coated with the solution, the paper must be laid +away to dry in a dark place, and must be shielded entirely from light +until used. When dry, the paper is of a yellow and bronze color. After +exposure the surface becomes darker, with the lines of the tracing still +darker. Upon washing, the characteristic blue tint appears, with the +lines of the tracing in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been +obtained from glass negatives by this process.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + + + + +REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND. + +A.H. HAIG. + + +The following process for making photographic copies of drawings in blue +lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is based on the +property of perchloride of iron of being converted into protochloride on +exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when brought into contact with +the perchloride of iron immediately turns the latter blue, but it does +not affect the protochloride. + +A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of iron, +five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one hundred parts +water. Should the paper to be used not be sufficiently sized, dextrine, +gelatine, isinglass, or some similar substance must be added to the +solution. The paper is sensitized by dipping in this solution and then +dried in the dark, and may be kept for some length of time. To take a +copy of a drawing made on cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a +sheet of the sensitive paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame +or under a sheet of glass. The length of exposure varies with the state +of the weather from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds +in winter, in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 +minutes, and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now immersed +in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of potash per 100 +parts of water. Those parts protected from the light by the lines of the +drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest of the paper, where the +coating has been converted into protochloride by the effects of light, +will remain white. Next, the image is freely washed in water, and then +passed through a bath consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid +to 100 parts of water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron +salt. + +It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, when the +drawing will appear in blue on a white background.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + +[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.] + + + + +RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS. + +[Footnote: Read June 20, 1885.] + +By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club. + + +During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous efforts to +introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the evaporation of +water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on a small scale, for +domestic purposes. + +The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the number of +stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using solid fuel. +Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the better classes. +Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about thirty-six per +cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount of compression. Ease +of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of regulation of temperature. +Almost perfect combustion and cleanliness. + +Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well known +regenerative furnace. + +Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running on the +Paris and Strassburg Railroad. + +Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and under the +boilers of steamship Oberlin. + +Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a locomotive +running on the Long Island Railroad. + +Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of United States +steamers. + +Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their locomotives, and +steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel. + +Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace at Jersey +City. + +Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the production +of water gas. + +These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results when +considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in advocating +their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the all-important +item of cost. + +It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of such +systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long as the +supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable limits. + +In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely theoretical +results, without allowing for losses in the furnace. + +The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, crude +petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases. + +The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the heating +agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, are: + +PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT. + + ________________________________________________________ + | C | H | O | CO |CH_{4}|C_{2}H_{4} + +----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + Anthracite |87.7| 3.3 |3.2| | | + Bituminous |80.8| 5.0 |8.2| | | + Petroleum |84.8|13.1 |1.5| | | + Coal gas | | 6.5 | |14.3| 52.4 | 14.8 + Generator gas | | 1.98| |35.5| 1.46| + Water gas | | 6.3 |0.6|87.8| 1.2 | + ------------------+----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + +We will employ the formula of Dulong-- + + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) + +to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the case of +methane, CH_{4}, the formula is not true, but the error is not great +enough to seriously affect the result. This gives for the combustion of +one pound of: + + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " + +Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from 212° F., +we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. + + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 + +The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning furnaces +to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per cent. may be +taken as a good figure. The great difference in the efficiencies is due +to the fact that fluid fuels require for combustion very little air +above the theoretical quantity, while with the solid fuels fully twice +the theoretical quantity must be admitted to dilute the products of +combustion. + +Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212° F., PER POUND OF FUEL. + + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 + +These figures agree closely with the results of experiments. + +We will now consider the subject of cost. + +The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing centers, +termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers. + +In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude state, an +approximation is made by adding to the cost at the nearest shipping port +the freight charged on refined petroleum, and ten per cent. to cover +duties and other charges. + +Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the cities, +there may be some errors. + + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. + + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 + + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. + + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. + +In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal gas is +taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; petroleum, 0.8. + + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. + + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. + +These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give: + + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. FOR $1. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. + + RELATIVE COSTS. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 + +These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there may be +circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their use will +exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a comparison without +considering particular cases, but for intermittent heating petroleum +would probably be more economical, though for a steady fire coal holds +its own. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. + + +At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and Steel +Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, Mr. R. +Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, read a paper +on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting discussion upon +steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it was thirty years since +the first crucible steel castings were made in Sheffield in the general +way, and with one exception the method of manufacture was pretty much +the same now as at that early date. The improvement was the employment +of gas furnaces instead of the old coke holes for melting. Important +economies had resulted from this introduction. Where before it required +3 tons of coke to melt 1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with +35 cwt. of very poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make +crucible steel castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true +steel, that was to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct +proportions of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to +make crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and manganese to +produce that chemical composition which was known to be necessary in +best castings. It was in consequence of this difficulty that many makers +resorted to the addition of hematite pigs. The Bessemer process was used +much more extensively upon the Continent than in this country in the +manufacture of castings. It seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for +agitating the steel in the ladle so as to remove the gases would be +taken up largely for open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as +it had a wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in +conjunction with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some +extremely wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid +being melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied greatly. +The ordinary method generally practiced in this country was a +modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed were only +of secondary importance to the making of the steel itself. Unless the +mould was good, no matter how good the steel was, the casing was +spoiled. The best composition which had been found for moulds was that +of a large firm in Sheffield, but unfortunately it was rather expensive. +A good steel casting ought to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 +per cent. of silicon and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a +casting, if free from other impurities, would have a strength of between +30 and 40 tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 +per cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering. + +The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. McCallem +present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion upon the open +hearth basic system, in which they were greatly interested. + +Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would be +worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace before it +would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, he had seen +the basic process worked very successfully in the open-hearth furnace; +and he was recently informed by the manager that he was producing ingots +at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per ton. + +The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved admirably. +He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, at Wednesbury, +were at the present moment putting down an open-hearth furnace on the +basic process. + +The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. H. +Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, Walker, W. +Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave it as their +experience that the best castings contained the most blowholes, and Mr. +McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some slight qualification. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA. + + +At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject. + +He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing the +safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions with +wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development of +maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied with +apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and to the +nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and that reports +given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more extensively. He +wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by telegraph for the same +purpose. + +In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. Badeley in +1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and last year at +Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a committee on life saving +appliances of the United States had made experiments. The conclusions of +the committee were that in deep water oil had a calming effect upon a +rough sea, but there was nothing in either source of information which +yet answered the question whether or not there is in the force exerted +by the wind a point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in +causing the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some +utility on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of +rescue; on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in dangerous +proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use of automatic +sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of parabolic +reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further prosecution of +experiments by Professor Bell in establishing communication between +vessels some distance apart by means of interrupted electrical currents. +The improvement of navigation, he said, meant an international code of +police to improve police rules of navigation; an international code of +universal telegraphy for navigation; an international office of +meteorology and navigation to collect the studies; experiments on the +weather, on the sea, on the casualties; and the discovery by experiment +of new apparatus and appliances to diminish maritime disaster. + +He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, and he +hoped that before long there would be proposed an international +congress--such as the postal, telegraph, and sanitary congresses, and +the international convention to fix the common meridian--by one of the +maritime powers, by which would be founded an international institution +to diminish casualties at sea. He recommended a universal system of +buoys. The great losses of life and property every year were worthy the +devotion of £300,000 by an international institution, which would be +much less than the monthly average loss in navigation. + +Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built--some were ten times +longer than their beam. There was nothing in the world so ticklish as a +ship; touch her in the waist, and down she goes. He believed sailing +ships ought not to exceed four times their beam, and steamers certainly +not more than six times. He pointed out that a fruitful cause of +accidents was the stopping of steaming all at once in the case of +impending collision, by which the rudder lost control of the vessel. If +constructors looked more to the form of the ships, and got them to steer +better, collisions would be avoided. + +The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one great +secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, which made +it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another vessel what it +was about. The method of signaling was very crude, and he ventured to +say that it was quite out of date when vessels met each other at a rate +of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an amateur, tried a method which +he would attempt to explain. His idea was to fit up a lantern on deck, +showing an electric light. The instrument would be controlled by the +rudder, and the commanding officer of the vessel would be able so to +turn it when the helm was put up or down that the light would flash at +some distance in front of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal +to a vessel coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was +amidships, the light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved +until the helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going +could not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If the +lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass safely. + +Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any experiments. + +The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a number +of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they were already +disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left the carrying out of +the suggestion to others. + +Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for a short +distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was very +difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile out to +sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to three +miles. + +The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object light, but +upon the sweep of the light on the water. + +Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil on +troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully studied all +the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they were all very well +in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean they were utterly +hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. They had been tried in +the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had prophesied the results before +they were commenced. It was utterly hopeless to think that a quantity of +oil had the power of laying a storm--all the world could not produce oil +enough to bring about that result. + +There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped the +experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or three +mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe in powerful +lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, and a dazzling +effect was the result. In regard to sound, he wondered that no more +effective alarm was used than the whistle. It was well known that, as +the whistle instrument was enlarged, the sound became more and more a +roar. He would have ships use all their boiler power in sounding a +siren, so that the sound could be heard at a distance of not less than +two or three miles in any weather. With such a signal as that there +ought to be, not absolute safety, but collisions would be more easily +prevented. He was glad to say that a universal system of buoys had been +practically arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, +so that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language. + +Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, while a +green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so that, if a +green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels were within two +miles and a half of each other. + +Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in regard to +these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of lights effect +should be given to the difference that existed in the various lights, so +that, by making the green light more powerful, it could penetrate as far +as the red, and in the same way making the red and green lights +proportionately more powerful, so that they would penetrate as far as +the white light. + +Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for sound +tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and focused all +the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea that the operator +could hear nothing but a chaos of sound. + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE. + + +The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining +pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained +in the raw material, maybe divided into two parts, viz., the immersion +of the rags in acid, with subsequent washing and drying, and the +carbonization properly so called. The first part is so well known, and +is so simple in its details and apparatus, that it is useless to dwell +upon it in this place. But the second requires more scientific +arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted, and, as +carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry, we think +it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. +It will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. +The object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being +in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled. + +Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, and Figs. +1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is arranged like +the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, there is a double +series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and work generally. These +two series are arranged on each side of a central portion, which +contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway +giving access to the upper stories. The heating apparatus is a hot air +stove provided with a system of piping. The rags to be carbonized or the +wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames. + +The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the heating +apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for about half an +hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the air in, as are also +those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers. The hot air +then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags, and, +becoming saturated and heavier, descends and makes its exit from the +chamber through an aperture, n, near the floor, whence it flows to the +central chimney. This latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains +in its center a second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) +that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion +from the heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes +serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the +vapors derived from the wool are disengaged. + +The air, heated to 40° or 50°, is made to pass thus for several hours, +until the greater part of the humidity has been removed. The temperature +is then raised to 80° or 90° by gradually closing the apertures that +give access to the ventilating chimney. In order that it may be possible +to further increase the temperature during the last hour, and raise it +to 90° or 120°, an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such air +with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air circulates in the +pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter. The hot +vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one, where +they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the +materials. + +The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in order to +prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate should be of +relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of cast iron, and all +the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see to such matters, with a +view to saving money, will surely lead in the long run to bad results. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)] + +The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired to +preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case recourse +is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting the vapors of +nitric acid heated to 115° or 125° for the sulphuric acid. The +arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different. The chambers, which +may be in duplicate, as in the preceding case, are vaulted, and are +about three yards long by three wide and three high. The rags are put +into wire cages that have six divisions, and that are located in the +middle of the chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of +gearings. Under the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a +reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. +The arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken to +have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.--_Bull, de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS. + + +According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in the dry +distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for the production +of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that the mass shall be +divided as completely as possible, since it then takes but a relatively +moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter +contained in the wash. The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is based +upon this observation. + +The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long boiler, +B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the intermedium of a +waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass slowly to the other +extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes its exit in the form of +dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the scrapers, b, and the interrupted +pieces, a, in front of which are the hinged valves, c. In the motion of +the pieces, a, from right to left, these valves free the apertures +thereof and allow the wash to pass, while in the motion from left to +right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be +evaporated before them. + +From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and fro +motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of which is +produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their lower, forked +extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the piece, d, that supports +the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, f, pass through the side of +the boiler, through the intermedium of stuffing boxes, and are connected +by their upper extremities, through a link, with levers, g, that revolve +around the point, h. A cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, +alternately rising and descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods +f. The same shaft, M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, +and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, +E, receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, m. The +material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at +the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel, G, provided +with a stirrer, H. The salts and other analogous matters are dissolved, +and the residuum, which constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out +of the apparatus, while the solution passes directly to the refinery, +where it is evaporated. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS.] + +In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in powder +is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means +of water, and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen, +so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally +by the mass, and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus. + +The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, where they +condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine. The +non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the +manufactory. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE. + + +In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we find a +leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. Britton, of +Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate. + +This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in +order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are clamped in the jaws +or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram +connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws. The power is obtained by +means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys +shown. The action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the +plates which are not "bagged" or buckled, and this causes the surface to +extend, the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same +stretching action. The machine shown is designed to operate on sheet +iron from No. 7 to No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for +length being 120 in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. +The machine appears to have met with considerable success in America, +and has been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in Figs. +1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the +machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. 3 shows the +bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with the holes for +adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 is a back view and +section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving +grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a plan and cross section of +the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back elevation of the same, with a front +view and section of the gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which +the jaws are opened and closed. + +[Illustration: BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES. + + +Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing +circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is doubtless +that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and which is known +in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists of a socket into +which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to which is hinged a +tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil are held at the proper +distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw. +When the instrument is closed, as shown in the figure to the left, it +takes up but little space, and may be easily carried in the pocket +without the point tearing the clothing, as the binding screw holds the +leg firmly against the pencil. + +The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the +right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation.--_La +Nature_. + +[Illustration: THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE INTEGRAPH. + + +In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the +following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = f(x), to find +a curve whose equation shall be + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us suppose that +we know an induced current, and that we can represent it by a curve +y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive current, that is to say, +the curve represented by the equation + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli and +Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem mechanically, +by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another example from the domain +of electricity, in order to better show the utility of the apparatus; +let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile +or of an accumulator. The abscisses represent the times, and the +ordinates the amperes. The question is to know at every moment the +quantity of coulombs produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve +whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a +large number of analogous applications. + +[Illustration: THE INTEGRAPH.] + +The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron ruler, +I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a drawing-board, and +is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface. In this +groove move two rollers, which, in the center of the piece that connects +them, carry two brass T-squares that are parallel with each other and at +right angles with the first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. +Between these two rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest +the axis of the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour +of the curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point is +guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the paper in +such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line, +and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's +angle with the axes of the X's is constantly proportional to the +ordinate of the primitive curve. + +The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a +sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities of the +axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin, and roll +over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral +steel surfaces of the carriages, while the circumference of the wheels +rolls in grooves along the two T-squares. + +These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run in the +groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller that runs +over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is fixed a +divided ruler, through one point of which continually passes a third +ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of the first carriage. + +When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and the +point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be +integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the +axis of the X's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure. The +wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, A', of the second carriage must +move parallel with this ruler. In order to obtain such parallelism, we +employ a parallelogram formed as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same +diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point, A, of the +first carriage, and their line of centers is parallel with the latter. +The second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to +those of the toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers +must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a weak +steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels, the +two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by means of a barrel +and spring placed in the center of one of them. + +The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents the +latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, permitting it +thus to move only in the direction of their plane. + +It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog +wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of +but the same length of the two threads. + +It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by +forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the +curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the +apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES. + + +The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the +manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. +Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling +machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so +called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all +grouped upon a cast-iron column. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES.] + +The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate +of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an +intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the +former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in +the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the +aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side +of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in +the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is +lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part +of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of +glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the +gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced. + +The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, +comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of +bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). +This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in +the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of +bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents +all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a +powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is +placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This +machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES. + + +Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the +power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most +extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus +have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less +necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal +types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive +materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has +devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed +by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in +which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed +in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun +when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman +responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 +grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the +igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be +made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden +cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. +It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external +diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. +The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided +with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches +wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 +inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch +wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. +It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a +cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. +The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median +piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that +still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, +g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is +prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which +has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key +which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, +y. + +When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 +inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, +and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by +a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, +is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a +cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely +closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the +figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the +leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 +grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a +leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The +apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the +pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way +that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a +smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the +pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that +their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes +place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the +capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately +opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, +to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that +have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the +apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing +alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means +of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder +the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.] + +The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by +means of a gauge (Fig. 3). + +The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and +thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder +very perfectly. + + * * * * * + + + + +SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS. + + +For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from +pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. +Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the +accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or +enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the +upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors +disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone +cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is +filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided +with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, +d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The +head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a +dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, +f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed +strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with +pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by +acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, +e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n. + +At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by +a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of +emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L. + +A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to +introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. +The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for +cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows +out through the tubes, v. + +The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the +quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is +afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation +may then proceed at once. + +The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, +through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they +are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, +which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, +which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. +This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and +afterward flows into the vessel, N. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.] + +The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, +e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of +concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can +no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 +degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and +received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of +the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed +and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected +directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that +still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, +e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S. + +There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the +acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as +to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIELD KITCHENS. + + +We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the +Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's +Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These +kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three +to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed +one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The +kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are +carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A +small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When +packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the +outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the +top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form +of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or +in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, +boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may +require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of +the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 +represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens +consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which +are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or +flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be +placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 +inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular +kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few +inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be +made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with +straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended +for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, +workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food +for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and +distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat +water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, +London.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW COP-WINDER. + + +In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the +wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of +which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German +apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a +horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that +moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow +extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in +contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a +mean velocity until it is finished. + +In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the +paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is +the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove +which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper +tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse +motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first +prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the +ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, +but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its +axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a +cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a +sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, +J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, +a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is +kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished. + +[Illustration: A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.] + +Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may +likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this +case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is +useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the +ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of +the screw. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.] + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. + +[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.] + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL +CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885. + +BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER. + + +The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which +he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a +solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of +hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of +copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it +will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance +under this head. + +Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and +1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the +preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective. + +His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by +tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a +preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory +results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his +name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a +freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by +pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at +the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred +rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and +letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the +rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed +then served to admit the solution under pressure. + +This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of +copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in +France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, +that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log +only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and +annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be +still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process +could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting +down trees), as the solution would freeze. + +On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been +able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this +country. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. + +SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE. + +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS. + +The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern +Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, +when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable +condition. + +We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. +Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process. + +Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. +Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), +when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital +suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing +the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in +his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, +but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by +the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying +substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, +and left it nearly in its primitive condition." + +He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, +and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie +process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, +which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by +that process. + +Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the Bethell +process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders, and +probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were prepared in that +way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. Tilden, however, showed the +"saturation very uneven; absorptive power, high; block contains soluble +salts of copper, removable by washing." + +It was expected that the double solution, by forming an insoluble +compound, would prove an effective protection against the _teredo_. +Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the contrary to be the +fact. + +The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory results +against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz Brewing +Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in 1882, after some +six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, a chemist of Boston +(experiment No. 9), indicated favorable results, and the planks in a +ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet +sound in 1882. + +The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16), +however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable at first, +and great things were expected of them; but late examinations made on +the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the +Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, +and the results to be unfavorable. + +This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. Thilmany +has patented still another combination, in which he uses sulphate of +zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed under the head of +burnettizing. + +Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It consisted +of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the South, by the +Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of +copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid in the tunnel at New +Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, in 1882, several of them +were still in the track. The process, however, was found to be so +tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial, and has not since +been resumed. + +In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is the +inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the cap +fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump, and +placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired solution, he +sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the +wood. + +Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way, with +various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate of copper, and +there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be +materially increased thereby. + +Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the +original Boucherie process can only be determined by practical +application upon an extensive scale. + +A considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the +Boucherie process have been patented in this country; but none of them +seems to have come into practical use, probably because of the necessity +for operating upon freshly cut logs, and the inconvenience of such +applications. + +The table on this page gives a record of various experiments with +miscellaneous substances. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS--MISCELLANEOUS. + +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. + +Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from which +great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted in immersing +timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate +of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons +of water. It was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut +Street, Philadelphia, and for a time seemed to promise good results. +Experiments with prepared rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James +Archbald, Chief Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable. + +The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet Arsenal, +where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, at a cost of +about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used for various +ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its life extended, as +would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics +used, its strength was so far impaired, and it checked and warped so +badly, that the process was abandoned in 1844. + +The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, for +a full copy of the reports upon these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has been +applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that platforms and +boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly +suggested the use of lime for preserving timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. +Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, laid a +portion of its track on white pine sills, which had been soaked for +three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained. +Similar experiments were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The +result was not satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that +lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking. + +Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, sometimes +known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former have been +furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, +and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your committee is much indebted for a +large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation. + +Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject +than any other person in this country. Beginning with sulphate of copper +in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in 1847, and chloride of +zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of mercury, and again to chloride +of zinc, using the latter until 1865, then using creosote to protect the +piles against the _teredo_ at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared +by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our disposal many +original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare. + +Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President of this +Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 × 12 with a 1-1/8 +inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 inches. These were filled with +common salt and plugged up, as is not infrequently done in +ship-building, but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened, +it was concluded that the process did not pay. + +Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, but is a +comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being 58.8 in the +hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of mercury. + +Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known and most +ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this particular +case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet +into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, which +probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of +moisture, which, as is well known, much hastens decay. The posts, which +had been set butt-end upward, were mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' +exposure. + +Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as well, +and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is +uncertain and disappointing in its results. + +Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting machinery for +charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against decay. The +process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the benefits which it +confers, and the charred surface is so objectionable for many uses, that +nothing is to be expected from the process upon a large commercial +scale. + +In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), at +Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate with +pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar experiments +had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. Boucherie, but the +result has not been found satisfactory. + +In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the Nichols +patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for boring a 2 +inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge timbers. This +continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and in rebuilding them +the boring machinery was not replaced. The longitudinal hole allowed a +portion of the sap to evaporate without checking the outside of the +timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its life. It is believed there are +yet (1885) some sticks of timber in the bridges of the road that were so +prepared in 1868 or 1869. + +In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, by +incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the space +between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic cement. +This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the mainland with +Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did it seem to succeed +at first that it was proposed to extend the process to railroad +trestlework, to fencing, to supports for houses, and to telegraph poles. +But after a while the earthenware pipes were displaced and broken, the +process was given up, and Galveston bridge is now creosoted. + +In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by simply +washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that borax is a +solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by boiling them in a +solution of borax. For small specimens, this answered well, and a +signboard treated in that way (experiment No. 13) was preserved a long +time; but when applied to large timber, the process was found very +tedious and slow, and no headway has been made in introducing it. + +Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age it was +discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of the Union +Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles in length, where +the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, Mr. Blinkinsderfer, +kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which had been laid in 1868, +and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It is as sound and a good deal +harder than when first laid, 14 years before, while on some other parts +of the road cottonwood ties perish in two or five years. + +The character of the soil where these results have been observed is +light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the Laramie +Division, furnishes the following analysis: + + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. + +The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis may be +of interest: + +"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of substances +which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in the juices of +the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous matter, which, when +beginning to decay, causes also the destruction of the other +constituents of the wood." + +"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by decay is +by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the sap." + +"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some substance +which either enters into combination with the constitutents of the sap +or so alters their properties as to prevent the setting up of +decomposition." + +"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large quantities of +the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, and iron) most used +in the different processes of preserving or kyanizing wood. It also +contains much inorganic matter, which also acts as a preserving agent." + +Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other portions of +the track, and some of the soil has also been transported to other +localities, so that it is hoped that in the discussion that may be +expected to follow this report, some further light will be thrown on the +subject by an account of the results of these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and convey a +useful lesson. + +In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry powder for +preserving wood, which was composed of certain proportions of salt, +arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action was based upon an +experience which he had had when, as a working mechanic of Ellisburg, +Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had preserved a water-wheel shaft by +inserting such a compound in powder in the body of the wood, and +ascertained that it was still sound some 14 years later. + +His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly this: + +"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that fermentation +cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the chemical property or +nature of his compound, when inserted dry into wood, is to attract +moisture, and this moisture, aided by fermentation, liquefies the +compound; that capillary attraction must inevitably convey it through +the sap ducts and medullary rays to every fiber of the stick.... Were +these crystallizations salt alone, they would soon dissolve, but the +arsenic and corrosive sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they +remain intact while any fiber of the wood is left." + +"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and have been +known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the _mummies of Egypt_ to-day +shows the presence of arsenic in large quantities in every portion of +their substance. Whatever other ingredients may have entered into the +compound that has been so potent in preserving from decay the bodies of +the old kings of Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, +arsenic was most certainly one." + +The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes two inches +in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of square timber, +four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, and to plug them up +with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two holes two inches in +diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and filled and plugged them. +Fresh cut lumber and shingles were prepared by piling layers upon each +other with the dry powder sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty +pounds to the thousand feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a +temperature of at least 458° F. until fermentation took place, when the +lumber was considered fully "foremanized." + +The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a steamboat, +and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It was then applied +to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, where it did not succeed, +and to some on the Chicago and Northwestern, where they seem to have +been lost sight of, being few in number, so that your committee has not +been able to learn the result. + +Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional sale +was made to various parties of the right of using the process, notably, +it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for $50,000; and some +ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, when the poisonous nature +of the ingredients used brought about disaster. + +Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East St. +Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very ill, and +one of them died. + +The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties along the +Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked them for the +sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for ten miles was +strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in arms, and made the +railroad take up and burn the ties. The company promoting foremanizing +was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it went out of business. + +In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, and the +succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that patent was +submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, D.C., and examined +by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). He found the +impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, but he did not find +any arsenic, though its use was claimed. + +The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, first, of +a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common burnt lime. Mr. +Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the water used to test the +absorptive power to have been filled with threads of fungi in +forty-eight hours. + +The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of sulphide of +calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. Tilden. + +The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a solution +of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was also condemned +by Mr. Tilden. + +The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen different +processes, most of which have already been noticed in this report, and +their practical results given. + +The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable amount of +prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is understood to have +proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of inquiry, your committee +has been enabled to obtain information of the results of three of these +experiments. + +The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) were +first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of sulphate of +iron. + +The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with chloride +of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of application is +not stated. + +The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were treated with +the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is stated that this +was the only process in which pressure was used. + +In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks were badly +decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost impassable, while +other streets paved in the same year with untreated woods remained in +fair condition. + +It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did much +toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, was chiefly +owing to the very dishonest way in which the preparation was done; that +in fact there was a combination between the officials and the +contractors by which the latter were chiefly interested "how not to do +it," and that the above results, therefore, prove very little on the +subject of wood preservation. + +Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your committee +is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments (Nos. 26 to 41 +inclusive) which have been carried on at the Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, +for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to +test the effect of various substances as a protection against the +_Teredo navalis_. It will be noticed that the application of two coats +of white zinc paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster +of Paris mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil +and tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of coal +tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating compound, of +compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of the Thilmany +process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved failures. + +The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the month of +January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or five years, or +till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress piles, well +charred, have resisted for nine years. + +This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been stated under +the head of creosoting, that nothing but the impregnation with creosote, +and plenty of it, is an effectual protection against the _teredo_. +Numberless experiments have been tried abroad and in this country, and +always with the same result. + +There are quite a number of other experiments which your committee has +learned about which are here passed in silence. The accounts of them are +vague, or the promised results of such slight importance as not to +warrant cumbering with them this already too voluminous report. + +The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the many +patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It had prepared +a list of them, and investigated the probable success of many of them, +but has concluded that it is better to confine itself to the results of +actual tests, and to stick to ascertained facts. + +Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the great +importance of the subject, and the economical advantages which will +result from the artificial preparation of wood as its price advances. +They hope, however, that the members of this Society, in discussing this +report, will dwell upon this point. + +We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general conclusions +which we have reached as the result of our protracted investigation. + + +DECAY OF TIMBER. + +Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of +carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the +same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of +the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. + +Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent. of +the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great many +substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., etc., +with a large portion of water. + +Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap, +fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend +upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the woody fiber, and +produces decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that +there must be a concurrence of four separate conditions: + +1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when +exposed to air and water. + +2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation. + +3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. + +4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50° and 100° F. Below +32° F. and above 150° F., no decay occurs. + +When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, and +ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, unless +the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative. + +Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does +not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.[1] It is therefore necessary +to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter +the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the office +performed by the various antiseptics. + +[Footnote 1: Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, 1884, +Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of Timber."] + +We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, whether +fermentation and decay result from slow combustion (eremacausis) or from +the presence of living organisms (bacteria, etc.); but having in the +preceding pages detailed the results of the application of various +antiseptics, we may now indicate under what circumstances they can +economically be applied. + +_(To be continued)_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:_ + +Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint of Mr. B. +Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association of Aberdeen +which has come into my hands. + +In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the Adda as +500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as stated in the same +address, and he belittles the American Cabin John Bridge by making its +span _"after all only 215 ft."_ As the builder of this greatest American +stone arch, I regret that on so important and public an occasion the +writer was not accurate. + +The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is not +great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot that +counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one minute is +to fail to capture the cup. + +M.C. MEIGS. + +Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA. + + +On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette Augusta +left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, for +Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, the +report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is probably +correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews for the +cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, including +the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is still a +possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting somewhere in +the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but this is not very +probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to weather a typhoon. +During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper masts, spars, etc, had +to be removed, that she might be better adapted to weather a cyclone or +like storm. If the Augusta had not met with an accident, she would have +arrived at Port Albany in Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of +July. She was due June 17. + +The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and was bought +in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's rigging, 237½ +feet long, 35½ feet beam, 16 feet draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her +engines had 400 horse-power, and her armament consisted of 14 pieces. + +[Illustration: THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.] + +During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by Captain +Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French coast. January 4, +1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in the mouth of the +Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to Bordeaux with flour and +bread for the Third French Division. The Augusta then captured the +Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which was being carried from Havre to +Bordeaux. Then the French transport steamer Max was captured and burned. +The French men of war finally forced the Augusta to retreat into the +Spanish port of Vigo, from which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March +28 at Kiel, with the captured brig St. Marc in tow.--_Illustrirte +Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS. + + +In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal wheel, +the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which we +illustrate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.] + +Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse section, +and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These wheels are made in +two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates a wheel of the former +class, these wheels being designed for use on rough and uneven roads, +and when very great jolting strains may be met with, being stronger than +those of class B design. The wheels are made with mild steel spokes, +which are secured by metal straps in the recesses cut in the annular +flanges on the boss, and by a taper bolt or rivet through the tire and +rim. These spokes can be easily taken out and renewed when necessary by +any unskilled person in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway +of their length give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist +side strains in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing +the weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer screwed up +on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil caps to the end of +the bushes, which are provided with a small set screw, so that the cap +need not be taken off when it is necessary to lubricate the wheel, as by +simply taking out the set screw oil may be poured through the hole into +the cap. The set screw also forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap +can be taken off or put on when required, as well as a means of +preventing the cap being lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all +hot and dry climates, the continued shrinking of wood wheels and +loosening of the tires is a constant source of expense and +inconvenience. This wheel having a tire and rim entirely of metal does +away with the difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and others +can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, which can be +done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B design are the same +in principle of construction as those of class A, but they have cast +metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, and are suitable for +general work and ordinary roads where the strains are not so severe. The +bosses or naves are readily removed in case of breakage, and they can be +fitted with steel oil caps for lubricating.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS. + + +The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed for the +manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is described in a +communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American Institute of Mining +Engineers. + +The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled with +fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous material. B +and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined with refractory +brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks piled up as shown in +the figure. The partitions, C and C', are likewise of refractory brick, +and are rendered as air-proof as possible. Apertures, D and D', are +formed alternately at the base of one partition and the top of the +adjacent one, in order to oblige the gases that traverse the series of +chambers to descend in one of them and to rise in the following, +whatever be the number of chambers in use. + +The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and serve to +bring the current of air or steam into contact with the fuel. Valves, F +and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating the current in the +two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with valves, G and G', put the +upper part of the generator in communication with the contiguous +chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, N and N', with valves, H and H', permit +of the introduction of a current of air from the outside into the +chambers, T and T'. The pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', +connected with a blower, serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and +P', and their valves, J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q +and Q', and their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the +purifiers and the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with +valves, L and L', are connected with a chimney. + +The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed hopper. The +doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures through which the +ashes are removed. + +When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, are +closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, of the +pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, while the +flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator the reverse order +is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is closed, the pipes, M' and +N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and Q', are closed, and R' is opened. + +A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this traverses +the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the generator, A, +through the flue, E. As this air rises through the mass of incandescent +fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of carbon and forms carbonic +oxide. This gas that is disengaged from the upper part of the fuel +consists chiefly of nitrogen and carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile +hydrocarburets derived from the fuel used. This gas, through the action +of the air upon the fuel, is called "air gas," in order to distinguish +it from the "water gas" formed in the second period of the process. + +The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', in +order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second current +of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it and produces, +in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated gases resulting from +the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', and give up to the bricks +therein the greater part of their heat, and finally make their exit, +relatively cool, through the pipe, R', which leads them to the chimney. +When the operation has been continued for a sufficient length of time to +give the refractory bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a +high temperature, the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the +entrance of air through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is +also closed, and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', +of the pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet of +steam is introduced through the latter. + +The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, B', and in +this state enters the bottom of the generator through the flue, E'. In +passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the generator, the steam +is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, while hydrogen is +liberated. The mixture of these two gases with the hydrocarburets +furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. This gas on making its exit +from the generator through the pipe, M', passes through the chambers, B, +and abandons therein the greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, +R, whence it passes through Q into the purifiers, and then into the +gasometer. + +As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the generator, +A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but moderately heated by +the sensible heat of the current of gas produced. When this cooling has +continued so long that the temperature in the generator, A, is no longer +high enough to allow the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the +valve, J', of the pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also +the valve, K, of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R +and N, are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the heat +remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of the +generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its exit +from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of air coming +from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products resulting from such +combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then into the chimney, through +the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly lowers in the chambers, B', +and rises no less rapidly in the generator, A, while the chambers, B, +are soon heated to the same temperature that first existed in the +chambers, B'. As soon as the desired temperature is obtained in the +generator, A, and the chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the +valve, I', of the pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also +closed, the valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the +valves, G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the +valve, F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. +A current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, traverses +the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the flue, E. The gas +produced makes its exit from the generator, passes through the pipe, M', +and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, and enters the gasometer +through the pipe, Q'. + +[Illustration: WATER-GAS APPARATUS.] + +When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool a state +that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the valves are so +maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and to send a current +of air into the apparatus in the same direction that the steam had just +been taking. The temperature thereupon quickly rises in the generator, +A, while, at the same time, the combustion of the air gas produced soon +reheats the chambers, B'. The cooled products of combustion go, as +before, to the chimney. The position of the valves is then changed again +so as to send a current of steam into the apparatus in a direction +contrary to that which the air took in the last place, and the water gas +obtained again is sent to the gasometer. + +As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each current of air +following the same direction in the apparatus (from left to right, or +right to left) that the current of steam did which preceded it, while +each current of steam follows a direction opposite that of the current +of air which preceded it. + +The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for his +process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of gas. + +One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made of any +dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size and form +shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the removal of the +ashes by hand from time to time, it may be constructed after the general +model of the shaft of blast furnaces, with a hearth at the base. Upon +adding to the fuel a small quantity of flux, all the mineral parts +thereof can be melted into a liquid slag, which may be carried off just +like that of blast furnaces. There is no difficulty in constructing +regenerators of refractory bricks of sufficient capacity, however large +the generators be; and a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one +thousand tons of anthracite per day into more than five million cubic +feet of gas. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Gas Institute, Manchester, June, +1885.] + +By WILLIAM SUGG, of London. + + +Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public have been +assured, by those interested in the different kinds of lamps--arc, glow +or otherwise--that henceforth, by means of such lamps, rooms are to be +lighted without heat or baneful products such as they assert attend the +use of gas, lamps, or candles. But I think it must not be implied, from +what any one has said in favor of the electric light as a means of +lighting our dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that +the glow lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very +large difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the glow +lamp is only one more means (not without certain disadvantages) of +producing light added to those which already exist, and of which the +public have the choice. Now, looking to best means of lighting rooms, +and particularly the principal rooms of a small dwelling-house, I beg to +say that the arguments which can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in +preference to any other means greatly preponderate, and that it can be +substantiated that, light for light, under the heads of convenience, +health, comfort, reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior +to all. + +As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is comparatively +untried. This assertion may sound somewhat astounding; but I think it is +a true one. More than that, even in the crude and unscientific way in +which it has most frequently been used up to the present, it has been +far from unsuccessful in comparison with electricity or other means of +lighting; and in the future it will prove the best and cheapest +practical means, although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in +palatial dwellings in conjunction with it. + +It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of artificial +lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that most beautiful and +perfect natural light which, without our aid, and without even a thought +from us, shines regularly every day upon all, in such an immense volume, +so perfectly diffused, and in such wonderful chemical combination, that +it may safely be said that not one atom of the whole economy of Nature +is unaffected by it, and that we and all the animal kingdom, in common +with trees and plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious +natural light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we cannot +hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of daylight, +or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make the lighting of +our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to the eyes and to the +general health) by the aid of gas than by any other means. It must also +be borne in mind that, in this country at least, we have to fulfill the +conditions of artificial lighting under frequent differences of +temperature and barometric influence, exaggerated by the manner in which +our homes are built; and that for at least nine months of the year we +require heat as well as light in our dwellings, and that for the other +three months (excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are +often chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions of +the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control. + +As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside over a +meeting which was held in a large room--one of two built exactly alike, +and in communication with each other by means of folding doors. These +rooms formed part of one of the best hotels in London--let us call it +the "Magnificent." Of course, it was lighted by electric glow lamps, in +accordance with the latest fashion in that department of artificial +lighting, viz., suspension lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of +leaves and scrolls, twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the +pattern of our most æsthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the +style of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed the +Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some lamps he +had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by means of the +good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's heart; and they were +ventilated with all due regard to the latest state of knowledge on the +subject among architects and builders. In fact, no pains had been spared +to make these rooms comfortable in the highest acceptation of the word. + +There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat and +deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and therefore, +under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of such human +felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty business men, +intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost tissue by means of +a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according to the calculations of +the architect of the building, to have been reached. I instance this +case because it is a typical one, which, under most aspects, does not +materially differ from the conditions of home life in such residences as +those whose occupiers are likely to use electric lighting. The rooms +were spacious (about 20 feet by 35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and +they were lighted during the day by means of large lantern +ceiling-lights, with double glass windows. The evening in question was +chilly, not to say cold. + +Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the room; +but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of a little +draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, which at first +was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in another hour or so, by +the time our business was over, notwithstanding a screen placed before +the door, and a blazing fire, we were delighted to make a change to the +comfortable dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just +left by means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to pass +in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we became +aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow lamps (merely +for artistic effect) began to flare in a most uncandlelike manner--the +flames turning down, as if some one were blowing downward on the wicks; +and at the same time the complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" +became general, and from every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went +on, the discomfort became unbearable, even although the doors were shut +and screens put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to order +"those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the foliage of the +electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three minutes the flames of +the candles burned upright and steadily, and in less than ten minutes +the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, the room became really +comfortable. + +The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up at the +ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air from the bodies +of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced by the movements of +themselves and the waiters, together with the steam from the viands and +respiration, displaced the colder air at the ceiling, and notably that +coldest air lying against the surface of the glass. This cold air simply +dropped straight down, after the manner of a douche, on candles and +heads below. The remedy I advised was the setting up of a current of +hotter steam and air from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling +effect of the glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in +slow movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the table. +Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, the gas was +put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. But before we left, +the chilliness and draughts began to be again felt. + +The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of April +last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably warm nights. +It is therefore clear that in this instance neither electricity nor +candles could effectually replace gas for lighting purposes. They both +did the lighting, but they utterly failed to keep the currents of air +steady. I have always remarked draughts whenever I have remained any +length of time in rooms where the electric light is used. On a warm +evening the electric light and candles would undoubtedly have kept the +room cooler than gas, with the same kind of ventilation; I do not think +they would have put an end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas +does in all fairly built rooms. + +It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively small +amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid manner, to +anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the contrary, from its +great specific heat, remains in a heated state for a much longer time +than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a low temperature, and in +parting with its own heat it communicates a considerable amount of +warmth to those bodies with which it comes in contact. Thus the products +of the combustion of gas (which are principally steam) serve a useful +purpose in lighting, by keeping at the ceiling level a certain stratum +of heated vapor, which holds up, as it were, the carbonic acid and +exhalation from the lungs given off by those using the room. The obvious +inference, therefore, is that if we take off these products from the +level of the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we shall +have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level warm, in order +to prevent the heated impure air from descending in comparatively rapid +currents, after having parted with its heat to the ceiling. It may very +frequently be observed on chilly days that a number of currents of cold +air seem to travel about our rooms, although there may be no crevices in +the doors and windows sufficient to account for them; and, further, that +these currents of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn +and the gas is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough +heat at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we constantly +hear when electric lights are used for the illumination of public +buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, held at the end of April last in the Conservatory of the +Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the five hundred guests, and from +an almost equal number of waiters and attendants, displaced the cold air +from the dome of the roof, and literally poured down on the assembly +(who were in evening dress) in a manner to compel many of them to put on +overcoats. If the Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below +the roof, this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam +would have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up +in the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, to +keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and thus steady +the currents. + +Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain conditions of +the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them comfortable when +electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will lay before you some few +particulars relative to the condition of small rooms of about 12 ft. by +15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary room such as may be found in the usual +run of houses in this country. The cubical contents of such a room +equals 1,700 cubic feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, +we shall for the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken +out of it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) from 600 +to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, therefore, be +admitted by some means or other into the room, or the chimney will, in +ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products of combustion, very +largely diluted with fresh air, will not all find their way up the flue +with sufficient velocity to overcome the pressure of the heavy cold air +at the top of the chimney. If no proper inlets for air are made, this +supply to the fire must be kept up from the crevices of the doors and +windows. In the line of these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as +they are usually called, it is impossible to experience any +comfort--quite the contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other +serious maladies are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh +air in the wrong way and place. + +According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on ventilation), +300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every adult person in +ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet are sufficient; less +than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and unhealthy. It is generally +admitted that an average adult breathes out from 20 to 30 cubic inches +of steam and vitiated air per minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity +equal in bulk to that of a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and +steam is respired at a temperature of 90° Fahr.; and therefore, by +reason of this heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together +with the heat and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. +This fact, by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person +in the direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every fiber of +his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is passing +upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white lines on the +surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the extreme +rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the rays of light +to pass through them with less refraction than through the denser and +more moist surrounding cold air. An adult makes, on an average, about 15 +respirations per minute, and therefore he in every hour renders to the +atmosphere of the room in which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet +of poisonous air. This rises to the ceiling line, if it is not +prevented; and thus vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the +extent of 1 per cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not +good which contained more than ½ per cent, of air which had been exhaled +from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to health these +exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in his view. Therefore +in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is vitiated to more than 2 feet +from the ceiling by one person to the extent of ½ per cent., and it will +be vitiated by two persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same +time. + +It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the vitiated +air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 feet of the +height of the room depends very materially on the difference of +temperature between these upper and lower strata and the movements of +air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and gases fall into and +diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the lower strata--very readily +if they are nearly the same temperature as the upper, but scarcely at +all if the air at the ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, +in warmed rooms of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two +petroleum lamps are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of +occupation by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the +air at the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time--sometimes, indeed, for only +a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination of the room is +maintained at the same degree as in the case of lamps, the contamination +of the air is very much worse. It is doubtless the case that poisonous +germs are rapidly developed in atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" +and although, in a healthy state of the body, we are able to breathe +them without perceptible harm, yet even then the slight headache and +uneasiness we feel is a symptom which does not suffer itself to be +lightly regarded, whenever, from some cause or other, the general +condition is weak. + +The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and carbonic +acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the products +from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil or candles. +They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ life; and +therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where they always +collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience or danger to +health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our endeavors to take +off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our first serious check in +all schemes of ventilation. We draw the elevation and section of the +room, and put in our flues with pretty little black arrows flying out of +the outlets for vitiated air, and other pretty little red arrows flying +in at the inlets; but when we see our scheme in practice, the black +arrows will persist in putting their wings where their points ought to +be; in other words, flying into instead of out of the room. + +One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot and cold +currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such as used to be +employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of gases; and, having +filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by weights tied on to the +car till it will rest without going up or down in a part of the room +where the air can be felt to be at about the mean temperature, and free +from draught. Then leave it to itself, to go where it will. + +As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will ascend, +passing along with the current, and descending or rising as the current +is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh air from windows or +doors, as well as the effect of the radiant heat from the fire, can be +thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet theories may receive a cruel +shock from this experiment; but, in the end, the ventilation of the room +will doubtless be benefited, if we apply the information obtained. It +will be discovered that the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the +little black arrows turning their backs on the right path and our +theoretical outlets for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue +must have an enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the +most easily accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per +hour is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless to +attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by ventilating +gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little talc flappers, +opening into the chimney when there is an up draught, and shutting +themselves up when there is any tendency to down draught. The success of +these and all other ventilators depends upon there being a good supply +of air from under the door or through the spaces round the window +frames. These fresh air supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one +of the spaces between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an +air conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised about +two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things will be set +up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will satisfy the fire, +without drawing from the doors and windows, and at the same time supply +a small quantity of fresh air into the room. But the important fact that +the radiant heat from the fire will pass through the cold air without +warming it all must not be lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only +warms the furniture and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its +rays. The air of the room is warmed by passing over these more or less +heated surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to the +fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender may be +used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along the front, +as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. This will also +prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be found that for the +greater part of the year the chimney ventilator and the supply to the +fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," and keep those disagreeable +draughts under control, even although the room be lighted with a 3 light +chandelier burning a large quantity of gas. + +[Illustration] + +With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms perfectly +with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we cannot light a +room without in some measure creating heat; and I think I have shown +that we want this heat at the ceiling line for the greater part of the +year. + +In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other hand, it +is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65° to 70° Fahr., to +keep the air in proper movement in small rooms. There are also times in +the fall of the year, and also in spring, when the nights are unusually +warm; and, with a few friends in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" +question, not to say a "burning" one. On these occasions we have to +resort to exceptional ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life +would be too much. It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of +ventilation by diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes +of air of different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves +on opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or some +more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through this +medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal density or +temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a window (which can +be opened, downward) with a strained piece of fine muslin or washed +common calico, the air in the room, if hotter than the external air, +will, when the window is more or less opened, pass out readily into the +cooler air, and the cooler air will pass in through the pores of the +medium. The hotter air passing out faster than the cooler air will come +in, no draught will be experienced; and the window may be opened very +widely without any discomfort from it. + +It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to do more +than indicate a means of ventilation which will be effective under most +circumstances of lighting with those gas burners and fittings usually +employed, and which will lend itself readily to modifications which will +be necessitated by the use of some of the newest forms of burners and +ventilating gas lights. + +[Illustration] + +In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important discovery I have +made in reference to blackened ceilings, for which, up to the present +time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have long entertained the belief +that with a proper burner it is possible to obtain perfect combustion, +without any smoke; and a series of experiments with white porcelain +plates hung over some burners used in my own house proved conclusively +that the discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed +ceilings arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large +towns is largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or +dirt created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, escapes +from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of my best rooms, +which required to have the ceilings whitened every year, substituted +varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply put on in the usual +way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I also changed the coal fires +for gas fires. These alterations have gone through the test of two +winters, and the ceilings are now as clean as when they were first done. +The burners have been used every night, and the gas fires every day, +during the two winters. No alteration has been made in the burners +employed, and no "consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished +paper ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine sieve. +This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, which, +after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than the spaces +between. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANDERS' TELEPHONE. + + +Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, combines in a +single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and a pile, C. The +transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing several large +apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a metallic disk, d, +situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are filled with powdered +carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal plate, f, which is fixed to +the insulating ring, c, by means of a metallic washer, g. Back of the +transmitter is arranged the receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary +electro-magnet with a disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed +behind the receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a +partition, i, and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of +zinc, l, which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a +spring, m, fixed to the insulating piece, n. + +[Illustration: ANDERS TELEPHONE] + +When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the zinc +plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the circuit is +closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, the transmitter, +and the line wire 2, while when the button is freed the current no +longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve as a receiver or +transmitter only when the button is pressed.--_Bull. de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR. + + +When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a consequence +of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw and engine +increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance that the screw +was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When the screw enters the +water again, the resistance makes itself abruptly felt, and causes +powerful shocks, which put both the screw and engine in danger. Ordinary +regulators are powerless to overcome this trouble, since their +construction is such that they act upon the engine only when the excess +of velocity has already been reached. + +Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For example, use +has been made of a float placed in a channel at the side of the screw, +and which closes the moderator valve by mechanical means or by +electricity when the screw descends too low or rises too high. + +[Illustration: BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.] + +Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see figure) +consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. One of them, +b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be constantly in the water, +while the other, a, corresponds to the position above which the screw +cannot rise without taking on a dangerous velocity. In the normal +situation of the ship, the electric circuit, c (in which circulates a +current produced by a dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of +the water, which establishes a connection between the two contacts. When +the contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled back by +a spring--a motion that sets in action a small steam engine that closes +the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is again immersed, the +electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus brings the moderator valve +back to its normal position. It is clear that the contact, a, must be +insulated from the ship's side. + +Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above another, +in order to close the moderator valve more or less, according to the +extent of the screw's rise or fall. + + * * * * * + + + + +MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL. + + +We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to railroad +crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, of Steelton, +Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated highway crossing +in the woods or any lonely place can be made perfectly safe, and that, +too, without the expense of gates and a man to work them or of a +flagman. It is surely a great improvement over the old methods, and it +is likely to have a large sale. In addition to considerations of safety, +possible saving in salaries to railroad companies by its use will be +great. This device is more reliable than a human being, and can make any +crossing safe to which it is applied. Its operation is described as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The illustration shows the device as used on a single track railroad, +where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains approaching the +crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the right). A similar box +on the other side of the crossing is used for trains approaching in the +other direction. Two plates connected by a link, and pivoted, are placed +alongside of one rail, close enough to it to be depressed by the treads +of the wheels. By another link, one of the plates called the rock plate +(the one to the right) is connected to a rock shaft which extends +through a strong bearing into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a +suitable distance from the rail, within which an electric generator is +placed; the whole being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long +ties framed to receive it. + +The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the rear +end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the bearing for +which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first wheel of a train +which is approaching in the desired direction (from the right in the +engraving) touches it, it will be seen that it must not only depress it, +but produce a slight forward motion, causing a corresponding rotary +motion in the rock shaft which actuates the apparatus. On the other +hand, when a train is approaching from the other direction, or has +already passed the crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to +the left of the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link +connections shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels +before the wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so +that it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over the +apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it whatever, +the different point at which the same force is applied to the rock plate +giving the latter an entirely different motion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to the rock +shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, compresses a +spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the rock plate, the +reaction of the spring throws it up again to its former position, giving +additional speed to the gearing within, which is set in motion at the +passage of the first wheel, and operates the electric "generator." The +spring is really the motive power of the alarm. A small but heavy +fly-wheel is connected with the apparatus, the top of which is just +visible in the engraving, which serves to store up power to run the +"generator," which is nothing more than a small dynamo, for the +necessary number of seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The +dynamo dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if any +part has been broken. + +A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator with +insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary telegraph +wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees leading to the +electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the armature revolves. It +is a simple matter so to proportion the mechanism for the required +distance and speed that the revolutions of the armature and the ringing +of the gong shall continue until the train reaches the crossing; and as +each wheel acts upon the apparatus, the more wheels there are in the +train the longer the bell will ring, a very convenient property, since +the slowest trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical +limits to the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after +the head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly might not +actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even then it is not +unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last long enough for all +practical requirements, as a team approaching a crossing at eight miles +per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. All the bearings of any +importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, the whole apparatus being +designed to require inspection not more than once a month. The iron case +when shut is water-tight, and when duly locked cannot be maliciously +tampered with without breaking open the case; so that, the manufacturers +claim, it will not be essential to examine it more than once a month. +The parts outside the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to +get out of order, while easily inspected. + +The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as sounding +alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or building. The gong +has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of noise, so that no one +should fail to hear it.--_Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. + + +Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, gives the +following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by himself and +Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for mammals and birds. +It will be seen that, with three or four exceptions, the sizes obtained +by the two observers are practically the same: + + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. + + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 + + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. + + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 + +The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an interesting +manner in an address before the Microscopical Section of the A.A.A.S. +last year, an abstract of which was published in this journal, vol. v., +p. 181. + +The slight differences in size accurately given in this table are not +always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a power of +1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of an inch are +readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. Wormley as regards +the possibility of identifying blood of different animals, the reader is +referred to his book on Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.--_Amer. Micro. +Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN. + +[Footnote: From the _American Druggist_.] + + +E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made with +vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult of +resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal ingredients to +the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this question, he +considered himself justified in drawing conclusions from the manner in +which such compounds behaved toward _dead_ animal membrane. If any kind +of osmosis could take place, he argued, from ointments prepared with +vaseline, etc., through dead membranes, such osmosis would most probably +also take place through living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic +or exosmotic action of the skin of a living body must necessarily play +an important _role_ in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following experiments: + +Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, with +bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium ointment. + +No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard. + +No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (_Germ. Pharm_.), and + +No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. of lard. + +All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with water. After +standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature, the contents of +none of the beakers gave any iodine reaction. After having been placed +into a warm temperature, between 25-37° C., all three showed iodine +reactions after three hours, Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with +lard alone) very faintly. + +The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that the +bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. Each vial +was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27° C., in 50 grammes of distilled +water. After three hours, the contents of No. 1 (containing the ointment +made with _lard_) gave _no_ iodine reaction; the contents of the other +two, however, gave traces. After eight hours no further change had taken +place. The temperature was now raised to 30-35° C., and kept so for +eight hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes of the +contents of the beakers. + +In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed through +the membrane in each case. + +The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin (freed +from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the bladder. The +ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per cent. of lard. No +reaction was obtained, at the ordinary temperature, after twelve hours, +nor after eight more hours, at a temperature of 25-30° C. After letting +them stand for eight hours longer at 30-37° C., a faint reaction was +obtained in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a +still fainter with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made +with lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, but no +fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of the contents +of each beaker, + + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " + +showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the ointment +made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to vaseline). + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TAILS OF COMETS. + + +I.--If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be produced that +will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and the velocity with +which it extends depend upon the size of the stone, that is to say, upon +the intensity of the mechanical action that created it. The extent and +depth of the water are likewise factors. + +If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a succession +of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived from the cord's +size and the intensity of its action. These waves, which are visible +upon the surface, constitute what I shall call _mechanical waves_. But +there will be created at the same time other waves, whose velocity of +propagation will be much greater than that of the mechanical ones, and +apparently independent of mechanical intensity. These are _acoustic +waves_. Finally, there will doubtless be created _optical waves_, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if a +person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses were +sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous sensation when +the first optical wave reached him, then he would perceive the sound +produced, and later still he would feel, through a slight tremor, the +mechanical wave.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Certain persons, as well known, undergo an optical +impression under the action of certain sounds.] + +[Illustration: I] + +Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, in a +mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and velocity of +propagation; and although but three modes appreciable to our senses have +been cited, it does not follow that these are the only ones possible. + +We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon water, it +will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in front of it +successive waves whose velocity of propagation is accelerated. + +This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are briefer +than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead sound at a few +yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a great distance. + +The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, very +complex. + +[Illustration: II] + +II.--If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will occur in each +of them an _alteration_, a break, which it will carry along with it to a +greater or less distance. This succession of alterations forms a trace +behind the obstacle, and in opposition to the line of the centers. +Finally, if the obstacle itself emits waves in space that are of less +intensity then those which meet it, these little waves will extend in +the wake of the large ones, and will form a trace of parabolic form +situated upon the line of the centers. + +[Illustration: III] + +III.--Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the peculiar energy that +develops upon its surface or in its atmosphere, engenders in ethereal +space successive waves of varying nature and intensity, as has been said +above, and let us admit that its _mechanical_ waves are traversed +obliquely (Fig. 1) by any spherical body--by a comet, for example; then, +under the excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar waves +consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will become +apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced by an +excitation--a setting of the ether in vibration. The mechanical waves +engender of themselves, then, an emission of optical waves that render +perceptible the alteration which they create in each other. + +Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will carry +along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while at the +same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the comet. During +this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave will be altered in +its turn, and carry such alteration in the direction, a' b'. + +The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, upon a +curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the comet, will be +upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of the propagation of +the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the motion of the comet, with +respect to the velocity of the solar waves, the closer will such +resultant approach the line of centers, and the more rectilinear will +appear the trace or tail of the comet. + +[Illustration: IV] + +IV.--If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according to the +relative position of these, several tails appear, and these will seem to +form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions of a comet and a +satellite, it will be seen that if, while the comet is proceeding to c', +the satellite, through its revolution around it, goes to s', the traces +formed at c and s will be extended to d and d', and that we shall have +two tails, c' d and s' d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem +to be confounded toward c' s'. + +V.--When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect will occur--the +tail will precede it, and will be so much the more in a line with the +sun in proportion as the velocity of the solar waves exceeds that of the +comet. + +If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the alteration of +the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see (supposing the +phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at a 1, the tail will +and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be at a 2 b'; and when it +is at a 4, the tail will have become an immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in +reality the trace is extinguished in space, we never see but the origin +of it, which is the part of it that is constantly new--that is to say, +the part represented in the spirals of Fig. 4. + +The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 leagues +per second; it would have only required the velocity of the solar waves' +propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to have put the tail in +a sensibly direct opposition with the sun. + +Knowing the angle [gamma] (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit makes +with the sun at a given point, and the angle [delta] of the track upon +such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we can deduce +therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the simple expression: + + V = v × (sinus [delta] / sinus([gamma] - [delta])) or (Fig. 1), + + V = da/t'', + +t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''. + +[Illustration: V] + +VI.--The tail, then, is not a special matter which is transported in +space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar waves, just as +sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is propagated with the +velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air is not transported. The +tail which we see in one position, then, is not that which we see in +another; it is constantly renewed. Consequently, it is easy to conceive +how, in as brief a time as it took the comet of 1843 to make a half +revolution round the sun, the tail which extended to so great a distance +appeared to sweep the 180° of space, while at the same time remaining in +opposition to the great luminary. + +[Illustration: VI] + +The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. If to a +vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with a certain +velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be understood that, +from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a spiral. Each drop of water +will recede radially in space, the spiral will keep forming at the jet, +and if, through any reason, the latter alone be visible, we shall see a +nearly rectilinear jet that will seem to revolve with the pipe. + +Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), while it +is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the projected water +will mark the spiral indicated, and this will continue to widen, and +each drop will recede in the direction shown by the arrows. + +[Illustration: VII] + +VII.--It seems to result from this explanation that all the planets and +their satellites ought to produce identical effects, and have the +appearance of comets. In order to change the conditions, it suffices to +admit that the ethereal mass revolves in space around the sun with a +velocity which is in each place that of the planets there; and this is +very reasonable if, admitting the nebular hypothesis, we draw the +deduction that the cause that has communicated the velocity to the +successive rings has communicated it to the ethereal mass. + +The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in space, and +for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if they become +capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed at their +surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too weak to give very +perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, have relatively too +feeble velocities. + +The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, and +sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its proper +velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the ethereal +mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing sufficiently +intense mechanical effects to affect our vision. + +VIII.--Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these stars pass +the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its satellites may be very +different, and the velocity of rotation of the latter, being added to or +deducted from that of the forward motion, there may occur (as in the +case shown in Fig. 6) a separation of a satellite from the principal +star. The comet then appears to separate into two, and each part follows +different routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may +either fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic orbit, and +make but one appearance.--_A. Goupil._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE. + +[Footnote: Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine doppelrolle +des stachels der honigbienen" in _Deutschamerikanische Apotheker +Zeitung_, 15 Jan., 1885, Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from _Ind. +Blatter_.] + + +Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently been +made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the honey bee. +These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable phenomena in the +domestic economy of the ants. It is already known that the honey of our +honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of litmus, shows a distinct red +color, or, in other words, has an acid reaction. It manifests this +peculiarity because of the volatile formic acid which it contains. This +admixed acid confers upon crude honey its preservative power. Honey +which is purified by treatment with water under heat, or the so-called +honey-sirup, spoils sooner, because the formic acid is volatilized. The +honey of vicious swarms of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a +pungent odor. This effect is produced by the formic acid, which is +present in excess in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in +what way the substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in +the honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only for +defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance. + +The observation has recently been made that the bees in the hive, even +when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the minute drops of bee +poison (formic acid) which from time to time exude from the tip of their +sting. And this excellent preservative medium is thus sooner or later +contributed to the stored honey. The more excitable and the more ready +to sting the bees are, the greater will be the quantity of formic acid +which is added to the honey, and the admixture of which good honey +needs. The praise which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race +of our honey bees, which is indisposed to sting--and such praise is +still expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German bee-masters--is +therefore from a practical point of view a false praise. Now we +understand also why the stingless honey bees of South America collect +little honey. It is well known that never more than a very small store +of honey is found in felled trees inhabited by stingless _Melipona_. +What should induce the _Melipona_ to accumulate stores which they could +not preserve? They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen +different known species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A +peculiar phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. It is +well known that there are different grain-gathering species of ants. The +seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved for years in their +little magazines, without germinating. A very small red ant, which drags +grains of wheat and oats into its dwellings, lives in India. These ants +are so small that eight or twelve of them have to drag on one grain with +the greatest exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or +rough ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than a +thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun to +sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. Hence the +ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but the capacity +for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English investigator John +Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts in his work entitled +"Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not yet known in what way the +ants prevent the sprouting of the collected grains. But now it is +demonstrated that here also it is only the formic acid, whose +preservative influence goes so far that it can make seed incapable of +germination for a determinate time or continuously. + +It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant which +lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our _Lasius niger_, which +carries seeds of _Viola_ into its nests, and, as Wittmack has +communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der gesellschaft +naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with the seeds of +_Veronica hederaefolia_. + +Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, _Pheidole providens_, that +this species collects a great store of grass-seeds. But he observed that +the ants brought their store of grain into the open air to dry it after +the monsoon storms. From this it appears that the preservative effect of +the formic acid is destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying +process. So that among the bees the honey which is stored for winter +use, and among the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are +preserved by one and the same fluid, formic acid. + + +EDITORIAL NOTE. + +This same theory has been suggested many times by our most advanced +American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same formic acid was +what made honey a poison to many people, and that the sharp sting of +some honey, notably that from bass wood or linden, originated in this +acid from the poison sac. If this is the correct explanation, it seems +strange that the same kind of honey is always peculiar for greater or +less acidity as the case may be. We often see bees with sting extended +and tipped with a tiny drop of poison; but how do we know that this +poison is certainly mingled with the honey? Is this any more than a +guess?--_A.J. Cook, in Psyche_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884. + + +We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of distillation, and, +as such, very pure. A little reflection and a very slight amount of +experimental examination will quickly disabuse those who have this +mistaken and popular impression of their error. A great number of bodies +which arise from industrial processes, domestic combustion of coal, +natural changes in vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances +as tornadoes and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are +discharged into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving upon +its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable evidences of +their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali and sulphuric acid +works is well known; the acid character of rains collected near and in +cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal strength of some local rainfalls, +have been fully discussed. The exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith +in Scotland, and the interesting reports of French examiners, have made +the scientific world familiar, not only qualitatively but +quantitatively, with the chemical nature of some rains, as well as with +their solid sedimentary contents. + +Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact that the +rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding this due +solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended particles of +chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free chlorine, it appeared +interesting to determine the average amount of these salts in the rain +water of the sea coast. The results given in this paper refer to a +district on Staten Island, New York harbor, at a point four miles from +the ocean, slightly sheltered from the ocean's immediate influence by +the intervention of low ranges of hills. They were communicated to the +Natural Science Association of Staten Island, but the details of the +observations may prove of interest to the readers of the _Quarterly_, +and may there serve as a record more widely accessible. + +It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in rainfalls +near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, putting aside +local exceptions arising from cities or manufactories, increasing with +the proximity of the point of observation to the ocean, and also showing +a marked relation to the exposure of the position chosen to violent +storms. Thus the west coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger +quantities of chlorides than those of the east, and the table given by +Dr. Smith shows the variations in neighboring localities on the same +seafront. The chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer +leaves the sea coast. In the following observations the waters of +thirty-two rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of +silver in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a +liter, and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common salt, as +the position of the point of observation is not removed more than a mile +from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric acid works in New +Jersey, yet this could not even generally have been so, as the rain +storms came, for the greater number of instances, from the east, in an +opposite direction to the position of the factories alluded to. It has +also been noticed by Mr. A. Hollick, to whom these observations were of +interest, that in heavy storms a salt film often forms upon fruit +exposed to the easterly gales upon the shores of the island. + +The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for sodic +chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for 1884, as +reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, somewhat +higher than usual, as the average for a series of years before gives 46 +inches; but taking these former figures, we find that for that year +(1884) each acre of ground received, accepting the results obtained by +my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of common salt, if we regard +the entire chlorine contents of the rains as due to that body, or 46.23 +pounds of chlorine alone. + +In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, an +examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one year +about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds were +regarded as common salt. + +Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, it is +not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating it in +small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample supply. These +facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing influence of rains, and +they also suggest to what extent rains may exert a corrosive action when +they descend charged with acid vapors.--_L.P. Gratacap, in School of +Mines Quarterly_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHROMATOSCOPE. + + +Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has named a +chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot lens that we +take the following description from the _Journal_ of the Royal +Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of illuminating and +defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a similar manner to that +in which the polariscope defines polarizable objects. It can also be +applied to many polarizable objects. This quality, combined with the +transmission of a greater amount of light than is obtainable by the +polariscope, renders objects thus seen much more effective. It is +constructed as follows: Into the tube of the spot lens a short tube is +made to move freely and easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the +outer one, which is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying +a glass plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about 8, 5, +and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some extent through +the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong yellow, thus giving four +principal colors. Secondary colors are formed by a combination of the +rays in passing through the spot lens. + +"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in quality as +possible, and a better effect is obtained by three pieces of stained +glass than by a number of small pieces. The application of the +chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be used with all objectives +up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, particularly crystals which will not +polarize, diatoms, infusoria, palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be +seen to greater advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. +As its cost is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, +large or small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are +known, I am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to +the microscope." + + * * * * * + +Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, finds, +contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants assimilate +nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest quantity when +supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. Well fed plants +acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from the air. It seems +probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in some way assimilated by +the plants. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + +361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N. Y. + + * * * * * + + + + +PATENTS. + + +In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 40 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents +are obtained on the best terms. + +A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all inventions +patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the +Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is +directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction +often easily effected. + +Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free +of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN +& Co. + +We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats, +Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address + +MUNN & CO., 361 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + +Branch Office, 622 and 624 F St., Washington, D.C. + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +514, November 7, 1885, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11761 *** diff --git a/11761-8.txt b/11761-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..209fdc0 --- /dev/null +++ b/11761-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4404 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, +November 7, 1885, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, November 7, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 3, 2004 [EBook #11761] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 514 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--Chlorides in the Rainfall of 1884. + Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.--With description + and 3 figures. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Relative Costs of Fluid and + Solid Fuels. + + The Manufacture of Steel Castings. + + Science in Diminishing Casualties at Sea.--Extract of a paper + read before the British Association by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER. + + Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures. + + The Span of Cabin John Bridge. + + Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures. + + Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--The Blue Print Process.--R.W. JONES. + + Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White Ground.--By + A.H. HAIG. + + A Plan for a Carbonizing House.--With full description and 5 + figures. + + The Scholar's Compasses. + + The Integraph.--With full description and engraving. + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous Beverages. 2 engravings. + + Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure. + + Field Kitchens. 8 figures. + + A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures. + + The Preservation of Timber.--Report of the Committee of the + American Society of Engineers.--The Boucherie + process.--Experiments.--Decay of timber. + +IV. PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.--Apparatus for Measuring + the Force of Explosives.--With engraving. + + Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.--Advantages of gas over + electricity, etc.--By WM. SUGG. 2 figures. + + Ander's Telephone. 1 figure. + + Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 figure. + + Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 figures. + + The Chromatoscope.--An aid to microscopy. + +V. ART AND ARCHITECTURE.--The Barbara Uttmann Statue at + Annaberg, Saxony. + + Improvements in Concrete Construction.--Use of Portland + cement.--System of building in concrete invented by Messrs. F. & + J.P. West, London. + + Albany Buildings. Southport.--An engraving. + +VI. PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.--The Sizes of Blood Corpuscles + in Mammals and Birds.--A table. + + The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by the Skin. + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Missing German Corvette Augusta.--With + engraving. + + The Tails of Comets.--The effect by a disturbance of solar + waves, and not by special matter. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND. + + +The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it has +also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen in a dark +cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, except by very +few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved to purchase the +house and premises, with the object of preserving the pavement _in +situ_, and of giving additional light and better access to it, and, this +purchase having been completed in the beginning of the present year, the +work of improvement began. It was now seen that the pavement was +continuous under the premises of the adjoining house, and under the +public street, and arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex +these adjoining parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. +The pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also the +entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive skill, of +variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least part of the +marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of which the +designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No squared, +artificially colored, or glazed tesseræ, such as we see in a modern +floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but purposely formed of +brick and stone. There are three shades of brick--a bright red, a dull +or Indian red, and a shade between the two; slate from a neighboring +quarry gives a dark bluish gray; an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and +a fine white composition resembling limestone is used for the center +points and borders. In addition, the outside border is formed with +tesseræ of rather larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking +generally, the design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces of the +octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the outer +octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border formed by a +cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, pear-shaped, and +bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and gray bands; and outside +all is the limestone border already described. This border is +constructed with tesseræ about five-eighths of an inch square. The +remaining tesseræ vary from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular +rhomboidal form. The construction of the pavement is remarkable. There +is a foundation of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded +brick and lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesseræ are laid with their roughest side +downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured over the floor, +filling up the interstices, after which the surface would be rubbed down +and polished. + +As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be observed +that the site of this pavement was near the center of the western Roman +town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the military station and +fortress. It was obviously the principal house in the place, and as +clearly, therefore, the residence of the Præfectus, the local +representative of the imperial power of Rome. The Roman occupation of +the district began with the proprætorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. +He was succeeded in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through +Leicester from the Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea +broke out. In the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was +elected consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged education. +He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to the decline of +the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not be far from the +truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the time or even to the +personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years ago.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany had +offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of the Red +Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field hospital. +Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a design for +competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice that his +invention had won the prize. Another instance of the recognition of +American genius abroad. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY. + + +The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was the +inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only introduced it +into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet been solved, +notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid examinations have been +made. It is the general belief, however, that she only introduced the +art, having learned it from a foreigner in the year 1561. The person +from whom she acquired this knowledge is said to have been a Protestant +fugitive from Brabant, who was driven from her native land by the +constables of the Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann +family. However, the probability is that what the fugitive showed +Barbara Uttmann was the stitched, or embroidered, laces--points, so +called--which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the present +time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced Barbara +Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand cushion. + +[Illustration: BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.] + +Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the Saxon +mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner of +extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at Annaberg, +Jan. 14, 1584. + +The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of the +residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as the +occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it frequently +happened that the wages were so low, and the means of sustaining life so +expensive, that some other resource had to be found to make life more +bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was thus a blessing to the +country, and her name is held in high esteem. A monumental fountain is +to be erected at Annaberg, and is to be surmounted by a statue of the +country's benefactress, Barbara Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert +Henze, is to be cast in bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the +costume worn at the time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of +lace, which she has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles +being visible. + +Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a cushion by +hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the pins for giving the +desired pattern to the lace being stuck into the cushion. A yard of hand +cushion lace has been sold in England for as much as $25,000. The +annexed cut, representing the Barbara Uttmann statue, was taken from the +_Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + +A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, one for +himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a furnace +against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air chamber he +had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The owner of the other +house found it very hard to keep his own house warm, and was astounded +at the amount of coal it took to render his family comfortable, while +the "other fellow" kept himself warm at his neighbor's expense nearly a +whole winter before the trick was discovered. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. + + +Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not hydraulically +compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of moisture from the air +to prevent condensation upon the surface of the walls. It not only +resists the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere, but becomes +even harder with the lapse of time. It may also be made in several +different colors, and can be finished off to nearly a polished surface +or can be left quite rough. Walls built of this material may be made so +hard that a nail cannot be driven into them, or they can be made +sufficiently soft to become a fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous +aggregate be used, no damp course is required. Further than this, if +land be bought upon which there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that +can be burnt, the greatest portion of the building material may be +obtained in excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the +(salt) shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be found +to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it may be made +fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in dwellings for the poor +will therefore resist the destructive efforts of the "young barbarian." +Nothing, therefore, can be better as a building material. The system +ordinarily employed to erect structures in concrete consists of first +forming casings of wood, between which the liquid concrete is deposited, +and allowed to become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, +the cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, but +with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. Besides +this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, especially if +it has been applied some time after the concrete forming the body of the +wall has set, and the method of applying ornament is not economical. + +[Illustration: 1.-18.] + +A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by Messrs. +F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we now present. To +this system Messrs. West have given the name of "Concrete Exstruction," +from the Latin "exstructio," which they consider to be a more +appropriate word than "constructio," as applied to concrete building in +general. In Messrs. West's system of building in concrete, instead of +employing wood casings, between which to deposit the concrete or beton, +and removing them when the beton has become hard, casings of concrete +itself are employed. These casings are not removed when the beton has +set, but they become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In +order to form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, which +may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of rectangular +(Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), and indeed of any +other form that will make a complete surface, while for thickness it may +be suited to the work to which it is to be applied, that used for heavy +engineering work differing from that employed in house construction. It +is found that the most convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. +1) is 12 inches and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure +built with slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with +architectural measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to +measure 12 inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of +these slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs are +made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of India-rubber +or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs with their edges +as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can be manufactured. That +portion of the back of the slab which is undercut is formed by means of +soft India-rubber cores. The moulds for making portions of the slabs +have a contrivance by which their length may be adjusted to suit given +dimensions. + +During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a plastic +state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a suitable +key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is finished off to them +(Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be cast with ornaments, etc., +complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but it is more economical to have +separate moulds for the mouldings and other ornaments, and separate +moulds for the slabs, and to apply the mouldings, etc., during the +process of casting the slab. Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be +somewhat similar to the plinth course slab No. 10), and other +constructive features may also be applied in a similar way, or may be +provided for during the casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or +other ornamental solid or even plastic material may be applied to the +face of the slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work +to be finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face +of the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. FIG 20.] + +In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is shown with +the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that the footings are +constructed in the most economical manner by not being stepped. As no +damp-course is required in concrete work, when the aggregate is of a +non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon the top of the footings is +generally laid a horizontal slab, called the wall-base slab, the special +feature of which is that it enables the thickness of the wall to be +gauged accurately, and also provides a fixing for the first course of +slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show such slabs for internal and external angles, +and Fig. 6 shows one for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is +not essential, although it is the more accurate method of building, for +in cases where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, +the slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set behind +them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first course with +breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being keyed to the other +by means of a quick-setting cementing material poured into the key-holes +provided in the edges of the slab for that purpose, a bituminous cement +being preferred. The key-holes are made in several ways, those shown in +the illustrations being of a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed +holes of any other shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an +oblique direction are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or +squint-quoins (Figs. 17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and +16) are manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. This +gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the quoin in +one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course above a +three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or _vice versa_. Thus are the +walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For openings, the jambs and lintels +(and in window-openings the sill) are made solid with a provision for a +key-hole to the mass of concrete filling behind them. That portion of +the jambs against which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a +similar one in the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle +joint by squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a similar +way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.-FIG 25.] + +The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made to +contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of courses +(according to convenience) have been built up, and when set practically +forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to which the face slabs +are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland cements, which are known +to contract in setting, and with those over-limed cements which expand +(both of which are not true Portland cements), the filling in is done in +equal sections, with a vertical space equal to each section left between +them until the first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are +then filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores of +the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where required, +slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails may be driven, +such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt clay, coke, and such +like. Hollow lintels are also made of the slabs keyed together at their +vertical joints, and when in position these are filled in with beton. +This system, however, is only recommended for fire-place openings +instead of arches. + +In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the apsidal +end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 being employed +for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show forms of slabs +suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal axes and domes. In +Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is shown a system of +constructing floors of these slabs. It is only necessary to explain that +the slabs are first keyed to the lower flange of the iron joist by means +of a cement (bituminous preferred), and the combination is then fixed in +position, the edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, +the iron joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening +slabs, the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists are +made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted to iron +girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This provision secures +the covering of the cross girders on their undersides by the ceiling +slabs. The concrete having been deposited upon the slabs, its upper +surface may be finished off in any of the usual ways, while the ceiling +may be treated in any of the ways described for the walls. This system +does not exclude the ordinary methods of constructing floors and roofs, +although it supplies a fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, +and, in fact, any other building material, may be used in conjunction +with the slabs. + +The system of building construction is intended, as in the case with all +concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the various uses to +which they have been applied, and, at the same time, to offer a more +perfect system of building in concrete. Hitherto slab concrete work has +never been erected in a perfectly finished state (i.e., with mouldings, +etc., complete), but has either been left in a rough state or without +ornament, or else has been constructed so as never to be capable of +receiving good ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in +constructing concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to +prevent the slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to form, +with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming the slabs of +L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of internal buttress +and shoring them up from the outside, or of supporting the slabs upon +framing fixed against the faces of the wall, several devices have been +used to obviate this difficulty. + +In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the slabs +forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as soon as the +plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but not before), +these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or cramps have been +used, and, as their name implies, have been allowed to remain in the +wall and to be entirely buried in the plastic filling-in material. These +permanent transverse ties or cramps have been of two kinds: those which +were affixed as soon as the slabs were placed in position, and those +which were made to form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, +slabs of Z or H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the +plastic filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse +tie by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs forming +each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in some cases, +being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being undercut in some +way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in this latter system +generally have wide bases, they may also be bedded or jointed in cement, +and, provided temporary ties be placed across their upper edges to +connect the slabs forming each face of the wall together, the space +between the faces of the wall may then be filled in with the plastic +concrete. + +All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they are only +temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton has become +hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two faces of the +wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of all slab concrete +construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the plastic concrete used in +forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the slabs to the mass which they +themselves have moulded; and (c) to form a facing to the wall. When +these objects shall have been accomplished, there is no further need of +any tie whatever beyond that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. +In West's system, however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, +any kind of transverse tie to be used during the process of +construction, except that used in the starting course, is entirely +dispensed with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the +courses of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the +time that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall. + +[Illustration: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION] + +There is, however, a more decided difference between West's system and +those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact that the slabs +composing the shell of the whole structure in many cases may be built up +before the filling-in is deposited between the slabs, and in none of the +other cases can this be done. In fact, only in the first two cases +before mentioned can more than one course of slabs be laid before +filling-in of some kind must be done. Compared with the ordinary method +of building in concrete, this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and +waste of wood casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside +and outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties encountered +in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of the work by the +ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a face of any of the +usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, besides a facing of any +other material, such as marble, etc., and produces better and more +durable work, at the same time showing a saving in cost, especially in +the better classes of work; all of which is effected with less plant +than ordinarily required. For engineering work, such as sea walls, the +hexagonal slabs, made of greater thickness than those employed for +ordinary walling, will answer admirably, especially if the grooves be +made proportionately larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be +built up with great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the +dwellings of artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to +render them easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves +in order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of the +simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work. + +Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for this +system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. Frank West, +as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be preferred. It not only +supplies the necessary scaffold, but also the necessary arrangements for +hoisting the slabs, as well as for raising the liquid concrete and +depositing it behind the slabs. It is really an independent scaffold, +and may be used wherever a light tramway of contractor's rails can be +laid, which in crowded thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a +staging erected over the footway. The under frame is carried upon two +bogie frames running upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is +enabled to turn sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being +provided at the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of +a climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to the +under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A worm +gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the scaffold, causes +the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, made to act at the curves +as well as on the straight portions of the rail by being attached to a +radial arm fixed to the under frame, assists the stability of the +scaffold where required, but the gauge of the rails is altered to render +the scaffold more or less stable according to its height. Combined with +the same machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used +for the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a triangle be +altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are altered. A portion +of the vertical post up and down which the crane climbs forms the base +of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, together with the stay, forms +the remaining two sides. Hence, by causing the foot of one or the other +to travel upward, by means of the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib +is either elevated or depressed. + +The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless chains +passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is fixed a hopper, +into which is thrown, either by hand or from a concrete mixer running +upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, and from which it gravitates +into a narrow channel, through which pass the buckets (attached to the +chain) with a shovel-like action. The buckets, a motor being applied to +one pair of wheels, thus automatically fill themselves, and on arriving +at top are made to tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically +into a hopper by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which +they are attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken away +to the required destination by means of a worm working in a tube. For +varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are inserted and +secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and secured by a nut. By +using this scaffold, a saving in plant, cartage, and labor is effected. +The elevator may also be used for raising any other material besides +concrete. + +Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding of +Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, and +which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may add in +conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a scaffold +are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS. + +R.W. JONES. + + +1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, with two or +three thicknesses of common blanket or its equivalent. + +2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side uppermost. + +3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by means of a +plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the board. + +4. Expose the whole--in a clear sunlight--from 4 to 6 minutes. In a +winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, from 20 to 30 +minutes. + +5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one or two +minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry. + +The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite quality +in the _paper_ itself being its ability to stand washing. + +Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such a brush +as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part soluble citrate of +iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part red prussiate of potash, +and dissolve in 10 parts of water. + +The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and better +results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until immediately +required. After being coated with the solution, the paper must be laid +away to dry in a dark place, and must be shielded entirely from light +until used. When dry, the paper is of a yellow and bronze color. After +exposure the surface becomes darker, with the lines of the tracing still +darker. Upon washing, the characteristic blue tint appears, with the +lines of the tracing in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been +obtained from glass negatives by this process.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + + + + +REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND. + +A.H. HAIG. + + +The following process for making photographic copies of drawings in blue +lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is based on the +property of perchloride of iron of being converted into protochloride on +exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when brought into contact with +the perchloride of iron immediately turns the latter blue, but it does +not affect the protochloride. + +A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of iron, +five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one hundred parts +water. Should the paper to be used not be sufficiently sized, dextrine, +gelatine, isinglass, or some similar substance must be added to the +solution. The paper is sensitized by dipping in this solution and then +dried in the dark, and may be kept for some length of time. To take a +copy of a drawing made on cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a +sheet of the sensitive paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame +or under a sheet of glass. The length of exposure varies with the state +of the weather from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds +in winter, in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 +minutes, and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now immersed +in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of potash per 100 +parts of water. Those parts protected from the light by the lines of the +drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest of the paper, where the +coating has been converted into protochloride by the effects of light, +will remain white. Next, the image is freely washed in water, and then +passed through a bath consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid +to 100 parts of water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron +salt. + +It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, when the +drawing will appear in blue on a white background.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + +[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.] + + + + +RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS. + +[Footnote: Read June 20, 1885.] + +By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club. + + +During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous efforts to +introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the evaporation of +water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on a small scale, for +domestic purposes. + +The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the number of +stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using solid fuel. +Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the better classes. +Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about thirty-six per +cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount of compression. Ease +of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of regulation of temperature. +Almost perfect combustion and cleanliness. + +Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well known +regenerative furnace. + +Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running on the +Paris and Strassburg Railroad. + +Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and under the +boilers of steamship Oberlin. + +Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a locomotive +running on the Long Island Railroad. + +Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of United States +steamers. + +Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their locomotives, and +steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel. + +Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace at Jersey +City. + +Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the production +of water gas. + +These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results when +considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in advocating +their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the all-important +item of cost. + +It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of such +systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long as the +supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable limits. + +In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely theoretical +results, without allowing for losses in the furnace. + +The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, crude +petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases. + +The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the heating +agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, are: + +PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT. + + ________________________________________________________ + | C | H | O | CO |CH_{4}|C_{2}H_{4} + +----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + Anthracite |87.7| 3.3 |3.2| | | + Bituminous |80.8| 5.0 |8.2| | | + Petroleum |84.8|13.1 |1.5| | | + Coal gas | | 6.5 | |14.3| 52.4 | 14.8 + Generator gas | | 1.98| |35.5| 1.46| + Water gas | | 6.3 |0.6|87.8| 1.2 | + ------------------+----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + +We will employ the formula of Dulong-- + + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) + +to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the case of +methane, CH_{4}, the formula is not true, but the error is not great +enough to seriously affect the result. This gives for the combustion of +one pound of: + + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " + +Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from 212° F., +we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. + + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 + +The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning furnaces +to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per cent. may be +taken as a good figure. The great difference in the efficiencies is due +to the fact that fluid fuels require for combustion very little air +above the theoretical quantity, while with the solid fuels fully twice +the theoretical quantity must be admitted to dilute the products of +combustion. + +Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212° F., PER POUND OF FUEL. + + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 + +These figures agree closely with the results of experiments. + +We will now consider the subject of cost. + +The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing centers, +termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers. + +In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude state, an +approximation is made by adding to the cost at the nearest shipping port +the freight charged on refined petroleum, and ten per cent. to cover +duties and other charges. + +Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the cities, +there may be some errors. + + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. + + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 + + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. + + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. + +In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal gas is +taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; petroleum, 0.8. + + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. + + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. + +These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give: + + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. FOR $1. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. + + RELATIVE COSTS. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 + +These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there may be +circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their use will +exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a comparison without +considering particular cases, but for intermittent heating petroleum +would probably be more economical, though for a steady fire coal holds +its own. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. + + +At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and Steel +Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, Mr. R. +Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, read a paper +on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting discussion upon +steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it was thirty years since +the first crucible steel castings were made in Sheffield in the general +way, and with one exception the method of manufacture was pretty much +the same now as at that early date. The improvement was the employment +of gas furnaces instead of the old coke holes for melting. Important +economies had resulted from this introduction. Where before it required +3 tons of coke to melt 1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with +35 cwt. of very poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make +crucible steel castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true +steel, that was to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct +proportions of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to +make crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and manganese to +produce that chemical composition which was known to be necessary in +best castings. It was in consequence of this difficulty that many makers +resorted to the addition of hematite pigs. The Bessemer process was used +much more extensively upon the Continent than in this country in the +manufacture of castings. It seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for +agitating the steel in the ladle so as to remove the gases would be +taken up largely for open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as +it had a wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in +conjunction with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some +extremely wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid +being melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied greatly. +The ordinary method generally practiced in this country was a +modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed were only +of secondary importance to the making of the steel itself. Unless the +mould was good, no matter how good the steel was, the casing was +spoiled. The best composition which had been found for moulds was that +of a large firm in Sheffield, but unfortunately it was rather expensive. +A good steel casting ought to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 +per cent. of silicon and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a +casting, if free from other impurities, would have a strength of between +30 and 40 tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 +per cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering. + +The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. McCallem +present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion upon the open +hearth basic system, in which they were greatly interested. + +Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would be +worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace before it +would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, he had seen +the basic process worked very successfully in the open-hearth furnace; +and he was recently informed by the manager that he was producing ingots +at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per ton. + +The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved admirably. +He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, at Wednesbury, +were at the present moment putting down an open-hearth furnace on the +basic process. + +The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. H. +Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, Walker, W. +Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave it as their +experience that the best castings contained the most blowholes, and Mr. +McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some slight qualification. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA. + + +At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject. + +He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing the +safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions with +wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development of +maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied with +apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and to the +nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and that reports +given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more extensively. He +wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by telegraph for the same +purpose. + +In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. Badeley in +1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and last year at +Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a committee on life saving +appliances of the United States had made experiments. The conclusions of +the committee were that in deep water oil had a calming effect upon a +rough sea, but there was nothing in either source of information which +yet answered the question whether or not there is in the force exerted +by the wind a point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in +causing the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some +utility on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of +rescue; on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in dangerous +proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use of automatic +sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of parabolic +reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further prosecution of +experiments by Professor Bell in establishing communication between +vessels some distance apart by means of interrupted electrical currents. +The improvement of navigation, he said, meant an international code of +police to improve police rules of navigation; an international code of +universal telegraphy for navigation; an international office of +meteorology and navigation to collect the studies; experiments on the +weather, on the sea, on the casualties; and the discovery by experiment +of new apparatus and appliances to diminish maritime disaster. + +He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, and he +hoped that before long there would be proposed an international +congress--such as the postal, telegraph, and sanitary congresses, and +the international convention to fix the common meridian--by one of the +maritime powers, by which would be founded an international institution +to diminish casualties at sea. He recommended a universal system of +buoys. The great losses of life and property every year were worthy the +devotion of £300,000 by an international institution, which would be +much less than the monthly average loss in navigation. + +Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built--some were ten times +longer than their beam. There was nothing in the world so ticklish as a +ship; touch her in the waist, and down she goes. He believed sailing +ships ought not to exceed four times their beam, and steamers certainly +not more than six times. He pointed out that a fruitful cause of +accidents was the stopping of steaming all at once in the case of +impending collision, by which the rudder lost control of the vessel. If +constructors looked more to the form of the ships, and got them to steer +better, collisions would be avoided. + +The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one great +secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, which made +it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another vessel what it +was about. The method of signaling was very crude, and he ventured to +say that it was quite out of date when vessels met each other at a rate +of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an amateur, tried a method which +he would attempt to explain. His idea was to fit up a lantern on deck, +showing an electric light. The instrument would be controlled by the +rudder, and the commanding officer of the vessel would be able so to +turn it when the helm was put up or down that the light would flash at +some distance in front of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal +to a vessel coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was +amidships, the light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved +until the helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going +could not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If the +lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass safely. + +Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any experiments. + +The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a number +of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they were already +disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left the carrying out of +the suggestion to others. + +Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for a short +distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was very +difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile out to +sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to three +miles. + +The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object light, but +upon the sweep of the light on the water. + +Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil on +troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully studied all +the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they were all very well +in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean they were utterly +hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. They had been tried in +the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had prophesied the results before +they were commenced. It was utterly hopeless to think that a quantity of +oil had the power of laying a storm--all the world could not produce oil +enough to bring about that result. + +There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped the +experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or three +mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe in powerful +lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, and a dazzling +effect was the result. In regard to sound, he wondered that no more +effective alarm was used than the whistle. It was well known that, as +the whistle instrument was enlarged, the sound became more and more a +roar. He would have ships use all their boiler power in sounding a +siren, so that the sound could be heard at a distance of not less than +two or three miles in any weather. With such a signal as that there +ought to be, not absolute safety, but collisions would be more easily +prevented. He was glad to say that a universal system of buoys had been +practically arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, +so that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language. + +Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, while a +green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so that, if a +green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels were within two +miles and a half of each other. + +Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in regard to +these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of lights effect +should be given to the difference that existed in the various lights, so +that, by making the green light more powerful, it could penetrate as far +as the red, and in the same way making the red and green lights +proportionately more powerful, so that they would penetrate as far as +the white light. + +Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for sound +tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and focused all +the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea that the operator +could hear nothing but a chaos of sound. + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE. + + +The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining +pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained +in the raw material, maybe divided into two parts, viz., the immersion +of the rags in acid, with subsequent washing and drying, and the +carbonization properly so called. The first part is so well known, and +is so simple in its details and apparatus, that it is useless to dwell +upon it in this place. But the second requires more scientific +arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted, and, as +carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry, we think +it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. +It will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. +The object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being +in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled. + +Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, and Figs. +1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is arranged like +the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, there is a double +series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and work generally. These +two series are arranged on each side of a central portion, which +contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway +giving access to the upper stories. The heating apparatus is a hot air +stove provided with a system of piping. The rags to be carbonized or the +wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames. + +The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the heating +apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for about half an +hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the air in, as are also +those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers. The hot air +then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags, and, +becoming saturated and heavier, descends and makes its exit from the +chamber through an aperture, n, near the floor, whence it flows to the +central chimney. This latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains +in its center a second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) +that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion +from the heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes +serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the +vapors derived from the wool are disengaged. + +The air, heated to 40° or 50°, is made to pass thus for several hours, +until the greater part of the humidity has been removed. The temperature +is then raised to 80° or 90° by gradually closing the apertures that +give access to the ventilating chimney. In order that it may be possible +to further increase the temperature during the last hour, and raise it +to 90° or 120°, an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such air +with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air circulates in the +pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter. The hot +vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one, where +they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the +materials. + +The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in order to +prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate should be of +relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of cast iron, and all +the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see to such matters, with a +view to saving money, will surely lead in the long run to bad results. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)] + +The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired to +preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case recourse +is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting the vapors of +nitric acid heated to 115° or 125° for the sulphuric acid. The +arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different. The chambers, which +may be in duplicate, as in the preceding case, are vaulted, and are +about three yards long by three wide and three high. The rags are put +into wire cages that have six divisions, and that are located in the +middle of the chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of +gearings. Under the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a +reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. +The arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken to +have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.--_Bull, de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS. + + +According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in the dry +distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for the production +of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that the mass shall be +divided as completely as possible, since it then takes but a relatively +moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter +contained in the wash. The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is based +upon this observation. + +The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long boiler, +B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the intermedium of a +waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass slowly to the other +extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes its exit in the form of +dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the scrapers, b, and the interrupted +pieces, a, in front of which are the hinged valves, c. In the motion of +the pieces, a, from right to left, these valves free the apertures +thereof and allow the wash to pass, while in the motion from left to +right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be +evaporated before them. + +From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and fro +motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of which is +produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their lower, forked +extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the piece, d, that supports +the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, f, pass through the side of +the boiler, through the intermedium of stuffing boxes, and are connected +by their upper extremities, through a link, with levers, g, that revolve +around the point, h. A cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, +alternately rising and descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods +f. The same shaft, M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, +and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, +E, receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, m. The +material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at +the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel, G, provided +with a stirrer, H. The salts and other analogous matters are dissolved, +and the residuum, which constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out +of the apparatus, while the solution passes directly to the refinery, +where it is evaporated. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS.] + +In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in powder +is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means +of water, and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen, +so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally +by the mass, and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus. + +The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, where they +condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine. The +non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the +manufactory. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE. + + +In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we find a +leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. Britton, of +Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate. + +This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in +order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are clamped in the jaws +or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram +connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws. The power is obtained by +means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys +shown. The action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the +plates which are not "bagged" or buckled, and this causes the surface to +extend, the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same +stretching action. The machine shown is designed to operate on sheet +iron from No. 7 to No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for +length being 120 in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. +The machine appears to have met with considerable success in America, +and has been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in Figs. +1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the +machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. 3 shows the +bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with the holes for +adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 is a back view and +section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving +grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a plan and cross section of +the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back elevation of the same, with a front +view and section of the gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which +the jaws are opened and closed. + +[Illustration: BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES. + + +Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing +circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is doubtless +that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and which is known +in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists of a socket into +which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to which is hinged a +tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil are held at the proper +distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw. +When the instrument is closed, as shown in the figure to the left, it +takes up but little space, and may be easily carried in the pocket +without the point tearing the clothing, as the binding screw holds the +leg firmly against the pencil. + +The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the +right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation.--_La +Nature_. + +[Illustration: THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE INTEGRAPH. + + +In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the +following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = f(x), to find +a curve whose equation shall be + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us suppose that +we know an induced current, and that we can represent it by a curve +y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive current, that is to say, +the curve represented by the equation + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli and +Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem mechanically, +by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another example from the domain +of electricity, in order to better show the utility of the apparatus; +let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile +or of an accumulator. The abscisses represent the times, and the +ordinates the amperes. The question is to know at every moment the +quantity of coulombs produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve +whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a +large number of analogous applications. + +[Illustration: THE INTEGRAPH.] + +The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron ruler, +I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a drawing-board, and +is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface. In this +groove move two rollers, which, in the center of the piece that connects +them, carry two brass T-squares that are parallel with each other and at +right angles with the first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. +Between these two rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest +the axis of the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour +of the curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point is +guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the paper in +such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line, +and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's +angle with the axes of the X's is constantly proportional to the +ordinate of the primitive curve. + +The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a +sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities of the +axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin, and roll +over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral +steel surfaces of the carriages, while the circumference of the wheels +rolls in grooves along the two T-squares. + +These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run in the +groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller that runs +over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is fixed a +divided ruler, through one point of which continually passes a third +ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of the first carriage. + +When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and the +point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be +integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the +axis of the X's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure. The +wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, A', of the second carriage must +move parallel with this ruler. In order to obtain such parallelism, we +employ a parallelogram formed as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same +diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point, A, of the +first carriage, and their line of centers is parallel with the latter. +The second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to +those of the toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers +must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a weak +steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels, the +two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by means of a barrel +and spring placed in the center of one of them. + +The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents the +latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, permitting it +thus to move only in the direction of their plane. + +It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog +wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of +but the same length of the two threads. + +It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by +forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the +curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the +apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES. + + +The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the +manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. +Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling +machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so +called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all +grouped upon a cast-iron column. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES.] + +The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate +of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an +intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the +former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in +the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the +aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side +of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in +the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is +lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part +of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of +glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the +gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced. + +The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, +comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of +bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). +This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in +the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of +bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents +all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a +powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is +placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This +machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES. + + +Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the +power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most +extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus +have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less +necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal +types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive +materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has +devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed +by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in +which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed +in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun +when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman +responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 +grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the +igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be +made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden +cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. +It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external +diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. +The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided +with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches +wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 +inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch +wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. +It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a +cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. +The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median +piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that +still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, +g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is +prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which +has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key +which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, +y. + +When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 +inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, +and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by +a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, +is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a +cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely +closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the +figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the +leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 +grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a +leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The +apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the +pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way +that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a +smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the +pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that +their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes +place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the +capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately +opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, +to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that +have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the +apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing +alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means +of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder +the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.] + +The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by +means of a gauge (Fig. 3). + +The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and +thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder +very perfectly. + + * * * * * + + + + +SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS. + + +For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from +pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. +Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the +accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or +enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the +upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors +disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone +cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is +filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided +with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, +d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The +head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a +dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, +f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed +strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with +pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by +acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, +e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n. + +At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by +a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of +emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L. + +A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to +introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. +The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for +cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows +out through the tubes, v. + +The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the +quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is +afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation +may then proceed at once. + +The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, +through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they +are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, +which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, +which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. +This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and +afterward flows into the vessel, N. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.] + +The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, +e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of +concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can +no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 +degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and +received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of +the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed +and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected +directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that +still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, +e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S. + +There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the +acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as +to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIELD KITCHENS. + + +We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the +Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's +Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These +kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three +to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed +one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The +kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are +carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A +small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When +packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the +outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the +top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form +of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or +in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, +boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may +require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of +the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 +represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens +consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which +are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or +flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be +placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 +inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular +kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few +inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be +made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with +straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended +for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, +workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food +for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and +distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat +water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, +London.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW COP-WINDER. + + +In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the +wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of +which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German +apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a +horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that +moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow +extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in +contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a +mean velocity until it is finished. + +In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the +paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is +the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove +which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper +tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse +motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first +prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the +ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, +but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its +axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a +cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a +sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, +J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, +a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is +kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished. + +[Illustration: A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.] + +Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may +likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this +case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is +useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the +ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of +the screw. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.] + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. + +[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.] + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL +CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885. + +BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER. + + +The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which +he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a +solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of +hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of +copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it +will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance +under this head. + +Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and +1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the +preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective. + +His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by +tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a +preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory +results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his +name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a +freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by +pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at +the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred +rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and +letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the +rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed +then served to admit the solution under pressure. + +This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of +copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in +France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, +that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log +only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and +annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be +still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process +could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting +down trees), as the solution would freeze. + +On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been +able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this +country. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. + +SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE. + +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS. + +The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern +Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, +when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable +condition. + +We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. +Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process. + +Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. +Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), +when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital +suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing +the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in +his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, +but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by +the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying +substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, +and left it nearly in its primitive condition." + +He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, +and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie +process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, +which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by +that process. + +Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the Bethell +process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders, and +probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were prepared in that +way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. Tilden, however, showed the +"saturation very uneven; absorptive power, high; block contains soluble +salts of copper, removable by washing." + +It was expected that the double solution, by forming an insoluble +compound, would prove an effective protection against the _teredo_. +Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the contrary to be the +fact. + +The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory results +against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz Brewing +Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in 1882, after some +six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, a chemist of Boston +(experiment No. 9), indicated favorable results, and the planks in a +ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet +sound in 1882. + +The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16), +however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable at first, +and great things were expected of them; but late examinations made on +the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the +Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, +and the results to be unfavorable. + +This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. Thilmany +has patented still another combination, in which he uses sulphate of +zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed under the head of +burnettizing. + +Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It consisted +of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the South, by the +Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of +copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid in the tunnel at New +Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, in 1882, several of them +were still in the track. The process, however, was found to be so +tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial, and has not since +been resumed. + +In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is the +inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the cap +fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump, and +placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired solution, he +sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the +wood. + +Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way, with +various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate of copper, and +there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be +materially increased thereby. + +Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the +original Boucherie process can only be determined by practical +application upon an extensive scale. + +A considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the +Boucherie process have been patented in this country; but none of them +seems to have come into practical use, probably because of the necessity +for operating upon freshly cut logs, and the inconvenience of such +applications. + +The table on this page gives a record of various experiments with +miscellaneous substances. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS--MISCELLANEOUS. + +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. + +Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from which +great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted in immersing +timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate +of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons +of water. It was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut +Street, Philadelphia, and for a time seemed to promise good results. +Experiments with prepared rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James +Archbald, Chief Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable. + +The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet Arsenal, +where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, at a cost of +about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used for various +ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its life extended, as +would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics +used, its strength was so far impaired, and it checked and warped so +badly, that the process was abandoned in 1844. + +The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, for +a full copy of the reports upon these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has been +applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that platforms and +boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly +suggested the use of lime for preserving timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. +Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, laid a +portion of its track on white pine sills, which had been soaked for +three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained. +Similar experiments were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The +result was not satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that +lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking. + +Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, sometimes +known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former have been +furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, +and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your committee is much indebted for a +large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation. + +Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject +than any other person in this country. Beginning with sulphate of copper +in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in 1847, and chloride of +zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of mercury, and again to chloride +of zinc, using the latter until 1865, then using creosote to protect the +piles against the _teredo_ at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared +by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our disposal many +original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare. + +Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President of this +Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 × 12 with a 1-1/8 +inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 inches. These were filled with +common salt and plugged up, as is not infrequently done in +ship-building, but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened, +it was concluded that the process did not pay. + +Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, but is a +comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being 58.8 in the +hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of mercury. + +Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known and most +ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this particular +case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet +into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, which +probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of +moisture, which, as is well known, much hastens decay. The posts, which +had been set butt-end upward, were mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' +exposure. + +Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as well, +and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is +uncertain and disappointing in its results. + +Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting machinery for +charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against decay. The +process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the benefits which it +confers, and the charred surface is so objectionable for many uses, that +nothing is to be expected from the process upon a large commercial +scale. + +In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), at +Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate with +pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar experiments +had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. Boucherie, but the +result has not been found satisfactory. + +In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the Nichols +patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for boring a 2 +inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge timbers. This +continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and in rebuilding them +the boring machinery was not replaced. The longitudinal hole allowed a +portion of the sap to evaporate without checking the outside of the +timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its life. It is believed there are +yet (1885) some sticks of timber in the bridges of the road that were so +prepared in 1868 or 1869. + +In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, by +incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the space +between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic cement. +This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the mainland with +Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did it seem to succeed +at first that it was proposed to extend the process to railroad +trestlework, to fencing, to supports for houses, and to telegraph poles. +But after a while the earthenware pipes were displaced and broken, the +process was given up, and Galveston bridge is now creosoted. + +In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by simply +washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that borax is a +solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by boiling them in a +solution of borax. For small specimens, this answered well, and a +signboard treated in that way (experiment No. 13) was preserved a long +time; but when applied to large timber, the process was found very +tedious and slow, and no headway has been made in introducing it. + +Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age it was +discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of the Union +Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles in length, where +the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, Mr. Blinkinsderfer, +kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which had been laid in 1868, +and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It is as sound and a good deal +harder than when first laid, 14 years before, while on some other parts +of the road cottonwood ties perish in two or five years. + +The character of the soil where these results have been observed is +light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the Laramie +Division, furnishes the following analysis: + + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. + +The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis may be +of interest: + +"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of substances +which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in the juices of +the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous matter, which, when +beginning to decay, causes also the destruction of the other +constituents of the wood." + +"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by decay is +by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the sap." + +"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some substance +which either enters into combination with the constitutents of the sap +or so alters their properties as to prevent the setting up of +decomposition." + +"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large quantities of +the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, and iron) most used +in the different processes of preserving or kyanizing wood. It also +contains much inorganic matter, which also acts as a preserving agent." + +Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other portions of +the track, and some of the soil has also been transported to other +localities, so that it is hoped that in the discussion that may be +expected to follow this report, some further light will be thrown on the +subject by an account of the results of these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and convey a +useful lesson. + +In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry powder for +preserving wood, which was composed of certain proportions of salt, +arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action was based upon an +experience which he had had when, as a working mechanic of Ellisburg, +Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had preserved a water-wheel shaft by +inserting such a compound in powder in the body of the wood, and +ascertained that it was still sound some 14 years later. + +His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly this: + +"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that fermentation +cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the chemical property or +nature of his compound, when inserted dry into wood, is to attract +moisture, and this moisture, aided by fermentation, liquefies the +compound; that capillary attraction must inevitably convey it through +the sap ducts and medullary rays to every fiber of the stick.... Were +these crystallizations salt alone, they would soon dissolve, but the +arsenic and corrosive sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they +remain intact while any fiber of the wood is left." + +"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and have been +known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the _mummies of Egypt_ to-day +shows the presence of arsenic in large quantities in every portion of +their substance. Whatever other ingredients may have entered into the +compound that has been so potent in preserving from decay the bodies of +the old kings of Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, +arsenic was most certainly one." + +The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes two inches +in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of square timber, +four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, and to plug them up +with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two holes two inches in +diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and filled and plugged them. +Fresh cut lumber and shingles were prepared by piling layers upon each +other with the dry powder sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty +pounds to the thousand feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a +temperature of at least 458° F. until fermentation took place, when the +lumber was considered fully "foremanized." + +The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a steamboat, +and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It was then applied +to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, where it did not succeed, +and to some on the Chicago and Northwestern, where they seem to have +been lost sight of, being few in number, so that your committee has not +been able to learn the result. + +Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional sale +was made to various parties of the right of using the process, notably, +it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for $50,000; and some +ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, when the poisonous nature +of the ingredients used brought about disaster. + +Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East St. +Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very ill, and +one of them died. + +The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties along the +Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked them for the +sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for ten miles was +strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in arms, and made the +railroad take up and burn the ties. The company promoting foremanizing +was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it went out of business. + +In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, and the +succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that patent was +submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, D.C., and examined +by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). He found the +impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, but he did not find +any arsenic, though its use was claimed. + +The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, first, of +a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common burnt lime. Mr. +Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the water used to test the +absorptive power to have been filled with threads of fungi in +forty-eight hours. + +The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of sulphide of +calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. Tilden. + +The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a solution +of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was also condemned +by Mr. Tilden. + +The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen different +processes, most of which have already been noticed in this report, and +their practical results given. + +The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable amount of +prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is understood to have +proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of inquiry, your committee +has been enabled to obtain information of the results of three of these +experiments. + +The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) were +first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of sulphate of +iron. + +The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with chloride +of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of application is +not stated. + +The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were treated with +the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is stated that this +was the only process in which pressure was used. + +In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks were badly +decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost impassable, while +other streets paved in the same year with untreated woods remained in +fair condition. + +It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did much +toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, was chiefly +owing to the very dishonest way in which the preparation was done; that +in fact there was a combination between the officials and the +contractors by which the latter were chiefly interested "how not to do +it," and that the above results, therefore, prove very little on the +subject of wood preservation. + +Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your committee +is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments (Nos. 26 to 41 +inclusive) which have been carried on at the Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, +for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to +test the effect of various substances as a protection against the +_Teredo navalis_. It will be noticed that the application of two coats +of white zinc paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster +of Paris mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil +and tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of coal +tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating compound, of +compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of the Thilmany +process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved failures. + +The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the month of +January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or five years, or +till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress piles, well +charred, have resisted for nine years. + +This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been stated under +the head of creosoting, that nothing but the impregnation with creosote, +and plenty of it, is an effectual protection against the _teredo_. +Numberless experiments have been tried abroad and in this country, and +always with the same result. + +There are quite a number of other experiments which your committee has +learned about which are here passed in silence. The accounts of them are +vague, or the promised results of such slight importance as not to +warrant cumbering with them this already too voluminous report. + +The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the many +patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It had prepared +a list of them, and investigated the probable success of many of them, +but has concluded that it is better to confine itself to the results of +actual tests, and to stick to ascertained facts. + +Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the great +importance of the subject, and the economical advantages which will +result from the artificial preparation of wood as its price advances. +They hope, however, that the members of this Society, in discussing this +report, will dwell upon this point. + +We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general conclusions +which we have reached as the result of our protracted investigation. + + +DECAY OF TIMBER. + +Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of +carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the +same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of +the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. + +Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent. of +the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great many +substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., etc., +with a large portion of water. + +Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap, +fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend +upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the woody fiber, and +produces decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that +there must be a concurrence of four separate conditions: + +1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when +exposed to air and water. + +2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation. + +3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. + +4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50° and 100° F. Below +32° F. and above 150° F., no decay occurs. + +When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, and +ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, unless +the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative. + +Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does +not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.[1] It is therefore necessary +to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter +the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the office +performed by the various antiseptics. + +[Footnote 1: Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, 1884, +Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of Timber."] + +We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, whether +fermentation and decay result from slow combustion (eremacausis) or from +the presence of living organisms (bacteria, etc.); but having in the +preceding pages detailed the results of the application of various +antiseptics, we may now indicate under what circumstances they can +economically be applied. + +_(To be continued)_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:_ + +Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint of Mr. B. +Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association of Aberdeen +which has come into my hands. + +In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the Adda as +500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as stated in the same +address, and he belittles the American Cabin John Bridge by making its +span _"after all only 215 ft."_ As the builder of this greatest American +stone arch, I regret that on so important and public an occasion the +writer was not accurate. + +The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is not +great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot that +counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one minute is +to fail to capture the cup. + +M.C. MEIGS. + +Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA. + + +On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette Augusta +left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, for +Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, the +report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is probably +correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews for the +cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, including +the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is still a +possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting somewhere in +the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but this is not very +probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to weather a typhoon. +During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper masts, spars, etc, had +to be removed, that she might be better adapted to weather a cyclone or +like storm. If the Augusta had not met with an accident, she would have +arrived at Port Albany in Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of +July. She was due June 17. + +The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and was bought +in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's rigging, 237½ +feet long, 35½ feet beam, 16 feet draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her +engines had 400 horse-power, and her armament consisted of 14 pieces. + +[Illustration: THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.] + +During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by Captain +Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French coast. January 4, +1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in the mouth of the +Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to Bordeaux with flour and +bread for the Third French Division. The Augusta then captured the +Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which was being carried from Havre to +Bordeaux. Then the French transport steamer Max was captured and burned. +The French men of war finally forced the Augusta to retreat into the +Spanish port of Vigo, from which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March +28 at Kiel, with the captured brig St. Marc in tow.--_Illustrirte +Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS. + + +In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal wheel, +the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which we +illustrate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.] + +Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse section, +and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These wheels are made in +two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates a wheel of the former +class, these wheels being designed for use on rough and uneven roads, +and when very great jolting strains may be met with, being stronger than +those of class B design. The wheels are made with mild steel spokes, +which are secured by metal straps in the recesses cut in the annular +flanges on the boss, and by a taper bolt or rivet through the tire and +rim. These spokes can be easily taken out and renewed when necessary by +any unskilled person in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway +of their length give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist +side strains in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing +the weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer screwed up +on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil caps to the end of +the bushes, which are provided with a small set screw, so that the cap +need not be taken off when it is necessary to lubricate the wheel, as by +simply taking out the set screw oil may be poured through the hole into +the cap. The set screw also forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap +can be taken off or put on when required, as well as a means of +preventing the cap being lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all +hot and dry climates, the continued shrinking of wood wheels and +loosening of the tires is a constant source of expense and +inconvenience. This wheel having a tire and rim entirely of metal does +away with the difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and others +can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, which can be +done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B design are the same +in principle of construction as those of class A, but they have cast +metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, and are suitable for +general work and ordinary roads where the strains are not so severe. The +bosses or naves are readily removed in case of breakage, and they can be +fitted with steel oil caps for lubricating.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS. + + +The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed for the +manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is described in a +communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American Institute of Mining +Engineers. + +The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled with +fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous material. B +and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined with refractory +brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks piled up as shown in +the figure. The partitions, C and C', are likewise of refractory brick, +and are rendered as air-proof as possible. Apertures, D and D', are +formed alternately at the base of one partition and the top of the +adjacent one, in order to oblige the gases that traverse the series of +chambers to descend in one of them and to rise in the following, +whatever be the number of chambers in use. + +The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and serve to +bring the current of air or steam into contact with the fuel. Valves, F +and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating the current in the +two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with valves, G and G', put the +upper part of the generator in communication with the contiguous +chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, N and N', with valves, H and H', permit +of the introduction of a current of air from the outside into the +chambers, T and T'. The pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', +connected with a blower, serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and +P', and their valves, J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q +and Q', and their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the +purifiers and the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with +valves, L and L', are connected with a chimney. + +The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed hopper. The +doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures through which the +ashes are removed. + +When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, are +closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, of the +pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, while the +flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator the reverse order +is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is closed, the pipes, M' and +N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and Q', are closed, and R' is opened. + +A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this traverses +the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the generator, A, +through the flue, E. As this air rises through the mass of incandescent +fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of carbon and forms carbonic +oxide. This gas that is disengaged from the upper part of the fuel +consists chiefly of nitrogen and carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile +hydrocarburets derived from the fuel used. This gas, through the action +of the air upon the fuel, is called "air gas," in order to distinguish +it from the "water gas" formed in the second period of the process. + +The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', in +order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second current +of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it and produces, +in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated gases resulting from +the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', and give up to the bricks +therein the greater part of their heat, and finally make their exit, +relatively cool, through the pipe, R', which leads them to the chimney. +When the operation has been continued for a sufficient length of time to +give the refractory bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a +high temperature, the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the +entrance of air through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is +also closed, and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', +of the pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet of +steam is introduced through the latter. + +The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, B', and in +this state enters the bottom of the generator through the flue, E'. In +passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the generator, the steam +is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, while hydrogen is +liberated. The mixture of these two gases with the hydrocarburets +furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. This gas on making its exit +from the generator through the pipe, M', passes through the chambers, B, +and abandons therein the greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, +R, whence it passes through Q into the purifiers, and then into the +gasometer. + +As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the generator, +A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but moderately heated by +the sensible heat of the current of gas produced. When this cooling has +continued so long that the temperature in the generator, A, is no longer +high enough to allow the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the +valve, J', of the pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also +the valve, K, of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R +and N, are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the heat +remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of the +generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its exit +from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of air coming +from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products resulting from such +combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then into the chimney, through +the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly lowers in the chambers, B', +and rises no less rapidly in the generator, A, while the chambers, B, +are soon heated to the same temperature that first existed in the +chambers, B'. As soon as the desired temperature is obtained in the +generator, A, and the chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the +valve, I', of the pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also +closed, the valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the +valves, G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the +valve, F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. +A current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, traverses +the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the flue, E. The gas +produced makes its exit from the generator, passes through the pipe, M', +and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, and enters the gasometer +through the pipe, Q'. + +[Illustration: WATER-GAS APPARATUS.] + +When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool a state +that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the valves are so +maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and to send a current +of air into the apparatus in the same direction that the steam had just +been taking. The temperature thereupon quickly rises in the generator, +A, while, at the same time, the combustion of the air gas produced soon +reheats the chambers, B'. The cooled products of combustion go, as +before, to the chimney. The position of the valves is then changed again +so as to send a current of steam into the apparatus in a direction +contrary to that which the air took in the last place, and the water gas +obtained again is sent to the gasometer. + +As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each current of air +following the same direction in the apparatus (from left to right, or +right to left) that the current of steam did which preceded it, while +each current of steam follows a direction opposite that of the current +of air which preceded it. + +The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for his +process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of gas. + +One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made of any +dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size and form +shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the removal of the +ashes by hand from time to time, it may be constructed after the general +model of the shaft of blast furnaces, with a hearth at the base. Upon +adding to the fuel a small quantity of flux, all the mineral parts +thereof can be melted into a liquid slag, which may be carried off just +like that of blast furnaces. There is no difficulty in constructing +regenerators of refractory bricks of sufficient capacity, however large +the generators be; and a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one +thousand tons of anthracite per day into more than five million cubic +feet of gas. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Gas Institute, Manchester, June, +1885.] + +By WILLIAM SUGG, of London. + + +Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public have been +assured, by those interested in the different kinds of lamps--arc, glow +or otherwise--that henceforth, by means of such lamps, rooms are to be +lighted without heat or baneful products such as they assert attend the +use of gas, lamps, or candles. But I think it must not be implied, from +what any one has said in favor of the electric light as a means of +lighting our dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that +the glow lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very +large difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the glow +lamp is only one more means (not without certain disadvantages) of +producing light added to those which already exist, and of which the +public have the choice. Now, looking to best means of lighting rooms, +and particularly the principal rooms of a small dwelling-house, I beg to +say that the arguments which can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in +preference to any other means greatly preponderate, and that it can be +substantiated that, light for light, under the heads of convenience, +health, comfort, reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior +to all. + +As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is comparatively +untried. This assertion may sound somewhat astounding; but I think it is +a true one. More than that, even in the crude and unscientific way in +which it has most frequently been used up to the present, it has been +far from unsuccessful in comparison with electricity or other means of +lighting; and in the future it will prove the best and cheapest +practical means, although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in +palatial dwellings in conjunction with it. + +It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of artificial +lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that most beautiful and +perfect natural light which, without our aid, and without even a thought +from us, shines regularly every day upon all, in such an immense volume, +so perfectly diffused, and in such wonderful chemical combination, that +it may safely be said that not one atom of the whole economy of Nature +is unaffected by it, and that we and all the animal kingdom, in common +with trees and plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious +natural light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we cannot +hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of daylight, +or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make the lighting of +our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to the eyes and to the +general health) by the aid of gas than by any other means. It must also +be borne in mind that, in this country at least, we have to fulfill the +conditions of artificial lighting under frequent differences of +temperature and barometric influence, exaggerated by the manner in which +our homes are built; and that for at least nine months of the year we +require heat as well as light in our dwellings, and that for the other +three months (excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are +often chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions of +the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control. + +As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside over a +meeting which was held in a large room--one of two built exactly alike, +and in communication with each other by means of folding doors. These +rooms formed part of one of the best hotels in London--let us call it +the "Magnificent." Of course, it was lighted by electric glow lamps, in +accordance with the latest fashion in that department of artificial +lighting, viz., suspension lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of +leaves and scrolls, twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the +pattern of our most æsthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the +style of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed the +Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some lamps he +had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by means of the +good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's heart; and they were +ventilated with all due regard to the latest state of knowledge on the +subject among architects and builders. In fact, no pains had been spared +to make these rooms comfortable in the highest acceptation of the word. + +There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat and +deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and therefore, +under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of such human +felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty business men, +intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost tissue by means of +a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according to the calculations of +the architect of the building, to have been reached. I instance this +case because it is a typical one, which, under most aspects, does not +materially differ from the conditions of home life in such residences as +those whose occupiers are likely to use electric lighting. The rooms +were spacious (about 20 feet by 35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and +they were lighted during the day by means of large lantern +ceiling-lights, with double glass windows. The evening in question was +chilly, not to say cold. + +Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the room; +but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of a little +draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, which at first +was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in another hour or so, by +the time our business was over, notwithstanding a screen placed before +the door, and a blazing fire, we were delighted to make a change to the +comfortable dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just +left by means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to pass +in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we became +aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow lamps (merely +for artistic effect) began to flare in a most uncandlelike manner--the +flames turning down, as if some one were blowing downward on the wicks; +and at the same time the complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" +became general, and from every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went +on, the discomfort became unbearable, even although the doors were shut +and screens put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to order +"those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the foliage of the +electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three minutes the flames of +the candles burned upright and steadily, and in less than ten minutes +the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, the room became really +comfortable. + +The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up at the +ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air from the bodies +of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced by the movements of +themselves and the waiters, together with the steam from the viands and +respiration, displaced the colder air at the ceiling, and notably that +coldest air lying against the surface of the glass. This cold air simply +dropped straight down, after the manner of a douche, on candles and +heads below. The remedy I advised was the setting up of a current of +hotter steam and air from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling +effect of the glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in +slow movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the table. +Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, the gas was +put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. But before we left, +the chilliness and draughts began to be again felt. + +The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of April +last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably warm nights. +It is therefore clear that in this instance neither electricity nor +candles could effectually replace gas for lighting purposes. They both +did the lighting, but they utterly failed to keep the currents of air +steady. I have always remarked draughts whenever I have remained any +length of time in rooms where the electric light is used. On a warm +evening the electric light and candles would undoubtedly have kept the +room cooler than gas, with the same kind of ventilation; I do not think +they would have put an end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas +does in all fairly built rooms. + +It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively small +amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid manner, to +anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the contrary, from its +great specific heat, remains in a heated state for a much longer time +than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a low temperature, and in +parting with its own heat it communicates a considerable amount of +warmth to those bodies with which it comes in contact. Thus the products +of the combustion of gas (which are principally steam) serve a useful +purpose in lighting, by keeping at the ceiling level a certain stratum +of heated vapor, which holds up, as it were, the carbonic acid and +exhalation from the lungs given off by those using the room. The obvious +inference, therefore, is that if we take off these products from the +level of the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we shall +have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level warm, in order +to prevent the heated impure air from descending in comparatively rapid +currents, after having parted with its heat to the ceiling. It may very +frequently be observed on chilly days that a number of currents of cold +air seem to travel about our rooms, although there may be no crevices in +the doors and windows sufficient to account for them; and, further, that +these currents of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn +and the gas is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough +heat at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we constantly +hear when electric lights are used for the illumination of public +buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, held at the end of April last in the Conservatory of the +Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the five hundred guests, and from +an almost equal number of waiters and attendants, displaced the cold air +from the dome of the roof, and literally poured down on the assembly +(who were in evening dress) in a manner to compel many of them to put on +overcoats. If the Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below +the roof, this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam +would have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up +in the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, to +keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and thus steady +the currents. + +Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain conditions of +the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them comfortable when +electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will lay before you some few +particulars relative to the condition of small rooms of about 12 ft. by +15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary room such as may be found in the usual +run of houses in this country. The cubical contents of such a room +equals 1,700 cubic feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, +we shall for the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken +out of it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) from 600 +to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, therefore, be +admitted by some means or other into the room, or the chimney will, in +ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products of combustion, very +largely diluted with fresh air, will not all find their way up the flue +with sufficient velocity to overcome the pressure of the heavy cold air +at the top of the chimney. If no proper inlets for air are made, this +supply to the fire must be kept up from the crevices of the doors and +windows. In the line of these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as +they are usually called, it is impossible to experience any +comfort--quite the contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other +serious maladies are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh +air in the wrong way and place. + +According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on ventilation), +300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every adult person in +ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet are sufficient; less +than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and unhealthy. It is generally +admitted that an average adult breathes out from 20 to 30 cubic inches +of steam and vitiated air per minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity +equal in bulk to that of a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and +steam is respired at a temperature of 90° Fahr.; and therefore, by +reason of this heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together +with the heat and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. +This fact, by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person +in the direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every fiber of +his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is passing +upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white lines on the +surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the extreme +rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the rays of light +to pass through them with less refraction than through the denser and +more moist surrounding cold air. An adult makes, on an average, about 15 +respirations per minute, and therefore he in every hour renders to the +atmosphere of the room in which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet +of poisonous air. This rises to the ceiling line, if it is not +prevented; and thus vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the +extent of 1 per cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not +good which contained more than ½ per cent, of air which had been exhaled +from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to health these +exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in his view. Therefore +in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is vitiated to more than 2 feet +from the ceiling by one person to the extent of ½ per cent., and it will +be vitiated by two persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same +time. + +It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the vitiated +air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 feet of the +height of the room depends very materially on the difference of +temperature between these upper and lower strata and the movements of +air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and gases fall into and +diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the lower strata--very readily +if they are nearly the same temperature as the upper, but scarcely at +all if the air at the ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, +in warmed rooms of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two +petroleum lamps are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of +occupation by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the +air at the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time--sometimes, indeed, for only +a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination of the room is +maintained at the same degree as in the case of lamps, the contamination +of the air is very much worse. It is doubtless the case that poisonous +germs are rapidly developed in atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" +and although, in a healthy state of the body, we are able to breathe +them without perceptible harm, yet even then the slight headache and +uneasiness we feel is a symptom which does not suffer itself to be +lightly regarded, whenever, from some cause or other, the general +condition is weak. + +The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and carbonic +acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the products +from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil or candles. +They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ life; and +therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where they always +collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience or danger to +health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our endeavors to take +off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our first serious check in +all schemes of ventilation. We draw the elevation and section of the +room, and put in our flues with pretty little black arrows flying out of +the outlets for vitiated air, and other pretty little red arrows flying +in at the inlets; but when we see our scheme in practice, the black +arrows will persist in putting their wings where their points ought to +be; in other words, flying into instead of out of the room. + +One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot and cold +currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such as used to be +employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of gases; and, having +filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by weights tied on to the +car till it will rest without going up or down in a part of the room +where the air can be felt to be at about the mean temperature, and free +from draught. Then leave it to itself, to go where it will. + +As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will ascend, +passing along with the current, and descending or rising as the current +is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh air from windows or +doors, as well as the effect of the radiant heat from the fire, can be +thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet theories may receive a cruel +shock from this experiment; but, in the end, the ventilation of the room +will doubtless be benefited, if we apply the information obtained. It +will be discovered that the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the +little black arrows turning their backs on the right path and our +theoretical outlets for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue +must have an enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the +most easily accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per +hour is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless to +attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by ventilating +gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little talc flappers, +opening into the chimney when there is an up draught, and shutting +themselves up when there is any tendency to down draught. The success of +these and all other ventilators depends upon there being a good supply +of air from under the door or through the spaces round the window +frames. These fresh air supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one +of the spaces between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an +air conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised about +two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things will be set +up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will satisfy the fire, +without drawing from the doors and windows, and at the same time supply +a small quantity of fresh air into the room. But the important fact that +the radiant heat from the fire will pass through the cold air without +warming it all must not be lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only +warms the furniture and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its +rays. The air of the room is warmed by passing over these more or less +heated surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to the +fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender may be +used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along the front, +as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. This will also +prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be found that for the +greater part of the year the chimney ventilator and the supply to the +fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," and keep those disagreeable +draughts under control, even although the room be lighted with a 3 light +chandelier burning a large quantity of gas. + +[Illustration] + +With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms perfectly +with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we cannot light a +room without in some measure creating heat; and I think I have shown +that we want this heat at the ceiling line for the greater part of the +year. + +In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other hand, it +is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65° to 70° Fahr., to +keep the air in proper movement in small rooms. There are also times in +the fall of the year, and also in spring, when the nights are unusually +warm; and, with a few friends in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" +question, not to say a "burning" one. On these occasions we have to +resort to exceptional ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life +would be too much. It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of +ventilation by diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes +of air of different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves +on opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or some +more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through this +medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal density or +temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a window (which can +be opened, downward) with a strained piece of fine muslin or washed +common calico, the air in the room, if hotter than the external air, +will, when the window is more or less opened, pass out readily into the +cooler air, and the cooler air will pass in through the pores of the +medium. The hotter air passing out faster than the cooler air will come +in, no draught will be experienced; and the window may be opened very +widely without any discomfort from it. + +It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to do more +than indicate a means of ventilation which will be effective under most +circumstances of lighting with those gas burners and fittings usually +employed, and which will lend itself readily to modifications which will +be necessitated by the use of some of the newest forms of burners and +ventilating gas lights. + +[Illustration] + +In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important discovery I have +made in reference to blackened ceilings, for which, up to the present +time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have long entertained the belief +that with a proper burner it is possible to obtain perfect combustion, +without any smoke; and a series of experiments with white porcelain +plates hung over some burners used in my own house proved conclusively +that the discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed +ceilings arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large +towns is largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or +dirt created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, escapes +from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of my best rooms, +which required to have the ceilings whitened every year, substituted +varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply put on in the usual +way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I also changed the coal fires +for gas fires. These alterations have gone through the test of two +winters, and the ceilings are now as clean as when they were first done. +The burners have been used every night, and the gas fires every day, +during the two winters. No alteration has been made in the burners +employed, and no "consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished +paper ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine sieve. +This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, which, +after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than the spaces +between. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANDERS' TELEPHONE. + + +Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, combines in a +single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and a pile, C. The +transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing several large +apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a metallic disk, d, +situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are filled with powdered +carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal plate, f, which is fixed to +the insulating ring, c, by means of a metallic washer, g. Back of the +transmitter is arranged the receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary +electro-magnet with a disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed +behind the receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a +partition, i, and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of +zinc, l, which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a +spring, m, fixed to the insulating piece, n. + +[Illustration: ANDERS TELEPHONE] + +When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the zinc +plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the circuit is +closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, the transmitter, +and the line wire 2, while when the button is freed the current no +longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve as a receiver or +transmitter only when the button is pressed.--_Bull. de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR. + + +When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a consequence +of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw and engine +increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance that the screw +was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When the screw enters the +water again, the resistance makes itself abruptly felt, and causes +powerful shocks, which put both the screw and engine in danger. Ordinary +regulators are powerless to overcome this trouble, since their +construction is such that they act upon the engine only when the excess +of velocity has already been reached. + +Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For example, use +has been made of a float placed in a channel at the side of the screw, +and which closes the moderator valve by mechanical means or by +electricity when the screw descends too low or rises too high. + +[Illustration: BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.] + +Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see figure) +consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. One of them, +b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be constantly in the water, +while the other, a, corresponds to the position above which the screw +cannot rise without taking on a dangerous velocity. In the normal +situation of the ship, the electric circuit, c (in which circulates a +current produced by a dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of +the water, which establishes a connection between the two contacts. When +the contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled back by +a spring--a motion that sets in action a small steam engine that closes +the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is again immersed, the +electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus brings the moderator valve +back to its normal position. It is clear that the contact, a, must be +insulated from the ship's side. + +Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above another, +in order to close the moderator valve more or less, according to the +extent of the screw's rise or fall. + + * * * * * + + + + +MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL. + + +We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to railroad +crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, of Steelton, +Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated highway crossing +in the woods or any lonely place can be made perfectly safe, and that, +too, without the expense of gates and a man to work them or of a +flagman. It is surely a great improvement over the old methods, and it +is likely to have a large sale. In addition to considerations of safety, +possible saving in salaries to railroad companies by its use will be +great. This device is more reliable than a human being, and can make any +crossing safe to which it is applied. Its operation is described as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The illustration shows the device as used on a single track railroad, +where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains approaching the +crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the right). A similar box +on the other side of the crossing is used for trains approaching in the +other direction. Two plates connected by a link, and pivoted, are placed +alongside of one rail, close enough to it to be depressed by the treads +of the wheels. By another link, one of the plates called the rock plate +(the one to the right) is connected to a rock shaft which extends +through a strong bearing into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a +suitable distance from the rail, within which an electric generator is +placed; the whole being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long +ties framed to receive it. + +The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the rear +end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the bearing for +which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first wheel of a train +which is approaching in the desired direction (from the right in the +engraving) touches it, it will be seen that it must not only depress it, +but produce a slight forward motion, causing a corresponding rotary +motion in the rock shaft which actuates the apparatus. On the other +hand, when a train is approaching from the other direction, or has +already passed the crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to +the left of the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link +connections shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels +before the wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so +that it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over the +apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it whatever, +the different point at which the same force is applied to the rock plate +giving the latter an entirely different motion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to the rock +shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, compresses a +spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the rock plate, the +reaction of the spring throws it up again to its former position, giving +additional speed to the gearing within, which is set in motion at the +passage of the first wheel, and operates the electric "generator." The +spring is really the motive power of the alarm. A small but heavy +fly-wheel is connected with the apparatus, the top of which is just +visible in the engraving, which serves to store up power to run the +"generator," which is nothing more than a small dynamo, for the +necessary number of seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The +dynamo dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if any +part has been broken. + +A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator with +insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary telegraph +wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees leading to the +electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the armature revolves. It +is a simple matter so to proportion the mechanism for the required +distance and speed that the revolutions of the armature and the ringing +of the gong shall continue until the train reaches the crossing; and as +each wheel acts upon the apparatus, the more wheels there are in the +train the longer the bell will ring, a very convenient property, since +the slowest trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical +limits to the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after +the head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly might not +actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even then it is not +unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last long enough for all +practical requirements, as a team approaching a crossing at eight miles +per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. All the bearings of any +importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, the whole apparatus being +designed to require inspection not more than once a month. The iron case +when shut is water-tight, and when duly locked cannot be maliciously +tampered with without breaking open the case; so that, the manufacturers +claim, it will not be essential to examine it more than once a month. +The parts outside the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to +get out of order, while easily inspected. + +The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as sounding +alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or building. The gong +has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of noise, so that no one +should fail to hear it.--_Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. + + +Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, gives the +following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by himself and +Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for mammals and birds. +It will be seen that, with three or four exceptions, the sizes obtained +by the two observers are practically the same: + + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. + + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 + + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. + + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 + +The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an interesting +manner in an address before the Microscopical Section of the A.A.A.S. +last year, an abstract of which was published in this journal, vol. v., +p. 181. + +The slight differences in size accurately given in this table are not +always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a power of +1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of an inch are +readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. Wormley as regards +the possibility of identifying blood of different animals, the reader is +referred to his book on Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.--_Amer. Micro. +Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN. + +[Footnote: From the _American Druggist_.] + + +E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made with +vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult of +resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal ingredients to +the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this question, he +considered himself justified in drawing conclusions from the manner in +which such compounds behaved toward _dead_ animal membrane. If any kind +of osmosis could take place, he argued, from ointments prepared with +vaseline, etc., through dead membranes, such osmosis would most probably +also take place through living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic +or exosmotic action of the skin of a living body must necessarily play +an important _role_ in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following experiments: + +Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, with +bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium ointment. + +No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard. + +No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (_Germ. Pharm_.), and + +No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. of lard. + +All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with water. After +standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature, the contents of +none of the beakers gave any iodine reaction. After having been placed +into a warm temperature, between 25-37° C., all three showed iodine +reactions after three hours, Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with +lard alone) very faintly. + +The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that the +bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. Each vial +was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27° C., in 50 grammes of distilled +water. After three hours, the contents of No. 1 (containing the ointment +made with _lard_) gave _no_ iodine reaction; the contents of the other +two, however, gave traces. After eight hours no further change had taken +place. The temperature was now raised to 30-35° C., and kept so for +eight hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes of the +contents of the beakers. + +In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed through +the membrane in each case. + +The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin (freed +from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the bladder. The +ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per cent. of lard. No +reaction was obtained, at the ordinary temperature, after twelve hours, +nor after eight more hours, at a temperature of 25-30° C. After letting +them stand for eight hours longer at 30-37° C., a faint reaction was +obtained in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a +still fainter with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made +with lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, but no +fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of the contents +of each beaker, + + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " + +showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the ointment +made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to vaseline). + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TAILS OF COMETS. + + +I.--If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be produced that +will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and the velocity with +which it extends depend upon the size of the stone, that is to say, upon +the intensity of the mechanical action that created it. The extent and +depth of the water are likewise factors. + +If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a succession +of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived from the cord's +size and the intensity of its action. These waves, which are visible +upon the surface, constitute what I shall call _mechanical waves_. But +there will be created at the same time other waves, whose velocity of +propagation will be much greater than that of the mechanical ones, and +apparently independent of mechanical intensity. These are _acoustic +waves_. Finally, there will doubtless be created _optical waves_, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if a +person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses were +sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous sensation when +the first optical wave reached him, then he would perceive the sound +produced, and later still he would feel, through a slight tremor, the +mechanical wave.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Certain persons, as well known, undergo an optical +impression under the action of certain sounds.] + +[Illustration: I] + +Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, in a +mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and velocity of +propagation; and although but three modes appreciable to our senses have +been cited, it does not follow that these are the only ones possible. + +We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon water, it +will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in front of it +successive waves whose velocity of propagation is accelerated. + +This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are briefer +than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead sound at a few +yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a great distance. + +The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, very +complex. + +[Illustration: II] + +II.--If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will occur in each +of them an _alteration_, a break, which it will carry along with it to a +greater or less distance. This succession of alterations forms a trace +behind the obstacle, and in opposition to the line of the centers. +Finally, if the obstacle itself emits waves in space that are of less +intensity then those which meet it, these little waves will extend in +the wake of the large ones, and will form a trace of parabolic form +situated upon the line of the centers. + +[Illustration: III] + +III.--Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the peculiar energy that +develops upon its surface or in its atmosphere, engenders in ethereal +space successive waves of varying nature and intensity, as has been said +above, and let us admit that its _mechanical_ waves are traversed +obliquely (Fig. 1) by any spherical body--by a comet, for example; then, +under the excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar waves +consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will become +apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced by an +excitation--a setting of the ether in vibration. The mechanical waves +engender of themselves, then, an emission of optical waves that render +perceptible the alteration which they create in each other. + +Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will carry +along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while at the +same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the comet. During +this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave will be altered in +its turn, and carry such alteration in the direction, a' b'. + +The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, upon a +curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the comet, will be +upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of the propagation of +the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the motion of the comet, with +respect to the velocity of the solar waves, the closer will such +resultant approach the line of centers, and the more rectilinear will +appear the trace or tail of the comet. + +[Illustration: IV] + +IV.--If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according to the +relative position of these, several tails appear, and these will seem to +form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions of a comet and a +satellite, it will be seen that if, while the comet is proceeding to c', +the satellite, through its revolution around it, goes to s', the traces +formed at c and s will be extended to d and d', and that we shall have +two tails, c' d and s' d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem +to be confounded toward c' s'. + +V.--When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect will occur--the +tail will precede it, and will be so much the more in a line with the +sun in proportion as the velocity of the solar waves exceeds that of the +comet. + +If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the alteration of +the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see (supposing the +phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at a 1, the tail will +and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be at a 2 b'; and when it +is at a 4, the tail will have become an immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in +reality the trace is extinguished in space, we never see but the origin +of it, which is the part of it that is constantly new--that is to say, +the part represented in the spirals of Fig. 4. + +The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 leagues +per second; it would have only required the velocity of the solar waves' +propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to have put the tail in +a sensibly direct opposition with the sun. + +Knowing the angle [gamma] (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit makes +with the sun at a given point, and the angle [delta] of the track upon +such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we can deduce +therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the simple expression: + + V = v × (sinus [delta] / sinus([gamma] - [delta])) or (Fig. 1), + + V = da/t'', + +t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''. + +[Illustration: V] + +VI.--The tail, then, is not a special matter which is transported in +space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar waves, just as +sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is propagated with the +velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air is not transported. The +tail which we see in one position, then, is not that which we see in +another; it is constantly renewed. Consequently, it is easy to conceive +how, in as brief a time as it took the comet of 1843 to make a half +revolution round the sun, the tail which extended to so great a distance +appeared to sweep the 180° of space, while at the same time remaining in +opposition to the great luminary. + +[Illustration: VI] + +The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. If to a +vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with a certain +velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be understood that, +from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a spiral. Each drop of water +will recede radially in space, the spiral will keep forming at the jet, +and if, through any reason, the latter alone be visible, we shall see a +nearly rectilinear jet that will seem to revolve with the pipe. + +Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), while it +is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the projected water +will mark the spiral indicated, and this will continue to widen, and +each drop will recede in the direction shown by the arrows. + +[Illustration: VII] + +VII.--It seems to result from this explanation that all the planets and +their satellites ought to produce identical effects, and have the +appearance of comets. In order to change the conditions, it suffices to +admit that the ethereal mass revolves in space around the sun with a +velocity which is in each place that of the planets there; and this is +very reasonable if, admitting the nebular hypothesis, we draw the +deduction that the cause that has communicated the velocity to the +successive rings has communicated it to the ethereal mass. + +The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in space, and +for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if they become +capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed at their +surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too weak to give very +perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, have relatively too +feeble velocities. + +The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, and +sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its proper +velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the ethereal +mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing sufficiently +intense mechanical effects to affect our vision. + +VIII.--Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these stars pass +the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its satellites may be very +different, and the velocity of rotation of the latter, being added to or +deducted from that of the forward motion, there may occur (as in the +case shown in Fig. 6) a separation of a satellite from the principal +star. The comet then appears to separate into two, and each part follows +different routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may +either fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic orbit, and +make but one appearance.--_A. Goupil._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE. + +[Footnote: Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine doppelrolle +des stachels der honigbienen" in _Deutschamerikanische Apotheker +Zeitung_, 15 Jan., 1885, Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from _Ind. +Blatter_.] + + +Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently been +made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the honey bee. +These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable phenomena in the +domestic economy of the ants. It is already known that the honey of our +honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of litmus, shows a distinct red +color, or, in other words, has an acid reaction. It manifests this +peculiarity because of the volatile formic acid which it contains. This +admixed acid confers upon crude honey its preservative power. Honey +which is purified by treatment with water under heat, or the so-called +honey-sirup, spoils sooner, because the formic acid is volatilized. The +honey of vicious swarms of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a +pungent odor. This effect is produced by the formic acid, which is +present in excess in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in +what way the substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in +the honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only for +defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance. + +The observation has recently been made that the bees in the hive, even +when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the minute drops of bee +poison (formic acid) which from time to time exude from the tip of their +sting. And this excellent preservative medium is thus sooner or later +contributed to the stored honey. The more excitable and the more ready +to sting the bees are, the greater will be the quantity of formic acid +which is added to the honey, and the admixture of which good honey +needs. The praise which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race +of our honey bees, which is indisposed to sting--and such praise is +still expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German bee-masters--is +therefore from a practical point of view a false praise. Now we +understand also why the stingless honey bees of South America collect +little honey. It is well known that never more than a very small store +of honey is found in felled trees inhabited by stingless _Melipona_. +What should induce the _Melipona_ to accumulate stores which they could +not preserve? They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen +different known species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A +peculiar phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. It is +well known that there are different grain-gathering species of ants. The +seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved for years in their +little magazines, without germinating. A very small red ant, which drags +grains of wheat and oats into its dwellings, lives in India. These ants +are so small that eight or twelve of them have to drag on one grain with +the greatest exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or +rough ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than a +thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun to +sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. Hence the +ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but the capacity +for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English investigator John +Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts in his work entitled +"Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not yet known in what way the +ants prevent the sprouting of the collected grains. But now it is +demonstrated that here also it is only the formic acid, whose +preservative influence goes so far that it can make seed incapable of +germination for a determinate time or continuously. + +It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant which +lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our _Lasius niger_, which +carries seeds of _Viola_ into its nests, and, as Wittmack has +communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der gesellschaft +naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with the seeds of +_Veronica hederaefolia_. + +Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, _Pheidole providens_, that +this species collects a great store of grass-seeds. But he observed that +the ants brought their store of grain into the open air to dry it after +the monsoon storms. From this it appears that the preservative effect of +the formic acid is destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying +process. So that among the bees the honey which is stored for winter +use, and among the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are +preserved by one and the same fluid, formic acid. + + +EDITORIAL NOTE. + +This same theory has been suggested many times by our most advanced +American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same formic acid was +what made honey a poison to many people, and that the sharp sting of +some honey, notably that from bass wood or linden, originated in this +acid from the poison sac. If this is the correct explanation, it seems +strange that the same kind of honey is always peculiar for greater or +less acidity as the case may be. We often see bees with sting extended +and tipped with a tiny drop of poison; but how do we know that this +poison is certainly mingled with the honey? Is this any more than a +guess?--_A.J. Cook, in Psyche_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884. + + +We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of distillation, and, +as such, very pure. A little reflection and a very slight amount of +experimental examination will quickly disabuse those who have this +mistaken and popular impression of their error. A great number of bodies +which arise from industrial processes, domestic combustion of coal, +natural changes in vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances +as tornadoes and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are +discharged into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving upon +its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable evidences of +their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali and sulphuric acid +works is well known; the acid character of rains collected near and in +cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal strength of some local rainfalls, +have been fully discussed. The exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith +in Scotland, and the interesting reports of French examiners, have made +the scientific world familiar, not only qualitatively but +quantitatively, with the chemical nature of some rains, as well as with +their solid sedimentary contents. + +Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact that the +rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding this due +solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended particles of +chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free chlorine, it appeared +interesting to determine the average amount of these salts in the rain +water of the sea coast. The results given in this paper refer to a +district on Staten Island, New York harbor, at a point four miles from +the ocean, slightly sheltered from the ocean's immediate influence by +the intervention of low ranges of hills. They were communicated to the +Natural Science Association of Staten Island, but the details of the +observations may prove of interest to the readers of the _Quarterly_, +and may there serve as a record more widely accessible. + +It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in rainfalls +near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, putting aside +local exceptions arising from cities or manufactories, increasing with +the proximity of the point of observation to the ocean, and also showing +a marked relation to the exposure of the position chosen to violent +storms. Thus the west coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger +quantities of chlorides than those of the east, and the table given by +Dr. Smith shows the variations in neighboring localities on the same +seafront. The chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer +leaves the sea coast. In the following observations the waters of +thirty-two rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of +silver in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a +liter, and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common salt, as +the position of the point of observation is not removed more than a mile +from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric acid works in New +Jersey, yet this could not even generally have been so, as the rain +storms came, for the greater number of instances, from the east, in an +opposite direction to the position of the factories alluded to. It has +also been noticed by Mr. A. Hollick, to whom these observations were of +interest, that in heavy storms a salt film often forms upon fruit +exposed to the easterly gales upon the shores of the island. + +The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for sodic +chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for 1884, as +reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, somewhat +higher than usual, as the average for a series of years before gives 46 +inches; but taking these former figures, we find that for that year +(1884) each acre of ground received, accepting the results obtained by +my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of common salt, if we regard +the entire chlorine contents of the rains as due to that body, or 46.23 +pounds of chlorine alone. + +In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, an +examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one year +about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds were +regarded as common salt. + +Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, it is +not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating it in +small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample supply. These +facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing influence of rains, and +they also suggest to what extent rains may exert a corrosive action when +they descend charged with acid vapors.--_L.P. Gratacap, in School of +Mines Quarterly_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHROMATOSCOPE. + + +Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has named a +chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot lens that we +take the following description from the _Journal_ of the Royal +Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of illuminating and +defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a similar manner to that +in which the polariscope defines polarizable objects. It can also be +applied to many polarizable objects. This quality, combined with the +transmission of a greater amount of light than is obtainable by the +polariscope, renders objects thus seen much more effective. It is +constructed as follows: Into the tube of the spot lens a short tube is +made to move freely and easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the +outer one, which is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying +a glass plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about 8, 5, +and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some extent through +the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong yellow, thus giving four +principal colors. Secondary colors are formed by a combination of the +rays in passing through the spot lens. + +"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in quality as +possible, and a better effect is obtained by three pieces of stained +glass than by a number of small pieces. The application of the +chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be used with all objectives +up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, particularly crystals which will not +polarize, diatoms, infusoria, palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be +seen to greater advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. +As its cost is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, +large or small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are +known, I am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to +the microscope." + + * * * * * + +Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, finds, +contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants assimilate +nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest quantity when +supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. Well fed plants +acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from the air. It seems +probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in some way assimilated by +the plants. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, November 7, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 3, 2004 [EBook #11761] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 514 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY.—Chlorides in the Rainfall of +1884. Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.—With +description and 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#2">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Relative Costs of +Fluid and Solid Fuels.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">The Manufacture of Steel Castings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Science in Diminishing Casualties at +Sea.—Extract of a paper read before the British Association +by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">The Span of Cabin John Bridge.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#9">TECHNOLOGY.—The Blue Print +Process.—R.W. JONES.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White +Ground.—By A.H. HAIG.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">A Plan for a Carbonizing House.—With full +description and 5 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">The Scholar's Compasses.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">The Integraph.—With full description and +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous +Beverages. 2 engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Field Kitchens. 8 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">The Preservation of Timber.—Report of the +Committee of the American Society of Engineers.—The Boucherie +process.—Experiments.—Decay of timber.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#19">PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.—Apparatus +for Measuring the Force of Explosives.—With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#20">Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.—Advantages +of gas over electricity, etc.—By WM. SUGG. 2 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Ander's Telephone. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#22">Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">The Chromatoscope.—An aid to +microscopy.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#25">ART AND ARCHITECTURE.—The Barbara Uttmann +Statue at Annaberg, Saxony.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#26">Improvements in Concrete Construction.—Use +of Portland cement.—System of building in concrete invented +by Messrs. F. & J.P. West, London.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">Albany Buildings. Southport.—An +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#28">PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.—The Sizes of +Blood Corpuscles in Mammals and Birds.—A table.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by +the Skin.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#30">MISCELLANEOUS.—The Missing German Corvette +Augusta.—With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#31">The Tails of Comets.—The effect by a +disturbance of solar waves, and not by special matter.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<h2>ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND.</h2> + +<p>The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it +has also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen +in a dark cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, +except by very few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved +to purchase the house and premises, with the object of preserving +the pavement <i>in situ</i>, and of giving additional light and +better access to it, and, this purchase having been completed in +the beginning of the present year, the work of improvement began. +It was now seen that the pavement was continuous under the premises +of the adjoining house, and under the public street, and +arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex these adjoining +parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. The +pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also +the entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive +skill, of variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least +part of the marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of +which the designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No +squared, artificially colored, or glazed tesseræ, such as we +see in a modern floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but +purposely formed of brick and stone. There are three shades of +brick—a bright red, a dull or Indian red, and a shade between +the two; slate from a neighboring quarry gives a dark bluish gray; +an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and a fine white composition +resembling limestone is used for the center points and borders. In +addition, the outside border is formed with tesseræ of rather +larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking generally, the +design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces +of the octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the +outer octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border +formed by a cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, +pear-shaped, and bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and +gray bands; and outside all is the limestone border already +described. This border is constructed with tesseræ about +five-eighths of an inch square. The remaining tesseræ vary +from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular rhomboidal form. The +construction of the pavement is remarkable. There is a foundation +of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded brick and +lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesseræ are laid with their +roughest side downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured +over the floor, filling up the interstices, after which the surface +would be rubbed down and polished.</p> + +<p>As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be +observed that the site of this pavement was near the center of the +western Roman town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the +military station and fortress. It was obviously the principal house +in the place, and as clearly, therefore, the residence of the +Præfectus, the local representative of the imperial power of +Rome. The Roman occupation of the district began with the +proprætorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. He was succeeded +in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through Leicester from the +Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea broke out. In +the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was elected +consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged +education. He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to +the decline of the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not +be far from the truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the +time or even to the personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years +ago.—<i>London Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany +had offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of +the Red Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field +hospital. Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a +design for competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice +that his invention had won the prize. Another instance of the +recognition of American genius abroad.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY.</h2> + +<p>The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was +the inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only +introduced it into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet +been solved, notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid +examinations have been made. It is the general belief, however, +that she only introduced the art, having learned it from a +foreigner in the year 1561. The person from whom she acquired this +knowledge is said to have been a Protestant fugitive from Brabant, +who was driven from her native land by the constables of the +Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann family. However, +the probability is that what the fugitive showed Barbara Uttmann +was the stitched, or embroidered, laces—points, so +called—which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the +present time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced +Barbara Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand +cushion.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +"BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.</p> + +<p>Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the +Saxon mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner +of extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at +Annaberg, Jan. 14, 1584.</p> + +<p>The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of +the residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as +the occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it +frequently happened that the wages were so low, and the means of +sustaining life so expensive, that some other resource had to be +found to make life more bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was +thus a blessing to the country, and her name is held in high +esteem. A monumental fountain is to be erected at Annaberg, and is +to be surmounted by a statue of the country's benefactress, Barbara +Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert Henze, is to be cast in +bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the costume worn at the +time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of lace, which she +has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles being +visible.</p> + +<p>Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a +cushion by hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the +pins for giving the desired pattern to the lace being stuck into +the cushion. A yard of hand cushion lace has been sold in England +for as much as $25,000. The annexed cut, representing the Barbara +Uttmann statue, was taken from the <i>Illustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, +one for himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a +furnace against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air +chamber he had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The +owner of the other house found it very hard to keep his own house +warm, and was astounded at the amount of coal it took to render his +family comfortable, while the "other fellow" kept himself warm at +his neighbor's expense nearly a whole winter before the trick was +discovered.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.</h2> + +<p>Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not +hydraulically compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of +moisture from the air to prevent condensation upon the surface of +the walls. It not only resists the disintegrating influences of the +atmosphere, but becomes even harder with the lapse of time. It may +also be made in several different colors, and can be finished off +to nearly a polished surface or can be left quite rough. Walls +built of this material may be made so hard that a nail cannot be +driven into them, or they can be made sufficiently soft to become a +fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous aggregate be used, no damp +course is required. Further than this, if land be bought upon which +there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that can be burnt, the +greatest portion of the building material may be obtained in +excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the (salt) +shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be +found to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it +may be made fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in +dwellings for the poor will therefore resist the destructive +efforts of the "young barbarian." Nothing, therefore, can be better +as a building material. The system ordinarily employed to erect +structures in concrete consists of first forming casings of wood, +between which the liquid concrete is deposited, and allowed to +become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, the +cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, +but with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. +Besides this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, +especially if it has been applied some time after the concrete +forming the body of the wall has set, and the method of applying +ornament is not economical.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2a.png" alt="1.-18."></p> + +<p class="ctr">1.-18.</p> + +<p>A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by +Messrs. F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we +now present. To this system Messrs. West have given the name of +"Concrete Exstruction," from the Latin "exstructio," which they +consider to be a more appropriate word than "constructio," as +applied to concrete building in general. In Messrs. West's system +of building in concrete, instead of employing wood casings, between +which to deposit the concrete or beton, and removing them when the +beton has become hard, casings of concrete itself are employed. +These casings are not removed when the beton has set, but they +become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In order to +form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, +which may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of +rectangular (Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), +and indeed of any other form that will make a complete surface, +while for thickness it may be suited to the work to which it is to +be applied, that used for heavy engineering work differing from +that employed in house construction. It is found that the most +convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. 1) is 12 inches +and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure built with +slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with architectural +measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to measure 12 +inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of these +slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs +are made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of +India-rubber or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs +with their edges as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can +be manufactured. That portion of the back of the slab which is +undercut is formed by means of soft India-rubber cores. The moulds +for making portions of the slabs have a contrivance by which their +length may be adjusted to suit given dimensions.</p> + +<p>During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a +plastic state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a +suitable key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is +finished off to them (Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be +cast with ornaments, etc., complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but +it is more economical to have separate moulds for the mouldings and +other ornaments, and separate moulds for the slabs, and to apply +the mouldings, etc., during the process of casting the slab. +Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be somewhat similar to the +plinth course slab No. 10), and other constructive features may +also be applied in a similar way, or may be provided for during the +casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or other ornamental +solid or even plastic material may be applied to the face of the +slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work to be +finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face of +the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2b.png" alt= +"FIG. 19. FIG 20."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 19. FIG 20.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is +shown with the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that +the footings are constructed in the most economical manner by not +being stepped. As no damp-course is required in concrete work, when +the aggregate is of a non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon +the top of the footings is generally laid a horizontal slab, called +the wall-base slab, the special feature of which is that it enables +the thickness of the wall to be gauged accurately, and also +provides a fixing for the first course of slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show +such slabs for internal and external angles, and Fig. 6 shows one +for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is not essential, +although it is the more accurate method of building, for in cases +where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, the +slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set +behind them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first +course with breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being +keyed to the other by means of a quick-setting cementing material +poured into the key-holes provided in the edges of the slab for +that purpose, a bituminous cement being preferred. The key-holes +are made in several ways, those shown in the illustrations being of +a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed holes of any other +shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an oblique direction +are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or squint-quoins (Figs. +17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16) are +manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. +This gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the +quoin in one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course +above a three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or <i>vice +versa</i>. Thus are the walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For +openings, the jambs and lintels (and in window-openings the sill) +are made solid with a provision for a key-hole to the mass of +concrete filling behind them. That portion of the jambs against +which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a similar one in +the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle joint by +squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a +similar way.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2c.png" alt= +"FIG. 21.-FIG 25."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 21.-FIG 25.</p> + +<p>The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made +to contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of +courses (according to convenience) have been built up, and when set +practically forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to +which the face slabs are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland +cements, which are known to contract in setting, and with those +over-limed cements which expand (both of which are not true +Portland cements), the filling in is done in equal sections, with a +vertical space equal to each section left between them until the +first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are then +filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores +of the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where +required, slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails +may be driven, such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt +clay, coke, and such like. Hollow lintels are also made of the +slabs keyed together at their vertical joints, and when in position +these are filled in with beton. This system, however, is only +recommended for fire-place openings instead of arches.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the +apsidal end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 +being employed for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show +forms of slabs suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal +axes and domes. In Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is +shown a system of constructing floors of these slabs. It is only +necessary to explain that the slabs are first keyed to the lower +flange of the iron joist by means of a cement (bituminous +preferred), and the combination is then fixed in position, the +edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, the iron +joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening slabs, +the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists +are made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted +to iron girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This +provision secures the covering of the cross girders on their +undersides by the ceiling slabs. The concrete having been deposited +upon the slabs, its upper surface may be finished off in any of the +usual ways, while the ceiling may be treated in any of the ways +described for the walls. This system does not exclude the ordinary +methods of constructing floors and roofs, although it supplies a +fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, and, in fact, any +other building material, may be used in conjunction with the +slabs.</p> + +<p>The system of building construction is intended, as in the case +with all concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the +various uses to which they have been applied, and, at the same +time, to offer a more perfect system of building in concrete. +Hitherto slab concrete work has never been erected in a perfectly +finished state (i.e., with mouldings, etc., complete), but has +either been left in a rough state or without ornament, or else has +been constructed so as never to be capable of receiving good +ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in constructing +concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to prevent the +slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to +form, with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming +the slabs of L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of +internal buttress and shoring them up from the outside, or of +supporting the slabs upon framing fixed against the faces of the +wall, several devices have been used to obviate this +difficulty.</p> + +<p>In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the +slabs forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as +soon as the plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but +not before), these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or +cramps have been used, and, as their name implies, have been +allowed to remain in the wall and to be entirely buried in the +plastic filling-in material. These permanent transverse ties or +cramps have been of two kinds: those which were affixed as soon as +the slabs were placed in position, and those which were made to +form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, slabs of Z or +H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the plastic +filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse tie +by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs +forming each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in +some cases, being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being +undercut in some way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in +this latter system generally have wide bases, they may also be +bedded or jointed in cement, and, provided temporary ties be placed +across their upper edges to connect the slabs forming each face of +the wall together, the space between the faces of the wall may then +be filled in with the plastic concrete.</p> + +<p>All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they +are only temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton +has become hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two +faces of the wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of +all slab concrete construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the +plastic concrete used in forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the +slabs to the mass which they themselves have moulded; and (c) to +form a facing to the wall. When these objects shall have been +accomplished, there is no further need of any tie whatever beyond +that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. In West's system, +however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, any kind of +transverse tie to be used during the process of construction, +except that used in the starting course, is entirely dispensed +with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the courses +of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the time +that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2d.png" alt= +"CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION"></p> + +<p class="ctr">CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION</p> + +<p>There is, however, a more decided difference between West's +system and those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact +that the slabs composing the shell of the whole structure in many +cases may be built up before the filling-in is deposited between +the slabs, and in none of the other cases can this be done. In +fact, only in the first two cases before mentioned can more than +one course of slabs be laid before filling-in of some kind must be +done. Compared with the ordinary method of building in concrete, +this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and waste of wood +casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside and +outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties +encountered in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of +the work by the ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a +face of any of the usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, +besides a facing of any other material, such as marble, etc., and +produces better and more durable work, at the same time showing a +saving in cost, especially in the better classes of work; all of +which is effected with less plant than ordinarily required. For +engineering work, such as sea walls, the hexagonal slabs, made of +greater thickness than those employed for ordinary walling, will +answer admirably, especially if the grooves be made proportionately +larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be built up with +great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the dwellings of +artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to render them +easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves in +order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of +the simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work.</p> + +<p>Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for +this system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. +Frank West, as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be +preferred. It not only supplies the necessary scaffold, but also +the necessary arrangements for hoisting the slabs, as well as for +raising the liquid concrete and depositing it behind the slabs. It +is really an independent scaffold, and may be used wherever a light +tramway of contractor's rails can be laid, which in crowded +thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a staging erected over the +footway. The under frame is carried upon two bogie frames running +upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is enabled to turn +sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being provided at +the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of a +climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to +the under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A +worm gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the +scaffold, causes the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, +made to act at the curves as well as on the straight portions of +the rail by being attached to a radial arm fixed to the under +frame, assists the stability of the scaffold where required, but +the gauge of the rails is altered to render the scaffold more or +less stable according to its height. Combined with the same +machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used for +the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a +triangle be altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are +altered. A portion of the vertical post up and down which the crane +climbs forms the base of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, +together with the stay, forms the remaining two sides. Hence, by +causing the foot of one or the other to travel upward, by means of +the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib is either elevated or +depressed.</p> + +<p>The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless +chains passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is +fixed a hopper, into which is thrown, either by hand or from a +concrete mixer running upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, +and from which it gravitates into a narrow channel, through which +pass the buckets (attached to the chain) with a shovel-like action. +The buckets, a motor being applied to one pair of wheels, thus +automatically fill themselves, and on arriving at top are made to +tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically into a hopper +by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which they are +attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken +away to the required destination by means of a worm working in a +tube. For varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are +inserted and secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and +secured by a nut. By using this scaffold, a saving in plant, +cartage, and labor is effected. The elevator may also be used for +raising any other material besides concrete.</p> + +<p>Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding +of Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, +and which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may +add in conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a +scaffold are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.—<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt= +"ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, +ARCHITECT.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS.</h2> + +<h3>R.W. JONES.</h3> + +<p>1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, +with two or three thicknesses of common blanket or its +equivalent.</p> + +<p>2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side +uppermost.</p> + +<p>3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by +means of a plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the +board.</p> + +<p>4. Expose the whole—in a clear sunlight—from 4 to 6 +minutes. In a winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, +from 20 to 30 minutes.</p> + +<p>5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one +or two minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry.</p> + +<p>The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite +quality in the <i>paper</i> itself being its ability to stand +washing.</p> + +<p>Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such +a brush as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part +soluble citrate of iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part +red prussiate of potash, and dissolve in 10 parts of water.</p> + +<p>The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and +better results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until +immediately required. After being coated with the solution, the +paper must be laid away to dry in a dark place, and must be +shielded entirely from light until used. When dry, the paper is of +a yellow and bronze color. After exposure the surface becomes +darker, with the lines of the tracing still darker. Upon washing, +the characteristic blue tint appears, with the lines of the tracing +in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been obtained from glass +negatives by this process.—<i>Proc. Eng. Club, Phila.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND.</h2> + +<h3>A.H. HAIG.</h3> + +<p>The following process for making photographic copies of drawings +in blue lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is +based on the property of perchloride of iron of being converted +into protochloride on exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when +brought into contact with the perchloride of iron immediately turns +the latter blue, but it does not affect the protochloride.</p> + +<p>A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of +iron, five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one +hundred parts water. Should the paper to be used not be +sufficiently sized, dextrine, gelatine, isinglass, or some similar +substance must be added to the solution. The paper is sensitized by +dipping in this solution and then dried in the dark, and may be +kept for some length of time. To take a copy of a drawing made on +cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a sheet of the sensitive +paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame or under a sheet of +glass. The length of exposure varies with the state of the weather +from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds in winter, +in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 minutes, +and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now +immersed in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of +potash per 100 parts of water. Those parts protected from the light +by the lines of the drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest +of the paper, where the coating has been converted into +protochloride by the effects of light, will remain white. Next, the +image is freely washed in water, and then passed through a bath +consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid to 100 parts of +water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron salt.</p> + +<p>It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, +when the drawing will appear in blue on a white +background.—<i>Proc. Eng. Club, Phila.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p>[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.]</p> + +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS.<a name= +"FNanchor11_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club.</h3> + +<p>During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous +efforts to introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the +evaporation of water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on +a small scale, for domestic purposes.</p> + +<p>The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the +number of stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using +solid fuel. Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the +better classes. Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about +thirty-six per cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount +of compression. Ease of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of +regulation of temperature. Almost perfect combustion and +cleanliness.</p> + +<p>Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well +known regenerative furnace.</p> + +<p>Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running +on the Paris and Strassburg Railroad.</p> + +<p>Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and +under the boilers of steamship Oberlin.</p> + +<p>Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a +locomotive running on the Long Island Railroad.</p> + +<p>Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of +United States steamers.</p> + +<p>Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their +locomotives, and steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel.</p> + +<p>Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace +at Jersey City.</p> + +<p>Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the +production of water gas.</p> + +<p>These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results +when considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in +advocating their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the +all-important item of cost.</p> + +<p>It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of +such systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long +as the supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable +limits.</p> + +<p>In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely +theoretical results, without allowing for losses in the +furnace.</p> + +<p>The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, +crude petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases.</p> + +<p>The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the +heating agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, +are:</p> + +<p>PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT.</p> + +<table summary="PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT." border="1"> +<tr> +<th> </th> +<th>C</th> +<th>H</th> +<th>O</th> +<th>CO</th> +<th>CH<sub>4</sub></th> +<th>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub></th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Anthracite</td> +<td>87.7</td> +<td>3.3</td> +<td>3.2</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Bituminous</td> +<td>80.8</td> +<td>5.0</td> +<td>8.2</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Petroleum</td> +<td>84.8</td> +<td>13.1</td> +<td>1.5</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Coal gas</td> +<td> </td> +<td>6.5</td> +<td> </td> +<td>14.3</td> +<td>52.4</td> +<td>14.8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Generator gas</td> +<td> </td> +<td>1.98</td> +<td> </td> +<td>35.5</td> +<td>1.46</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Water gas</td> +<td> </td> +<td>6.3</td> +<td>0.6</td> +<td>87.8</td> +<td>1.2</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>We will employ the formula of Dulong—</p> + +<pre> + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) +</pre> + +<p>to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the +case of methane, CH<sub>4</sub>, the formula is not true, but the +error is not great enough to seriously affect the result. This +gives for the combustion of one pound of:</p> + +<pre> + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " +</pre> + +<p>Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from +212° F., we have:</p> + +<p>POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F.</p> + +<pre> + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 +</pre> + +<p>The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning +furnaces to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per +cent. may be taken as a good figure. The great difference in the +efficiencies is due to the fact that fluid fuels require for +combustion very little air above the theoretical quantity, while +with the solid fuels fully twice the theoretical quantity must be +admitted to dilute the products of combustion.</p> + +<p>Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we +have:</p> + +<p>POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212° F., PER POUND +OF FUEL.</p> + +<pre> + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 +</pre> + +<p>These figures agree closely with the results of experiments.</p> + +<p>We will now consider the subject of cost.</p> + +<p>The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing +centers, termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers.</p> + +<p>In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude +state, an approximation is made by adding to the cost at the +nearest shipping port the freight charged on refined petroleum, and +ten per cent. to cover duties and other charges.</p> + +<p>Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the +cities, there may be some errors.</p> + +<pre> + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. +<br> + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. +<br> + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 +<br> + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. +<br> + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. +</pre> + +<p>In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal +gas is taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; +petroleum, 0.8.</p> + +<pre> + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. +<br> + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. +<br> + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. +</pre> + +<p>These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give:</p> + +<pre> + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. FOR $1. +<br> + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. +<br> + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. +<br> + RELATIVE COSTS. +<br> + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. +<br> + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 +</pre> + +<p>These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there +may be circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their +use will exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a +comparison without considering particular cases, but for +intermittent heating petroleum would probably be more economical, +though for a steady fire coal holds its own.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor11_1">[1]</a></p> + +<div class="note">Read June 20, 1885.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS.</h2> + +<p>At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and +Steel Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, +Mr. R. Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, +read a paper on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting +discussion upon steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it +was thirty years since the first crucible steel castings were made +in Sheffield in the general way, and with one exception the method +of manufacture was pretty much the same now as at that early date. +The improvement was the employment of gas furnaces instead of the +old coke holes for melting. Important economies had resulted from +this introduction. Where before it required 3 tons of coke to melt +1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with 35 cwt. of very +poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make crucible steel +castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true steel, that was +to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct proportions +of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to make +crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and +manganese to produce that chemical composition which was known to +be necessary in best castings. It was in consequence of this +difficulty that many makers resorted to the addition of hematite +pigs. The Bessemer process was used much more extensively upon the +Continent than in this country in the manufacture of castings. It +seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for agitating the steel in +the ladle so as to remove the gases would be taken up largely for +open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as it had a +wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in conjunction +with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some extremely +wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid being +melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied +greatly. The ordinary method generally practiced in this country +was a modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed +were only of secondary importance to the making of the steel +itself. Unless the mould was good, no matter how good the steel +was, the casing was spoiled. The best composition which had been +found for moulds was that of a large firm in Sheffield, but +unfortunately it was rather expensive. A good steel casting ought +to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 per cent. of silicon +and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a casting, if free +from other impurities, would have a strength of between 30 and 40 +tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 per +cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering.</p> + +<p>The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. +McCallem present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion +upon the open hearth basic system, in which they were greatly +interested.</p> + +<p>Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would +be worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace +before it would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, +he had seen the basic process worked very successfully in the +open-hearth furnace; and he was recently informed by the manager +that he was producing ingots at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per +ton.</p> + +<p>The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved +admirably. He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, +at Wednesbury, were at the present moment putting down an +open-hearth furnace on the basic process.</p> + +<p>The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. +H. Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, +Walker, W. Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave +it as their experience that the best castings contained the most +blowholes, and Mr. McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some +slight qualification.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA.</h2> + +<p>At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject.</p> + +<p>He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing +the safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions +with wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development +of maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied +with apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and +to the nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and +that reports given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more +extensively. He wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by +telegraph for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. +Badeley in 1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and +last year at Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a +committee on life saving appliances of the United States had made +experiments. The conclusions of the committee were that in deep +water oil had a calming effect upon a rough sea, but there was +nothing in either source of information which yet answered the +question whether or not there is in the force exerted by the wind a +point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in causing +the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some utility +on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of rescue; +on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in +dangerous proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use +of automatic sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of +parabolic reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further +prosecution of experiments by Professor Bell in establishing +communication between vessels some distance apart by means of +interrupted electrical currents. The improvement of navigation, he +said, meant an international code of police to improve police rules +of navigation; an international code of universal telegraphy for +navigation; an international office of meteorology and navigation +to collect the studies; experiments on the weather, on the sea, on +the casualties; and the discovery by experiment of new apparatus +and appliances to diminish maritime disaster.</p> + +<p>He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, +and he hoped that before long there would be proposed an +international congress—such as the postal, telegraph, and +sanitary congresses, and the international convention to fix the +common meridian—by one of the maritime powers, by which would +be founded an international institution to diminish casualties at +sea. He recommended a universal system of buoys. The great losses +of life and property every year were worthy the devotion of +£300,000 by an international institution, which would be much +less than the monthly average loss in navigation.</p> + +<p>Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built—some +were ten times longer than their beam. There was nothing in the +world so ticklish as a ship; touch her in the waist, and down she +goes. He believed sailing ships ought not to exceed four times +their beam, and steamers certainly not more than six times. He +pointed out that a fruitful cause of accidents was the stopping of +steaming all at once in the case of impending collision, by which +the rudder lost control of the vessel. If constructors looked more +to the form of the ships, and got them to steer better, collisions +would be avoided.</p> + +<p>The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one +great secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, +which made it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another +vessel what it was about. The method of signaling was very crude, +and he ventured to say that it was quite out of date when vessels +met each other at a rate of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an +amateur, tried a method which he would attempt to explain. His idea +was to fit up a lantern on deck, showing an electric light. The +instrument would be controlled by the rudder, and the commanding +officer of the vessel would be able so to turn it when the helm was +put up or down that the light would flash at some distance in front +of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal to a vessel +coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was amidships, the +light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved until the +helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going could +not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If +the lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass +safely.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any +experiments.</p> + +<p>The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a +number of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they +were already disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left +the carrying out of the suggestion to others.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for +a short distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was +very difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile +out to sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to +three miles.</p> + +<p>The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object +light, but upon the sweep of the light on the water.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil +on troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully +studied all the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they +were all very well in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean +they were utterly hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. +They had been tried in the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had +prophesied the results before they were commenced. It was utterly +hopeless to think that a quantity of oil had the power of laying a +storm—all the world could not produce oil enough to bring +about that result.</p> + +<p>There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped +the experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or +three mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe +in powerful lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, +and a dazzling effect was the result. In regard to sound, he +wondered that no more effective alarm was used than the whistle. It +was well known that, as the whistle instrument was enlarged, the +sound became more and more a roar. He would have ships use all +their boiler power in sounding a siren, so that the sound could be +heard at a distance of not less than two or three miles in any +weather. With such a signal as that there ought to be, not absolute +safety, but collisions would be more easily prevented. He was glad +to say that a universal system of buoys had been practically +arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, so +that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language.</p> + +<p>Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, +while a green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so +that, if a green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels +were within two miles and a half of each other.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in +regard to these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of +lights effect should be given to the difference that existed in the +various lights, so that, by making the green light more powerful, +it could penetrate as far as the red, and in the same way making +the red and green lights proportionately more powerful, so that +they would penetrate as far as the white light.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for +sound tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and +focused all the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea +that the operator could hear nothing but a chaos of sound.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE.</h2> + +<p>The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of +obtaining pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable +substances contained in the raw material, maybe divided into two +parts, viz., the immersion of the rags in acid, with subsequent +washing and drying, and the carbonization properly so called. The +first part is so well known, and is so simple in its details and +apparatus, that it is useless to dwell upon it in this place. But +the second requires more scientific arrangements than those that +seem to be generally adopted, and, as carbonization is now tending +to constitute a special industry, we think it is of interest to +give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. It will be +remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. The +object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus +being in operation while the other half is being emptied and +filled.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, +and Figs. 1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is +arranged like the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, +there is a double series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and +work generally. These two series are arranged on each side of a +central portion, which contains the heating and ventilating +apparatus and a stone stairway giving access to the upper stories. +The heating apparatus is a hot air stove provided with a system of +piping. The rags to be carbonized or the wool to be dried are +placed upon wire cloth frames.</p> + +<p>The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the +heating apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for +about half an hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the +air in, as are also those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into +the chambers. The hot air then descends from the top of the chamber +into the wool or rags, and, becoming saturated and heavier, +descends and makes its exit from the chamber through an aperture, +n, near the floor, whence it flows to the central chimney. This +latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains in its center a +second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) that serves to +carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion from the +heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes serves +at the same time to heat the annular space through which the vapors +derived from the wool are disengaged.</p> + +<p>The air, heated to 40° or 50°, is made to pass thus for +several hours, until the greater part of the humidity has been +removed. The temperature is then raised to 80° or 90° by +gradually closing the apertures that give access to the ventilating +chimney. In order that it may be possible to further increase the +temperature during the last hour, and raise it to 90° or +120°, an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such +air with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air +circulates in the pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually +hotter and hotter. The hot vapors that issue from the lower chamber +rise into the upper one, where they are used for the preliminary +drying of another part of the materials.</p> + +<p>The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in +order to prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate +should be of relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of +cast iron, and all the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see +to such matters, with a view to saving money, will surely lead in +the long run to bad results.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale +1-200.)</p> + +<p>The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired +to preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case +recourse is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting +the vapors of nitric acid heated to 115° or 125° for the +sulphuric acid. The arrangement of the rooms must likewise be +different. The chambers, which may be in duplicate, as in the +preceding case, are vaulted, and are about three yards long by +three wide and three high. The rags are put into wire cages that +have six divisions, and that are located in the middle of the +chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of gearings. Under +the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a reservoir for +holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. The +arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken +to have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.—<i>Bull, +de la Musee de l'Industrie</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS.</h2> + +<p>According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in +the dry distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for +the production of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that +the mass shall be divided as completely as possible, since it then +takes but a relatively moderate heat to completely destroy the +organic coloring matter contained in the wash. The apparatus shown +in Figs. 1 and 2 is based upon this observation.</p> + +<p>The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long +boiler, B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the +intermedium of a waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass +slowly to the other extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes +its exit in the form of dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the +scrapers, b, and the interrupted pieces, a, in front of which are +the hinged valves, c. In the motion of the pieces, a, from right to +left, these valves free the apertures thereof and allow the wash to +pass, while in the motion from left to right the apertures are +closed and the valves push the mass to be evaporated before +them.</p> + +<p>From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and +fro motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of +which is produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their +lower, forked extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the +piece, d, that supports the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, +f, pass through the side of the boiler, through the intermedium of +stuffing boxes, and are connected by their upper extremities, +through a link, with levers, g, that revolve around the point, h. A +cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, alternately rising and +descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods f. The same shaft, +M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, and thus +regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, E, +receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, +m. The material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash +is stored at the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating +vessel, G, provided with a stirrer, H. The salts and other +analogous matters are dissolved, and the residuum, which +constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out of the apparatus, +while the solution passes directly to the refinery, where it is +evaporated.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/5b.png" alt= +"APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC +LIQUIDS.</p> + +<p>In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in +powder is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is +cooled by means of water, and is removed from time to time with +shovels by the workmen, so that the orifice of the boiler remains +constantly covered externally by the mass, and that the air cannot +re-enter the apparatus.</p> + +<p>The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, +where they condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and +methylamine. The non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the +furnace of the manufactory.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we +find a leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. +Britton, of Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate.</p> + +<p>This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of +plates in order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are +clamped in the jaws or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by +means of a hydraulic ram connected directly to the nearest pair of +jaws. The power is obtained by means of a pair of pumps run through +spur-gearing by the belt pulleys shown. The action of the machine +puts a strain on those parts of the plates which are not "bagged" +or buckled, and this causes the surface to extend, the slack parts +of the plate not being subject to the same stretching action. The +machine shown is designed to operate on sheet iron from No. 7 to +No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for length being 120 +in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. The machine +appears to have met with considerable success in America, and has +been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in +Figs. 1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the +bed of the machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. +3 shows the bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with +the holes for adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 +is a back view and section of the crosshead and one of the bolts +that connect the moving grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a +plan and cross section of the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back +elevation of the same, with a front view and section of the +gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which the jaws are opened +and closed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6a_th.jpg" alt= +"BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.</h2> + +<p>Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for +drawing circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is +doubtless that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and +which is known in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists +of a socket into which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to +which is hinged a tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil +are held at the proper distance apart by means of a slotted strip +of metal and a binding screw. When the instrument is closed, as +shown in the figure to the left, it takes up but little space, and +may be easily carried in the pocket without the point tearing the +clothing, as the binding screw holds the leg firmly against the +pencil.</p> + +<p>The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure +to the right that it is unnecessary to enter into any +explanation.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/6b.png" alt= +"THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES."></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>THE INTEGRAPH.</h2> + +<p>In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet +with the following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = +f(x), to find a curve whose equation shall be</p> + +<p><img src="./illustrations/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"y = \int f(x) dx + C."></p> + +<p>Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us +suppose that we know an induced current, and that we can represent +it by a curve y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive +current, that is to say, the curve represented by the equation</p> + +<p><img src="./illustrations/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"y = \int f(x) dx + C."></p> + +<p>The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli +and Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem +mechanically, by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another +example from the domain of electricity, in order to better show the +utility of the apparatus; let us suppose that we have a curve +representing the discharge of a pile or of an accumulator. The +abscisses represent the times, and the ordinates the amperes. The +question is to know at every moment the quantity of coulombs +produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve whose ordinates +give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a large number of +analogous applications.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7a_th.jpg" alt="THE INTEGRAPH."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE INTEGRAPH.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron +ruler, I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a +drawing-board, and is provided with a longitudinal groove in its +upper surface. In this groove move two rollers, which, in the +center of the piece that connects them, carry two brass T-squares +that are parallel with each other and at right angles with the +first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. Between these two +rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest the axis of +the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour of the +curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point +is guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the +paper in such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given +straight line, and that have always a direction such that the +tangent of the point's angle with the axes of the X's is constantly +proportional to the ordinate of the primitive curve.</p> + +<p>The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling +for a sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities +of the axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made +thin, and roll over the plane surface of recesses formed for the +purpose in the lateral steel surfaces of the carriages, while the +circumference of the wheels rolls in grooves along the two +T-squares.</p> + +<p>These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run +in the groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller +that runs over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is +fixed a divided ruler, through one point of which continually +passes a third ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of +the first carriage.</p> + +<p>When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and +the point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the +figure to be integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the +inclined ruler with the axis of the X's will be proportional to the +ordinate of the figure. The wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, +A', of the second carriage must move parallel with this ruler. In +order to obtain such parallelism, we employ a parallelogram formed +as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same diameter are fixed upon the +ruler that ends at the point, A, of the first carriage, and their +line of centers is parallel with the latter. The second carriage +likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to those of the +toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers must +remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a +weak steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four +wheels, the two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by +means of a barrel and spring placed in the center of one of +them.</p> + +<p>The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents +the latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, +permitting it thus to move only in the direction of their +plane.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two +cog wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the +escape of but the same length of the two threads.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that in this system integration is effected +by forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that +consequently the curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the +different parts of the apparatus.—<i>La</i> <i>Lumiere +Electrique</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed +for the manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet +& Co.'s make. Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with +gasometer and bottling machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of +the apparatus properly so called, including the producer, the +purifier, and the saturator, all grouped upon a cast-iron +column.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS +BREEZES.</p> + +<p>The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and +carbonate of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, +and effects an intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the +necessity of the former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate +of lime (usually in the form of chalk) is introduced directly into +the producer through the aperture, K, while the acid contained in +the receptacle, B, at the side of the column and above the producer +flows put through a curved pipe in the bottom. The flow is +regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is lined with +platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper +part of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, +D, of glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, +into the gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very +carefully balanced.</p> + +<p>The saturator, which is the most important part of the +apparatus, comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The +pump, which is of bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at +the lower part (Fig. 1). This sucks up the gas stored in the +gasometer and the water contained in the reservoir, and forces them +into the sphere. This latter is of bronze, cast in a single piece, +and the thickness of its sides prevents all danger of explosion. It +is silvered internally, and provided with a powerful rotary +agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7c_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which +is placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. +This machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.—<i>Chronique Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.</h2> + +<p>Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for +determining the power of powder, those designed for military +purposes are the ones most extensively used. Up to the present, +very few experimental apparatus have been constructed for civil +uses, although such are no less necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. +Guttman has examined the principal types of dynamometers with +respect to their use for testing explosive materials, and, after +ascertaining wherein they are defective, has devised an apparatus +in which the principle is the same as that employed by Messrs. +Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in which the +force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed in a +conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already +begun when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. +Guttman responds that his apparatus operates only with small +charges (300 grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in +every part when the igniting is done in a closed space. In order +that the force may not be made to act in one direction only, the +inventor uses two leaden cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the +accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. It consists of a median piece, a, +and of two heads, b, of an external diameter of four inches. These +pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. The two heads are four +inches in length, one inch of which is provided with a screw +thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches wide +below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and +0.4 inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, +0.4 inch wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is +4 inches long. It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between +which there is a cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to +receive the charge. The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the +exact center of the median piece, a, which it enters to a depth of +one inch. Into the space that still remains free is screwed a plug, +h. The lower surface of the plug, g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 +inch wide and deep. This hollow is prolonged by another one, 0.24 +inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which has a play of about 0.08 +inch. The three parts are connected by a key which passes into the +holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, y.</p> + +<p>When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, +1.34 inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of +the heads, and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made +still tighter by a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches +wide by 0.2 inch thick, is placed against the cylinder, and against +this plate again is placed a cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by +0.4 inch thick. This completely closes the hollow space. The steel +plates and heads are marked with the figures 1 and 2, which, +through the pressure, are impressed upon the leaden cylinders. Then +the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 grains, is introduced, +and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a leaden cylinder are +inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The apparatus is now +ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the pyramid, h, +and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way that the +latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a smart +blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit +through the pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the +plug, so that their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the +explosion takes place without noise. A slight whistling, only, +indicates that the capsule has not missed fire, and that the +apparatus may be immediately opened, the gases having condensed in +the interior. It is well, however, to place the closed apparatus in +water, in order that the residua that have entered the threads of +the screw may become detached, and that the apparatus may be opened +easily. Although there is no danger in standing alongside the +apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means of a +cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of +powder the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently +replaced.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt= +"APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.</p> + +<p>The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an +inch by means of a gauge (Fig. 3).</p> + +<p>The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, +and thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by +powder very perfectly.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS.</h2> + +<p>For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly +from pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single +distillation, Mr. D. Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the +apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving. It consists of a +double-bottomed copper or enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for +being heated by steam, and the upper part of which is protected +against the action of the acid vapors disengaged during +distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone cover, B, is +provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is filled. +The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided with +radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the +tube, d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second +boiler, C. The head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal +arrangement, as a dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is +provided with a thermometer, f, and an aperture, p. Above the +spirals of the worm, e, are placed strips of glass, the free +intervals between which are filled in with pieces of glass, +porcelain, or any other material not attackable by acids. The +arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The +worm, e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the +cock, n.</p> + +<p>At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, +closed by a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This +tubulure permits of emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L.</p> + +<p>A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, +serve to introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the +two boilers. The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, +u. The water for cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through +the cocks, n, and flows out through the tubes, v.</p> + +<p>The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and +the quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass +is afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the +distillation may then proceed at once.</p> + +<p>The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, +C, through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, +D, they are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated +acetic acid, which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, +and into steam, which distills and carries along but a very small +amount of acetic acid. This steam passes through the pipe, G, into +the worm, H, condenses, and afterward flows into the vessel, N.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8b_th.jpg" alt= +"APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.</p> + +<p>The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the +worm, e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the +degree of concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as +the steam can no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and +temperature has reached 118 degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is +distilled through the tube, g, and received in the cooler, K, +wherein it condenses. When the contents of the boiler, A, have been +distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed and the cock of the +tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected directly through +the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that still remains +in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, e, into +the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S.</p> + +<p>There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for +purifying the acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or +acetate of soda, so as to obtain an absolutely pure +article.—<i>Dingler's Polytech. Journal</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>FIELD KITCHENS.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., +in the Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain +Baxter's Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for +traveling. These kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, +consist of from three to five annular kettles, either circular or +elliptical, which are placed one on another, and the fire lighted +inside the central tube. The kettles are built up on the top of the +outer case in which they are carried, the central tube being placed +over the grate in the lid. A small iron stand, supporting an +ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When packed up, the annular +kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the outer case; the +iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the top pot is +placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form of +kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active +service or in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, +colonists, boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for +all who may require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent +the kitchen of the field service pattern with conical kettles, +while Figs. 7 and 8 represent the same pattern with elliptical +kettles. These kitchens consist of five annular vessels, either +circular or elliptical, which are placed one upon another, and the +fire lighted in the central tube or flue. A small iron stand, +supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be placed on the top as +in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 inches deep, and +of the same width as the central tube of the annular kettles, may +be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few inches +from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be made +cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided +with straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is +intended for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or +barracks, workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for +cooking food for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to +cook and distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, +or to heat water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. +Adams & Son, London.—<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8c.png" alt= +"FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8d.png" alt= +"FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8e.png" alt= +"FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW COP-WINDER.</h2> + +<p>In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in +which the wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and +the position of which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive +type of the German apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop +is set in motion by a horizontal screw. It is at first the greater +diameter of the cone that moves the tube, and permits the thread to +accumulate beneath the narrow extremity. But, as soon as a core of +thread has been formed, it is in contact with the entire surface of +the cone, and thus revolves with a mean velocity until it is +finished.</p> + +<p>In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A +is the paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely +attached, and C is the cone that moves over the screw, D. The +thread passes into a groove which makes one revolution of the cone, +and from thence over the paper tube, where it receives the form of +a cop by reason of the transverse motion of the cone upon the +screw. This transverse motion is at first prevented by the click, +F, which falls into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel fixed behind the +cone. The shaft revolves continuously, but has, at the same time, a +to and fro motion in the direction of its axis, so as to cause the +thread to move forward constantly and form a cop. This to and fro +motion is obtained by means of a lever and a sleeve, I, the wheel, +H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, J, actuated by +the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, a core is +formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is kept +in motion by the thread until the cop is finished.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9a_th.jpg" alt="A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.</p> + +<p>Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the +system may likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the +arrangement in this case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary +motion of the shaft is useless here, as the click, F, acts in an +oblique position upon the ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason +of the to and fro motion of the screw.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.]</p> + +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.<a name="FNanchor24_2"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_24_2"><sup>2</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL +ENGINEERS ON THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT +THE ANNUAL CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885.</h3> + +<h3>BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER.</h3> + +<p>The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the +<i>process</i>, which he invented and extensively applied, of +preparing wood by forcing a solution longitudinally through the +pores of the wood by means of hydraulic pressure. As, however, he +also patented the use of sulphate of copper, and his name became +attached to the use of that antiseptic, it will be convenient here +to classify experiments made with that substance under this +head.</p> + +<p>Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between +1836 and 1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon +the preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective.</p> + +<p>His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, +by tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry +up a preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or +satisfactory results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process +which bears his name. This was practiced either by applying a cap +to the end of a freshly cut log, through which the solution was +allowed to flow by pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in +the middle, raising it at the center slightly, so as to open the +joint, placing a strip of tarred rope or a rubber band just inside +the periphery of the cut log, and letting it spring back, so as to +form a tight joint by pressing upon the rope or band. An auger hole +bored diagonally into the cavity so formed then served to admit the +solution under pressure.</p> + +<p>This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of +sulphate of copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been +extensively applied in France for many years, with satisfactory +results. It was found, however, that to be successful it must be +applied to freshly cut trees in the log only, and that this +involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and annoyance, that it +has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be still greater +in this country, and in the Northern States the process could not +be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting down +trees), as the solution would freeze.</p> + +<p>On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee +have been able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of +copper in this country.</p> + +<p>RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS.</p> + +<p>SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE.</p> + +<pre> +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- +</pre> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS.</h3> + +<p>The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the +Southern Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee +that in 1860, when he left that country, the ties were still good +and in serviceable condition.</p> + +<p>We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from +Mr. E. Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie +process.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by +Mr. W. Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment +No. 2), when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods +of vital suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. +After describing the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of +copper, he states in his first pamphlet (1870): "This process +resulted very satisfactorily, but it was found that the sulphate of +copper became very much diluted by the sap, and when the same +liquid was used several times, the decaying substance of the sap, +viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, and left it +nearly in its primitive condition."</p> + +<p>He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of +barytes, and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by +the Boucherie process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in +experiment No. 2, which showed favorable results when examined in +1875, were prepared by that process.</p> + +<p>Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the +Bethell process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed +cylinders, and probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were +prepared in that way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. +Tilden, however, showed the "saturation very uneven; absorptive +power, high; block contains soluble salts of copper, removable by +washing."</p> + +<p>It was expected that the double solution, by forming an +insoluble compound, would prove an effective protection against the +<i>teredo</i>. Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the +contrary to be the fact.</p> + +<p>The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory +results against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz +Brewing Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in +1882, after some six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, +a chemist of Boston (experiment No. 9), indicated favorable +results, and the planks in a ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment +No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet sound in 1882.</p> + +<p>The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and +16), however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable +at first, and great things were expected of them; but late +examinations made on the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, +Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the Cleveland and Pittsburg +Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, and the results to be +unfavorable.</p> + +<p>This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. +Thilmany has patented still another combination, in which he uses +sulphate of zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed +under the head of burnettizing.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It +consisted of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the +South, by the Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron +and sulphate of copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid +in the tunnel at New Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, +in 1882, several of them were still in the track. The process, +however, was found to be so tedious that it was abandoned after a +year's trial, and has not since been resumed.</p> + +<p>In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is +the inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the +cap fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction +pump, and placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired +solution, he sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap +cells of the wood.</p> + +<p>Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this +way, with various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate +of copper, and there is probably no question but that the life of +the wood will be materially increased thereby.</p> + +<p>Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical +than the original Boucherie process can only be determined by +practical application upon an extensive scale.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of modifications and appliances for +working the Boucherie process have been patented in this country; +but none of them seems to have come into practical use, probably +because of the necessity for operating upon freshly cut logs, and +the inconvenience of such applications.</p> + +<p>The table on this page gives a record of various experiments +with miscellaneous substances.</p> + +<p>RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS—MISCELLANEOUS.</p> + +<pre> +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- +</pre> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.</h3> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from +which great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted +in immersing timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one +pound of sulphate of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron +mixed in twenty gallons of water. It was first tested on some +hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, and for a +time seemed to promise good results. Experiments with prepared +rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James Archbald, Chief +Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable.</p> + +<p>The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet +Arsenal, where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, +at a cost of about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used +for various ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its +life extended, as would naturally be expected from the known +character of the antiseptics used, its strength was so far +impaired, and it checked and warped so badly, that the process was +abandoned in 1844.</p> + +<p>The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of +Ordnance, for a full copy of the reports upon these +experiments.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has +been applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that +platforms and boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist +decay has repeatedly suggested the use of lime for preserving +timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia +and Columbia Railroad, laid a portion of its track on white pine +sills, which had been soaked for three months in a vat of +lime-water as strong as could be maintained. Similar experiments +were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The result was not +satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that lime is a +comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, +sometimes known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former +have been furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the +Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your +committee is much indebted for a large mass of information on the +subject of timber preservation.</p> + +<p>Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this +subject than any other person in this country. Beginning with +sulphate of copper in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in +1847, and chloride of zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of +mercury, and again to chloride of zinc, using the latter until +1865, then using creosote to protect the piles against the +<i>teredo</i> at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber +prepared by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our +disposal many original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which +are now very rare.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President +of this Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 +× 12 with a 1-1/8 inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 +inches. These were filled with common salt and plugged up, as is +not infrequently done in ship-building, but while the life of the +timber was somewhat lengthened, it was concluded that the process +did not pay.</p> + +<p>Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, +but is a comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being +58.8 in the hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of +mercury.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known +and most ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this +particular case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for +about three feet into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and +pulverized charcoal, which probably acted by closing the sap cells +against the intrusion of moisture, which, as is well known, much +hastens decay. The posts, which had been set butt-end upward, were +mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' exposure.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as +well, and numberless failures throughout the country attest that +charring is uncertain and disappointing in its results.</p> + +<p>Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting +machinery for charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against +decay. The process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the +benefits which it confers, and the charred surface is so +objectionable for many uses, that nothing is to be expected from +the process upon a large commercial scale.</p> + +<p>In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), +at Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate +with pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar +experiments had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. +Boucherie, but the result has not been found satisfactory.</p> + +<p>In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the +Nichols patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for +boring a 2 inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge +timbers. This continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and +in rebuilding them the boring machinery was not replaced. The +longitudinal hole allowed a portion of the sap to evaporate without +checking the outside of the timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its +life. It is believed there are yet (1885) some sticks of timber in +the bridges of the road that were so prepared in 1868 or 1869.</p> + +<p>In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, +by incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the +space between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic +cement. This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the +mainland with Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did +it seem to succeed at first that it was proposed to extend the +process to railroad trestlework, to fencing, to supports for +houses, and to telegraph poles. But after a while the earthenware +pipes were displaced and broken, the process was given up, and +Galveston bridge is now creosoted.</p> + +<p>In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by +simply washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that +borax is a solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by +boiling them in a solution of borax. For small specimens, this +answered well, and a signboard treated in that way (experiment No. +13) was preserved a long time; but when applied to large timber, +the process was found very tedious and slow, and no headway has +been made in introducing it.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age +it was discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of +the Union Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles +in length, where the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, +Mr. Blinkinsderfer, kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which +had been laid in 1868, and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It +is as sound and a good deal harder than when first laid, 14 years +before, while on some other parts of the road cottonwood ties +perish in two or five years.</p> + +<p>The character of the soil where these results have been observed +is light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the +Laramie Division, furnishes the following analysis:</p> + +<pre> + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. +</pre> + +<p>The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis +may be of interest:</p> + +<p>"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of +substances which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in +the juices of the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous +matter, which, when beginning to decay, causes also the destruction +of the other constituents of the wood."</p> + +<p>"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by +decay is by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the +sap."</p> + +<p>"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some +substance which either enters into combination with the +constitutents of the sap or so alters their properties as to +prevent the setting up of decomposition."</p> + +<p>"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large +quantities of the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, +and iron) most used in the different processes of preserving or +kyanizing wood. It also contains much inorganic matter, which also +acts as a preserving agent."</p> + +<p>Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other +portions of the track, and some of the soil has also been +transported to other localities, so that it is hoped that in the +discussion that may be expected to follow this report, some further +light will be thrown on the subject by an account of the results of +these experiments.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and +convey a useful lesson.</p> + +<p>In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry +powder for preserving wood, which was composed of certain +proportions of salt, arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action +was based upon an experience which he had had when, as a working +mechanic of Ellisburg, Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had +preserved a water-wheel shaft by inserting such a compound in +powder in the body of the wood, and ascertained that it was still +sound some 14 years later.</p> + +<p>His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly +this:</p> + +<p>"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that +fermentation cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the +chemical property or nature of his compound, when inserted dry into +wood, is to attract moisture, and this moisture, aided by +fermentation, liquefies the compound; that capillary attraction +must inevitably convey it through the sap ducts and medullary rays +to every fiber of the stick.... Were these crystallizations salt +alone, they would soon dissolve, but the arsenic and corrosive +sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they remain intact +while any fiber of the wood is left."</p> + +<p>"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and +have been known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the <i>mummies +of Egypt</i> to-day shows the presence of arsenic in large +quantities in every portion of their substance. Whatever other +ingredients may have entered into the compound that has been so +potent in preserving from decay the bodies of the old kings of +Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, arsenic was +most certainly one."</p> + +<p>The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes +two inches in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of +square timber, four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, +and to plug them up with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two +holes two inches in diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and +filled and plugged them. Fresh cut lumber and shingles were +prepared by piling layers upon each other with the dry powder +sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty pounds to the thousand +feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a temperature of at +least 458° F. until fermentation took place, when the lumber +was considered fully "foremanized."</p> + +<p>The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a +steamboat, and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It +was then applied to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, +where it did not succeed, and to some on the Chicago and +Northwestern, where they seem to have been lost sight of, being few +in number, so that your committee has not been able to learn the +result.</p> + +<p>Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional +sale was made to various parties of the right of using the process, +notably, it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for +$50,000; and some ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, +when the poisonous nature of the ingredients used brought about +disaster.</p> + +<p>Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East +St. Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very +ill, and one of them died.</p> + +<p>The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties +along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked +them for the sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for +ten miles was strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in +arms, and made the railroad take up and burn the ties. The company +promoting foremanizing was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it +went out of business.</p> + +<p>In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, +and the succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that +patent was submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, +D.C., and examined by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). +He found the impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, +but he did not find any arsenic, though its use was claimed.</p> + +<p>The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, +first, of a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common +burnt lime. Mr. Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the +water used to test the absorptive power to have been filled with +threads of fungi in forty-eight hours.</p> + +<p>The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of +sulphide of calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. +Tilden.</p> + +<p>The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a +solution of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was +also condemned by Mr. Tilden.</p> + +<p>The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen +different processes, most of which have already been noticed in +this report, and their practical results given.</p> + +<p>The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable +amount of prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is +understood to have proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of +inquiry, your committee has been enabled to obtain information of +the results of three of these experiments.</p> + +<p>The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) +were first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of +sulphate of iron.</p> + +<p>The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with +chloride of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of +application is not stated.</p> + +<p>The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were +treated with the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is +stated that this was the only process in which pressure was +used.</p> + +<p>In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks +were badly decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost +impassable, while other streets paved in the same year with +untreated woods remained in fair condition.</p> + +<p>It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did +much toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, +was chiefly owing to the very dishonest way in which the +preparation was done; that in fact there was a combination between +the officials and the contractors by which the latter were chiefly +interested "how not to do it," and that the above results, +therefore, prove very little on the subject of wood +preservation.</p> + +<p>Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your +committee is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments +(Nos. 26 to 41 inclusive) which have been carried on at the +Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. +Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to test the effect of various +substances as a protection against the <i>Teredo navalis</i>. It +will be noticed that the application of two coats of white zinc +paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster of Paris +mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil and +tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of +coal tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating +compound, of compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of +the Thilmany process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved +failures.</p> + +<p>The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the +month of January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or +five years, or till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress +piles, well charred, have resisted for nine years.</p> + +<p>This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been +stated under the head of creosoting, that nothing but the +impregnation with creosote, and plenty of it, is an effectual +protection against the <i>teredo</i>. Numberless experiments have +been tried abroad and in this country, and always with the same +result.</p> + +<p>There are quite a number of other experiments which your +committee has learned about which are here passed in silence. The +accounts of them are vague, or the promised results of such slight +importance as not to warrant cumbering with them this already too +voluminous report.</p> + +<p>The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the +many patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It +had prepared a list of them, and investigated the probable success +of many of them, but has concluded that it is better to confine +itself to the results of actual tests, and to stick to ascertained +facts.</p> + +<p>Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the +great importance of the subject, and the economical advantages +which will result from the artificial preparation of wood as its +price advances. They hope, however, that the members of this +Society, in discussing this report, will dwell upon this point.</p> + +<p>We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general +conclusions which we have reached as the result of our protracted +investigation.</p> + +<h3>DECAY OF TIMBER.</h3> + +<p>Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 +parts of carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, +and to be the same in all the different varieties. If it can be +entirely deprived of the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change +very slowly, if at all.</p> + +<p>Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per +cent. of the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great +many substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, +etc., etc., with a large portion of water.</p> + +<p>Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the +sap, fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as +may depend upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the +woody fiber, and produces decay. In order that this may take place, +it is believed that there must be a concurrence of four separate +conditions:</p> + +<p>1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation +when exposed to air and water.</p> + +<p>2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the +fermentation.</p> + +<p>3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting +products.</p> + +<p>4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50° and +100° F. Below 32° F. and above 150° F., no decay +occurs.</p> + +<p>When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, +and ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, +unless the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative.</p> + +<p>Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, +but does not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.<a name= +"FNanchor24_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_3"><sup>3</sup></a> It is +therefore necessary to poison the germs of decay which may exist, +or may subsequently enter the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, +and this is the office performed by the various antiseptics.</p> + +<p>We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, +whether fermentation and decay result from slow combustion +(eremacausis) or from the presence of living organisms (bacteria, +etc.); but having in the preceding pages detailed the results of +the application of various antiseptics, we may now indicate under +what circumstances they can economically be applied.</p> + +<p><i>(To be continued)</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor24_2">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="note">From the Transactions of the Society.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_24_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor24_3">[3]</a> + +<div class="note">Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, +1884, Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of +Timber."</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:</i></p> + +<p>Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint +of Mr. B. Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association +of Aberdeen which has come into my hands.</p> + +<p>In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the +Adda as 500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as +stated in the same address, and he belittles the American Cabin +John Bridge by making its span <i>"after all only 215 ft."</i> As +the builder of this greatest American stone arch, I regret that on +so important and public an occasion the writer was not +accurate.</p> + +<p>The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is +not great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot +that counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one +minute is to fail to capture the cup.</p> + +<p>M.C. MEIGS.</p> + +<p>Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.</h2> + +<p>On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette +Augusta left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, +for Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, +the report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is +probably correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews +for the cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, +including the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is +still a possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting +somewhere in the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but +this is not very probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to +weather a typhoon. During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper +masts, spars, etc, had to be removed, that she might be better +adapted to weather a cyclone or like storm. If the Augusta had not +met with an accident, she would have arrived at Port Albany in +Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of July. She was due +June 17.</p> + +<p>The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and +was bought in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's +rigging, 237½ feet long, 35½ feet beam, 16 feet +draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her engines had 400 horse-power, +and her armament consisted of 14 pieces.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11a_th.jpg" alt="THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.</p> + +<p>During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by +Captain Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French +coast. January 4, 1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in +the mouth of the Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to +Bordeaux with flour and bread for the Third French Division. The +Augusta then captured the Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which +was being carried from Havre to Bordeaux. Then the French transport +steamer Max was captured and burned. The French men of war finally +forced the Augusta to retreat into the Spanish port of Vigo, from +which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March 28 at Kiel, with the +captured brig St. Marc in tow.—<i>Illustrirte +Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS.</h2> + +<p>In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal +wheel, the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which +we illustrate.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/11b.png" alt= +"FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse +section, and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These +wheels are made in two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates +a wheel of the former class, these wheels being designed for use on +rough and uneven roads, and when very great jolting strains may be +met with, being stronger than those of class B design. The wheels +are made with mild steel spokes, which are secured by metal straps +in the recesses cut in the annular flanges on the boss, and by a +taper bolt or rivet through the tire and rim. These spokes can be +easily taken out and renewed when necessary by any unskilled person +in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway of their length +give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist side strains +in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing the +weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer +screwed up on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil +caps to the end of the bushes, which are provided with a small set +screw, so that the cap need not be taken off when it is necessary +to lubricate the wheel, as by simply taking out the set screw oil +may be poured through the hole into the cap. The set screw also +forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap can be taken off or put +on when required, as well as a means of preventing the cap being +lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all hot and dry climates, +the continued shrinking of wood wheels and loosening of the tires +is a constant source of expense and inconvenience. This wheel +having a tire and rim entirely of metal does away with the +difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and +others can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, +which can be done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B +design are the same in principle of construction as those of class +A, but they have cast metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, +and are suitable for general work and ordinary roads where the +strains are not so severe. The bosses or naves are readily removed +in case of breakage, and they can be fitted with steel oil caps for +lubricating.—<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed +for the manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is +described in a communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American +Institute of Mining Engineers.</p> + +<p>The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled +with fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous +material. B and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined +with refractory brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks +piled up as shown in the figure. The partitions, C and C', are +likewise of refractory brick, and are rendered as air-proof as +possible. Apertures, D and D', are formed alternately at the base +of one partition and the top of the adjacent one, in order to +oblige the gases that traverse the series of chambers to descend in +one of them and to rise in the following, whatever be the number of +chambers in use.</p> + +<p>The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and +serve to bring the current of air or steam into contact with the +fuel. Valves, F and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating +the current in the two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with +valves, G and G', put the upper part of the generator in +communication with the contiguous chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, +N and N', with valves, H and H', permit of the introduction of a +current of air from the outside into the chambers, T and T'. The +pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', connected with a blower, +serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and P', and their valves, +J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q and Q', and +their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the purifiers and +the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with valves, +L and L', are connected with a chimney.</p> + +<p>The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed +hopper. The doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures +through which the ashes are removed.</p> + +<p>When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, +are closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, +of the pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, +while the flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator +the reverse order is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is +closed, the pipes, M' and N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and +Q', are closed, and R' is opened.</p> + +<p>A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this +traverses the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the +generator, A, through the flue, E. As this air rises through the +mass of incandescent fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of +carbon and forms carbonic oxide. This gas that is disengaged from +the upper part of the fuel consists chiefly of nitrogen and +carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile hydrocarburets derived from the +fuel used. This gas, through the action of the air upon the fuel, +is called "air gas," in order to distinguish it from the "water +gas" formed in the second period of the process.</p> + +<p>The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', +in order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second +current of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it +and produces, in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated +gases resulting from the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', +and give up to the bricks therein the greater part of their heat, +and finally make their exit, relatively cool, through the pipe, R', +which leads them to the chimney. When the operation has been +continued for a sufficient length of time to give the refractory +bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a high temperature, +the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the entrance of air +through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is also closed, +and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', of the +pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet +of steam is introduced through the latter.</p> + +<p>The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, +B', and in this state enters the bottom of the generator through +the flue, E'. In passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the +generator, the steam is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, +while hydrogen is liberated. The mixture of these two gases with +the hydrocarburets furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. +This gas on making its exit from the generator through the pipe, +M', passes through the chambers, B, and abandons therein the +greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, R, whence it passes +through Q into the purifiers, and then into the gasometer.</p> + +<p>As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the +generator, A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but +moderately heated by the sensible heat of the current of gas +produced. When this cooling has continued so long that the +temperature in the generator, A, is no longer high enough to allow +the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the valve, J', of the +pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also the valve, K, +of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R and N, +are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the +heat remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of +the generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its +exit from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of +air coming from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products +resulting from such combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then +into the chimney, through the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly +lowers in the chambers, B', and rises no less rapidly in the +generator, A, while the chambers, B, are soon heated to the same +temperature that first existed in the chambers, B'. As soon as the +desired temperature is obtained in the generator, A, and the +chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the valve, I', of the +pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also closed, the +valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the valves, +G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the valve, +F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. A +current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, +traverses the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the +flue, E. The gas produced makes its exit from the generator, passes +through the pipe, M', and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, +and enters the gasometer through the pipe, Q'.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt="WATER-GAS APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">WATER-GAS APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool +a state that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the +valves are so maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and +to send a current of air into the apparatus in the same direction +that the steam had just been taking. The temperature thereupon +quickly rises in the generator, A, while, at the same time, the +combustion of the air gas produced soon reheats the chambers, B'. +The cooled products of combustion go, as before, to the chimney. +The position of the valves is then changed again so as to send a +current of steam into the apparatus in a direction contrary to that +which the air took in the last place, and the water gas obtained +again is sent to the gasometer.</p> + +<p>As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each +current of air following the same direction in the apparatus (from +left to right, or right to left) that the current of steam did +which preceded it, while each current of steam follows a direction +opposite that of the current of air which preceded it.</p> + +<p>The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for +his process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of +gas.</p> + +<p>One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made +of any dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size +and form shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the +removal of the ashes by hand from time to time, it may be +constructed after the general model of the shaft of blast furnaces, +with a hearth at the base. Upon adding to the fuel a small quantity +of flux, all the mineral parts thereof can be melted into a liquid +slag, which may be carried off just like that of blast furnaces. +There is no difficulty in constructing regenerators of refractory +bricks of sufficient capacity, however large the generators be; and +a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one thousand tons of +anthracite per day into more than five million cubic feet of +gas.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS.<a name="FNanchor29_4"></a><a +href="#Footnote_29_4"><sup>4</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By WILLIAM SUGG, of London.</h3> + +<p>Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public +have been assured, by those interested in the different kinds of +lamps—arc, glow or otherwise—that henceforth, by means +of such lamps, rooms are to be lighted without heat or baneful +products such as they assert attend the use of gas, lamps, or +candles. But I think it must not be implied, from what any one has +said in favor of the electric light as a means of lighting our +dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that the glow +lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very large +difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the +glow lamp is only one more means (not without certain +disadvantages) of producing light added to those which already +exist, and of which the public have the choice. Now, looking to +best means of lighting rooms, and particularly the principal rooms +of a small dwelling-house, I beg to say that the arguments which +can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in preference to any other +means greatly preponderate, and that it can be substantiated that, +light for light, under the heads of convenience, health, comfort, +reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior to all.</p> + +<p>As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is +comparatively untried. This assertion may sound somewhat +astounding; but I think it is a true one. More than that, even in +the crude and unscientific way in which it has most frequently been +used up to the present, it has been far from unsuccessful in +comparison with electricity or other means of lighting; and in the +future it will prove the best and cheapest practical means, +although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in palatial dwellings +in conjunction with it.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of +artificial lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that +most beautiful and perfect natural light which, without our aid, +and without even a thought from us, shines regularly every day upon +all, in such an immense volume, so perfectly diffused, and in such +wonderful chemical combination, that it may safely be said that not +one atom of the whole economy of Nature is unaffected by it, and +that we and all the animal kingdom, in common with trees and +plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious natural +light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we +cannot hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of +daylight, or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make +the lighting of our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to +the eyes and to the general health) by the aid of gas than by any +other means. It must also be borne in mind that, in this country at +least, we have to fulfill the conditions of artificial lighting +under frequent differences of temperature and barometric influence, +exaggerated by the manner in which our homes are built; and that +for at least nine months of the year we require heat as well as +light in our dwellings, and that for the other three months +(excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are often +chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions +of the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control.</p> + +<p>As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside +over a meeting which was held in a large room—one of two +built exactly alike, and in communication with each other by means +of folding doors. These rooms formed part of one of the best hotels +in London—let us call it the "Magnificent." Of course, it was +lighted by electric glow lamps, in accordance with the latest +fashion in that department of artificial lighting, viz., suspension +lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of leaves and scrolls, +twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the pattern of our +most æsthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the style +of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed +the Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some +lamps he had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by +means of the good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's +heart; and they were ventilated with all due regard to the latest +state of knowledge on the subject among architects and builders. In +fact, no pains had been spared to make these rooms comfortable in +the highest acceptation of the word.</p> + +<p>There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat +and deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and +therefore, under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of +such human felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty +business men, intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost +tissue by means of a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according +to the calculations of the architect of the building, to have been +reached. I instance this case because it is a typical one, which, +under most aspects, does not materially differ from the conditions +of home life in such residences as those whose occupiers are likely +to use electric lighting. The rooms were spacious (about 20 feet by +35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and they were lighted during the +day by means of large lantern ceiling-lights, with double glass +windows. The evening in question was chilly, not to say cold.</p> + +<p>Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the +room; but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of +a little draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, +which at first was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in +another hour or so, by the time our business was over, +notwithstanding a screen placed before the door, and a blazing +fire, we were delighted to make a change to the comfortable +dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just left by +means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to +pass in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we +became aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow +lamps (merely for artistic effect) began to flare in a most +uncandlelike manner—the flames turning down, as if some one +were blowing downward on the wicks; and at the same time the +complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" became general, and from +every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went on, the discomfort +became unbearable, even although the doors were shut and screens +put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to +order "those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the +foliage of the electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three +minutes the flames of the candles burned upright and steadily, and +in less than ten minutes the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, +the room became really comfortable.</p> + +<p>The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up +at the ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air +from the bodies of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced +by the movements of themselves and the waiters, together with the +steam from the viands and respiration, displaced the colder air at +the ceiling, and notably that coldest air lying against the surface +of the glass. This cold air simply dropped straight down, after the +manner of a douche, on candles and heads below. The remedy I +advised was the setting up of a current of hotter steam and air +from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling effect of the +glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in slow +movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the +table. Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, +the gas was put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. +But before we left, the chilliness and draughts began to be again +felt.</p> + +<p>The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of +April last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably +warm nights. It is therefore clear that in this instance neither +electricity nor candles could effectually replace gas for lighting +purposes. They both did the lighting, but they utterly failed to +keep the currents of air steady. I have always remarked draughts +whenever I have remained any length of time in rooms where the +electric light is used. On a warm evening the electric light and +candles would undoubtedly have kept the room cooler than gas, with +the same kind of ventilation; I do not think they would have put an +end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas does in all +fairly built rooms.</p> + +<p>It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively +small amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid +manner, to anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the +contrary, from its great specific heat, remains in a heated state +for a much longer time than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a +low temperature, and in parting with its own heat it communicates a +considerable amount of warmth to those bodies with which it comes +in contact. Thus the products of the combustion of gas (which are +principally steam) serve a useful purpose in lighting, by keeping +at the ceiling level a certain stratum of heated vapor, which holds +up, as it were, the carbonic acid and exhalation from the lungs +given off by those using the room. The obvious inference, +therefore, is that if we take off these products from the level of +the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we +shall have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level +warm, in order to prevent the heated impure air from descending in +comparatively rapid currents, after having parted with its heat to +the ceiling. It may very frequently be observed on chilly days that +a number of currents of cold air seem to travel about our rooms, +although there may be no crevices in the doors and windows +sufficient to account for them; and, further, that these currents +of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn and the gas +is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough heat +at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we +constantly hear when electric lights are used for the illumination +of public buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the +Institution of Civil Engineers, held at the end of April last in +the Conservatory of the Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the +five hundred guests, and from an almost equal number of waiters and +attendants, displaced the cold air from the dome of the roof, and +literally poured down on the assembly (who were in evening dress) +in a manner to compel many of them to put on overcoats. If the +Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below the roof, +this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam would +have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up in +the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, +to keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and +thus steady the currents.</p> + +<p>Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain +conditions of the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them +comfortable when electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will +lay before you some few particulars relative to the condition of +small rooms of about 12 ft. by 15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary +room such as may be found in the usual run of houses in this +country. The cubical contents of such a room equals 1,700 cubic +feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, we shall for +the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken out of +it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) +from 600 to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, +therefore, be admitted by some means or other into the room, or the +chimney will, in ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products +of combustion, very largely diluted with fresh air, will not all +find their way up the flue with sufficient velocity to overcome the +pressure of the heavy cold air at the top of the chimney. If no +proper inlets for air are made, this supply to the fire must be +kept up from the crevices of the doors and windows. In the line of +these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as they are usually +called, it is impossible to experience any comfort—quite the +contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other serious maladies +are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh air in the +wrong way and place.</p> + +<p>According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on +ventilation), 300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every +adult person in ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet +are sufficient; less than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and +unhealthy. It is generally admitted that an average adult breathes +out from 20 to 30 cubic inches of steam and vitiated air per +minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity equal in bulk to that of +a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and steam is respired at a +temperature of 90° Fahr.; and therefore, by reason of this +heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together with the heat +and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. This fact, +by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person in the +direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every +fiber of his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is +passing upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white +lines on the surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the +extreme rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the +rays of light to pass through them with less refraction than +through the denser and more moist surrounding cold air. An adult +makes, on an average, about 15 respirations per minute, and +therefore he in every hour renders to the atmosphere of the room in +which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet of poisonous air. This +rises to the ceiling line, if it is not prevented; and thus +vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the extent of 1 per +cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not good which +contained more than ½ per cent, of air which had been +exhaled from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to +health these exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in +his view. Therefore in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is +vitiated to more than 2 feet from the ceiling by one person to the +extent of ½ per cent., and it will be vitiated by two +persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same time.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the +vitiated air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 +feet of the height of the room depends very materially on the +difference of temperature between these upper and lower strata and +the movements of air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and +gases fall into and diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the +lower strata—very readily if they are nearly the same +temperature as the upper, but scarcely at all if the air at the +ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, in warmed rooms +of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two petroleum lamps +are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of occupation +by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the air at +the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time—sometimes, +indeed, for only a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination +of the room is maintained at the same degree as in the case of +lamps, the contamination of the air is very much worse. It is +doubtless the case that poisonous germs are rapidly developed in +atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" and although, in a healthy +state of the body, we are able to breathe them without perceptible +harm, yet even then the slight headache and uneasiness we feel is a +symptom which does not suffer itself to be lightly regarded, +whenever, from some cause or other, the general condition is +weak.</p> + +<p>The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and +carbonic acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the +products from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil +or candles. They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ +life; and therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where +they always collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience +or danger to health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our +endeavors to take off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our +first serious check in all schemes of ventilation. We draw the +elevation and section of the room, and put in our flues with pretty +little black arrows flying out of the outlets for vitiated air, and +other pretty little red arrows flying in at the inlets; but when we +see our scheme in practice, the black arrows will persist in +putting their wings where their points ought to be; in other words, +flying into instead of out of the room.</p> + +<p>One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot +and cold currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such +as used to be employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of +gases; and, having filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by +weights tied on to the car till it will rest without going up or +down in a part of the room where the air can be felt to be at about +the mean temperature, and free from draught. Then leave it to +itself, to go where it will.</p> + +<p>As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will +ascend, passing along with the current, and descending or rising as +the current is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh +air from windows or doors, as well as the effect of the radiant +heat from the fire, can be thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet +theories may receive a cruel shock from this experiment; but, in +the end, the ventilation of the room will doubtless be benefited, +if we apply the information obtained. It will be discovered that +the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the little black arrows +turning their backs on the right path and our theoretical outlets +for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue must have an +enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the most easily +accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per hour +is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless +to attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by +ventilating gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little +talc flappers, opening into the chimney when there is an up +draught, and shutting themselves up when there is any tendency to +down draught. The success of these and all other ventilators +depends upon there being a good supply of air from under the door +or through the spaces round the window frames. These fresh air +supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one of the spaces +between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an air +conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised +about two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things +will be set up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will +satisfy the fire, without drawing from the doors and windows, and +at the same time supply a small quantity of fresh air into the +room. But the important fact that the radiant heat from the fire +will pass through the cold air without warming it all must not be +lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only warms the furniture +and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its rays. The air of +the room is warmed by passing over these more or less heated +surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to +the fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender +may be used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along +the front, as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. +This will also prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be +found that for the greater part of the year the chimney ventilator +and the supply to the fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," +and keep those disagreeable draughts under control, even although +the room be lighted with a 3 light chandelier burning a large +quantity of gas.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/13a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms +perfectly with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we +cannot light a room without in some measure creating heat; and I +think I have shown that we want this heat at the ceiling line for +the greater part of the year.</p> + +<p>In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other +hand, it is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65° +to 70° Fahr., to keep the air in proper movement in small +rooms. There are also times in the fall of the year, and also in +spring, when the nights are unusually warm; and, with a few friends +in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" question, not to say a +"burning" one. On these occasions we have to resort to exceptional +ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life would be too much. +It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of ventilation by +diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes of air of +different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves on +opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or +some more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through +this medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal +density or temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a +window (which can be opened, downward) with a strained piece of +fine muslin or washed common calico, the air in the room, if hotter +than the external air, will, when the window is more or less +opened, pass out readily into the cooler air, and the cooler air +will pass in through the pores of the medium. The hotter air +passing out faster than the cooler air will come in, no draught +will be experienced; and the window may be opened very widely +without any discomfort from it.</p> + +<p>It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to +do more than indicate a means of ventilation which will be +effective under most circumstances of lighting with those gas +burners and fittings usually employed, and which will lend itself +readily to modifications which will be necessitated by the use of +some of the newest forms of burners and ventilating gas lights.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/13b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important +discovery I have made in reference to blackened ceilings, for +which, up to the present time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have +long entertained the belief that with a proper burner it is +possible to obtain perfect combustion, without any smoke; and a +series of experiments with white porcelain plates hung over some +burners used in my own house proved conclusively that the +discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed ceilings +arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large towns is +largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or dirt +created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, +escapes from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of +my best rooms, which required to have the ceilings whitened every +year, substituted varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply +put on in the usual way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I +also changed the coal fires for gas fires. These alterations have +gone through the test of two winters, and the ceilings are now as +clean as when they were first done. The burners have been used +every night, and the gas fires every day, during the two winters. +No alteration has been made in the burners employed, and no +"consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished paper +ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine +sieve. This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, +which, after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than +the spaces between.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor29_4">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="note">A paper read before the Gas Institute, +Manchester, June, 1885.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>ANDERS' TELEPHONE.</h2> + +<p>Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, +combines in a single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and +a pile, C. The transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing +several large apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a +metallic disk, d, situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are +filled with powdered carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal +plate, f, which is fixed to the insulating ring, c, by means of a +metallic washer, g. Back of the transmitter is arranged the +receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary electro-magnet with a +disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed behind the +receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a partition, i, +and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of zinc, l, +which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a spring, m, +fixed to the insulating piece, n.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/13c.png" alt= +"ANDERS TELEPHONE"></p> + +<p class="ctr">ANDERS TELEPHONE</p> + +<p>When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the +zinc plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the +circuit is closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, +the transmitter, and the line wire 2, while when the button is +freed the current no longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve +as a receiver or transmitter only when the button is +pressed.—<i>Bull. de la Musee de l'Industrie</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.</h2> + +<p>When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a +consequence of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw +and engine increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance +that the screw was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When +the screw enters the water again, the resistance makes itself +abruptly felt, and causes powerful shocks, which put both the screw +and engine in danger. Ordinary regulators are powerless to overcome +this trouble, since their construction is such that they act upon +the engine only when the excess of velocity has already been +reached.</p> + +<p>Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For +example, use has been made of a float placed in a channel at the +side of the screw, and which closes the moderator valve by +mechanical means or by electricity when the screw descends too low +or rises too high.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/14a.png" alt= +"BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR."></p> + +<p class="ctr">BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.</p> + +<p>Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see +figure) consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. +One of them, b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be +constantly in the water, while the other, a, corresponds to the +position above which the screw cannot rise without taking on a +dangerous velocity. In the normal situation of the ship, the +electric circuit, c (in which circulates a current produced by a +dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of the water, which +establishes a connection between the two contacts. When the +contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled +back by a spring—a motion that sets in action a small steam +engine that closes the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is +again immersed, the electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus +brings the moderator valve back to its normal position. It is clear +that the contact, a, must be insulated from the ship's side.</p> + +<p>Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above +another, in order to close the moderator valve more or less, +according to the extent of the screw's rise or fall.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to +railroad crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, +of Steelton, Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated +highway crossing in the woods or any lonely place can be made +perfectly safe, and that, too, without the expense of gates and a +man to work them or of a flagman. It is surely a great improvement +over the old methods, and it is likely to have a large sale. In +addition to considerations of safety, possible saving in salaries +to railroad companies by its use will be great. This device is more +reliable than a human being, and can make any crossing safe to +which it is applied. Its operation is described as follows:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL</p> + +<p>The illustration shows the device as used on a single track +railroad, where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains +approaching the crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the +right). A similar box on the other side of the crossing is used for +trains approaching in the other direction. Two plates connected by +a link, and pivoted, are placed alongside of one rail, close enough +to it to be depressed by the treads of the wheels. By another link, +one of the plates called the rock plate (the one to the right) is +connected to a rock shaft which extends through a strong bearing +into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a suitable distance from +the rail, within which an electric generator is placed; the whole +being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long ties framed to +receive it.</p> + +<p>The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the +rear end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the +bearing for which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first +wheel of a train which is approaching in the desired direction +(from the right in the engraving) touches it, it will be seen that +it must not only depress it, but produce a slight forward motion, +causing a corresponding rotary motion in the rock shaft which +actuates the apparatus. On the other hand, when a train is +approaching from the other direction, or has already passed the +crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to the left of +the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link connections +shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels before the +wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so that +it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over +the apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it +whatever, the different point at which the same force is applied to +the rock plate giving the latter an entirely different motion.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/14c.png" alt= +"FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL</p> + +<p>The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to +the rock shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, +compresses a spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the +rock plate, the reaction of the spring throws it up again to its +former position, giving additional speed to the gearing within, +which is set in motion at the passage of the first wheel, and +operates the electric "generator." The spring is really the motive +power of the alarm. A small but heavy fly-wheel is connected with +the apparatus, the top of which is just visible in the engraving, +which serves to store up power to run the "generator," which is +nothing more than a small dynamo, for the necessary number of +seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The dynamo +dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if +any part has been broken.</p> + +<p>A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator +with insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary +telegraph wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees +leading to the electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the +armature revolves. It is a simple matter so to proportion the +mechanism for the required distance and speed that the revolutions +of the armature and the ringing of the gong shall continue until +the train reaches the crossing; and as each wheel acts upon the +apparatus, the more wheels there are in the train the longer the +bell will ring, a very convenient property, since the slowest +trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical limits to +the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after the +head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly +might not actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even +then it is not unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last +long enough for all practical requirements, as a team approaching a +crossing at eight miles per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. +All the bearings of any importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, +the whole apparatus being designed to require inspection not more +than once a month. The iron case when shut is water-tight, and when +duly locked cannot be maliciously tampered with without breaking +open the case; so that, the manufacturers claim, it will not be +essential to examine it more than once a month. The parts outside +the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to get out of +order, while easily inspected.</p> + +<p>The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as +sounding alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or +building. The gong has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of +noise, so that no one should fail to hear it.—<i>Railway +Review</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES.</h2> + +<p>Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, +gives the following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by +himself and Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for +mammals and birds. It will be seen that, with three or four +exceptions, the sizes obtained by the two observers are practically +the same:</p> + +<pre> + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. +<br> + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 +<br> + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. +<br> + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 +</pre> + +<p>The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an +interesting manner in an address before the Microscopical Section +of the A.A.A.S. last year, an abstract of which was published in +this journal, vol. v., p. 181.</p> + +<p>The slight differences in size accurately given in this table +are not always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a +power of 1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of +an inch are readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. +Wormley as regards the possibility of identifying blood of +different animals, the reader is referred to his book on +Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.—<i>Amer. Micro. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN.<a +name="FNanchor34_5"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_34_5"><sup>5</sup></a></h2> + +<p>E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made +with vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult +of resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal +ingredients to the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this +question, he considered himself justified in drawing conclusions +from the manner in which such compounds behaved toward <i>dead</i> +animal membrane. If any kind of osmosis could take place, he +argued, from ointments prepared with vaseline, etc., through dead +membranes, such osmosis would most probably also take place through +living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic or exosmotic action +of the skin of a living body must necessarily play an important +<i>role</i> in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following +experiments:</p> + +<p>Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, +with bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium +ointment.</p> + +<p>No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard.</p> + +<p>No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (<i>Germ. Pharm</i>.), +and</p> + +<p>No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. +of lard.</p> + +<p>All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with +water. After standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary +temperature, the contents of none of the beakers gave any iodine +reaction. After having been placed into a warm temperature, between +25-37° C., all three showed iodine reactions after three hours, +Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with lard alone) very +faintly.</p> + +<p>The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that +the bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. +Each vial was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27° C., in 50 +grammes of distilled water. After three hours, the contents of No. +1 (containing the ointment made with <i>lard</i>) gave <i>no</i> +iodine reaction; the contents of the other two, however, gave +traces. After eight hours no further change had taken place. The +temperature was now raised to 30-35° C., and kept so for eight +hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes +of the contents of the beakers.</p> + +<p>In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed +through the membrane in each case.</p> + +<p>The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin +(freed from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the +bladder. The ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per +cent. of lard. No reaction was obtained, at the ordinary +temperature, after twelve hours, nor after eight more hours, at a +temperature of 25-30° C. After letting them stand for eight +hours longer at 30-37° C., a faint reaction was obtained in the +case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a still fainter +with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made with +lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, +but no fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of +the contents of each beaker,</p> + +<pre> + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " +</pre> + +<p>showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the +ointment made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to +vaseline).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor34_5">[5]</a></p> + +<div class="note">From the <i>American Druggist</i>.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>THE TAILS OF COMETS.</h2> + +<p>I.—If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be +produced that will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and +the velocity with which it extends depend upon the size of the +stone, that is to say, upon the intensity of the mechanical action +that created it. The extent and depth of the water are likewise +factors.</p> + +<p>If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a +succession of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived +from the cord's size and the intensity of its action. These waves, +which are visible upon the surface, constitute what I shall call +<i>mechanical waves</i>. But there will be created at the same time +other waves, whose velocity of propagation will be much greater +than that of the mechanical ones, and apparently independent of +mechanical intensity. These are <i>acoustic waves</i>. Finally, +there will doubtless be created <i>optical waves</i>, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if +a person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses +were sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous +sensation when the first optical wave reached him, then he would +perceive the sound produced, and later still he would feel, through +a slight tremor, the mechanical wave.<a name="FNanchor35_6"></a><a +href="#Footnote_35_6"><sup>6</sup></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15a.png" alt="I"></p> + +<p class="ctr">I</p> + +<p>Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, +in a mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and +velocity of propagation; and although but three modes appreciable +to our senses have been cited, it does not follow that these are +the only ones possible.</p> + +<p>We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon +water, it will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in +front of it successive waves whose velocity of propagation is +accelerated.</p> + +<p>This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are +briefer than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead +sound at a few yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a +great distance.</p> + +<p>The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, +very complex.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15b.png" alt="II"></p> + +<p class="ctr">II</p> + +<p>II.—If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will +occur in each of them an <i>alteration</i>, a break, which it will +carry along with it to a greater or less distance. This succession +of alterations forms a trace behind the obstacle, and in opposition +to the line of the centers. Finally, if the obstacle itself emits +waves in space that are of less intensity then those which meet it, +these little waves will extend in the wake of the large ones, and +will form a trace of parabolic form situated upon the line of the +centers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15c.png" alt="III"></p> + +<p class="ctr">III</p> + +<p>III.—Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the +peculiar energy that develops upon its surface or in its +atmosphere, engenders in ethereal space successive waves of varying +nature and intensity, as has been said above, and let us admit that +its <i>mechanical</i> waves are traversed obliquely (Fig. 1) by any +spherical body—by a comet, for example; then, under the +excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar +waves consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will +become apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced +by an excitation—a setting of the ether in vibration. The +mechanical waves engender of themselves, then, an emission of +optical waves that render perceptible the alteration which they +create in each other.</p> + +<p>Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will +carry along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while +at the same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the +comet. During this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave +will be altered in its turn, and carry such alteration in the +direction, a' b'.</p> + +<p>The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, +upon a curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the +comet, will be upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of +the propagation of the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the +motion of the comet, with respect to the velocity of the solar +waves, the closer will such resultant approach the line of centers, +and the more rectilinear will appear the trace or tail of the +comet.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15d.png" alt="IV"></p> + +<p class="ctr">IV</p> + +<p>IV.—If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according +to the relative position of these, several tails appear, and these +will seem to form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions +of a comet and a satellite, it will be seen that if, while the +comet is proceeding to c', the satellite, through its revolution +around it, goes to s', the traces formed at c and s will be +extended to d and d', and that we shall have two tails, c' d and s' +d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem to be confounded +toward c' s'.</p> + +<p>V.—When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect +will occur—the tail will precede it, and will be so much the +more in a line with the sun in proportion as the velocity of the +solar waves exceeds that of the comet.</p> + +<p>If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the +alteration of the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see +(supposing the phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at +a 1, the tail will and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be +at a 2 b'; and when it is at a 4, the tail will have become an +immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in reality the trace is extinguished +in space, we never see but the origin of it, which is the part of +it that is constantly new—that is to say, the part +represented in the spirals of Fig. 4.</p> + +<p>The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 +leagues per second; it would have only required the velocity of the +solar waves' propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to +have put the tail in a sensibly direct opposition with the sun.</p> + +<p>Knowing the angle γ (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit +makes with the sun at a given point, and the angle δ of the +track upon such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we +can deduce therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the +simple expression:</p> + +<pre> + V = v × (sinus δ / sinus(γ - δ)) or (Fig. 1), +<br> + V = da/t'', +</pre> + +<p>t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15e.png" alt="V"></p> + +<p class="ctr">V</p> + +<p>VI.—The tail, then, is not a special matter which is +transported in space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar +waves, just as sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is +propagated with the velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air +is not transported. The tail which we see in one position, then, is +not that which we see in another; it is constantly renewed. +Consequently, it is easy to conceive how, in as brief a time as it +took the comet of 1843 to make a half revolution round the sun, the +tail which extended to so great a distance appeared to sweep the +180° of space, while at the same time remaining in opposition +to the great luminary.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15f.png" alt="VI"></p> + +<p class="ctr">VI</p> + +<p>The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. +If to a vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with +a certain velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be +understood that, from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a +spiral. Each drop of water will recede radially in space, the +spiral will keep forming at the jet, and if, through any reason, +the latter alone be visible, we shall see a nearly rectilinear jet +that will seem to revolve with the pipe.</p> + +<p>Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), +while it is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the +projected water will mark the spiral indicated, and this will +continue to widen, and each drop will recede in the direction shown +by the arrows.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15g.png" alt="VII"></p> + +<p class="ctr">VII</p> + +<p>VII.—It seems to result from this explanation that all the +planets and their satellites ought to produce identical effects, +and have the appearance of comets. In order to change the +conditions, it suffices to admit that the ethereal mass revolves in +space around the sun with a velocity which is in each place that of +the planets there; and this is very reasonable if, admitting the +nebular hypothesis, we draw the deduction that the cause that has +communicated the velocity to the successive rings has communicated +it to the ethereal mass.</p> + +<p>The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in +space, and for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if +they become capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed +at their surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too +weak to give very perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, +have relatively too feeble velocities.</p> + +<p>The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, +and sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its +proper velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the +ethereal mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing +sufficiently intense mechanical effects to affect our vision.</p> + +<p>VIII.—Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these +stars pass the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its +satellites may be very different, and the velocity of rotation of +the latter, being added to or deducted from that of the forward +motion, there may occur (as in the case shown in Fig. 6) a +separation of a satellite from the principal star. The comet then +appears to separate into two, and each part follows different +routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may either +fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic +orbit, and make but one appearance.—<i>A. Goupil.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor35_6">[6]</a></p> + +<div class="note">Certain persons, as well known, undergo an +optical impression under the action of certain sounds.</div> + +<hr> +<h2>THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE.<a name= +"FNanchor36_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_7"><sup>7</sup></a></h2> + +<p>Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently +been made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the +honey bee. These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable +phenomena in the domestic economy of the ants. It is already known +that the honey of our honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of +litmus, shows a distinct red color, or, in other words, has an acid +reaction. It manifests this peculiarity because of the volatile +formic acid which it contains. This admixed acid confers upon crude +honey its preservative power. Honey which is purified by treatment +with water under heat, or the so-called honey-sirup, spoils sooner, +because the formic acid is volatilized. The honey of vicious swarms +of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a pungent odor. This +effect is produced by the formic acid, which is present in excess +in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in what way the +substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in the +honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only +for defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance.</p> + +<p>The observation has recently been made that the bees in the +hive, even when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the +minute drops of bee poison (formic acid) which from time to time +exude from the tip of their sting. And this excellent preservative +medium is thus sooner or later contributed to the stored honey. The +more excitable and the more ready to sting the bees are, the +greater will be the quantity of formic acid which is added to the +honey, and the admixture of which good honey needs. The praise +which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race of our honey +bees, which is indisposed to sting—and such praise is still +expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German +bee-masters—is therefore from a practical point of view a +false praise. Now we understand also why the stingless honey bees +of South America collect little honey. It is well known that never +more than a very small store of honey is found in felled trees +inhabited by stingless <i>Melipona</i>. What should induce the +<i>Melipona</i> to accumulate stores which they could not preserve? +They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen different known +species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A peculiar +phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. +It is well known that there are different grain-gathering species +of ants. The seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved +for years in their little magazines, without germinating. A very +small red ant, which drags grains of wheat and oats into its +dwellings, lives in India. These ants are so small that eight or +twelve of them have to drag on one grain with the greatest +exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or rough +ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than +a thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun +to sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. +Hence the ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but +the capacity for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English +investigator John Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts +in his work entitled "Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not +yet known in what way the ants prevent the sprouting of the +collected grains. But now it is demonstrated that here also it is +only the formic acid, whose preservative influence goes so far that +it can make seed incapable of germination for a determinate time or +continuously.</p> + +<p>It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant +which lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our <i>Lasius +niger</i>, which carries seeds of <i>Viola</i> into its nests, and, +as Wittmack has communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der +gesellschaft naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with +the seeds of <i>Veronica hederaefolia</i>.</p> + +<p>Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, <i>Pheidole +providens</i>, that this species collects a great store of +grass-seeds. But he observed that the ants brought their store of +grain into the open air to dry it after the monsoon storms. From +this it appears that the preservative effect of the formic acid is +destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying process. So that +among the bees the honey which is stored for winter use, and among +the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are preserved by +one and the same fluid, formic acid.</p> + +<h3>EDITORIAL NOTE.</h3> + +<p>This same theory has been suggested many times by our most +advanced American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same +formic acid was what made honey a poison to many people, and that +the sharp sting of some honey, notably that from bass wood or +linden, originated in this acid from the poison sac. If this is the +correct explanation, it seems strange that the same kind of honey +is always peculiar for greater or less acidity as the case may be. +We often see bees with sting extended and tipped with a tiny drop +of poison; but how do we know that this poison is certainly mingled +with the honey? Is this any more than a guess?—<i>A.J. Cook, +in Psyche</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor36_7">[7]</a></p> + +<div class="note">Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine +doppelrolle des stachels der honigbienen" in +<i>Deutschamerikanische Apotheker Zeitung</i>, 15 Jan., 1885, +Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from <i>Ind. Blatter</i>.</div> + +<hr> +<h2>CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884.</h2> + +<p>We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of +distillation, and, as such, very pure. A little reflection and a +very slight amount of experimental examination will quickly +disabuse those who have this mistaken and popular impression of +their error. A great number of bodies which arise from industrial +processes, domestic combustion of coal, natural changes in +vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances as tornadoes +and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are discharged +into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving +upon its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable +evidences of their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali +and sulphuric acid works is well known; the acid character of rains +collected near and in cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal +strength of some local rainfalls, have been fully discussed. The +exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith in Scotland, and the +interesting reports of French examiners, have made the scientific +world familiar, not only qualitatively but quantitatively, with the +chemical nature of some rains, as well as with their solid +sedimentary contents.</p> + +<p>Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact +that the rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding +this due solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended +particles of chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free +chlorine, it appeared interesting to determine the average amount +of these salts in the rain water of the sea coast. The results +given in this paper refer to a district on Staten Island, New York +harbor, at a point four miles from the ocean, slightly sheltered +from the ocean's immediate influence by the intervention of low +ranges of hills. They were communicated to the Natural Science +Association of Staten Island, but the details of the observations +may prove of interest to the readers of the <i>Quarterly</i>, and +may there serve as a record more widely accessible.</p> + +<p>It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in +rainfalls near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, +putting aside local exceptions arising from cities or +manufactories, increasing with the proximity of the point of +observation to the ocean, and also showing a marked relation to the +exposure of the position chosen to violent storms. Thus the west +coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger quantities of chlorides +than those of the east, and the table given by Dr. Smith shows the +variations in neighboring localities on the same seafront. The +chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer leaves the +sea coast. In the following observations the waters of thirty-two +rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of silver +in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a liter, +and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common +salt, as the position of the point of observation is not removed +more than a mile from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric +acid works in New Jersey, yet this could not even generally have +been so, as the rain storms came, for the greater number of +instances, from the east, in an opposite direction to the position +of the factories alluded to. It has also been noticed by Mr. A. +Hollick, to whom these observations were of interest, that in heavy +storms a salt film often forms upon fruit exposed to the easterly +gales upon the shores of the island.</p> + +<p>The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for +sodic chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for +1884, as reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, +somewhat higher than usual, as the average for a series of years +before gives 46 inches; but taking these former figures, we find +that for that year (1884) each acre of ground received, accepting +the results obtained by my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of +common salt, if we regard the entire chlorine contents of the rains +as due to that body, or 46.23 pounds of chlorine alone.</p> + +<p>In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, +an examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one +year about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds +were regarded as common salt.</p> + +<p>Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, +it is not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating +it in small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample +supply. These facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing +influence of rains, and they also suggest to what extent rains may +exert a corrosive action when they descend charged with acid +vapors.—<i>L.P. Gratacap, in School of Mines +Quarterly</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CHROMATOSCOPE.</h2> + +<p>Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has +named a chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot +lens that we take the following description from the <i>Journal</i> +of the Royal Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of +illuminating and defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a +similar manner to that in which the polariscope defines polarizable +objects. It can also be applied to many polarizable objects. This +quality, combined with the transmission of a greater amount of +light than is obtainable by the polariscope, renders objects thus +seen much more effective. It is constructed as follows: Into the +tube of the spot lens a short tube is made to move freely and +easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the outer one, which +is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying a glass +plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about +8, 5, and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some +extent through the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong +yellow, thus giving four principal colors. Secondary colors are +formed by a combination of the rays in passing through the spot +lens.</p> + +<p>"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in +quality as possible, and a better effect is obtained by three +pieces of stained glass than by a number of small pieces. The +application of the chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be +used with all objectives up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, +particularly crystals which will not polarize, diatoms, infusoria, +palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be seen to greater +advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. As its cost +is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, large or +small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are known, I +am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to the +microscope."</p> + +<hr> +<p>Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, +finds, contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants +assimilate nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest +quantity when supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. +Well fed plants acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from +the air. It seems probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in +some way assimilated by the plants.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. 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/dev/null +++ b/11761-h/illustrations/tex1.png diff --git a/11761.txt b/11761.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..3d61f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/11761.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4404 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, +November 7, 1885, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, November 7, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 3, 2004 [EBook #11761] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 514 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--Chlorides in the Rainfall of 1884. + Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.--With description + and 3 figures. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Relative Costs of Fluid and + Solid Fuels. + + The Manufacture of Steel Castings. + + Science in Diminishing Casualties at Sea.--Extract of a paper + read before the British Association by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER. + + Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures. + + The Span of Cabin John Bridge. + + Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures. + + Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--The Blue Print Process.--R.W. JONES. + + Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White Ground.--By + A.H. HAIG. + + A Plan for a Carbonizing House.--With full description and 5 + figures. + + The Scholar's Compasses. + + The Integraph.--With full description and engraving. + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous Beverages. 2 engravings. + + Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure. + + Field Kitchens. 8 figures. + + A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures. + + The Preservation of Timber.--Report of the Committee of the + American Society of Engineers.--The Boucherie + process.--Experiments.--Decay of timber. + +IV. PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.--Apparatus for Measuring + the Force of Explosives.--With engraving. + + Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.--Advantages of gas over + electricity, etc.--By WM. SUGG. 2 figures. + + Ander's Telephone. 1 figure. + + Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 figure. + + Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 figures. + + The Chromatoscope.--An aid to microscopy. + +V. ART AND ARCHITECTURE.--The Barbara Uttmann Statue at + Annaberg, Saxony. + + Improvements in Concrete Construction.--Use of Portland + cement.--System of building in concrete invented by Messrs. F. & + J.P. West, London. + + Albany Buildings. Southport.--An engraving. + +VI. PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.--The Sizes of Blood Corpuscles + in Mammals and Birds.--A table. + + The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by the Skin. + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Missing German Corvette Augusta.--With + engraving. + + The Tails of Comets.--The effect by a disturbance of solar + waves, and not by special matter. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND. + + +The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it has +also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen in a dark +cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, except by very +few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved to purchase the +house and premises, with the object of preserving the pavement _in +situ_, and of giving additional light and better access to it, and, this +purchase having been completed in the beginning of the present year, the +work of improvement began. It was now seen that the pavement was +continuous under the premises of the adjoining house, and under the +public street, and arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex +these adjoining parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. +The pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also the +entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive skill, of +variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least part of the +marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of which the +designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No squared, +artificially colored, or glazed tesserae, such as we see in a modern +floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but purposely formed of +brick and stone. There are three shades of brick--a bright red, a dull +or Indian red, and a shade between the two; slate from a neighboring +quarry gives a dark bluish gray; an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and +a fine white composition resembling limestone is used for the center +points and borders. In addition, the outside border is formed with +tesserae of rather larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking +generally, the design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces of the +octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the outer +octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border formed by a +cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, pear-shaped, and +bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and gray bands; and outside +all is the limestone border already described. This border is +constructed with tesserae about five-eighths of an inch square. The +remaining tesserae vary from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular +rhomboidal form. The construction of the pavement is remarkable. There +is a foundation of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded +brick and lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesserae are laid with their roughest side +downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured over the floor, +filling up the interstices, after which the surface would be rubbed down +and polished. + +As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be observed +that the site of this pavement was near the center of the western Roman +town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the military station and +fortress. It was obviously the principal house in the place, and as +clearly, therefore, the residence of the Praefectus, the local +representative of the imperial power of Rome. The Roman occupation of +the district began with the propraetorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. +He was succeeded in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through +Leicester from the Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea +broke out. In the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was +elected consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged education. +He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to the decline of +the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not be far from the +truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the time or even to the +personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years ago.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany had +offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of the Red +Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field hospital. +Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a design for +competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice that his +invention had won the prize. Another instance of the recognition of +American genius abroad. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY. + + +The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was the +inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only introduced it +into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet been solved, +notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid examinations have been +made. It is the general belief, however, that she only introduced the +art, having learned it from a foreigner in the year 1561. The person +from whom she acquired this knowledge is said to have been a Protestant +fugitive from Brabant, who was driven from her native land by the +constables of the Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann +family. However, the probability is that what the fugitive showed +Barbara Uttmann was the stitched, or embroidered, laces--points, so +called--which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the present +time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced Barbara +Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand cushion. + +[Illustration: BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.] + +Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the Saxon +mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner of +extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at Annaberg, +Jan. 14, 1584. + +The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of the +residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as the +occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it frequently +happened that the wages were so low, and the means of sustaining life so +expensive, that some other resource had to be found to make life more +bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was thus a blessing to the +country, and her name is held in high esteem. A monumental fountain is +to be erected at Annaberg, and is to be surmounted by a statue of the +country's benefactress, Barbara Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert +Henze, is to be cast in bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the +costume worn at the time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of +lace, which she has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles +being visible. + +Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a cushion by +hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the pins for giving the +desired pattern to the lace being stuck into the cushion. A yard of hand +cushion lace has been sold in England for as much as $25,000. The +annexed cut, representing the Barbara Uttmann statue, was taken from the +_Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + +A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, one for +himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a furnace +against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air chamber he +had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The owner of the other +house found it very hard to keep his own house warm, and was astounded +at the amount of coal it took to render his family comfortable, while +the "other fellow" kept himself warm at his neighbor's expense nearly a +whole winter before the trick was discovered. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. + + +Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not hydraulically +compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of moisture from the air +to prevent condensation upon the surface of the walls. It not only +resists the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere, but becomes +even harder with the lapse of time. It may also be made in several +different colors, and can be finished off to nearly a polished surface +or can be left quite rough. Walls built of this material may be made so +hard that a nail cannot be driven into them, or they can be made +sufficiently soft to become a fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous +aggregate be used, no damp course is required. Further than this, if +land be bought upon which there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that +can be burnt, the greatest portion of the building material may be +obtained in excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the +(salt) shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be found +to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it may be made +fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in dwellings for the poor +will therefore resist the destructive efforts of the "young barbarian." +Nothing, therefore, can be better as a building material. The system +ordinarily employed to erect structures in concrete consists of first +forming casings of wood, between which the liquid concrete is deposited, +and allowed to become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, +the cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, but +with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. Besides +this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, especially if +it has been applied some time after the concrete forming the body of the +wall has set, and the method of applying ornament is not economical. + +[Illustration: 1.-18.] + +A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by Messrs. +F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we now present. To +this system Messrs. West have given the name of "Concrete Exstruction," +from the Latin "exstructio," which they consider to be a more +appropriate word than "constructio," as applied to concrete building in +general. In Messrs. West's system of building in concrete, instead of +employing wood casings, between which to deposit the concrete or beton, +and removing them when the beton has become hard, casings of concrete +itself are employed. These casings are not removed when the beton has +set, but they become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In +order to form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, which +may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of rectangular +(Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), and indeed of any +other form that will make a complete surface, while for thickness it may +be suited to the work to which it is to be applied, that used for heavy +engineering work differing from that employed in house construction. It +is found that the most convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. +1) is 12 inches and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure +built with slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with +architectural measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to +measure 12 inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of +these slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs are +made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of India-rubber +or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs with their edges +as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can be manufactured. That +portion of the back of the slab which is undercut is formed by means of +soft India-rubber cores. The moulds for making portions of the slabs +have a contrivance by which their length may be adjusted to suit given +dimensions. + +During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a plastic +state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a suitable +key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is finished off to them +(Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be cast with ornaments, etc., +complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but it is more economical to have +separate moulds for the mouldings and other ornaments, and separate +moulds for the slabs, and to apply the mouldings, etc., during the +process of casting the slab. Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be +somewhat similar to the plinth course slab No. 10), and other +constructive features may also be applied in a similar way, or may be +provided for during the casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or +other ornamental solid or even plastic material may be applied to the +face of the slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work +to be finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face +of the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. FIG 20.] + +In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is shown with +the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that the footings are +constructed in the most economical manner by not being stepped. As no +damp-course is required in concrete work, when the aggregate is of a +non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon the top of the footings is +generally laid a horizontal slab, called the wall-base slab, the special +feature of which is that it enables the thickness of the wall to be +gauged accurately, and also provides a fixing for the first course of +slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show such slabs for internal and external angles, +and Fig. 6 shows one for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is +not essential, although it is the more accurate method of building, for +in cases where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, +the slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set behind +them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first course with +breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being keyed to the other +by means of a quick-setting cementing material poured into the key-holes +provided in the edges of the slab for that purpose, a bituminous cement +being preferred. The key-holes are made in several ways, those shown in +the illustrations being of a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed +holes of any other shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an +oblique direction are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or +squint-quoins (Figs. 17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and +16) are manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. This +gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the quoin in +one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course above a +three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or _vice versa_. Thus are the +walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For openings, the jambs and lintels +(and in window-openings the sill) are made solid with a provision for a +key-hole to the mass of concrete filling behind them. That portion of +the jambs against which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a +similar one in the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle +joint by squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a similar +way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.-FIG 25.] + +The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made to +contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of courses +(according to convenience) have been built up, and when set practically +forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to which the face slabs +are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland cements, which are known +to contract in setting, and with those over-limed cements which expand +(both of which are not true Portland cements), the filling in is done in +equal sections, with a vertical space equal to each section left between +them until the first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are +then filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores of +the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where required, +slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails may be driven, +such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt clay, coke, and such +like. Hollow lintels are also made of the slabs keyed together at their +vertical joints, and when in position these are filled in with beton. +This system, however, is only recommended for fire-place openings +instead of arches. + +In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the apsidal +end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 being employed +for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show forms of slabs +suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal axes and domes. In +Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is shown a system of +constructing floors of these slabs. It is only necessary to explain that +the slabs are first keyed to the lower flange of the iron joist by means +of a cement (bituminous preferred), and the combination is then fixed in +position, the edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, +the iron joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening +slabs, the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists are +made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted to iron +girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This provision secures +the covering of the cross girders on their undersides by the ceiling +slabs. The concrete having been deposited upon the slabs, its upper +surface may be finished off in any of the usual ways, while the ceiling +may be treated in any of the ways described for the walls. This system +does not exclude the ordinary methods of constructing floors and roofs, +although it supplies a fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, +and, in fact, any other building material, may be used in conjunction +with the slabs. + +The system of building construction is intended, as in the case with all +concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the various uses to +which they have been applied, and, at the same time, to offer a more +perfect system of building in concrete. Hitherto slab concrete work has +never been erected in a perfectly finished state (i.e., with mouldings, +etc., complete), but has either been left in a rough state or without +ornament, or else has been constructed so as never to be capable of +receiving good ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in +constructing concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to +prevent the slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to form, +with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming the slabs of +L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of internal buttress +and shoring them up from the outside, or of supporting the slabs upon +framing fixed against the faces of the wall, several devices have been +used to obviate this difficulty. + +In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the slabs +forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as soon as the +plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but not before), +these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or cramps have been +used, and, as their name implies, have been allowed to remain in the +wall and to be entirely buried in the plastic filling-in material. These +permanent transverse ties or cramps have been of two kinds: those which +were affixed as soon as the slabs were placed in position, and those +which were made to form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, +slabs of Z or H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the +plastic filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse +tie by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs forming +each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in some cases, +being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being undercut in some +way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in this latter system +generally have wide bases, they may also be bedded or jointed in cement, +and, provided temporary ties be placed across their upper edges to +connect the slabs forming each face of the wall together, the space +between the faces of the wall may then be filled in with the plastic +concrete. + +All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they are only +temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton has become +hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two faces of the +wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of all slab concrete +construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the plastic concrete used in +forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the slabs to the mass which they +themselves have moulded; and (c) to form a facing to the wall. When +these objects shall have been accomplished, there is no further need of +any tie whatever beyond that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. +In West's system, however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, +any kind of transverse tie to be used during the process of +construction, except that used in the starting course, is entirely +dispensed with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the +courses of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the +time that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall. + +[Illustration: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION] + +There is, however, a more decided difference between West's system and +those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact that the slabs +composing the shell of the whole structure in many cases may be built up +before the filling-in is deposited between the slabs, and in none of the +other cases can this be done. In fact, only in the first two cases +before mentioned can more than one course of slabs be laid before +filling-in of some kind must be done. Compared with the ordinary method +of building in concrete, this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and +waste of wood casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside +and outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties encountered +in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of the work by the +ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a face of any of the +usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, besides a facing of any +other material, such as marble, etc., and produces better and more +durable work, at the same time showing a saving in cost, especially in +the better classes of work; all of which is effected with less plant +than ordinarily required. For engineering work, such as sea walls, the +hexagonal slabs, made of greater thickness than those employed for +ordinary walling, will answer admirably, especially if the grooves be +made proportionately larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be +built up with great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the +dwellings of artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to +render them easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves +in order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of the +simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work. + +Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for this +system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. Frank West, +as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be preferred. It not only +supplies the necessary scaffold, but also the necessary arrangements for +hoisting the slabs, as well as for raising the liquid concrete and +depositing it behind the slabs. It is really an independent scaffold, +and may be used wherever a light tramway of contractor's rails can be +laid, which in crowded thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a +staging erected over the footway. The under frame is carried upon two +bogie frames running upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is +enabled to turn sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being +provided at the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of +a climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to the +under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A worm +gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the scaffold, causes +the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, made to act at the curves +as well as on the straight portions of the rail by being attached to a +radial arm fixed to the under frame, assists the stability of the +scaffold where required, but the gauge of the rails is altered to render +the scaffold more or less stable according to its height. Combined with +the same machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used +for the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a triangle be +altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are altered. A portion +of the vertical post up and down which the crane climbs forms the base +of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, together with the stay, forms +the remaining two sides. Hence, by causing the foot of one or the other +to travel upward, by means of the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib +is either elevated or depressed. + +The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless chains +passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is fixed a hopper, +into which is thrown, either by hand or from a concrete mixer running +upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, and from which it gravitates +into a narrow channel, through which pass the buckets (attached to the +chain) with a shovel-like action. The buckets, a motor being applied to +one pair of wheels, thus automatically fill themselves, and on arriving +at top are made to tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically +into a hopper by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which +they are attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken away +to the required destination by means of a worm working in a tube. For +varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are inserted and +secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and secured by a nut. By +using this scaffold, a saving in plant, cartage, and labor is effected. +The elevator may also be used for raising any other material besides +concrete. + +Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding of +Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, and +which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may add in +conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a scaffold +are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS. + +R.W. JONES. + + +1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, with two or +three thicknesses of common blanket or its equivalent. + +2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side uppermost. + +3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by means of a +plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the board. + +4. Expose the whole--in a clear sunlight--from 4 to 6 minutes. In a +winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, from 20 to 30 +minutes. + +5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one or two +minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry. + +The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite quality +in the _paper_ itself being its ability to stand washing. + +Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such a brush +as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part soluble citrate of +iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part red prussiate of potash, +and dissolve in 10 parts of water. + +The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and better +results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until immediately +required. After being coated with the solution, the paper must be laid +away to dry in a dark place, and must be shielded entirely from light +until used. When dry, the paper is of a yellow and bronze color. After +exposure the surface becomes darker, with the lines of the tracing still +darker. Upon washing, the characteristic blue tint appears, with the +lines of the tracing in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been +obtained from glass negatives by this process.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + + + + +REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND. + +A.H. HAIG. + + +The following process for making photographic copies of drawings in blue +lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is based on the +property of perchloride of iron of being converted into protochloride on +exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when brought into contact with +the perchloride of iron immediately turns the latter blue, but it does +not affect the protochloride. + +A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of iron, +five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one hundred parts +water. Should the paper to be used not be sufficiently sized, dextrine, +gelatine, isinglass, or some similar substance must be added to the +solution. The paper is sensitized by dipping in this solution and then +dried in the dark, and may be kept for some length of time. To take a +copy of a drawing made on cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a +sheet of the sensitive paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame +or under a sheet of glass. The length of exposure varies with the state +of the weather from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds +in winter, in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 +minutes, and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now immersed +in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of potash per 100 +parts of water. Those parts protected from the light by the lines of the +drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest of the paper, where the +coating has been converted into protochloride by the effects of light, +will remain white. Next, the image is freely washed in water, and then +passed through a bath consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid +to 100 parts of water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron +salt. + +It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, when the +drawing will appear in blue on a white background.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + +[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.] + + + + +RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS. + +[Footnote: Read June 20, 1885.] + +By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club. + + +During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous efforts to +introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the evaporation of +water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on a small scale, for +domestic purposes. + +The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the number of +stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using solid fuel. +Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the better classes. +Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about thirty-six per +cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount of compression. Ease +of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of regulation of temperature. +Almost perfect combustion and cleanliness. + +Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well known +regenerative furnace. + +Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running on the +Paris and Strassburg Railroad. + +Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and under the +boilers of steamship Oberlin. + +Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a locomotive +running on the Long Island Railroad. + +Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of United States +steamers. + +Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their locomotives, and +steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel. + +Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace at Jersey +City. + +Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the production +of water gas. + +These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results when +considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in advocating +their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the all-important +item of cost. + +It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of such +systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long as the +supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable limits. + +In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely theoretical +results, without allowing for losses in the furnace. + +The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, crude +petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases. + +The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the heating +agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, are: + +PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT. + + ________________________________________________________ + | C | H | O | CO |CH_{4}|C_{2}H_{4} + +----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + Anthracite |87.7| 3.3 |3.2| | | + Bituminous |80.8| 5.0 |8.2| | | + Petroleum |84.8|13.1 |1.5| | | + Coal gas | | 6.5 | |14.3| 52.4 | 14.8 + Generator gas | | 1.98| |35.5| 1.46| + Water gas | | 6.3 |0.6|87.8| 1.2 | + ------------------+----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + +We will employ the formula of Dulong-- + + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) + +to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the case of +methane, CH_{4}, the formula is not true, but the error is not great +enough to seriously affect the result. This gives for the combustion of +one pound of: + + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " + +Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from 212 deg. F., +we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212 deg. F. + + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 + +The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning furnaces +to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per cent. may be +taken as a good figure. The great difference in the efficiencies is due +to the fact that fluid fuels require for combustion very little air +above the theoretical quantity, while with the solid fuels fully twice +the theoretical quantity must be admitted to dilute the products of +combustion. + +Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212 deg. F., PER POUND OF FUEL. + + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 + +These figures agree closely with the results of experiments. + +We will now consider the subject of cost. + +The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing centers, +termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers. + +In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude state, an +approximation is made by adding to the cost at the nearest shipping port +the freight charged on refined petroleum, and ten per cent. to cover +duties and other charges. + +Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the cities, +there may be some errors. + + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. + + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 + + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. + + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. + +In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal gas is +taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; petroleum, 0.8. + + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. + + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. + +These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give: + + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212 deg. F. FOR $1. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. + + RELATIVE COSTS. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 + +These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there may be +circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their use will +exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a comparison without +considering particular cases, but for intermittent heating petroleum +would probably be more economical, though for a steady fire coal holds +its own. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. + + +At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and Steel +Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, Mr. R. +Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, read a paper +on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting discussion upon +steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it was thirty years since +the first crucible steel castings were made in Sheffield in the general +way, and with one exception the method of manufacture was pretty much +the same now as at that early date. The improvement was the employment +of gas furnaces instead of the old coke holes for melting. Important +economies had resulted from this introduction. Where before it required +3 tons of coke to melt 1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with +35 cwt. of very poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make +crucible steel castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true +steel, that was to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct +proportions of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to +make crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and manganese to +produce that chemical composition which was known to be necessary in +best castings. It was in consequence of this difficulty that many makers +resorted to the addition of hematite pigs. The Bessemer process was used +much more extensively upon the Continent than in this country in the +manufacture of castings. It seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for +agitating the steel in the ladle so as to remove the gases would be +taken up largely for open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as +it had a wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in +conjunction with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some +extremely wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid +being melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied greatly. +The ordinary method generally practiced in this country was a +modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed were only +of secondary importance to the making of the steel itself. Unless the +mould was good, no matter how good the steel was, the casing was +spoiled. The best composition which had been found for moulds was that +of a large firm in Sheffield, but unfortunately it was rather expensive. +A good steel casting ought to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 +per cent. of silicon and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a +casting, if free from other impurities, would have a strength of between +30 and 40 tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 +per cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering. + +The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. McCallem +present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion upon the open +hearth basic system, in which they were greatly interested. + +Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would be +worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace before it +would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, he had seen +the basic process worked very successfully in the open-hearth furnace; +and he was recently informed by the manager that he was producing ingots +at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per ton. + +The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved admirably. +He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, at Wednesbury, +were at the present moment putting down an open-hearth furnace on the +basic process. + +The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. H. +Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, Walker, W. +Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave it as their +experience that the best castings contained the most blowholes, and Mr. +McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some slight qualification. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA. + + +At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject. + +He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing the +safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions with +wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development of +maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied with +apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and to the +nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and that reports +given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more extensively. He +wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by telegraph for the same +purpose. + +In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. Badeley in +1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and last year at +Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a committee on life saving +appliances of the United States had made experiments. The conclusions of +the committee were that in deep water oil had a calming effect upon a +rough sea, but there was nothing in either source of information which +yet answered the question whether or not there is in the force exerted +by the wind a point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in +causing the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some +utility on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of +rescue; on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in dangerous +proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use of automatic +sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of parabolic +reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further prosecution of +experiments by Professor Bell in establishing communication between +vessels some distance apart by means of interrupted electrical currents. +The improvement of navigation, he said, meant an international code of +police to improve police rules of navigation; an international code of +universal telegraphy for navigation; an international office of +meteorology and navigation to collect the studies; experiments on the +weather, on the sea, on the casualties; and the discovery by experiment +of new apparatus and appliances to diminish maritime disaster. + +He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, and he +hoped that before long there would be proposed an international +congress--such as the postal, telegraph, and sanitary congresses, and +the international convention to fix the common meridian--by one of the +maritime powers, by which would be founded an international institution +to diminish casualties at sea. He recommended a universal system of +buoys. The great losses of life and property every year were worthy the +devotion of L300,000 by an international institution, which would be +much less than the monthly average loss in navigation. + +Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built--some were ten times +longer than their beam. There was nothing in the world so ticklish as a +ship; touch her in the waist, and down she goes. He believed sailing +ships ought not to exceed four times their beam, and steamers certainly +not more than six times. He pointed out that a fruitful cause of +accidents was the stopping of steaming all at once in the case of +impending collision, by which the rudder lost control of the vessel. If +constructors looked more to the form of the ships, and got them to steer +better, collisions would be avoided. + +The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one great +secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, which made +it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another vessel what it +was about. The method of signaling was very crude, and he ventured to +say that it was quite out of date when vessels met each other at a rate +of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an amateur, tried a method which +he would attempt to explain. His idea was to fit up a lantern on deck, +showing an electric light. The instrument would be controlled by the +rudder, and the commanding officer of the vessel would be able so to +turn it when the helm was put up or down that the light would flash at +some distance in front of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal +to a vessel coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was +amidships, the light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved +until the helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going +could not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If the +lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass safely. + +Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any experiments. + +The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a number +of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they were already +disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left the carrying out of +the suggestion to others. + +Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for a short +distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was very +difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile out to +sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to three +miles. + +The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object light, but +upon the sweep of the light on the water. + +Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil on +troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully studied all +the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they were all very well +in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean they were utterly +hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. They had been tried in +the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had prophesied the results before +they were commenced. It was utterly hopeless to think that a quantity of +oil had the power of laying a storm--all the world could not produce oil +enough to bring about that result. + +There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped the +experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or three +mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe in powerful +lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, and a dazzling +effect was the result. In regard to sound, he wondered that no more +effective alarm was used than the whistle. It was well known that, as +the whistle instrument was enlarged, the sound became more and more a +roar. He would have ships use all their boiler power in sounding a +siren, so that the sound could be heard at a distance of not less than +two or three miles in any weather. With such a signal as that there +ought to be, not absolute safety, but collisions would be more easily +prevented. He was glad to say that a universal system of buoys had been +practically arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, +so that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language. + +Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, while a +green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so that, if a +green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels were within two +miles and a half of each other. + +Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in regard to +these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of lights effect +should be given to the difference that existed in the various lights, so +that, by making the green light more powerful, it could penetrate as far +as the red, and in the same way making the red and green lights +proportionately more powerful, so that they would penetrate as far as +the white light. + +Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for sound +tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and focused all +the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea that the operator +could hear nothing but a chaos of sound. + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE. + + +The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining +pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained +in the raw material, maybe divided into two parts, viz., the immersion +of the rags in acid, with subsequent washing and drying, and the +carbonization properly so called. The first part is so well known, and +is so simple in its details and apparatus, that it is useless to dwell +upon it in this place. But the second requires more scientific +arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted, and, as +carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry, we think +it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. +It will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. +The object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being +in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled. + +Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, and Figs. +1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is arranged like +the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, there is a double +series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and work generally. These +two series are arranged on each side of a central portion, which +contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway +giving access to the upper stories. The heating apparatus is a hot air +stove provided with a system of piping. The rags to be carbonized or the +wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames. + +The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the heating +apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for about half an +hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the air in, as are also +those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers. The hot air +then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags, and, +becoming saturated and heavier, descends and makes its exit from the +chamber through an aperture, n, near the floor, whence it flows to the +central chimney. This latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains +in its center a second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) +that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion +from the heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes +serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the +vapors derived from the wool are disengaged. + +The air, heated to 40 deg. or 50 deg., is made to pass thus for several hours, +until the greater part of the humidity has been removed. The temperature +is then raised to 80 deg. or 90 deg. by gradually closing the apertures that +give access to the ventilating chimney. In order that it may be possible +to further increase the temperature during the last hour, and raise it +to 90 deg. or 120 deg., an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such air +with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air circulates in the +pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter. The hot +vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one, where +they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the +materials. + +The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in order to +prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate should be of +relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of cast iron, and all +the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see to such matters, with a +view to saving money, will surely lead in the long run to bad results. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)] + +The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired to +preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case recourse +is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting the vapors of +nitric acid heated to 115 deg. or 125 deg. for the sulphuric acid. The +arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different. The chambers, which +may be in duplicate, as in the preceding case, are vaulted, and are +about three yards long by three wide and three high. The rags are put +into wire cages that have six divisions, and that are located in the +middle of the chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of +gearings. Under the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a +reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. +The arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken to +have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.--_Bull, de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS. + + +According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in the dry +distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for the production +of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that the mass shall be +divided as completely as possible, since it then takes but a relatively +moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter +contained in the wash. The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is based +upon this observation. + +The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long boiler, +B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the intermedium of a +waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass slowly to the other +extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes its exit in the form of +dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the scrapers, b, and the interrupted +pieces, a, in front of which are the hinged valves, c. In the motion of +the pieces, a, from right to left, these valves free the apertures +thereof and allow the wash to pass, while in the motion from left to +right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be +evaporated before them. + +From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and fro +motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of which is +produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their lower, forked +extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the piece, d, that supports +the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, f, pass through the side of +the boiler, through the intermedium of stuffing boxes, and are connected +by their upper extremities, through a link, with levers, g, that revolve +around the point, h. A cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, +alternately rising and descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods +f. The same shaft, M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, +and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, +E, receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, m. The +material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at +the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel, G, provided +with a stirrer, H. The salts and other analogous matters are dissolved, +and the residuum, which constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out +of the apparatus, while the solution passes directly to the refinery, +where it is evaporated. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS.] + +In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in powder +is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means +of water, and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen, +so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally +by the mass, and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus. + +The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, where they +condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine. The +non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the +manufactory. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE. + + +In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we find a +leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. Britton, of +Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate. + +This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in +order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are clamped in the jaws +or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram +connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws. The power is obtained by +means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys +shown. The action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the +plates which are not "bagged" or buckled, and this causes the surface to +extend, the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same +stretching action. The machine shown is designed to operate on sheet +iron from No. 7 to No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for +length being 120 in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. +The machine appears to have met with considerable success in America, +and has been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in Figs. +1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the +machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. 3 shows the +bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with the holes for +adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 is a back view and +section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving +grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a plan and cross section of +the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back elevation of the same, with a front +view and section of the gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which +the jaws are opened and closed. + +[Illustration: BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES. + + +Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing +circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is doubtless +that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and which is known +in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists of a socket into +which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to which is hinged a +tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil are held at the proper +distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw. +When the instrument is closed, as shown in the figure to the left, it +takes up but little space, and may be easily carried in the pocket +without the point tearing the clothing, as the binding screw holds the +leg firmly against the pencil. + +The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the +right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation.--_La +Nature_. + +[Illustration: THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE INTEGRAPH. + + +In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the +following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = f(x), to find +a curve whose equation shall be + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us suppose that +we know an induced current, and that we can represent it by a curve +y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive current, that is to say, +the curve represented by the equation + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli and +Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem mechanically, +by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another example from the domain +of electricity, in order to better show the utility of the apparatus; +let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile +or of an accumulator. The abscisses represent the times, and the +ordinates the amperes. The question is to know at every moment the +quantity of coulombs produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve +whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a +large number of analogous applications. + +[Illustration: THE INTEGRAPH.] + +The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron ruler, +I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a drawing-board, and +is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface. In this +groove move two rollers, which, in the center of the piece that connects +them, carry two brass T-squares that are parallel with each other and at +right angles with the first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. +Between these two rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest +the axis of the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour +of the curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point is +guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the paper in +such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line, +and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's +angle with the axes of the X's is constantly proportional to the +ordinate of the primitive curve. + +The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a +sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities of the +axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin, and roll +over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral +steel surfaces of the carriages, while the circumference of the wheels +rolls in grooves along the two T-squares. + +These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run in the +groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller that runs +over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is fixed a +divided ruler, through one point of which continually passes a third +ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of the first carriage. + +When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and the +point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be +integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the +axis of the X's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure. The +wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, A', of the second carriage must +move parallel with this ruler. In order to obtain such parallelism, we +employ a parallelogram formed as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same +diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point, A, of the +first carriage, and their line of centers is parallel with the latter. +The second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to +those of the toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers +must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a weak +steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels, the +two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by means of a barrel +and spring placed in the center of one of them. + +The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents the +latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, permitting it +thus to move only in the direction of their plane. + +It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog +wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of +but the same length of the two threads. + +It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by +forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the +curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the +apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES. + + +The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the +manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. +Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling +machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so +called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all +grouped upon a cast-iron column. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES.] + +The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate +of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an +intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the +former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in +the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the +aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side +of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in +the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is +lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part +of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of +glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the +gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced. + +The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, +comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of +bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). +This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in +the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of +bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents +all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a +powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is +placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This +machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES. + + +Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the +power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most +extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus +have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less +necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal +types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive +materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has +devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed +by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in +which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed +in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun +when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman +responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 +grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the +igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be +made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden +cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. +It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external +diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. +The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided +with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches +wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 +inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch +wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. +It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a +cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. +The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median +piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that +still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, +g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is +prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which +has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key +which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, +y. + +When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 +inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, +and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by +a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, +is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a +cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely +closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the +figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the +leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 +grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a +leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The +apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the +pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way +that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a +smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the +pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that +their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes +place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the +capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately +opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, +to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that +have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the +apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing +alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means +of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder +the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.] + +The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by +means of a gauge (Fig. 3). + +The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and +thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder +very perfectly. + + * * * * * + + + + +SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS. + + +For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from +pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. +Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the +accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or +enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the +upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors +disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone +cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is +filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided +with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, +d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The +head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a +dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, +f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed +strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with +pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by +acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, +e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n. + +At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by +a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of +emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L. + +A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to +introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. +The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for +cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows +out through the tubes, v. + +The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the +quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is +afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation +may then proceed at once. + +The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, +through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they +are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, +which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, +which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. +This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and +afterward flows into the vessel, N. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.] + +The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, +e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of +concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can +no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 +degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and +received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of +the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed +and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected +directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that +still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, +e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S. + +There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the +acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as +to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIELD KITCHENS. + + +We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the +Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's +Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These +kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three +to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed +one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The +kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are +carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A +small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When +packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the +outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the +top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form +of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or +in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, +boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may +require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of +the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 +represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens +consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which +are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or +flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be +placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 +inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular +kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few +inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be +made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with +straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended +for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, +workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food +for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and +distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat +water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, +London.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW COP-WINDER. + + +In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the +wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of +which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German +apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a +horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that +moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow +extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in +contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a +mean velocity until it is finished. + +In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the +paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is +the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove +which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper +tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse +motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first +prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the +ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, +but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its +axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a +cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a +sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, +J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, +a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is +kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished. + +[Illustration: A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.] + +Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may +likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this +case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is +useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the +ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of +the screw. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.] + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. + +[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.] + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL +CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885. + +BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER. + + +The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which +he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a +solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of +hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of +copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it +will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance +under this head. + +Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and +1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the +preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective. + +His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by +tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a +preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory +results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his +name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a +freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by +pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at +the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred +rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and +letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the +rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed +then served to admit the solution under pressure. + +This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of +copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in +France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, +that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log +only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and +annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be +still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process +could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting +down trees), as the solution would freeze. + +On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been +able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this +country. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. + +SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE. + +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS. + +The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern +Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, +when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable +condition. + +We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. +Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process. + +Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. +Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), +when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital +suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing +the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in +his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, +but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by +the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying +substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, +and left it nearly in its primitive condition." + +He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, +and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie +process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, +which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by +that process. + +Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the Bethell +process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders, and +probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were prepared in that +way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. Tilden, however, showed the +"saturation very uneven; absorptive power, high; block contains soluble +salts of copper, removable by washing." + +It was expected that the double solution, by forming an insoluble +compound, would prove an effective protection against the _teredo_. +Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the contrary to be the +fact. + +The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory results +against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz Brewing +Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in 1882, after some +six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, a chemist of Boston +(experiment No. 9), indicated favorable results, and the planks in a +ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet +sound in 1882. + +The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16), +however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable at first, +and great things were expected of them; but late examinations made on +the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the +Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, +and the results to be unfavorable. + +This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. Thilmany +has patented still another combination, in which he uses sulphate of +zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed under the head of +burnettizing. + +Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It consisted +of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the South, by the +Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of +copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid in the tunnel at New +Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, in 1882, several of them +were still in the track. The process, however, was found to be so +tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial, and has not since +been resumed. + +In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is the +inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the cap +fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump, and +placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired solution, he +sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the +wood. + +Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way, with +various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate of copper, and +there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be +materially increased thereby. + +Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the +original Boucherie process can only be determined by practical +application upon an extensive scale. + +A considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the +Boucherie process have been patented in this country; but none of them +seems to have come into practical use, probably because of the necessity +for operating upon freshly cut logs, and the inconvenience of such +applications. + +The table on this page gives a record of various experiments with +miscellaneous substances. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS--MISCELLANEOUS. + +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. + +Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from which +great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted in immersing +timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate +of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons +of water. It was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut +Street, Philadelphia, and for a time seemed to promise good results. +Experiments with prepared rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James +Archbald, Chief Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable. + +The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet Arsenal, +where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, at a cost of +about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used for various +ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its life extended, as +would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics +used, its strength was so far impaired, and it checked and warped so +badly, that the process was abandoned in 1844. + +The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, for +a full copy of the reports upon these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has been +applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that platforms and +boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly +suggested the use of lime for preserving timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. +Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, laid a +portion of its track on white pine sills, which had been soaked for +three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained. +Similar experiments were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The +result was not satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that +lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking. + +Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, sometimes +known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former have been +furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, +and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your committee is much indebted for a +large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation. + +Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject +than any other person in this country. Beginning with sulphate of copper +in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in 1847, and chloride of +zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of mercury, and again to chloride +of zinc, using the latter until 1865, then using creosote to protect the +piles against the _teredo_ at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared +by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our disposal many +original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare. + +Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President of this +Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 x 12 with a 1-1/8 +inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 inches. These were filled with +common salt and plugged up, as is not infrequently done in +ship-building, but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened, +it was concluded that the process did not pay. + +Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, but is a +comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being 58.8 in the +hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of mercury. + +Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known and most +ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this particular +case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet +into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, which +probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of +moisture, which, as is well known, much hastens decay. The posts, which +had been set butt-end upward, were mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' +exposure. + +Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as well, +and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is +uncertain and disappointing in its results. + +Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting machinery for +charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against decay. The +process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the benefits which it +confers, and the charred surface is so objectionable for many uses, that +nothing is to be expected from the process upon a large commercial +scale. + +In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), at +Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate with +pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar experiments +had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. Boucherie, but the +result has not been found satisfactory. + +In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the Nichols +patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for boring a 2 +inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge timbers. This +continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and in rebuilding them +the boring machinery was not replaced. The longitudinal hole allowed a +portion of the sap to evaporate without checking the outside of the +timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its life. It is believed there are +yet (1885) some sticks of timber in the bridges of the road that were so +prepared in 1868 or 1869. + +In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, by +incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the space +between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic cement. +This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the mainland with +Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did it seem to succeed +at first that it was proposed to extend the process to railroad +trestlework, to fencing, to supports for houses, and to telegraph poles. +But after a while the earthenware pipes were displaced and broken, the +process was given up, and Galveston bridge is now creosoted. + +In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by simply +washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that borax is a +solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by boiling them in a +solution of borax. For small specimens, this answered well, and a +signboard treated in that way (experiment No. 13) was preserved a long +time; but when applied to large timber, the process was found very +tedious and slow, and no headway has been made in introducing it. + +Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age it was +discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of the Union +Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles in length, where +the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, Mr. Blinkinsderfer, +kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which had been laid in 1868, +and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It is as sound and a good deal +harder than when first laid, 14 years before, while on some other parts +of the road cottonwood ties perish in two or five years. + +The character of the soil where these results have been observed is +light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the Laramie +Division, furnishes the following analysis: + + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. + +The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis may be +of interest: + +"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of substances +which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in the juices of +the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous matter, which, when +beginning to decay, causes also the destruction of the other +constituents of the wood." + +"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by decay is +by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the sap." + +"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some substance +which either enters into combination with the constitutents of the sap +or so alters their properties as to prevent the setting up of +decomposition." + +"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large quantities of +the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, and iron) most used +in the different processes of preserving or kyanizing wood. It also +contains much inorganic matter, which also acts as a preserving agent." + +Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other portions of +the track, and some of the soil has also been transported to other +localities, so that it is hoped that in the discussion that may be +expected to follow this report, some further light will be thrown on the +subject by an account of the results of these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and convey a +useful lesson. + +In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry powder for +preserving wood, which was composed of certain proportions of salt, +arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action was based upon an +experience which he had had when, as a working mechanic of Ellisburg, +Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had preserved a water-wheel shaft by +inserting such a compound in powder in the body of the wood, and +ascertained that it was still sound some 14 years later. + +His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly this: + +"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that fermentation +cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the chemical property or +nature of his compound, when inserted dry into wood, is to attract +moisture, and this moisture, aided by fermentation, liquefies the +compound; that capillary attraction must inevitably convey it through +the sap ducts and medullary rays to every fiber of the stick.... Were +these crystallizations salt alone, they would soon dissolve, but the +arsenic and corrosive sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they +remain intact while any fiber of the wood is left." + +"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and have been +known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the _mummies of Egypt_ to-day +shows the presence of arsenic in large quantities in every portion of +their substance. Whatever other ingredients may have entered into the +compound that has been so potent in preserving from decay the bodies of +the old kings of Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, +arsenic was most certainly one." + +The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes two inches +in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of square timber, +four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, and to plug them up +with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two holes two inches in +diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and filled and plugged them. +Fresh cut lumber and shingles were prepared by piling layers upon each +other with the dry powder sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty +pounds to the thousand feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a +temperature of at least 458 deg. F. until fermentation took place, when the +lumber was considered fully "foremanized." + +The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a steamboat, +and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It was then applied +to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, where it did not succeed, +and to some on the Chicago and Northwestern, where they seem to have +been lost sight of, being few in number, so that your committee has not +been able to learn the result. + +Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional sale +was made to various parties of the right of using the process, notably, +it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for $50,000; and some +ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, when the poisonous nature +of the ingredients used brought about disaster. + +Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East St. +Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very ill, and +one of them died. + +The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties along the +Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked them for the +sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for ten miles was +strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in arms, and made the +railroad take up and burn the ties. The company promoting foremanizing +was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it went out of business. + +In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, and the +succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that patent was +submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, D.C., and examined +by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). He found the +impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, but he did not find +any arsenic, though its use was claimed. + +The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, first, of +a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common burnt lime. Mr. +Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the water used to test the +absorptive power to have been filled with threads of fungi in +forty-eight hours. + +The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of sulphide of +calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. Tilden. + +The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a solution +of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was also condemned +by Mr. Tilden. + +The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen different +processes, most of which have already been noticed in this report, and +their practical results given. + +The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable amount of +prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is understood to have +proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of inquiry, your committee +has been enabled to obtain information of the results of three of these +experiments. + +The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) were +first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of sulphate of +iron. + +The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with chloride +of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of application is +not stated. + +The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were treated with +the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is stated that this +was the only process in which pressure was used. + +In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks were badly +decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost impassable, while +other streets paved in the same year with untreated woods remained in +fair condition. + +It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did much +toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, was chiefly +owing to the very dishonest way in which the preparation was done; that +in fact there was a combination between the officials and the +contractors by which the latter were chiefly interested "how not to do +it," and that the above results, therefore, prove very little on the +subject of wood preservation. + +Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your committee +is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments (Nos. 26 to 41 +inclusive) which have been carried on at the Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, +for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to +test the effect of various substances as a protection against the +_Teredo navalis_. It will be noticed that the application of two coats +of white zinc paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster +of Paris mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil +and tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of coal +tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating compound, of +compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of the Thilmany +process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved failures. + +The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the month of +January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or five years, or +till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress piles, well +charred, have resisted for nine years. + +This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been stated under +the head of creosoting, that nothing but the impregnation with creosote, +and plenty of it, is an effectual protection against the _teredo_. +Numberless experiments have been tried abroad and in this country, and +always with the same result. + +There are quite a number of other experiments which your committee has +learned about which are here passed in silence. The accounts of them are +vague, or the promised results of such slight importance as not to +warrant cumbering with them this already too voluminous report. + +The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the many +patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It had prepared +a list of them, and investigated the probable success of many of them, +but has concluded that it is better to confine itself to the results of +actual tests, and to stick to ascertained facts. + +Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the great +importance of the subject, and the economical advantages which will +result from the artificial preparation of wood as its price advances. +They hope, however, that the members of this Society, in discussing this +report, will dwell upon this point. + +We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general conclusions +which we have reached as the result of our protracted investigation. + + +DECAY OF TIMBER. + +Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of +carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the +same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of +the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. + +Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent. of +the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great many +substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., etc., +with a large portion of water. + +Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap, +fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend +upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the woody fiber, and +produces decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that +there must be a concurrence of four separate conditions: + +1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when +exposed to air and water. + +2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation. + +3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. + +4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50 deg. and 100 deg. F. Below +32 deg. F. and above 150 deg. F., no decay occurs. + +When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, and +ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, unless +the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative. + +Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does +not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.[1] It is therefore necessary +to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter +the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the office +performed by the various antiseptics. + +[Footnote 1: Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, 1884, +Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of Timber."] + +We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, whether +fermentation and decay result from slow combustion (eremacausis) or from +the presence of living organisms (bacteria, etc.); but having in the +preceding pages detailed the results of the application of various +antiseptics, we may now indicate under what circumstances they can +economically be applied. + +_(To be continued)_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:_ + +Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint of Mr. B. +Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association of Aberdeen +which has come into my hands. + +In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the Adda as +500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as stated in the same +address, and he belittles the American Cabin John Bridge by making its +span _"after all only 215 ft."_ As the builder of this greatest American +stone arch, I regret that on so important and public an occasion the +writer was not accurate. + +The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is not +great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot that +counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one minute is +to fail to capture the cup. + +M.C. MEIGS. + +Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA. + + +On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette Augusta +left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, for +Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, the +report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is probably +correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews for the +cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, including +the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is still a +possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting somewhere in +the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but this is not very +probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to weather a typhoon. +During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper masts, spars, etc, had +to be removed, that she might be better adapted to weather a cyclone or +like storm. If the Augusta had not met with an accident, she would have +arrived at Port Albany in Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of +July. She was due June 17. + +The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and was bought +in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's rigging, 2371/2 +feet long, 351/2 feet beam, 16 feet draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her +engines had 400 horse-power, and her armament consisted of 14 pieces. + +[Illustration: THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.] + +During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by Captain +Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French coast. January 4, +1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in the mouth of the +Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to Bordeaux with flour and +bread for the Third French Division. The Augusta then captured the +Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which was being carried from Havre to +Bordeaux. Then the French transport steamer Max was captured and burned. +The French men of war finally forced the Augusta to retreat into the +Spanish port of Vigo, from which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March +28 at Kiel, with the captured brig St. Marc in tow.--_Illustrirte +Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS. + + +In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal wheel, +the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which we +illustrate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.] + +Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse section, +and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These wheels are made in +two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates a wheel of the former +class, these wheels being designed for use on rough and uneven roads, +and when very great jolting strains may be met with, being stronger than +those of class B design. The wheels are made with mild steel spokes, +which are secured by metal straps in the recesses cut in the annular +flanges on the boss, and by a taper bolt or rivet through the tire and +rim. These spokes can be easily taken out and renewed when necessary by +any unskilled person in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway +of their length give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist +side strains in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing +the weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer screwed up +on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil caps to the end of +the bushes, which are provided with a small set screw, so that the cap +need not be taken off when it is necessary to lubricate the wheel, as by +simply taking out the set screw oil may be poured through the hole into +the cap. The set screw also forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap +can be taken off or put on when required, as well as a means of +preventing the cap being lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all +hot and dry climates, the continued shrinking of wood wheels and +loosening of the tires is a constant source of expense and +inconvenience. This wheel having a tire and rim entirely of metal does +away with the difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and others +can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, which can be +done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B design are the same +in principle of construction as those of class A, but they have cast +metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, and are suitable for +general work and ordinary roads where the strains are not so severe. The +bosses or naves are readily removed in case of breakage, and they can be +fitted with steel oil caps for lubricating.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS. + + +The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed for the +manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is described in a +communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American Institute of Mining +Engineers. + +The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled with +fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous material. B +and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined with refractory +brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks piled up as shown in +the figure. The partitions, C and C', are likewise of refractory brick, +and are rendered as air-proof as possible. Apertures, D and D', are +formed alternately at the base of one partition and the top of the +adjacent one, in order to oblige the gases that traverse the series of +chambers to descend in one of them and to rise in the following, +whatever be the number of chambers in use. + +The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and serve to +bring the current of air or steam into contact with the fuel. Valves, F +and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating the current in the +two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with valves, G and G', put the +upper part of the generator in communication with the contiguous +chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, N and N', with valves, H and H', permit +of the introduction of a current of air from the outside into the +chambers, T and T'. The pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', +connected with a blower, serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and +P', and their valves, J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q +and Q', and their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the +purifiers and the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with +valves, L and L', are connected with a chimney. + +The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed hopper. The +doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures through which the +ashes are removed. + +When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, are +closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, of the +pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, while the +flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator the reverse order +is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is closed, the pipes, M' and +N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and Q', are closed, and R' is opened. + +A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this traverses +the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the generator, A, +through the flue, E. As this air rises through the mass of incandescent +fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of carbon and forms carbonic +oxide. This gas that is disengaged from the upper part of the fuel +consists chiefly of nitrogen and carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile +hydrocarburets derived from the fuel used. This gas, through the action +of the air upon the fuel, is called "air gas," in order to distinguish +it from the "water gas" formed in the second period of the process. + +The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', in +order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second current +of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it and produces, +in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated gases resulting from +the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', and give up to the bricks +therein the greater part of their heat, and finally make their exit, +relatively cool, through the pipe, R', which leads them to the chimney. +When the operation has been continued for a sufficient length of time to +give the refractory bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a +high temperature, the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the +entrance of air through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is +also closed, and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', +of the pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet of +steam is introduced through the latter. + +The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, B', and in +this state enters the bottom of the generator through the flue, E'. In +passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the generator, the steam +is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, while hydrogen is +liberated. The mixture of these two gases with the hydrocarburets +furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. This gas on making its exit +from the generator through the pipe, M', passes through the chambers, B, +and abandons therein the greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, +R, whence it passes through Q into the purifiers, and then into the +gasometer. + +As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the generator, +A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but moderately heated by +the sensible heat of the current of gas produced. When this cooling has +continued so long that the temperature in the generator, A, is no longer +high enough to allow the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the +valve, J', of the pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also +the valve, K, of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R +and N, are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the heat +remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of the +generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its exit +from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of air coming +from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products resulting from such +combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then into the chimney, through +the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly lowers in the chambers, B', +and rises no less rapidly in the generator, A, while the chambers, B, +are soon heated to the same temperature that first existed in the +chambers, B'. As soon as the desired temperature is obtained in the +generator, A, and the chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the +valve, I', of the pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also +closed, the valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the +valves, G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the +valve, F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. +A current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, traverses +the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the flue, E. The gas +produced makes its exit from the generator, passes through the pipe, M', +and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, and enters the gasometer +through the pipe, Q'. + +[Illustration: WATER-GAS APPARATUS.] + +When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool a state +that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the valves are so +maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and to send a current +of air into the apparatus in the same direction that the steam had just +been taking. The temperature thereupon quickly rises in the generator, +A, while, at the same time, the combustion of the air gas produced soon +reheats the chambers, B'. The cooled products of combustion go, as +before, to the chimney. The position of the valves is then changed again +so as to send a current of steam into the apparatus in a direction +contrary to that which the air took in the last place, and the water gas +obtained again is sent to the gasometer. + +As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each current of air +following the same direction in the apparatus (from left to right, or +right to left) that the current of steam did which preceded it, while +each current of steam follows a direction opposite that of the current +of air which preceded it. + +The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for his +process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of gas. + +One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made of any +dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size and form +shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the removal of the +ashes by hand from time to time, it may be constructed after the general +model of the shaft of blast furnaces, with a hearth at the base. Upon +adding to the fuel a small quantity of flux, all the mineral parts +thereof can be melted into a liquid slag, which may be carried off just +like that of blast furnaces. There is no difficulty in constructing +regenerators of refractory bricks of sufficient capacity, however large +the generators be; and a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one +thousand tons of anthracite per day into more than five million cubic +feet of gas. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Gas Institute, Manchester, June, +1885.] + +By WILLIAM SUGG, of London. + + +Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public have been +assured, by those interested in the different kinds of lamps--arc, glow +or otherwise--that henceforth, by means of such lamps, rooms are to be +lighted without heat or baneful products such as they assert attend the +use of gas, lamps, or candles. But I think it must not be implied, from +what any one has said in favor of the electric light as a means of +lighting our dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that +the glow lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very +large difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the glow +lamp is only one more means (not without certain disadvantages) of +producing light added to those which already exist, and of which the +public have the choice. Now, looking to best means of lighting rooms, +and particularly the principal rooms of a small dwelling-house, I beg to +say that the arguments which can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in +preference to any other means greatly preponderate, and that it can be +substantiated that, light for light, under the heads of convenience, +health, comfort, reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior +to all. + +As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is comparatively +untried. This assertion may sound somewhat astounding; but I think it is +a true one. More than that, even in the crude and unscientific way in +which it has most frequently been used up to the present, it has been +far from unsuccessful in comparison with electricity or other means of +lighting; and in the future it will prove the best and cheapest +practical means, although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in +palatial dwellings in conjunction with it. + +It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of artificial +lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that most beautiful and +perfect natural light which, without our aid, and without even a thought +from us, shines regularly every day upon all, in such an immense volume, +so perfectly diffused, and in such wonderful chemical combination, that +it may safely be said that not one atom of the whole economy of Nature +is unaffected by it, and that we and all the animal kingdom, in common +with trees and plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious +natural light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we cannot +hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of daylight, +or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make the lighting of +our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to the eyes and to the +general health) by the aid of gas than by any other means. It must also +be borne in mind that, in this country at least, we have to fulfill the +conditions of artificial lighting under frequent differences of +temperature and barometric influence, exaggerated by the manner in which +our homes are built; and that for at least nine months of the year we +require heat as well as light in our dwellings, and that for the other +three months (excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are +often chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions of +the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control. + +As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside over a +meeting which was held in a large room--one of two built exactly alike, +and in communication with each other by means of folding doors. These +rooms formed part of one of the best hotels in London--let us call it +the "Magnificent." Of course, it was lighted by electric glow lamps, in +accordance with the latest fashion in that department of artificial +lighting, viz., suspension lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of +leaves and scrolls, twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the +pattern of our most aesthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the +style of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed the +Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some lamps he +had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by means of the +good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's heart; and they were +ventilated with all due regard to the latest state of knowledge on the +subject among architects and builders. In fact, no pains had been spared +to make these rooms comfortable in the highest acceptation of the word. + +There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat and +deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and therefore, +under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of such human +felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty business men, +intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost tissue by means of +a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according to the calculations of +the architect of the building, to have been reached. I instance this +case because it is a typical one, which, under most aspects, does not +materially differ from the conditions of home life in such residences as +those whose occupiers are likely to use electric lighting. The rooms +were spacious (about 20 feet by 35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and +they were lighted during the day by means of large lantern +ceiling-lights, with double glass windows. The evening in question was +chilly, not to say cold. + +Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the room; +but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of a little +draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, which at first +was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in another hour or so, by +the time our business was over, notwithstanding a screen placed before +the door, and a blazing fire, we were delighted to make a change to the +comfortable dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just +left by means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to pass +in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we became +aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow lamps (merely +for artistic effect) began to flare in a most uncandlelike manner--the +flames turning down, as if some one were blowing downward on the wicks; +and at the same time the complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" +became general, and from every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went +on, the discomfort became unbearable, even although the doors were shut +and screens put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to order +"those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the foliage of the +electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three minutes the flames of +the candles burned upright and steadily, and in less than ten minutes +the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, the room became really +comfortable. + +The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up at the +ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air from the bodies +of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced by the movements of +themselves and the waiters, together with the steam from the viands and +respiration, displaced the colder air at the ceiling, and notably that +coldest air lying against the surface of the glass. This cold air simply +dropped straight down, after the manner of a douche, on candles and +heads below. The remedy I advised was the setting up of a current of +hotter steam and air from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling +effect of the glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in +slow movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the table. +Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, the gas was +put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. But before we left, +the chilliness and draughts began to be again felt. + +The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of April +last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably warm nights. +It is therefore clear that in this instance neither electricity nor +candles could effectually replace gas for lighting purposes. They both +did the lighting, but they utterly failed to keep the currents of air +steady. I have always remarked draughts whenever I have remained any +length of time in rooms where the electric light is used. On a warm +evening the electric light and candles would undoubtedly have kept the +room cooler than gas, with the same kind of ventilation; I do not think +they would have put an end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas +does in all fairly built rooms. + +It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively small +amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid manner, to +anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the contrary, from its +great specific heat, remains in a heated state for a much longer time +than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a low temperature, and in +parting with its own heat it communicates a considerable amount of +warmth to those bodies with which it comes in contact. Thus the products +of the combustion of gas (which are principally steam) serve a useful +purpose in lighting, by keeping at the ceiling level a certain stratum +of heated vapor, which holds up, as it were, the carbonic acid and +exhalation from the lungs given off by those using the room. The obvious +inference, therefore, is that if we take off these products from the +level of the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we shall +have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level warm, in order +to prevent the heated impure air from descending in comparatively rapid +currents, after having parted with its heat to the ceiling. It may very +frequently be observed on chilly days that a number of currents of cold +air seem to travel about our rooms, although there may be no crevices in +the doors and windows sufficient to account for them; and, further, that +these currents of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn +and the gas is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough +heat at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we constantly +hear when electric lights are used for the illumination of public +buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, held at the end of April last in the Conservatory of the +Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the five hundred guests, and from +an almost equal number of waiters and attendants, displaced the cold air +from the dome of the roof, and literally poured down on the assembly +(who were in evening dress) in a manner to compel many of them to put on +overcoats. If the Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below +the roof, this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam +would have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up +in the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, to +keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and thus steady +the currents. + +Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain conditions of +the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them comfortable when +electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will lay before you some few +particulars relative to the condition of small rooms of about 12 ft. by +15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary room such as may be found in the usual +run of houses in this country. The cubical contents of such a room +equals 1,700 cubic feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, +we shall for the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken +out of it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) from 600 +to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, therefore, be +admitted by some means or other into the room, or the chimney will, in +ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products of combustion, very +largely diluted with fresh air, will not all find their way up the flue +with sufficient velocity to overcome the pressure of the heavy cold air +at the top of the chimney. If no proper inlets for air are made, this +supply to the fire must be kept up from the crevices of the doors and +windows. In the line of these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as +they are usually called, it is impossible to experience any +comfort--quite the contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other +serious maladies are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh +air in the wrong way and place. + +According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on ventilation), +300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every adult person in +ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet are sufficient; less +than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and unhealthy. It is generally +admitted that an average adult breathes out from 20 to 30 cubic inches +of steam and vitiated air per minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity +equal in bulk to that of a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and +steam is respired at a temperature of 90 deg. Fahr.; and therefore, by +reason of this heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together +with the heat and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. +This fact, by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person +in the direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every fiber of +his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is passing +upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white lines on the +surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the extreme +rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the rays of light +to pass through them with less refraction than through the denser and +more moist surrounding cold air. An adult makes, on an average, about 15 +respirations per minute, and therefore he in every hour renders to the +atmosphere of the room in which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet +of poisonous air. This rises to the ceiling line, if it is not +prevented; and thus vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the +extent of 1 per cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not +good which contained more than 1/2 per cent, of air which had been exhaled +from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to health these +exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in his view. Therefore +in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is vitiated to more than 2 feet +from the ceiling by one person to the extent of 1/2 per cent., and it will +be vitiated by two persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same +time. + +It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the vitiated +air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 feet of the +height of the room depends very materially on the difference of +temperature between these upper and lower strata and the movements of +air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and gases fall into and +diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the lower strata--very readily +if they are nearly the same temperature as the upper, but scarcely at +all if the air at the ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, +in warmed rooms of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two +petroleum lamps are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of +occupation by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the +air at the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time--sometimes, indeed, for only +a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination of the room is +maintained at the same degree as in the case of lamps, the contamination +of the air is very much worse. It is doubtless the case that poisonous +germs are rapidly developed in atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" +and although, in a healthy state of the body, we are able to breathe +them without perceptible harm, yet even then the slight headache and +uneasiness we feel is a symptom which does not suffer itself to be +lightly regarded, whenever, from some cause or other, the general +condition is weak. + +The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and carbonic +acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the products +from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil or candles. +They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ life; and +therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where they always +collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience or danger to +health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our endeavors to take +off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our first serious check in +all schemes of ventilation. We draw the elevation and section of the +room, and put in our flues with pretty little black arrows flying out of +the outlets for vitiated air, and other pretty little red arrows flying +in at the inlets; but when we see our scheme in practice, the black +arrows will persist in putting their wings where their points ought to +be; in other words, flying into instead of out of the room. + +One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot and cold +currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such as used to be +employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of gases; and, having +filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by weights tied on to the +car till it will rest without going up or down in a part of the room +where the air can be felt to be at about the mean temperature, and free +from draught. Then leave it to itself, to go where it will. + +As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will ascend, +passing along with the current, and descending or rising as the current +is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh air from windows or +doors, as well as the effect of the radiant heat from the fire, can be +thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet theories may receive a cruel +shock from this experiment; but, in the end, the ventilation of the room +will doubtless be benefited, if we apply the information obtained. It +will be discovered that the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the +little black arrows turning their backs on the right path and our +theoretical outlets for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue +must have an enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the +most easily accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per +hour is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless to +attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by ventilating +gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little talc flappers, +opening into the chimney when there is an up draught, and shutting +themselves up when there is any tendency to down draught. The success of +these and all other ventilators depends upon there being a good supply +of air from under the door or through the spaces round the window +frames. These fresh air supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one +of the spaces between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an +air conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised about +two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things will be set +up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will satisfy the fire, +without drawing from the doors and windows, and at the same time supply +a small quantity of fresh air into the room. But the important fact that +the radiant heat from the fire will pass through the cold air without +warming it all must not be lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only +warms the furniture and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its +rays. The air of the room is warmed by passing over these more or less +heated surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to the +fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender may be +used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along the front, +as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. This will also +prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be found that for the +greater part of the year the chimney ventilator and the supply to the +fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," and keep those disagreeable +draughts under control, even although the room be lighted with a 3 light +chandelier burning a large quantity of gas. + +[Illustration] + +With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms perfectly +with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we cannot light a +room without in some measure creating heat; and I think I have shown +that we want this heat at the ceiling line for the greater part of the +year. + +In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other hand, it +is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65 deg. to 70 deg. Fahr., to +keep the air in proper movement in small rooms. There are also times in +the fall of the year, and also in spring, when the nights are unusually +warm; and, with a few friends in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" +question, not to say a "burning" one. On these occasions we have to +resort to exceptional ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life +would be too much. It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of +ventilation by diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes +of air of different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves +on opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or some +more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through this +medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal density or +temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a window (which can +be opened, downward) with a strained piece of fine muslin or washed +common calico, the air in the room, if hotter than the external air, +will, when the window is more or less opened, pass out readily into the +cooler air, and the cooler air will pass in through the pores of the +medium. The hotter air passing out faster than the cooler air will come +in, no draught will be experienced; and the window may be opened very +widely without any discomfort from it. + +It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to do more +than indicate a means of ventilation which will be effective under most +circumstances of lighting with those gas burners and fittings usually +employed, and which will lend itself readily to modifications which will +be necessitated by the use of some of the newest forms of burners and +ventilating gas lights. + +[Illustration] + +In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important discovery I have +made in reference to blackened ceilings, for which, up to the present +time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have long entertained the belief +that with a proper burner it is possible to obtain perfect combustion, +without any smoke; and a series of experiments with white porcelain +plates hung over some burners used in my own house proved conclusively +that the discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed +ceilings arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large +towns is largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or +dirt created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, escapes +from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of my best rooms, +which required to have the ceilings whitened every year, substituted +varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply put on in the usual +way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I also changed the coal fires +for gas fires. These alterations have gone through the test of two +winters, and the ceilings are now as clean as when they were first done. +The burners have been used every night, and the gas fires every day, +during the two winters. No alteration has been made in the burners +employed, and no "consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished +paper ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine sieve. +This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, which, +after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than the spaces +between. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANDERS' TELEPHONE. + + +Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, combines in a +single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and a pile, C. The +transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing several large +apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a metallic disk, d, +situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are filled with powdered +carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal plate, f, which is fixed to +the insulating ring, c, by means of a metallic washer, g. Back of the +transmitter is arranged the receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary +electro-magnet with a disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed +behind the receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a +partition, i, and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of +zinc, l, which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a +spring, m, fixed to the insulating piece, n. + +[Illustration: ANDERS TELEPHONE] + +When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the zinc +plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the circuit is +closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, the transmitter, +and the line wire 2, while when the button is freed the current no +longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve as a receiver or +transmitter only when the button is pressed.--_Bull. de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR. + + +When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a consequence +of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw and engine +increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance that the screw +was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When the screw enters the +water again, the resistance makes itself abruptly felt, and causes +powerful shocks, which put both the screw and engine in danger. Ordinary +regulators are powerless to overcome this trouble, since their +construction is such that they act upon the engine only when the excess +of velocity has already been reached. + +Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For example, use +has been made of a float placed in a channel at the side of the screw, +and which closes the moderator valve by mechanical means or by +electricity when the screw descends too low or rises too high. + +[Illustration: BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.] + +Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see figure) +consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. One of them, +b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be constantly in the water, +while the other, a, corresponds to the position above which the screw +cannot rise without taking on a dangerous velocity. In the normal +situation of the ship, the electric circuit, c (in which circulates a +current produced by a dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of +the water, which establishes a connection between the two contacts. When +the contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled back by +a spring--a motion that sets in action a small steam engine that closes +the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is again immersed, the +electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus brings the moderator valve +back to its normal position. It is clear that the contact, a, must be +insulated from the ship's side. + +Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above another, +in order to close the moderator valve more or less, according to the +extent of the screw's rise or fall. + + * * * * * + + + + +MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL. + + +We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to railroad +crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, of Steelton, +Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated highway crossing +in the woods or any lonely place can be made perfectly safe, and that, +too, without the expense of gates and a man to work them or of a +flagman. It is surely a great improvement over the old methods, and it +is likely to have a large sale. In addition to considerations of safety, +possible saving in salaries to railroad companies by its use will be +great. This device is more reliable than a human being, and can make any +crossing safe to which it is applied. Its operation is described as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The illustration shows the device as used on a single track railroad, +where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains approaching the +crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the right). A similar box +on the other side of the crossing is used for trains approaching in the +other direction. Two plates connected by a link, and pivoted, are placed +alongside of one rail, close enough to it to be depressed by the treads +of the wheels. By another link, one of the plates called the rock plate +(the one to the right) is connected to a rock shaft which extends +through a strong bearing into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a +suitable distance from the rail, within which an electric generator is +placed; the whole being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long +ties framed to receive it. + +The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the rear +end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the bearing for +which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first wheel of a train +which is approaching in the desired direction (from the right in the +engraving) touches it, it will be seen that it must not only depress it, +but produce a slight forward motion, causing a corresponding rotary +motion in the rock shaft which actuates the apparatus. On the other +hand, when a train is approaching from the other direction, or has +already passed the crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to +the left of the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link +connections shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels +before the wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so +that it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over the +apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it whatever, +the different point at which the same force is applied to the rock plate +giving the latter an entirely different motion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to the rock +shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, compresses a +spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the rock plate, the +reaction of the spring throws it up again to its former position, giving +additional speed to the gearing within, which is set in motion at the +passage of the first wheel, and operates the electric "generator." The +spring is really the motive power of the alarm. A small but heavy +fly-wheel is connected with the apparatus, the top of which is just +visible in the engraving, which serves to store up power to run the +"generator," which is nothing more than a small dynamo, for the +necessary number of seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The +dynamo dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if any +part has been broken. + +A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator with +insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary telegraph +wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees leading to the +electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the armature revolves. It +is a simple matter so to proportion the mechanism for the required +distance and speed that the revolutions of the armature and the ringing +of the gong shall continue until the train reaches the crossing; and as +each wheel acts upon the apparatus, the more wheels there are in the +train the longer the bell will ring, a very convenient property, since +the slowest trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical +limits to the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after +the head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly might not +actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even then it is not +unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last long enough for all +practical requirements, as a team approaching a crossing at eight miles +per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. All the bearings of any +importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, the whole apparatus being +designed to require inspection not more than once a month. The iron case +when shut is water-tight, and when duly locked cannot be maliciously +tampered with without breaking open the case; so that, the manufacturers +claim, it will not be essential to examine it more than once a month. +The parts outside the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to +get out of order, while easily inspected. + +The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as sounding +alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or building. The gong +has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of noise, so that no one +should fail to hear it.--_Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. + + +Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, gives the +following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by himself and +Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for mammals and birds. +It will be seen that, with three or four exceptions, the sizes obtained +by the two observers are practically the same: + + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. + + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 + + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. + + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 + +The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an interesting +manner in an address before the Microscopical Section of the A.A.A.S. +last year, an abstract of which was published in this journal, vol. v., +p. 181. + +The slight differences in size accurately given in this table are not +always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a power of +1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of an inch are +readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. Wormley as regards +the possibility of identifying blood of different animals, the reader is +referred to his book on Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.--_Amer. Micro. +Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN. + +[Footnote: From the _American Druggist_.] + + +E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made with +vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult of +resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal ingredients to +the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this question, he +considered himself justified in drawing conclusions from the manner in +which such compounds behaved toward _dead_ animal membrane. If any kind +of osmosis could take place, he argued, from ointments prepared with +vaseline, etc., through dead membranes, such osmosis would most probably +also take place through living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic +or exosmotic action of the skin of a living body must necessarily play +an important _role_ in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following experiments: + +Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, with +bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium ointment. + +No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard. + +No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (_Germ. Pharm_.), and + +No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. of lard. + +All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with water. After +standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature, the contents of +none of the beakers gave any iodine reaction. After having been placed +into a warm temperature, between 25-37 deg. C., all three showed iodine +reactions after three hours, Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with +lard alone) very faintly. + +The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that the +bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. Each vial +was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27 deg. C., in 50 grammes of distilled +water. After three hours, the contents of No. 1 (containing the ointment +made with _lard_) gave _no_ iodine reaction; the contents of the other +two, however, gave traces. After eight hours no further change had taken +place. The temperature was now raised to 30-35 deg. C., and kept so for +eight hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes of the +contents of the beakers. + +In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed through +the membrane in each case. + +The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin (freed +from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the bladder. The +ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per cent. of lard. No +reaction was obtained, at the ordinary temperature, after twelve hours, +nor after eight more hours, at a temperature of 25-30 deg. C. After letting +them stand for eight hours longer at 30-37 deg. C., a faint reaction was +obtained in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a +still fainter with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made +with lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, but no +fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of the contents +of each beaker, + + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " + +showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the ointment +made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to vaseline). + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TAILS OF COMETS. + + +I.--If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be produced that +will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and the velocity with +which it extends depend upon the size of the stone, that is to say, upon +the intensity of the mechanical action that created it. The extent and +depth of the water are likewise factors. + +If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a succession +of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived from the cord's +size and the intensity of its action. These waves, which are visible +upon the surface, constitute what I shall call _mechanical waves_. But +there will be created at the same time other waves, whose velocity of +propagation will be much greater than that of the mechanical ones, and +apparently independent of mechanical intensity. These are _acoustic +waves_. Finally, there will doubtless be created _optical waves_, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if a +person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses were +sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous sensation when +the first optical wave reached him, then he would perceive the sound +produced, and later still he would feel, through a slight tremor, the +mechanical wave.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Certain persons, as well known, undergo an optical +impression under the action of certain sounds.] + +[Illustration: I] + +Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, in a +mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and velocity of +propagation; and although but three modes appreciable to our senses have +been cited, it does not follow that these are the only ones possible. + +We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon water, it +will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in front of it +successive waves whose velocity of propagation is accelerated. + +This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are briefer +than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead sound at a few +yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a great distance. + +The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, very +complex. + +[Illustration: II] + +II.--If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will occur in each +of them an _alteration_, a break, which it will carry along with it to a +greater or less distance. This succession of alterations forms a trace +behind the obstacle, and in opposition to the line of the centers. +Finally, if the obstacle itself emits waves in space that are of less +intensity then those which meet it, these little waves will extend in +the wake of the large ones, and will form a trace of parabolic form +situated upon the line of the centers. + +[Illustration: III] + +III.--Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the peculiar energy that +develops upon its surface or in its atmosphere, engenders in ethereal +space successive waves of varying nature and intensity, as has been said +above, and let us admit that its _mechanical_ waves are traversed +obliquely (Fig. 1) by any spherical body--by a comet, for example; then, +under the excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar waves +consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will become +apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced by an +excitation--a setting of the ether in vibration. The mechanical waves +engender of themselves, then, an emission of optical waves that render +perceptible the alteration which they create in each other. + +Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will carry +along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while at the +same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the comet. During +this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave will be altered in +its turn, and carry such alteration in the direction, a' b'. + +The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, upon a +curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the comet, will be +upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of the propagation of +the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the motion of the comet, with +respect to the velocity of the solar waves, the closer will such +resultant approach the line of centers, and the more rectilinear will +appear the trace or tail of the comet. + +[Illustration: IV] + +IV.--If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according to the +relative position of these, several tails appear, and these will seem to +form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions of a comet and a +satellite, it will be seen that if, while the comet is proceeding to c', +the satellite, through its revolution around it, goes to s', the traces +formed at c and s will be extended to d and d', and that we shall have +two tails, c' d and s' d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem +to be confounded toward c' s'. + +V.--When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect will occur--the +tail will precede it, and will be so much the more in a line with the +sun in proportion as the velocity of the solar waves exceeds that of the +comet. + +If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the alteration of +the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see (supposing the +phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at a 1, the tail will +and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be at a 2 b'; and when it +is at a 4, the tail will have become an immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in +reality the trace is extinguished in space, we never see but the origin +of it, which is the part of it that is constantly new--that is to say, +the part represented in the spirals of Fig. 4. + +The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 leagues +per second; it would have only required the velocity of the solar waves' +propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to have put the tail in +a sensibly direct opposition with the sun. + +Knowing the angle [gamma] (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit makes +with the sun at a given point, and the angle [delta] of the track upon +such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we can deduce +therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the simple expression: + + V = v x (sinus [delta] / sinus([gamma] - [delta])) or (Fig. 1), + + V = da/t'', + +t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''. + +[Illustration: V] + +VI.--The tail, then, is not a special matter which is transported in +space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar waves, just as +sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is propagated with the +velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air is not transported. The +tail which we see in one position, then, is not that which we see in +another; it is constantly renewed. Consequently, it is easy to conceive +how, in as brief a time as it took the comet of 1843 to make a half +revolution round the sun, the tail which extended to so great a distance +appeared to sweep the 180 deg. of space, while at the same time remaining in +opposition to the great luminary. + +[Illustration: VI] + +The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. If to a +vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with a certain +velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be understood that, +from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a spiral. Each drop of water +will recede radially in space, the spiral will keep forming at the jet, +and if, through any reason, the latter alone be visible, we shall see a +nearly rectilinear jet that will seem to revolve with the pipe. + +Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), while it +is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the projected water +will mark the spiral indicated, and this will continue to widen, and +each drop will recede in the direction shown by the arrows. + +[Illustration: VII] + +VII.--It seems to result from this explanation that all the planets and +their satellites ought to produce identical effects, and have the +appearance of comets. In order to change the conditions, it suffices to +admit that the ethereal mass revolves in space around the sun with a +velocity which is in each place that of the planets there; and this is +very reasonable if, admitting the nebular hypothesis, we draw the +deduction that the cause that has communicated the velocity to the +successive rings has communicated it to the ethereal mass. + +The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in space, and +for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if they become +capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed at their +surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too weak to give very +perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, have relatively too +feeble velocities. + +The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, and +sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its proper +velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the ethereal +mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing sufficiently +intense mechanical effects to affect our vision. + +VIII.--Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these stars pass +the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its satellites may be very +different, and the velocity of rotation of the latter, being added to or +deducted from that of the forward motion, there may occur (as in the +case shown in Fig. 6) a separation of a satellite from the principal +star. The comet then appears to separate into two, and each part follows +different routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may +either fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic orbit, and +make but one appearance.--_A. Goupil._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE. + +[Footnote: Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine doppelrolle +des stachels der honigbienen" in _Deutschamerikanische Apotheker +Zeitung_, 15 Jan., 1885, Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from _Ind. +Blatter_.] + + +Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently been +made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the honey bee. +These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable phenomena in the +domestic economy of the ants. It is already known that the honey of our +honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of litmus, shows a distinct red +color, or, in other words, has an acid reaction. It manifests this +peculiarity because of the volatile formic acid which it contains. This +admixed acid confers upon crude honey its preservative power. Honey +which is purified by treatment with water under heat, or the so-called +honey-sirup, spoils sooner, because the formic acid is volatilized. The +honey of vicious swarms of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a +pungent odor. This effect is produced by the formic acid, which is +present in excess in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in +what way the substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in +the honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only for +defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance. + +The observation has recently been made that the bees in the hive, even +when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the minute drops of bee +poison (formic acid) which from time to time exude from the tip of their +sting. And this excellent preservative medium is thus sooner or later +contributed to the stored honey. The more excitable and the more ready +to sting the bees are, the greater will be the quantity of formic acid +which is added to the honey, and the admixture of which good honey +needs. The praise which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race +of our honey bees, which is indisposed to sting--and such praise is +still expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German bee-masters--is +therefore from a practical point of view a false praise. Now we +understand also why the stingless honey bees of South America collect +little honey. It is well known that never more than a very small store +of honey is found in felled trees inhabited by stingless _Melipona_. +What should induce the _Melipona_ to accumulate stores which they could +not preserve? They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen +different known species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A +peculiar phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. It is +well known that there are different grain-gathering species of ants. The +seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved for years in their +little magazines, without germinating. A very small red ant, which drags +grains of wheat and oats into its dwellings, lives in India. These ants +are so small that eight or twelve of them have to drag on one grain with +the greatest exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or +rough ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than a +thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun to +sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. Hence the +ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but the capacity +for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English investigator John +Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts in his work entitled +"Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not yet known in what way the +ants prevent the sprouting of the collected grains. But now it is +demonstrated that here also it is only the formic acid, whose +preservative influence goes so far that it can make seed incapable of +germination for a determinate time or continuously. + +It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant which +lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our _Lasius niger_, which +carries seeds of _Viola_ into its nests, and, as Wittmack has +communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der gesellschaft +naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with the seeds of +_Veronica hederaefolia_. + +Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, _Pheidole providens_, that +this species collects a great store of grass-seeds. But he observed that +the ants brought their store of grain into the open air to dry it after +the monsoon storms. From this it appears that the preservative effect of +the formic acid is destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying +process. So that among the bees the honey which is stored for winter +use, and among the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are +preserved by one and the same fluid, formic acid. + + +EDITORIAL NOTE. + +This same theory has been suggested many times by our most advanced +American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same formic acid was +what made honey a poison to many people, and that the sharp sting of +some honey, notably that from bass wood or linden, originated in this +acid from the poison sac. If this is the correct explanation, it seems +strange that the same kind of honey is always peculiar for greater or +less acidity as the case may be. We often see bees with sting extended +and tipped with a tiny drop of poison; but how do we know that this +poison is certainly mingled with the honey? Is this any more than a +guess?--_A.J. Cook, in Psyche_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884. + + +We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of distillation, and, +as such, very pure. A little reflection and a very slight amount of +experimental examination will quickly disabuse those who have this +mistaken and popular impression of their error. A great number of bodies +which arise from industrial processes, domestic combustion of coal, +natural changes in vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances +as tornadoes and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are +discharged into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving upon +its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable evidences of +their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali and sulphuric acid +works is well known; the acid character of rains collected near and in +cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal strength of some local rainfalls, +have been fully discussed. The exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith +in Scotland, and the interesting reports of French examiners, have made +the scientific world familiar, not only qualitatively but +quantitatively, with the chemical nature of some rains, as well as with +their solid sedimentary contents. + +Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact that the +rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding this due +solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended particles of +chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free chlorine, it appeared +interesting to determine the average amount of these salts in the rain +water of the sea coast. The results given in this paper refer to a +district on Staten Island, New York harbor, at a point four miles from +the ocean, slightly sheltered from the ocean's immediate influence by +the intervention of low ranges of hills. They were communicated to the +Natural Science Association of Staten Island, but the details of the +observations may prove of interest to the readers of the _Quarterly_, +and may there serve as a record more widely accessible. + +It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in rainfalls +near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, putting aside +local exceptions arising from cities or manufactories, increasing with +the proximity of the point of observation to the ocean, and also showing +a marked relation to the exposure of the position chosen to violent +storms. Thus the west coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger +quantities of chlorides than those of the east, and the table given by +Dr. Smith shows the variations in neighboring localities on the same +seafront. The chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer +leaves the sea coast. In the following observations the waters of +thirty-two rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of +silver in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a +liter, and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common salt, as +the position of the point of observation is not removed more than a mile +from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric acid works in New +Jersey, yet this could not even generally have been so, as the rain +storms came, for the greater number of instances, from the east, in an +opposite direction to the position of the factories alluded to. It has +also been noticed by Mr. A. Hollick, to whom these observations were of +interest, that in heavy storms a salt film often forms upon fruit +exposed to the easterly gales upon the shores of the island. + +The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for sodic +chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for 1884, as +reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, somewhat +higher than usual, as the average for a series of years before gives 46 +inches; but taking these former figures, we find that for that year +(1884) each acre of ground received, accepting the results obtained by +my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of common salt, if we regard +the entire chlorine contents of the rains as due to that body, or 46.23 +pounds of chlorine alone. + +In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, an +examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one year +about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds were +regarded as common salt. + +Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, it is +not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating it in +small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample supply. These +facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing influence of rains, and +they also suggest to what extent rains may exert a corrosive action when +they descend charged with acid vapors.--_L.P. Gratacap, in School of +Mines Quarterly_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHROMATOSCOPE. + + +Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has named a +chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot lens that we +take the following description from the _Journal_ of the Royal +Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of illuminating and +defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a similar manner to that +in which the polariscope defines polarizable objects. It can also be +applied to many polarizable objects. This quality, combined with the +transmission of a greater amount of light than is obtainable by the +polariscope, renders objects thus seen much more effective. It is +constructed as follows: Into the tube of the spot lens a short tube is +made to move freely and easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the +outer one, which is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying +a glass plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about 8, 5, +and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some extent through +the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong yellow, thus giving four +principal colors. Secondary colors are formed by a combination of the +rays in passing through the spot lens. + +"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in quality as +possible, and a better effect is obtained by three pieces of stained +glass than by a number of small pieces. The application of the +chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be used with all objectives +up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, particularly crystals which will not +polarize, diatoms, infusoria, palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be +seen to greater advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. +As its cost is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, +large or small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are +known, I am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to +the microscope." + + * * * * * + +Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, finds, +contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants assimilate +nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest quantity when +supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. Well fed plants +acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from the air. It seems +probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in some way assimilated by +the plants. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b356043 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #11761 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11761) diff --git a/old/11761-8.txt b/old/11761-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..209fdc0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11761-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4404 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, +November 7, 1885, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, November 7, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 3, 2004 [EBook #11761] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 514 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--Chlorides in the Rainfall of 1884. + Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.--With description + and 3 figures. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Relative Costs of Fluid and + Solid Fuels. + + The Manufacture of Steel Castings. + + Science in Diminishing Casualties at Sea.--Extract of a paper + read before the British Association by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER. + + Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures. + + The Span of Cabin John Bridge. + + Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures. + + Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--The Blue Print Process.--R.W. JONES. + + Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White Ground.--By + A.H. HAIG. + + A Plan for a Carbonizing House.--With full description and 5 + figures. + + The Scholar's Compasses. + + The Integraph.--With full description and engraving. + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous Beverages. 2 engravings. + + Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure. + + Field Kitchens. 8 figures. + + A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures. + + The Preservation of Timber.--Report of the Committee of the + American Society of Engineers.--The Boucherie + process.--Experiments.--Decay of timber. + +IV. PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.--Apparatus for Measuring + the Force of Explosives.--With engraving. + + Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.--Advantages of gas over + electricity, etc.--By WM. SUGG. 2 figures. + + Ander's Telephone. 1 figure. + + Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 figure. + + Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 figures. + + The Chromatoscope.--An aid to microscopy. + +V. ART AND ARCHITECTURE.--The Barbara Uttmann Statue at + Annaberg, Saxony. + + Improvements in Concrete Construction.--Use of Portland + cement.--System of building in concrete invented by Messrs. F. & + J.P. West, London. + + Albany Buildings. Southport.--An engraving. + +VI. PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.--The Sizes of Blood Corpuscles + in Mammals and Birds.--A table. + + The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by the Skin. + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Missing German Corvette Augusta.--With + engraving. + + The Tails of Comets.--The effect by a disturbance of solar + waves, and not by special matter. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND. + + +The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it has +also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen in a dark +cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, except by very +few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved to purchase the +house and premises, with the object of preserving the pavement _in +situ_, and of giving additional light and better access to it, and, this +purchase having been completed in the beginning of the present year, the +work of improvement began. It was now seen that the pavement was +continuous under the premises of the adjoining house, and under the +public street, and arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex +these adjoining parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. +The pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also the +entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive skill, of +variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least part of the +marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of which the +designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No squared, +artificially colored, or glazed tesseræ, such as we see in a modern +floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but purposely formed of +brick and stone. There are three shades of brick--a bright red, a dull +or Indian red, and a shade between the two; slate from a neighboring +quarry gives a dark bluish gray; an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and +a fine white composition resembling limestone is used for the center +points and borders. In addition, the outside border is formed with +tesseræ of rather larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking +generally, the design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces of the +octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the outer +octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border formed by a +cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, pear-shaped, and +bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and gray bands; and outside +all is the limestone border already described. This border is +constructed with tesseræ about five-eighths of an inch square. The +remaining tesseræ vary from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular +rhomboidal form. The construction of the pavement is remarkable. There +is a foundation of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded +brick and lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesseræ are laid with their roughest side +downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured over the floor, +filling up the interstices, after which the surface would be rubbed down +and polished. + +As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be observed +that the site of this pavement was near the center of the western Roman +town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the military station and +fortress. It was obviously the principal house in the place, and as +clearly, therefore, the residence of the Præfectus, the local +representative of the imperial power of Rome. The Roman occupation of +the district began with the proprætorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. +He was succeeded in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through +Leicester from the Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea +broke out. In the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was +elected consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged education. +He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to the decline of +the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not be far from the +truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the time or even to the +personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years ago.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany had +offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of the Red +Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field hospital. +Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a design for +competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice that his +invention had won the prize. Another instance of the recognition of +American genius abroad. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY. + + +The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was the +inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only introduced it +into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet been solved, +notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid examinations have been +made. It is the general belief, however, that she only introduced the +art, having learned it from a foreigner in the year 1561. The person +from whom she acquired this knowledge is said to have been a Protestant +fugitive from Brabant, who was driven from her native land by the +constables of the Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann +family. However, the probability is that what the fugitive showed +Barbara Uttmann was the stitched, or embroidered, laces--points, so +called--which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the present +time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced Barbara +Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand cushion. + +[Illustration: BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.] + +Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the Saxon +mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner of +extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at Annaberg, +Jan. 14, 1584. + +The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of the +residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as the +occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it frequently +happened that the wages were so low, and the means of sustaining life so +expensive, that some other resource had to be found to make life more +bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was thus a blessing to the +country, and her name is held in high esteem. A monumental fountain is +to be erected at Annaberg, and is to be surmounted by a statue of the +country's benefactress, Barbara Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert +Henze, is to be cast in bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the +costume worn at the time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of +lace, which she has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles +being visible. + +Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a cushion by +hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the pins for giving the +desired pattern to the lace being stuck into the cushion. A yard of hand +cushion lace has been sold in England for as much as $25,000. The +annexed cut, representing the Barbara Uttmann statue, was taken from the +_Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + +A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, one for +himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a furnace +against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air chamber he +had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The owner of the other +house found it very hard to keep his own house warm, and was astounded +at the amount of coal it took to render his family comfortable, while +the "other fellow" kept himself warm at his neighbor's expense nearly a +whole winter before the trick was discovered. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. + + +Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not hydraulically +compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of moisture from the air +to prevent condensation upon the surface of the walls. It not only +resists the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere, but becomes +even harder with the lapse of time. It may also be made in several +different colors, and can be finished off to nearly a polished surface +or can be left quite rough. Walls built of this material may be made so +hard that a nail cannot be driven into them, or they can be made +sufficiently soft to become a fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous +aggregate be used, no damp course is required. Further than this, if +land be bought upon which there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that +can be burnt, the greatest portion of the building material may be +obtained in excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the +(salt) shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be found +to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it may be made +fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in dwellings for the poor +will therefore resist the destructive efforts of the "young barbarian." +Nothing, therefore, can be better as a building material. The system +ordinarily employed to erect structures in concrete consists of first +forming casings of wood, between which the liquid concrete is deposited, +and allowed to become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, +the cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, but +with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. Besides +this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, especially if +it has been applied some time after the concrete forming the body of the +wall has set, and the method of applying ornament is not economical. + +[Illustration: 1.-18.] + +A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by Messrs. +F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we now present. To +this system Messrs. West have given the name of "Concrete Exstruction," +from the Latin "exstructio," which they consider to be a more +appropriate word than "constructio," as applied to concrete building in +general. In Messrs. West's system of building in concrete, instead of +employing wood casings, between which to deposit the concrete or beton, +and removing them when the beton has become hard, casings of concrete +itself are employed. These casings are not removed when the beton has +set, but they become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In +order to form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, which +may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of rectangular +(Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), and indeed of any +other form that will make a complete surface, while for thickness it may +be suited to the work to which it is to be applied, that used for heavy +engineering work differing from that employed in house construction. It +is found that the most convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. +1) is 12 inches and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure +built with slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with +architectural measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to +measure 12 inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of +these slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs are +made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of India-rubber +or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs with their edges +as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can be manufactured. That +portion of the back of the slab which is undercut is formed by means of +soft India-rubber cores. The moulds for making portions of the slabs +have a contrivance by which their length may be adjusted to suit given +dimensions. + +During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a plastic +state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a suitable +key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is finished off to them +(Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be cast with ornaments, etc., +complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but it is more economical to have +separate moulds for the mouldings and other ornaments, and separate +moulds for the slabs, and to apply the mouldings, etc., during the +process of casting the slab. Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be +somewhat similar to the plinth course slab No. 10), and other +constructive features may also be applied in a similar way, or may be +provided for during the casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or +other ornamental solid or even plastic material may be applied to the +face of the slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work +to be finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face +of the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. FIG 20.] + +In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is shown with +the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that the footings are +constructed in the most economical manner by not being stepped. As no +damp-course is required in concrete work, when the aggregate is of a +non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon the top of the footings is +generally laid a horizontal slab, called the wall-base slab, the special +feature of which is that it enables the thickness of the wall to be +gauged accurately, and also provides a fixing for the first course of +slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show such slabs for internal and external angles, +and Fig. 6 shows one for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is +not essential, although it is the more accurate method of building, for +in cases where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, +the slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set behind +them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first course with +breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being keyed to the other +by means of a quick-setting cementing material poured into the key-holes +provided in the edges of the slab for that purpose, a bituminous cement +being preferred. The key-holes are made in several ways, those shown in +the illustrations being of a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed +holes of any other shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an +oblique direction are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or +squint-quoins (Figs. 17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and +16) are manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. This +gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the quoin in +one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course above a +three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or _vice versa_. Thus are the +walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For openings, the jambs and lintels +(and in window-openings the sill) are made solid with a provision for a +key-hole to the mass of concrete filling behind them. That portion of +the jambs against which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a +similar one in the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle +joint by squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a similar +way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.-FIG 25.] + +The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made to +contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of courses +(according to convenience) have been built up, and when set practically +forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to which the face slabs +are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland cements, which are known +to contract in setting, and with those over-limed cements which expand +(both of which are not true Portland cements), the filling in is done in +equal sections, with a vertical space equal to each section left between +them until the first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are +then filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores of +the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where required, +slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails may be driven, +such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt clay, coke, and such +like. Hollow lintels are also made of the slabs keyed together at their +vertical joints, and when in position these are filled in with beton. +This system, however, is only recommended for fire-place openings +instead of arches. + +In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the apsidal +end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 being employed +for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show forms of slabs +suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal axes and domes. In +Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is shown a system of +constructing floors of these slabs. It is only necessary to explain that +the slabs are first keyed to the lower flange of the iron joist by means +of a cement (bituminous preferred), and the combination is then fixed in +position, the edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, +the iron joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening +slabs, the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists are +made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted to iron +girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This provision secures +the covering of the cross girders on their undersides by the ceiling +slabs. The concrete having been deposited upon the slabs, its upper +surface may be finished off in any of the usual ways, while the ceiling +may be treated in any of the ways described for the walls. This system +does not exclude the ordinary methods of constructing floors and roofs, +although it supplies a fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, +and, in fact, any other building material, may be used in conjunction +with the slabs. + +The system of building construction is intended, as in the case with all +concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the various uses to +which they have been applied, and, at the same time, to offer a more +perfect system of building in concrete. Hitherto slab concrete work has +never been erected in a perfectly finished state (i.e., with mouldings, +etc., complete), but has either been left in a rough state or without +ornament, or else has been constructed so as never to be capable of +receiving good ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in +constructing concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to +prevent the slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to form, +with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming the slabs of +L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of internal buttress +and shoring them up from the outside, or of supporting the slabs upon +framing fixed against the faces of the wall, several devices have been +used to obviate this difficulty. + +In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the slabs +forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as soon as the +plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but not before), +these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or cramps have been +used, and, as their name implies, have been allowed to remain in the +wall and to be entirely buried in the plastic filling-in material. These +permanent transverse ties or cramps have been of two kinds: those which +were affixed as soon as the slabs were placed in position, and those +which were made to form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, +slabs of Z or H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the +plastic filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse +tie by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs forming +each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in some cases, +being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being undercut in some +way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in this latter system +generally have wide bases, they may also be bedded or jointed in cement, +and, provided temporary ties be placed across their upper edges to +connect the slabs forming each face of the wall together, the space +between the faces of the wall may then be filled in with the plastic +concrete. + +All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they are only +temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton has become +hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two faces of the +wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of all slab concrete +construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the plastic concrete used in +forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the slabs to the mass which they +themselves have moulded; and (c) to form a facing to the wall. When +these objects shall have been accomplished, there is no further need of +any tie whatever beyond that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. +In West's system, however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, +any kind of transverse tie to be used during the process of +construction, except that used in the starting course, is entirely +dispensed with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the +courses of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the +time that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall. + +[Illustration: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION] + +There is, however, a more decided difference between West's system and +those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact that the slabs +composing the shell of the whole structure in many cases may be built up +before the filling-in is deposited between the slabs, and in none of the +other cases can this be done. In fact, only in the first two cases +before mentioned can more than one course of slabs be laid before +filling-in of some kind must be done. Compared with the ordinary method +of building in concrete, this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and +waste of wood casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside +and outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties encountered +in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of the work by the +ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a face of any of the +usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, besides a facing of any +other material, such as marble, etc., and produces better and more +durable work, at the same time showing a saving in cost, especially in +the better classes of work; all of which is effected with less plant +than ordinarily required. For engineering work, such as sea walls, the +hexagonal slabs, made of greater thickness than those employed for +ordinary walling, will answer admirably, especially if the grooves be +made proportionately larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be +built up with great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the +dwellings of artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to +render them easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves +in order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of the +simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work. + +Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for this +system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. Frank West, +as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be preferred. It not only +supplies the necessary scaffold, but also the necessary arrangements for +hoisting the slabs, as well as for raising the liquid concrete and +depositing it behind the slabs. It is really an independent scaffold, +and may be used wherever a light tramway of contractor's rails can be +laid, which in crowded thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a +staging erected over the footway. The under frame is carried upon two +bogie frames running upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is +enabled to turn sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being +provided at the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of +a climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to the +under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A worm +gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the scaffold, causes +the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, made to act at the curves +as well as on the straight portions of the rail by being attached to a +radial arm fixed to the under frame, assists the stability of the +scaffold where required, but the gauge of the rails is altered to render +the scaffold more or less stable according to its height. Combined with +the same machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used +for the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a triangle be +altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are altered. A portion +of the vertical post up and down which the crane climbs forms the base +of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, together with the stay, forms +the remaining two sides. Hence, by causing the foot of one or the other +to travel upward, by means of the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib +is either elevated or depressed. + +The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless chains +passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is fixed a hopper, +into which is thrown, either by hand or from a concrete mixer running +upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, and from which it gravitates +into a narrow channel, through which pass the buckets (attached to the +chain) with a shovel-like action. The buckets, a motor being applied to +one pair of wheels, thus automatically fill themselves, and on arriving +at top are made to tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically +into a hopper by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which +they are attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken away +to the required destination by means of a worm working in a tube. For +varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are inserted and +secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and secured by a nut. By +using this scaffold, a saving in plant, cartage, and labor is effected. +The elevator may also be used for raising any other material besides +concrete. + +Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding of +Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, and +which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may add in +conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a scaffold +are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS. + +R.W. JONES. + + +1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, with two or +three thicknesses of common blanket or its equivalent. + +2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side uppermost. + +3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by means of a +plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the board. + +4. Expose the whole--in a clear sunlight--from 4 to 6 minutes. In a +winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, from 20 to 30 +minutes. + +5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one or two +minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry. + +The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite quality +in the _paper_ itself being its ability to stand washing. + +Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such a brush +as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part soluble citrate of +iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part red prussiate of potash, +and dissolve in 10 parts of water. + +The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and better +results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until immediately +required. After being coated with the solution, the paper must be laid +away to dry in a dark place, and must be shielded entirely from light +until used. When dry, the paper is of a yellow and bronze color. After +exposure the surface becomes darker, with the lines of the tracing still +darker. Upon washing, the characteristic blue tint appears, with the +lines of the tracing in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been +obtained from glass negatives by this process.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + + + + +REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND. + +A.H. HAIG. + + +The following process for making photographic copies of drawings in blue +lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is based on the +property of perchloride of iron of being converted into protochloride on +exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when brought into contact with +the perchloride of iron immediately turns the latter blue, but it does +not affect the protochloride. + +A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of iron, +five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one hundred parts +water. Should the paper to be used not be sufficiently sized, dextrine, +gelatine, isinglass, or some similar substance must be added to the +solution. The paper is sensitized by dipping in this solution and then +dried in the dark, and may be kept for some length of time. To take a +copy of a drawing made on cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a +sheet of the sensitive paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame +or under a sheet of glass. The length of exposure varies with the state +of the weather from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds +in winter, in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 +minutes, and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now immersed +in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of potash per 100 +parts of water. Those parts protected from the light by the lines of the +drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest of the paper, where the +coating has been converted into protochloride by the effects of light, +will remain white. Next, the image is freely washed in water, and then +passed through a bath consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid +to 100 parts of water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron +salt. + +It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, when the +drawing will appear in blue on a white background.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + +[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.] + + + + +RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS. + +[Footnote: Read June 20, 1885.] + +By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club. + + +During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous efforts to +introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the evaporation of +water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on a small scale, for +domestic purposes. + +The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the number of +stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using solid fuel. +Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the better classes. +Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about thirty-six per +cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount of compression. Ease +of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of regulation of temperature. +Almost perfect combustion and cleanliness. + +Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well known +regenerative furnace. + +Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running on the +Paris and Strassburg Railroad. + +Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and under the +boilers of steamship Oberlin. + +Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a locomotive +running on the Long Island Railroad. + +Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of United States +steamers. + +Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their locomotives, and +steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel. + +Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace at Jersey +City. + +Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the production +of water gas. + +These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results when +considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in advocating +their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the all-important +item of cost. + +It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of such +systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long as the +supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable limits. + +In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely theoretical +results, without allowing for losses in the furnace. + +The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, crude +petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases. + +The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the heating +agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, are: + +PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT. + + ________________________________________________________ + | C | H | O | CO |CH_{4}|C_{2}H_{4} + +----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + Anthracite |87.7| 3.3 |3.2| | | + Bituminous |80.8| 5.0 |8.2| | | + Petroleum |84.8|13.1 |1.5| | | + Coal gas | | 6.5 | |14.3| 52.4 | 14.8 + Generator gas | | 1.98| |35.5| 1.46| + Water gas | | 6.3 |0.6|87.8| 1.2 | + ------------------+----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + +We will employ the formula of Dulong-- + + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) + +to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the case of +methane, CH_{4}, the formula is not true, but the error is not great +enough to seriously affect the result. This gives for the combustion of +one pound of: + + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " + +Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from 212° F., +we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. + + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 + +The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning furnaces +to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per cent. may be +taken as a good figure. The great difference in the efficiencies is due +to the fact that fluid fuels require for combustion very little air +above the theoretical quantity, while with the solid fuels fully twice +the theoretical quantity must be admitted to dilute the products of +combustion. + +Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212° F., PER POUND OF FUEL. + + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 + +These figures agree closely with the results of experiments. + +We will now consider the subject of cost. + +The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing centers, +termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers. + +In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude state, an +approximation is made by adding to the cost at the nearest shipping port +the freight charged on refined petroleum, and ten per cent. to cover +duties and other charges. + +Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the cities, +there may be some errors. + + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. + + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 + + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. + + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. + +In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal gas is +taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; petroleum, 0.8. + + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. + + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. + +These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give: + + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. FOR $1. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. + + RELATIVE COSTS. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 + +These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there may be +circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their use will +exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a comparison without +considering particular cases, but for intermittent heating petroleum +would probably be more economical, though for a steady fire coal holds +its own. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. + + +At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and Steel +Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, Mr. R. +Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, read a paper +on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting discussion upon +steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it was thirty years since +the first crucible steel castings were made in Sheffield in the general +way, and with one exception the method of manufacture was pretty much +the same now as at that early date. The improvement was the employment +of gas furnaces instead of the old coke holes for melting. Important +economies had resulted from this introduction. Where before it required +3 tons of coke to melt 1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with +35 cwt. of very poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make +crucible steel castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true +steel, that was to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct +proportions of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to +make crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and manganese to +produce that chemical composition which was known to be necessary in +best castings. It was in consequence of this difficulty that many makers +resorted to the addition of hematite pigs. The Bessemer process was used +much more extensively upon the Continent than in this country in the +manufacture of castings. It seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for +agitating the steel in the ladle so as to remove the gases would be +taken up largely for open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as +it had a wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in +conjunction with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some +extremely wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid +being melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied greatly. +The ordinary method generally practiced in this country was a +modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed were only +of secondary importance to the making of the steel itself. Unless the +mould was good, no matter how good the steel was, the casing was +spoiled. The best composition which had been found for moulds was that +of a large firm in Sheffield, but unfortunately it was rather expensive. +A good steel casting ought to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 +per cent. of silicon and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a +casting, if free from other impurities, would have a strength of between +30 and 40 tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 +per cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering. + +The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. McCallem +present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion upon the open +hearth basic system, in which they were greatly interested. + +Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would be +worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace before it +would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, he had seen +the basic process worked very successfully in the open-hearth furnace; +and he was recently informed by the manager that he was producing ingots +at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per ton. + +The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved admirably. +He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, at Wednesbury, +were at the present moment putting down an open-hearth furnace on the +basic process. + +The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. H. +Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, Walker, W. +Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave it as their +experience that the best castings contained the most blowholes, and Mr. +McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some slight qualification. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA. + + +At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject. + +He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing the +safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions with +wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development of +maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied with +apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and to the +nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and that reports +given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more extensively. He +wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by telegraph for the same +purpose. + +In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. Badeley in +1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and last year at +Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a committee on life saving +appliances of the United States had made experiments. The conclusions of +the committee were that in deep water oil had a calming effect upon a +rough sea, but there was nothing in either source of information which +yet answered the question whether or not there is in the force exerted +by the wind a point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in +causing the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some +utility on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of +rescue; on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in dangerous +proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use of automatic +sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of parabolic +reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further prosecution of +experiments by Professor Bell in establishing communication between +vessels some distance apart by means of interrupted electrical currents. +The improvement of navigation, he said, meant an international code of +police to improve police rules of navigation; an international code of +universal telegraphy for navigation; an international office of +meteorology and navigation to collect the studies; experiments on the +weather, on the sea, on the casualties; and the discovery by experiment +of new apparatus and appliances to diminish maritime disaster. + +He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, and he +hoped that before long there would be proposed an international +congress--such as the postal, telegraph, and sanitary congresses, and +the international convention to fix the common meridian--by one of the +maritime powers, by which would be founded an international institution +to diminish casualties at sea. He recommended a universal system of +buoys. The great losses of life and property every year were worthy the +devotion of £300,000 by an international institution, which would be +much less than the monthly average loss in navigation. + +Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built--some were ten times +longer than their beam. There was nothing in the world so ticklish as a +ship; touch her in the waist, and down she goes. He believed sailing +ships ought not to exceed four times their beam, and steamers certainly +not more than six times. He pointed out that a fruitful cause of +accidents was the stopping of steaming all at once in the case of +impending collision, by which the rudder lost control of the vessel. If +constructors looked more to the form of the ships, and got them to steer +better, collisions would be avoided. + +The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one great +secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, which made +it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another vessel what it +was about. The method of signaling was very crude, and he ventured to +say that it was quite out of date when vessels met each other at a rate +of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an amateur, tried a method which +he would attempt to explain. His idea was to fit up a lantern on deck, +showing an electric light. The instrument would be controlled by the +rudder, and the commanding officer of the vessel would be able so to +turn it when the helm was put up or down that the light would flash at +some distance in front of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal +to a vessel coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was +amidships, the light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved +until the helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going +could not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If the +lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass safely. + +Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any experiments. + +The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a number +of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they were already +disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left the carrying out of +the suggestion to others. + +Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for a short +distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was very +difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile out to +sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to three +miles. + +The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object light, but +upon the sweep of the light on the water. + +Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil on +troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully studied all +the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they were all very well +in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean they were utterly +hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. They had been tried in +the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had prophesied the results before +they were commenced. It was utterly hopeless to think that a quantity of +oil had the power of laying a storm--all the world could not produce oil +enough to bring about that result. + +There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped the +experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or three +mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe in powerful +lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, and a dazzling +effect was the result. In regard to sound, he wondered that no more +effective alarm was used than the whistle. It was well known that, as +the whistle instrument was enlarged, the sound became more and more a +roar. He would have ships use all their boiler power in sounding a +siren, so that the sound could be heard at a distance of not less than +two or three miles in any weather. With such a signal as that there +ought to be, not absolute safety, but collisions would be more easily +prevented. He was glad to say that a universal system of buoys had been +practically arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, +so that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language. + +Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, while a +green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so that, if a +green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels were within two +miles and a half of each other. + +Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in regard to +these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of lights effect +should be given to the difference that existed in the various lights, so +that, by making the green light more powerful, it could penetrate as far +as the red, and in the same way making the red and green lights +proportionately more powerful, so that they would penetrate as far as +the white light. + +Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for sound +tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and focused all +the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea that the operator +could hear nothing but a chaos of sound. + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE. + + +The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining +pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained +in the raw material, maybe divided into two parts, viz., the immersion +of the rags in acid, with subsequent washing and drying, and the +carbonization properly so called. The first part is so well known, and +is so simple in its details and apparatus, that it is useless to dwell +upon it in this place. But the second requires more scientific +arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted, and, as +carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry, we think +it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. +It will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. +The object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being +in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled. + +Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, and Figs. +1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is arranged like +the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, there is a double +series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and work generally. These +two series are arranged on each side of a central portion, which +contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway +giving access to the upper stories. The heating apparatus is a hot air +stove provided with a system of piping. The rags to be carbonized or the +wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames. + +The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the heating +apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for about half an +hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the air in, as are also +those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers. The hot air +then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags, and, +becoming saturated and heavier, descends and makes its exit from the +chamber through an aperture, n, near the floor, whence it flows to the +central chimney. This latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains +in its center a second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) +that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion +from the heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes +serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the +vapors derived from the wool are disengaged. + +The air, heated to 40° or 50°, is made to pass thus for several hours, +until the greater part of the humidity has been removed. The temperature +is then raised to 80° or 90° by gradually closing the apertures that +give access to the ventilating chimney. In order that it may be possible +to further increase the temperature during the last hour, and raise it +to 90° or 120°, an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such air +with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air circulates in the +pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter. The hot +vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one, where +they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the +materials. + +The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in order to +prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate should be of +relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of cast iron, and all +the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see to such matters, with a +view to saving money, will surely lead in the long run to bad results. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)] + +The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired to +preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case recourse +is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting the vapors of +nitric acid heated to 115° or 125° for the sulphuric acid. The +arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different. The chambers, which +may be in duplicate, as in the preceding case, are vaulted, and are +about three yards long by three wide and three high. The rags are put +into wire cages that have six divisions, and that are located in the +middle of the chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of +gearings. Under the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a +reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. +The arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken to +have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.--_Bull, de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS. + + +According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in the dry +distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for the production +of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that the mass shall be +divided as completely as possible, since it then takes but a relatively +moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter +contained in the wash. The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is based +upon this observation. + +The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long boiler, +B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the intermedium of a +waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass slowly to the other +extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes its exit in the form of +dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the scrapers, b, and the interrupted +pieces, a, in front of which are the hinged valves, c. In the motion of +the pieces, a, from right to left, these valves free the apertures +thereof and allow the wash to pass, while in the motion from left to +right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be +evaporated before them. + +From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and fro +motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of which is +produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their lower, forked +extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the piece, d, that supports +the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, f, pass through the side of +the boiler, through the intermedium of stuffing boxes, and are connected +by their upper extremities, through a link, with levers, g, that revolve +around the point, h. A cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, +alternately rising and descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods +f. The same shaft, M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, +and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, +E, receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, m. The +material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at +the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel, G, provided +with a stirrer, H. The salts and other analogous matters are dissolved, +and the residuum, which constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out +of the apparatus, while the solution passes directly to the refinery, +where it is evaporated. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS.] + +In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in powder +is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means +of water, and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen, +so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally +by the mass, and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus. + +The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, where they +condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine. The +non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the +manufactory. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE. + + +In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we find a +leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. Britton, of +Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate. + +This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in +order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are clamped in the jaws +or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram +connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws. The power is obtained by +means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys +shown. The action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the +plates which are not "bagged" or buckled, and this causes the surface to +extend, the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same +stretching action. The machine shown is designed to operate on sheet +iron from No. 7 to No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for +length being 120 in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. +The machine appears to have met with considerable success in America, +and has been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in Figs. +1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the +machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. 3 shows the +bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with the holes for +adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 is a back view and +section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving +grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a plan and cross section of +the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back elevation of the same, with a front +view and section of the gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which +the jaws are opened and closed. + +[Illustration: BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES. + + +Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing +circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is doubtless +that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and which is known +in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists of a socket into +which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to which is hinged a +tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil are held at the proper +distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw. +When the instrument is closed, as shown in the figure to the left, it +takes up but little space, and may be easily carried in the pocket +without the point tearing the clothing, as the binding screw holds the +leg firmly against the pencil. + +The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the +right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation.--_La +Nature_. + +[Illustration: THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE INTEGRAPH. + + +In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the +following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = f(x), to find +a curve whose equation shall be + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us suppose that +we know an induced current, and that we can represent it by a curve +y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive current, that is to say, +the curve represented by the equation + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli and +Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem mechanically, +by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another example from the domain +of electricity, in order to better show the utility of the apparatus; +let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile +or of an accumulator. The abscisses represent the times, and the +ordinates the amperes. The question is to know at every moment the +quantity of coulombs produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve +whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a +large number of analogous applications. + +[Illustration: THE INTEGRAPH.] + +The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron ruler, +I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a drawing-board, and +is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface. In this +groove move two rollers, which, in the center of the piece that connects +them, carry two brass T-squares that are parallel with each other and at +right angles with the first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. +Between these two rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest +the axis of the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour +of the curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point is +guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the paper in +such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line, +and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's +angle with the axes of the X's is constantly proportional to the +ordinate of the primitive curve. + +The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a +sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities of the +axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin, and roll +over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral +steel surfaces of the carriages, while the circumference of the wheels +rolls in grooves along the two T-squares. + +These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run in the +groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller that runs +over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is fixed a +divided ruler, through one point of which continually passes a third +ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of the first carriage. + +When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and the +point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be +integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the +axis of the X's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure. The +wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, A', of the second carriage must +move parallel with this ruler. In order to obtain such parallelism, we +employ a parallelogram formed as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same +diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point, A, of the +first carriage, and their line of centers is parallel with the latter. +The second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to +those of the toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers +must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a weak +steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels, the +two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by means of a barrel +and spring placed in the center of one of them. + +The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents the +latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, permitting it +thus to move only in the direction of their plane. + +It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog +wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of +but the same length of the two threads. + +It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by +forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the +curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the +apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES. + + +The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the +manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. +Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling +machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so +called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all +grouped upon a cast-iron column. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES.] + +The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate +of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an +intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the +former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in +the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the +aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side +of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in +the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is +lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part +of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of +glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the +gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced. + +The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, +comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of +bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). +This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in +the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of +bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents +all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a +powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is +placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This +machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES. + + +Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the +power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most +extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus +have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less +necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal +types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive +materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has +devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed +by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in +which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed +in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun +when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman +responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 +grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the +igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be +made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden +cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. +It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external +diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. +The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided +with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches +wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 +inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch +wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. +It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a +cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. +The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median +piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that +still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, +g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is +prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which +has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key +which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, +y. + +When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 +inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, +and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by +a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, +is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a +cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely +closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the +figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the +leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 +grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a +leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The +apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the +pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way +that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a +smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the +pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that +their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes +place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the +capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately +opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, +to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that +have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the +apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing +alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means +of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder +the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.] + +The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by +means of a gauge (Fig. 3). + +The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and +thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder +very perfectly. + + * * * * * + + + + +SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS. + + +For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from +pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. +Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the +accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or +enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the +upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors +disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone +cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is +filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided +with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, +d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The +head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a +dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, +f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed +strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with +pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by +acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, +e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n. + +At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by +a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of +emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L. + +A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to +introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. +The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for +cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows +out through the tubes, v. + +The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the +quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is +afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation +may then proceed at once. + +The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, +through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they +are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, +which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, +which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. +This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and +afterward flows into the vessel, N. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.] + +The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, +e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of +concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can +no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 +degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and +received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of +the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed +and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected +directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that +still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, +e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S. + +There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the +acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as +to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIELD KITCHENS. + + +We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the +Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's +Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These +kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three +to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed +one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The +kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are +carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A +small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When +packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the +outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the +top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form +of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or +in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, +boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may +require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of +the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 +represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens +consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which +are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or +flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be +placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 +inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular +kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few +inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be +made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with +straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended +for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, +workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food +for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and +distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat +water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, +London.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW COP-WINDER. + + +In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the +wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of +which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German +apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a +horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that +moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow +extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in +contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a +mean velocity until it is finished. + +In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the +paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is +the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove +which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper +tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse +motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first +prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the +ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, +but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its +axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a +cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a +sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, +J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, +a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is +kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished. + +[Illustration: A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.] + +Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may +likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this +case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is +useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the +ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of +the screw. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.] + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. + +[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.] + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL +CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885. + +BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER. + + +The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which +he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a +solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of +hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of +copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it +will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance +under this head. + +Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and +1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the +preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective. + +His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by +tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a +preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory +results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his +name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a +freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by +pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at +the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred +rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and +letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the +rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed +then served to admit the solution under pressure. + +This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of +copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in +France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, +that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log +only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and +annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be +still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process +could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting +down trees), as the solution would freeze. + +On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been +able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this +country. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. + +SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE. + +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS. + +The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern +Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, +when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable +condition. + +We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. +Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process. + +Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. +Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), +when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital +suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing +the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in +his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, +but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by +the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying +substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, +and left it nearly in its primitive condition." + +He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, +and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie +process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, +which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by +that process. + +Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the Bethell +process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders, and +probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were prepared in that +way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. Tilden, however, showed the +"saturation very uneven; absorptive power, high; block contains soluble +salts of copper, removable by washing." + +It was expected that the double solution, by forming an insoluble +compound, would prove an effective protection against the _teredo_. +Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the contrary to be the +fact. + +The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory results +against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz Brewing +Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in 1882, after some +six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, a chemist of Boston +(experiment No. 9), indicated favorable results, and the planks in a +ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet +sound in 1882. + +The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16), +however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable at first, +and great things were expected of them; but late examinations made on +the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the +Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, +and the results to be unfavorable. + +This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. Thilmany +has patented still another combination, in which he uses sulphate of +zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed under the head of +burnettizing. + +Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It consisted +of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the South, by the +Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of +copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid in the tunnel at New +Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, in 1882, several of them +were still in the track. The process, however, was found to be so +tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial, and has not since +been resumed. + +In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is the +inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the cap +fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump, and +placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired solution, he +sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the +wood. + +Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way, with +various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate of copper, and +there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be +materially increased thereby. + +Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the +original Boucherie process can only be determined by practical +application upon an extensive scale. + +A considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the +Boucherie process have been patented in this country; but none of them +seems to have come into practical use, probably because of the necessity +for operating upon freshly cut logs, and the inconvenience of such +applications. + +The table on this page gives a record of various experiments with +miscellaneous substances. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS--MISCELLANEOUS. + +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. + +Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from which +great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted in immersing +timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate +of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons +of water. It was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut +Street, Philadelphia, and for a time seemed to promise good results. +Experiments with prepared rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James +Archbald, Chief Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable. + +The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet Arsenal, +where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, at a cost of +about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used for various +ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its life extended, as +would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics +used, its strength was so far impaired, and it checked and warped so +badly, that the process was abandoned in 1844. + +The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, for +a full copy of the reports upon these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has been +applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that platforms and +boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly +suggested the use of lime for preserving timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. +Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, laid a +portion of its track on white pine sills, which had been soaked for +three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained. +Similar experiments were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The +result was not satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that +lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking. + +Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, sometimes +known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former have been +furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, +and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your committee is much indebted for a +large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation. + +Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject +than any other person in this country. Beginning with sulphate of copper +in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in 1847, and chloride of +zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of mercury, and again to chloride +of zinc, using the latter until 1865, then using creosote to protect the +piles against the _teredo_ at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared +by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our disposal many +original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare. + +Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President of this +Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 × 12 with a 1-1/8 +inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 inches. These were filled with +common salt and plugged up, as is not infrequently done in +ship-building, but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened, +it was concluded that the process did not pay. + +Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, but is a +comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being 58.8 in the +hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of mercury. + +Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known and most +ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this particular +case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet +into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, which +probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of +moisture, which, as is well known, much hastens decay. The posts, which +had been set butt-end upward, were mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' +exposure. + +Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as well, +and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is +uncertain and disappointing in its results. + +Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting machinery for +charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against decay. The +process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the benefits which it +confers, and the charred surface is so objectionable for many uses, that +nothing is to be expected from the process upon a large commercial +scale. + +In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), at +Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate with +pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar experiments +had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. Boucherie, but the +result has not been found satisfactory. + +In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the Nichols +patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for boring a 2 +inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge timbers. This +continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and in rebuilding them +the boring machinery was not replaced. The longitudinal hole allowed a +portion of the sap to evaporate without checking the outside of the +timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its life. It is believed there are +yet (1885) some sticks of timber in the bridges of the road that were so +prepared in 1868 or 1869. + +In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, by +incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the space +between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic cement. +This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the mainland with +Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did it seem to succeed +at first that it was proposed to extend the process to railroad +trestlework, to fencing, to supports for houses, and to telegraph poles. +But after a while the earthenware pipes were displaced and broken, the +process was given up, and Galveston bridge is now creosoted. + +In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by simply +washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that borax is a +solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by boiling them in a +solution of borax. For small specimens, this answered well, and a +signboard treated in that way (experiment No. 13) was preserved a long +time; but when applied to large timber, the process was found very +tedious and slow, and no headway has been made in introducing it. + +Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age it was +discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of the Union +Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles in length, where +the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, Mr. Blinkinsderfer, +kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which had been laid in 1868, +and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It is as sound and a good deal +harder than when first laid, 14 years before, while on some other parts +of the road cottonwood ties perish in two or five years. + +The character of the soil where these results have been observed is +light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the Laramie +Division, furnishes the following analysis: + + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. + +The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis may be +of interest: + +"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of substances +which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in the juices of +the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous matter, which, when +beginning to decay, causes also the destruction of the other +constituents of the wood." + +"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by decay is +by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the sap." + +"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some substance +which either enters into combination with the constitutents of the sap +or so alters their properties as to prevent the setting up of +decomposition." + +"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large quantities of +the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, and iron) most used +in the different processes of preserving or kyanizing wood. It also +contains much inorganic matter, which also acts as a preserving agent." + +Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other portions of +the track, and some of the soil has also been transported to other +localities, so that it is hoped that in the discussion that may be +expected to follow this report, some further light will be thrown on the +subject by an account of the results of these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and convey a +useful lesson. + +In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry powder for +preserving wood, which was composed of certain proportions of salt, +arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action was based upon an +experience which he had had when, as a working mechanic of Ellisburg, +Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had preserved a water-wheel shaft by +inserting such a compound in powder in the body of the wood, and +ascertained that it was still sound some 14 years later. + +His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly this: + +"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that fermentation +cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the chemical property or +nature of his compound, when inserted dry into wood, is to attract +moisture, and this moisture, aided by fermentation, liquefies the +compound; that capillary attraction must inevitably convey it through +the sap ducts and medullary rays to every fiber of the stick.... Were +these crystallizations salt alone, they would soon dissolve, but the +arsenic and corrosive sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they +remain intact while any fiber of the wood is left." + +"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and have been +known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the _mummies of Egypt_ to-day +shows the presence of arsenic in large quantities in every portion of +their substance. Whatever other ingredients may have entered into the +compound that has been so potent in preserving from decay the bodies of +the old kings of Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, +arsenic was most certainly one." + +The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes two inches +in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of square timber, +four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, and to plug them up +with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two holes two inches in +diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and filled and plugged them. +Fresh cut lumber and shingles were prepared by piling layers upon each +other with the dry powder sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty +pounds to the thousand feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a +temperature of at least 458° F. until fermentation took place, when the +lumber was considered fully "foremanized." + +The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a steamboat, +and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It was then applied +to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, where it did not succeed, +and to some on the Chicago and Northwestern, where they seem to have +been lost sight of, being few in number, so that your committee has not +been able to learn the result. + +Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional sale +was made to various parties of the right of using the process, notably, +it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for $50,000; and some +ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, when the poisonous nature +of the ingredients used brought about disaster. + +Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East St. +Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very ill, and +one of them died. + +The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties along the +Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked them for the +sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for ten miles was +strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in arms, and made the +railroad take up and burn the ties. The company promoting foremanizing +was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it went out of business. + +In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, and the +succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that patent was +submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, D.C., and examined +by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). He found the +impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, but he did not find +any arsenic, though its use was claimed. + +The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, first, of +a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common burnt lime. Mr. +Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the water used to test the +absorptive power to have been filled with threads of fungi in +forty-eight hours. + +The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of sulphide of +calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. Tilden. + +The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a solution +of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was also condemned +by Mr. Tilden. + +The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen different +processes, most of which have already been noticed in this report, and +their practical results given. + +The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable amount of +prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is understood to have +proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of inquiry, your committee +has been enabled to obtain information of the results of three of these +experiments. + +The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) were +first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of sulphate of +iron. + +The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with chloride +of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of application is +not stated. + +The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were treated with +the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is stated that this +was the only process in which pressure was used. + +In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks were badly +decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost impassable, while +other streets paved in the same year with untreated woods remained in +fair condition. + +It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did much +toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, was chiefly +owing to the very dishonest way in which the preparation was done; that +in fact there was a combination between the officials and the +contractors by which the latter were chiefly interested "how not to do +it," and that the above results, therefore, prove very little on the +subject of wood preservation. + +Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your committee +is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments (Nos. 26 to 41 +inclusive) which have been carried on at the Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, +for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to +test the effect of various substances as a protection against the +_Teredo navalis_. It will be noticed that the application of two coats +of white zinc paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster +of Paris mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil +and tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of coal +tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating compound, of +compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of the Thilmany +process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved failures. + +The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the month of +January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or five years, or +till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress piles, well +charred, have resisted for nine years. + +This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been stated under +the head of creosoting, that nothing but the impregnation with creosote, +and plenty of it, is an effectual protection against the _teredo_. +Numberless experiments have been tried abroad and in this country, and +always with the same result. + +There are quite a number of other experiments which your committee has +learned about which are here passed in silence. The accounts of them are +vague, or the promised results of such slight importance as not to +warrant cumbering with them this already too voluminous report. + +The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the many +patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It had prepared +a list of them, and investigated the probable success of many of them, +but has concluded that it is better to confine itself to the results of +actual tests, and to stick to ascertained facts. + +Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the great +importance of the subject, and the economical advantages which will +result from the artificial preparation of wood as its price advances. +They hope, however, that the members of this Society, in discussing this +report, will dwell upon this point. + +We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general conclusions +which we have reached as the result of our protracted investigation. + + +DECAY OF TIMBER. + +Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of +carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the +same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of +the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. + +Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent. of +the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great many +substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., etc., +with a large portion of water. + +Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap, +fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend +upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the woody fiber, and +produces decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that +there must be a concurrence of four separate conditions: + +1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when +exposed to air and water. + +2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation. + +3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. + +4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50° and 100° F. Below +32° F. and above 150° F., no decay occurs. + +When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, and +ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, unless +the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative. + +Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does +not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.[1] It is therefore necessary +to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter +the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the office +performed by the various antiseptics. + +[Footnote 1: Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, 1884, +Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of Timber."] + +We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, whether +fermentation and decay result from slow combustion (eremacausis) or from +the presence of living organisms (bacteria, etc.); but having in the +preceding pages detailed the results of the application of various +antiseptics, we may now indicate under what circumstances they can +economically be applied. + +_(To be continued)_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:_ + +Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint of Mr. B. +Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association of Aberdeen +which has come into my hands. + +In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the Adda as +500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as stated in the same +address, and he belittles the American Cabin John Bridge by making its +span _"after all only 215 ft."_ As the builder of this greatest American +stone arch, I regret that on so important and public an occasion the +writer was not accurate. + +The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is not +great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot that +counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one minute is +to fail to capture the cup. + +M.C. MEIGS. + +Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA. + + +On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette Augusta +left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, for +Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, the +report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is probably +correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews for the +cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, including +the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is still a +possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting somewhere in +the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but this is not very +probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to weather a typhoon. +During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper masts, spars, etc, had +to be removed, that she might be better adapted to weather a cyclone or +like storm. If the Augusta had not met with an accident, she would have +arrived at Port Albany in Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of +July. She was due June 17. + +The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and was bought +in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's rigging, 237½ +feet long, 35½ feet beam, 16 feet draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her +engines had 400 horse-power, and her armament consisted of 14 pieces. + +[Illustration: THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.] + +During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by Captain +Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French coast. January 4, +1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in the mouth of the +Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to Bordeaux with flour and +bread for the Third French Division. The Augusta then captured the +Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which was being carried from Havre to +Bordeaux. Then the French transport steamer Max was captured and burned. +The French men of war finally forced the Augusta to retreat into the +Spanish port of Vigo, from which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March +28 at Kiel, with the captured brig St. Marc in tow.--_Illustrirte +Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS. + + +In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal wheel, +the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which we +illustrate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.] + +Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse section, +and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These wheels are made in +two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates a wheel of the former +class, these wheels being designed for use on rough and uneven roads, +and when very great jolting strains may be met with, being stronger than +those of class B design. The wheels are made with mild steel spokes, +which are secured by metal straps in the recesses cut in the annular +flanges on the boss, and by a taper bolt or rivet through the tire and +rim. These spokes can be easily taken out and renewed when necessary by +any unskilled person in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway +of their length give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist +side strains in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing +the weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer screwed up +on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil caps to the end of +the bushes, which are provided with a small set screw, so that the cap +need not be taken off when it is necessary to lubricate the wheel, as by +simply taking out the set screw oil may be poured through the hole into +the cap. The set screw also forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap +can be taken off or put on when required, as well as a means of +preventing the cap being lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all +hot and dry climates, the continued shrinking of wood wheels and +loosening of the tires is a constant source of expense and +inconvenience. This wheel having a tire and rim entirely of metal does +away with the difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and others +can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, which can be +done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B design are the same +in principle of construction as those of class A, but they have cast +metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, and are suitable for +general work and ordinary roads where the strains are not so severe. The +bosses or naves are readily removed in case of breakage, and they can be +fitted with steel oil caps for lubricating.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS. + + +The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed for the +manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is described in a +communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American Institute of Mining +Engineers. + +The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled with +fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous material. B +and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined with refractory +brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks piled up as shown in +the figure. The partitions, C and C', are likewise of refractory brick, +and are rendered as air-proof as possible. Apertures, D and D', are +formed alternately at the base of one partition and the top of the +adjacent one, in order to oblige the gases that traverse the series of +chambers to descend in one of them and to rise in the following, +whatever be the number of chambers in use. + +The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and serve to +bring the current of air or steam into contact with the fuel. Valves, F +and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating the current in the +two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with valves, G and G', put the +upper part of the generator in communication with the contiguous +chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, N and N', with valves, H and H', permit +of the introduction of a current of air from the outside into the +chambers, T and T'. The pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', +connected with a blower, serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and +P', and their valves, J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q +and Q', and their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the +purifiers and the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with +valves, L and L', are connected with a chimney. + +The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed hopper. The +doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures through which the +ashes are removed. + +When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, are +closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, of the +pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, while the +flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator the reverse order +is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is closed, the pipes, M' and +N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and Q', are closed, and R' is opened. + +A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this traverses +the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the generator, A, +through the flue, E. As this air rises through the mass of incandescent +fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of carbon and forms carbonic +oxide. This gas that is disengaged from the upper part of the fuel +consists chiefly of nitrogen and carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile +hydrocarburets derived from the fuel used. This gas, through the action +of the air upon the fuel, is called "air gas," in order to distinguish +it from the "water gas" formed in the second period of the process. + +The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', in +order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second current +of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it and produces, +in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated gases resulting from +the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', and give up to the bricks +therein the greater part of their heat, and finally make their exit, +relatively cool, through the pipe, R', which leads them to the chimney. +When the operation has been continued for a sufficient length of time to +give the refractory bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a +high temperature, the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the +entrance of air through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is +also closed, and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', +of the pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet of +steam is introduced through the latter. + +The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, B', and in +this state enters the bottom of the generator through the flue, E'. In +passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the generator, the steam +is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, while hydrogen is +liberated. The mixture of these two gases with the hydrocarburets +furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. This gas on making its exit +from the generator through the pipe, M', passes through the chambers, B, +and abandons therein the greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, +R, whence it passes through Q into the purifiers, and then into the +gasometer. + +As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the generator, +A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but moderately heated by +the sensible heat of the current of gas produced. When this cooling has +continued so long that the temperature in the generator, A, is no longer +high enough to allow the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the +valve, J', of the pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also +the valve, K, of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R +and N, are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the heat +remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of the +generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its exit +from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of air coming +from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products resulting from such +combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then into the chimney, through +the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly lowers in the chambers, B', +and rises no less rapidly in the generator, A, while the chambers, B, +are soon heated to the same temperature that first existed in the +chambers, B'. As soon as the desired temperature is obtained in the +generator, A, and the chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the +valve, I', of the pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also +closed, the valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the +valves, G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the +valve, F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. +A current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, traverses +the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the flue, E. The gas +produced makes its exit from the generator, passes through the pipe, M', +and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, and enters the gasometer +through the pipe, Q'. + +[Illustration: WATER-GAS APPARATUS.] + +When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool a state +that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the valves are so +maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and to send a current +of air into the apparatus in the same direction that the steam had just +been taking. The temperature thereupon quickly rises in the generator, +A, while, at the same time, the combustion of the air gas produced soon +reheats the chambers, B'. The cooled products of combustion go, as +before, to the chimney. The position of the valves is then changed again +so as to send a current of steam into the apparatus in a direction +contrary to that which the air took in the last place, and the water gas +obtained again is sent to the gasometer. + +As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each current of air +following the same direction in the apparatus (from left to right, or +right to left) that the current of steam did which preceded it, while +each current of steam follows a direction opposite that of the current +of air which preceded it. + +The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for his +process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of gas. + +One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made of any +dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size and form +shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the removal of the +ashes by hand from time to time, it may be constructed after the general +model of the shaft of blast furnaces, with a hearth at the base. Upon +adding to the fuel a small quantity of flux, all the mineral parts +thereof can be melted into a liquid slag, which may be carried off just +like that of blast furnaces. There is no difficulty in constructing +regenerators of refractory bricks of sufficient capacity, however large +the generators be; and a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one +thousand tons of anthracite per day into more than five million cubic +feet of gas. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Gas Institute, Manchester, June, +1885.] + +By WILLIAM SUGG, of London. + + +Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public have been +assured, by those interested in the different kinds of lamps--arc, glow +or otherwise--that henceforth, by means of such lamps, rooms are to be +lighted without heat or baneful products such as they assert attend the +use of gas, lamps, or candles. But I think it must not be implied, from +what any one has said in favor of the electric light as a means of +lighting our dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that +the glow lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very +large difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the glow +lamp is only one more means (not without certain disadvantages) of +producing light added to those which already exist, and of which the +public have the choice. Now, looking to best means of lighting rooms, +and particularly the principal rooms of a small dwelling-house, I beg to +say that the arguments which can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in +preference to any other means greatly preponderate, and that it can be +substantiated that, light for light, under the heads of convenience, +health, comfort, reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior +to all. + +As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is comparatively +untried. This assertion may sound somewhat astounding; but I think it is +a true one. More than that, even in the crude and unscientific way in +which it has most frequently been used up to the present, it has been +far from unsuccessful in comparison with electricity or other means of +lighting; and in the future it will prove the best and cheapest +practical means, although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in +palatial dwellings in conjunction with it. + +It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of artificial +lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that most beautiful and +perfect natural light which, without our aid, and without even a thought +from us, shines regularly every day upon all, in such an immense volume, +so perfectly diffused, and in such wonderful chemical combination, that +it may safely be said that not one atom of the whole economy of Nature +is unaffected by it, and that we and all the animal kingdom, in common +with trees and plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious +natural light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we cannot +hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of daylight, +or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make the lighting of +our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to the eyes and to the +general health) by the aid of gas than by any other means. It must also +be borne in mind that, in this country at least, we have to fulfill the +conditions of artificial lighting under frequent differences of +temperature and barometric influence, exaggerated by the manner in which +our homes are built; and that for at least nine months of the year we +require heat as well as light in our dwellings, and that for the other +three months (excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are +often chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions of +the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control. + +As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside over a +meeting which was held in a large room--one of two built exactly alike, +and in communication with each other by means of folding doors. These +rooms formed part of one of the best hotels in London--let us call it +the "Magnificent." Of course, it was lighted by electric glow lamps, in +accordance with the latest fashion in that department of artificial +lighting, viz., suspension lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of +leaves and scrolls, twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the +pattern of our most æsthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the +style of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed the +Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some lamps he +had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by means of the +good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's heart; and they were +ventilated with all due regard to the latest state of knowledge on the +subject among architects and builders. In fact, no pains had been spared +to make these rooms comfortable in the highest acceptation of the word. + +There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat and +deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and therefore, +under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of such human +felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty business men, +intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost tissue by means of +a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according to the calculations of +the architect of the building, to have been reached. I instance this +case because it is a typical one, which, under most aspects, does not +materially differ from the conditions of home life in such residences as +those whose occupiers are likely to use electric lighting. The rooms +were spacious (about 20 feet by 35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and +they were lighted during the day by means of large lantern +ceiling-lights, with double glass windows. The evening in question was +chilly, not to say cold. + +Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the room; +but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of a little +draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, which at first +was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in another hour or so, by +the time our business was over, notwithstanding a screen placed before +the door, and a blazing fire, we were delighted to make a change to the +comfortable dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just +left by means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to pass +in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we became +aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow lamps (merely +for artistic effect) began to flare in a most uncandlelike manner--the +flames turning down, as if some one were blowing downward on the wicks; +and at the same time the complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" +became general, and from every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went +on, the discomfort became unbearable, even although the doors were shut +and screens put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to order +"those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the foliage of the +electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three minutes the flames of +the candles burned upright and steadily, and in less than ten minutes +the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, the room became really +comfortable. + +The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up at the +ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air from the bodies +of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced by the movements of +themselves and the waiters, together with the steam from the viands and +respiration, displaced the colder air at the ceiling, and notably that +coldest air lying against the surface of the glass. This cold air simply +dropped straight down, after the manner of a douche, on candles and +heads below. The remedy I advised was the setting up of a current of +hotter steam and air from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling +effect of the glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in +slow movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the table. +Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, the gas was +put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. But before we left, +the chilliness and draughts began to be again felt. + +The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of April +last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably warm nights. +It is therefore clear that in this instance neither electricity nor +candles could effectually replace gas for lighting purposes. They both +did the lighting, but they utterly failed to keep the currents of air +steady. I have always remarked draughts whenever I have remained any +length of time in rooms where the electric light is used. On a warm +evening the electric light and candles would undoubtedly have kept the +room cooler than gas, with the same kind of ventilation; I do not think +they would have put an end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas +does in all fairly built rooms. + +It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively small +amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid manner, to +anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the contrary, from its +great specific heat, remains in a heated state for a much longer time +than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a low temperature, and in +parting with its own heat it communicates a considerable amount of +warmth to those bodies with which it comes in contact. Thus the products +of the combustion of gas (which are principally steam) serve a useful +purpose in lighting, by keeping at the ceiling level a certain stratum +of heated vapor, which holds up, as it were, the carbonic acid and +exhalation from the lungs given off by those using the room. The obvious +inference, therefore, is that if we take off these products from the +level of the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we shall +have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level warm, in order +to prevent the heated impure air from descending in comparatively rapid +currents, after having parted with its heat to the ceiling. It may very +frequently be observed on chilly days that a number of currents of cold +air seem to travel about our rooms, although there may be no crevices in +the doors and windows sufficient to account for them; and, further, that +these currents of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn +and the gas is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough +heat at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we constantly +hear when electric lights are used for the illumination of public +buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, held at the end of April last in the Conservatory of the +Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the five hundred guests, and from +an almost equal number of waiters and attendants, displaced the cold air +from the dome of the roof, and literally poured down on the assembly +(who were in evening dress) in a manner to compel many of them to put on +overcoats. If the Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below +the roof, this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam +would have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up +in the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, to +keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and thus steady +the currents. + +Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain conditions of +the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them comfortable when +electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will lay before you some few +particulars relative to the condition of small rooms of about 12 ft. by +15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary room such as may be found in the usual +run of houses in this country. The cubical contents of such a room +equals 1,700 cubic feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, +we shall for the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken +out of it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) from 600 +to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, therefore, be +admitted by some means or other into the room, or the chimney will, in +ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products of combustion, very +largely diluted with fresh air, will not all find their way up the flue +with sufficient velocity to overcome the pressure of the heavy cold air +at the top of the chimney. If no proper inlets for air are made, this +supply to the fire must be kept up from the crevices of the doors and +windows. In the line of these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as +they are usually called, it is impossible to experience any +comfort--quite the contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other +serious maladies are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh +air in the wrong way and place. + +According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on ventilation), +300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every adult person in +ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet are sufficient; less +than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and unhealthy. It is generally +admitted that an average adult breathes out from 20 to 30 cubic inches +of steam and vitiated air per minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity +equal in bulk to that of a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and +steam is respired at a temperature of 90° Fahr.; and therefore, by +reason of this heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together +with the heat and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. +This fact, by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person +in the direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every fiber of +his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is passing +upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white lines on the +surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the extreme +rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the rays of light +to pass through them with less refraction than through the denser and +more moist surrounding cold air. An adult makes, on an average, about 15 +respirations per minute, and therefore he in every hour renders to the +atmosphere of the room in which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet +of poisonous air. This rises to the ceiling line, if it is not +prevented; and thus vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the +extent of 1 per cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not +good which contained more than ½ per cent, of air which had been exhaled +from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to health these +exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in his view. Therefore +in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is vitiated to more than 2 feet +from the ceiling by one person to the extent of ½ per cent., and it will +be vitiated by two persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same +time. + +It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the vitiated +air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 feet of the +height of the room depends very materially on the difference of +temperature between these upper and lower strata and the movements of +air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and gases fall into and +diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the lower strata--very readily +if they are nearly the same temperature as the upper, but scarcely at +all if the air at the ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, +in warmed rooms of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two +petroleum lamps are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of +occupation by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the +air at the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time--sometimes, indeed, for only +a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination of the room is +maintained at the same degree as in the case of lamps, the contamination +of the air is very much worse. It is doubtless the case that poisonous +germs are rapidly developed in atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" +and although, in a healthy state of the body, we are able to breathe +them without perceptible harm, yet even then the slight headache and +uneasiness we feel is a symptom which does not suffer itself to be +lightly regarded, whenever, from some cause or other, the general +condition is weak. + +The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and carbonic +acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the products +from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil or candles. +They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ life; and +therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where they always +collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience or danger to +health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our endeavors to take +off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our first serious check in +all schemes of ventilation. We draw the elevation and section of the +room, and put in our flues with pretty little black arrows flying out of +the outlets for vitiated air, and other pretty little red arrows flying +in at the inlets; but when we see our scheme in practice, the black +arrows will persist in putting their wings where their points ought to +be; in other words, flying into instead of out of the room. + +One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot and cold +currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such as used to be +employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of gases; and, having +filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by weights tied on to the +car till it will rest without going up or down in a part of the room +where the air can be felt to be at about the mean temperature, and free +from draught. Then leave it to itself, to go where it will. + +As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will ascend, +passing along with the current, and descending or rising as the current +is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh air from windows or +doors, as well as the effect of the radiant heat from the fire, can be +thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet theories may receive a cruel +shock from this experiment; but, in the end, the ventilation of the room +will doubtless be benefited, if we apply the information obtained. It +will be discovered that the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the +little black arrows turning their backs on the right path and our +theoretical outlets for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue +must have an enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the +most easily accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per +hour is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless to +attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by ventilating +gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little talc flappers, +opening into the chimney when there is an up draught, and shutting +themselves up when there is any tendency to down draught. The success of +these and all other ventilators depends upon there being a good supply +of air from under the door or through the spaces round the window +frames. These fresh air supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one +of the spaces between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an +air conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised about +two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things will be set +up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will satisfy the fire, +without drawing from the doors and windows, and at the same time supply +a small quantity of fresh air into the room. But the important fact that +the radiant heat from the fire will pass through the cold air without +warming it all must not be lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only +warms the furniture and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its +rays. The air of the room is warmed by passing over these more or less +heated surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to the +fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender may be +used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along the front, +as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. This will also +prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be found that for the +greater part of the year the chimney ventilator and the supply to the +fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," and keep those disagreeable +draughts under control, even although the room be lighted with a 3 light +chandelier burning a large quantity of gas. + +[Illustration] + +With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms perfectly +with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we cannot light a +room without in some measure creating heat; and I think I have shown +that we want this heat at the ceiling line for the greater part of the +year. + +In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other hand, it +is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65° to 70° Fahr., to +keep the air in proper movement in small rooms. There are also times in +the fall of the year, and also in spring, when the nights are unusually +warm; and, with a few friends in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" +question, not to say a "burning" one. On these occasions we have to +resort to exceptional ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life +would be too much. It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of +ventilation by diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes +of air of different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves +on opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or some +more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through this +medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal density or +temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a window (which can +be opened, downward) with a strained piece of fine muslin or washed +common calico, the air in the room, if hotter than the external air, +will, when the window is more or less opened, pass out readily into the +cooler air, and the cooler air will pass in through the pores of the +medium. The hotter air passing out faster than the cooler air will come +in, no draught will be experienced; and the window may be opened very +widely without any discomfort from it. + +It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to do more +than indicate a means of ventilation which will be effective under most +circumstances of lighting with those gas burners and fittings usually +employed, and which will lend itself readily to modifications which will +be necessitated by the use of some of the newest forms of burners and +ventilating gas lights. + +[Illustration] + +In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important discovery I have +made in reference to blackened ceilings, for which, up to the present +time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have long entertained the belief +that with a proper burner it is possible to obtain perfect combustion, +without any smoke; and a series of experiments with white porcelain +plates hung over some burners used in my own house proved conclusively +that the discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed +ceilings arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large +towns is largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or +dirt created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, escapes +from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of my best rooms, +which required to have the ceilings whitened every year, substituted +varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply put on in the usual +way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I also changed the coal fires +for gas fires. These alterations have gone through the test of two +winters, and the ceilings are now as clean as when they were first done. +The burners have been used every night, and the gas fires every day, +during the two winters. No alteration has been made in the burners +employed, and no "consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished +paper ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine sieve. +This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, which, +after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than the spaces +between. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANDERS' TELEPHONE. + + +Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, combines in a +single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and a pile, C. The +transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing several large +apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a metallic disk, d, +situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are filled with powdered +carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal plate, f, which is fixed to +the insulating ring, c, by means of a metallic washer, g. Back of the +transmitter is arranged the receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary +electro-magnet with a disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed +behind the receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a +partition, i, and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of +zinc, l, which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a +spring, m, fixed to the insulating piece, n. + +[Illustration: ANDERS TELEPHONE] + +When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the zinc +plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the circuit is +closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, the transmitter, +and the line wire 2, while when the button is freed the current no +longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve as a receiver or +transmitter only when the button is pressed.--_Bull. de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR. + + +When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a consequence +of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw and engine +increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance that the screw +was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When the screw enters the +water again, the resistance makes itself abruptly felt, and causes +powerful shocks, which put both the screw and engine in danger. Ordinary +regulators are powerless to overcome this trouble, since their +construction is such that they act upon the engine only when the excess +of velocity has already been reached. + +Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For example, use +has been made of a float placed in a channel at the side of the screw, +and which closes the moderator valve by mechanical means or by +electricity when the screw descends too low or rises too high. + +[Illustration: BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.] + +Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see figure) +consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. One of them, +b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be constantly in the water, +while the other, a, corresponds to the position above which the screw +cannot rise without taking on a dangerous velocity. In the normal +situation of the ship, the electric circuit, c (in which circulates a +current produced by a dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of +the water, which establishes a connection between the two contacts. When +the contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled back by +a spring--a motion that sets in action a small steam engine that closes +the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is again immersed, the +electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus brings the moderator valve +back to its normal position. It is clear that the contact, a, must be +insulated from the ship's side. + +Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above another, +in order to close the moderator valve more or less, according to the +extent of the screw's rise or fall. + + * * * * * + + + + +MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL. + + +We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to railroad +crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, of Steelton, +Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated highway crossing +in the woods or any lonely place can be made perfectly safe, and that, +too, without the expense of gates and a man to work them or of a +flagman. It is surely a great improvement over the old methods, and it +is likely to have a large sale. In addition to considerations of safety, +possible saving in salaries to railroad companies by its use will be +great. This device is more reliable than a human being, and can make any +crossing safe to which it is applied. Its operation is described as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The illustration shows the device as used on a single track railroad, +where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains approaching the +crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the right). A similar box +on the other side of the crossing is used for trains approaching in the +other direction. Two plates connected by a link, and pivoted, are placed +alongside of one rail, close enough to it to be depressed by the treads +of the wheels. By another link, one of the plates called the rock plate +(the one to the right) is connected to a rock shaft which extends +through a strong bearing into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a +suitable distance from the rail, within which an electric generator is +placed; the whole being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long +ties framed to receive it. + +The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the rear +end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the bearing for +which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first wheel of a train +which is approaching in the desired direction (from the right in the +engraving) touches it, it will be seen that it must not only depress it, +but produce a slight forward motion, causing a corresponding rotary +motion in the rock shaft which actuates the apparatus. On the other +hand, when a train is approaching from the other direction, or has +already passed the crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to +the left of the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link +connections shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels +before the wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so +that it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over the +apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it whatever, +the different point at which the same force is applied to the rock plate +giving the latter an entirely different motion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to the rock +shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, compresses a +spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the rock plate, the +reaction of the spring throws it up again to its former position, giving +additional speed to the gearing within, which is set in motion at the +passage of the first wheel, and operates the electric "generator." The +spring is really the motive power of the alarm. A small but heavy +fly-wheel is connected with the apparatus, the top of which is just +visible in the engraving, which serves to store up power to run the +"generator," which is nothing more than a small dynamo, for the +necessary number of seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The +dynamo dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if any +part has been broken. + +A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator with +insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary telegraph +wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees leading to the +electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the armature revolves. It +is a simple matter so to proportion the mechanism for the required +distance and speed that the revolutions of the armature and the ringing +of the gong shall continue until the train reaches the crossing; and as +each wheel acts upon the apparatus, the more wheels there are in the +train the longer the bell will ring, a very convenient property, since +the slowest trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical +limits to the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after +the head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly might not +actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even then it is not +unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last long enough for all +practical requirements, as a team approaching a crossing at eight miles +per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. All the bearings of any +importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, the whole apparatus being +designed to require inspection not more than once a month. The iron case +when shut is water-tight, and when duly locked cannot be maliciously +tampered with without breaking open the case; so that, the manufacturers +claim, it will not be essential to examine it more than once a month. +The parts outside the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to +get out of order, while easily inspected. + +The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as sounding +alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or building. The gong +has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of noise, so that no one +should fail to hear it.--_Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. + + +Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, gives the +following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by himself and +Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for mammals and birds. +It will be seen that, with three or four exceptions, the sizes obtained +by the two observers are practically the same: + + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. + + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 + + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. + + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 + +The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an interesting +manner in an address before the Microscopical Section of the A.A.A.S. +last year, an abstract of which was published in this journal, vol. v., +p. 181. + +The slight differences in size accurately given in this table are not +always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a power of +1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of an inch are +readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. Wormley as regards +the possibility of identifying blood of different animals, the reader is +referred to his book on Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.--_Amer. Micro. +Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN. + +[Footnote: From the _American Druggist_.] + + +E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made with +vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult of +resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal ingredients to +the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this question, he +considered himself justified in drawing conclusions from the manner in +which such compounds behaved toward _dead_ animal membrane. If any kind +of osmosis could take place, he argued, from ointments prepared with +vaseline, etc., through dead membranes, such osmosis would most probably +also take place through living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic +or exosmotic action of the skin of a living body must necessarily play +an important _role_ in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following experiments: + +Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, with +bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium ointment. + +No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard. + +No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (_Germ. Pharm_.), and + +No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. of lard. + +All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with water. After +standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature, the contents of +none of the beakers gave any iodine reaction. After having been placed +into a warm temperature, between 25-37° C., all three showed iodine +reactions after three hours, Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with +lard alone) very faintly. + +The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that the +bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. Each vial +was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27° C., in 50 grammes of distilled +water. After three hours, the contents of No. 1 (containing the ointment +made with _lard_) gave _no_ iodine reaction; the contents of the other +two, however, gave traces. After eight hours no further change had taken +place. The temperature was now raised to 30-35° C., and kept so for +eight hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes of the +contents of the beakers. + +In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed through +the membrane in each case. + +The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin (freed +from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the bladder. The +ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per cent. of lard. No +reaction was obtained, at the ordinary temperature, after twelve hours, +nor after eight more hours, at a temperature of 25-30° C. After letting +them stand for eight hours longer at 30-37° C., a faint reaction was +obtained in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a +still fainter with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made +with lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, but no +fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of the contents +of each beaker, + + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " + +showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the ointment +made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to vaseline). + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TAILS OF COMETS. + + +I.--If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be produced that +will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and the velocity with +which it extends depend upon the size of the stone, that is to say, upon +the intensity of the mechanical action that created it. The extent and +depth of the water are likewise factors. + +If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a succession +of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived from the cord's +size and the intensity of its action. These waves, which are visible +upon the surface, constitute what I shall call _mechanical waves_. But +there will be created at the same time other waves, whose velocity of +propagation will be much greater than that of the mechanical ones, and +apparently independent of mechanical intensity. These are _acoustic +waves_. Finally, there will doubtless be created _optical waves_, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if a +person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses were +sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous sensation when +the first optical wave reached him, then he would perceive the sound +produced, and later still he would feel, through a slight tremor, the +mechanical wave.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Certain persons, as well known, undergo an optical +impression under the action of certain sounds.] + +[Illustration: I] + +Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, in a +mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and velocity of +propagation; and although but three modes appreciable to our senses have +been cited, it does not follow that these are the only ones possible. + +We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon water, it +will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in front of it +successive waves whose velocity of propagation is accelerated. + +This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are briefer +than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead sound at a few +yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a great distance. + +The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, very +complex. + +[Illustration: II] + +II.--If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will occur in each +of them an _alteration_, a break, which it will carry along with it to a +greater or less distance. This succession of alterations forms a trace +behind the obstacle, and in opposition to the line of the centers. +Finally, if the obstacle itself emits waves in space that are of less +intensity then those which meet it, these little waves will extend in +the wake of the large ones, and will form a trace of parabolic form +situated upon the line of the centers. + +[Illustration: III] + +III.--Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the peculiar energy that +develops upon its surface or in its atmosphere, engenders in ethereal +space successive waves of varying nature and intensity, as has been said +above, and let us admit that its _mechanical_ waves are traversed +obliquely (Fig. 1) by any spherical body--by a comet, for example; then, +under the excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar waves +consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will become +apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced by an +excitation--a setting of the ether in vibration. The mechanical waves +engender of themselves, then, an emission of optical waves that render +perceptible the alteration which they create in each other. + +Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will carry +along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while at the +same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the comet. During +this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave will be altered in +its turn, and carry such alteration in the direction, a' b'. + +The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, upon a +curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the comet, will be +upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of the propagation of +the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the motion of the comet, with +respect to the velocity of the solar waves, the closer will such +resultant approach the line of centers, and the more rectilinear will +appear the trace or tail of the comet. + +[Illustration: IV] + +IV.--If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according to the +relative position of these, several tails appear, and these will seem to +form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions of a comet and a +satellite, it will be seen that if, while the comet is proceeding to c', +the satellite, through its revolution around it, goes to s', the traces +formed at c and s will be extended to d and d', and that we shall have +two tails, c' d and s' d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem +to be confounded toward c' s'. + +V.--When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect will occur--the +tail will precede it, and will be so much the more in a line with the +sun in proportion as the velocity of the solar waves exceeds that of the +comet. + +If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the alteration of +the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see (supposing the +phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at a 1, the tail will +and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be at a 2 b'; and when it +is at a 4, the tail will have become an immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in +reality the trace is extinguished in space, we never see but the origin +of it, which is the part of it that is constantly new--that is to say, +the part represented in the spirals of Fig. 4. + +The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 leagues +per second; it would have only required the velocity of the solar waves' +propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to have put the tail in +a sensibly direct opposition with the sun. + +Knowing the angle [gamma] (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit makes +with the sun at a given point, and the angle [delta] of the track upon +such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we can deduce +therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the simple expression: + + V = v × (sinus [delta] / sinus([gamma] - [delta])) or (Fig. 1), + + V = da/t'', + +t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''. + +[Illustration: V] + +VI.--The tail, then, is not a special matter which is transported in +space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar waves, just as +sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is propagated with the +velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air is not transported. The +tail which we see in one position, then, is not that which we see in +another; it is constantly renewed. Consequently, it is easy to conceive +how, in as brief a time as it took the comet of 1843 to make a half +revolution round the sun, the tail which extended to so great a distance +appeared to sweep the 180° of space, while at the same time remaining in +opposition to the great luminary. + +[Illustration: VI] + +The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. If to a +vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with a certain +velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be understood that, +from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a spiral. Each drop of water +will recede radially in space, the spiral will keep forming at the jet, +and if, through any reason, the latter alone be visible, we shall see a +nearly rectilinear jet that will seem to revolve with the pipe. + +Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), while it +is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the projected water +will mark the spiral indicated, and this will continue to widen, and +each drop will recede in the direction shown by the arrows. + +[Illustration: VII] + +VII.--It seems to result from this explanation that all the planets and +their satellites ought to produce identical effects, and have the +appearance of comets. In order to change the conditions, it suffices to +admit that the ethereal mass revolves in space around the sun with a +velocity which is in each place that of the planets there; and this is +very reasonable if, admitting the nebular hypothesis, we draw the +deduction that the cause that has communicated the velocity to the +successive rings has communicated it to the ethereal mass. + +The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in space, and +for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if they become +capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed at their +surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too weak to give very +perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, have relatively too +feeble velocities. + +The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, and +sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its proper +velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the ethereal +mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing sufficiently +intense mechanical effects to affect our vision. + +VIII.--Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these stars pass +the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its satellites may be very +different, and the velocity of rotation of the latter, being added to or +deducted from that of the forward motion, there may occur (as in the +case shown in Fig. 6) a separation of a satellite from the principal +star. The comet then appears to separate into two, and each part follows +different routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may +either fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic orbit, and +make but one appearance.--_A. Goupil._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE. + +[Footnote: Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine doppelrolle +des stachels der honigbienen" in _Deutschamerikanische Apotheker +Zeitung_, 15 Jan., 1885, Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from _Ind. +Blatter_.] + + +Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently been +made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the honey bee. +These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable phenomena in the +domestic economy of the ants. It is already known that the honey of our +honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of litmus, shows a distinct red +color, or, in other words, has an acid reaction. It manifests this +peculiarity because of the volatile formic acid which it contains. This +admixed acid confers upon crude honey its preservative power. Honey +which is purified by treatment with water under heat, or the so-called +honey-sirup, spoils sooner, because the formic acid is volatilized. The +honey of vicious swarms of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a +pungent odor. This effect is produced by the formic acid, which is +present in excess in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in +what way the substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in +the honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only for +defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance. + +The observation has recently been made that the bees in the hive, even +when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the minute drops of bee +poison (formic acid) which from time to time exude from the tip of their +sting. And this excellent preservative medium is thus sooner or later +contributed to the stored honey. The more excitable and the more ready +to sting the bees are, the greater will be the quantity of formic acid +which is added to the honey, and the admixture of which good honey +needs. The praise which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race +of our honey bees, which is indisposed to sting--and such praise is +still expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German bee-masters--is +therefore from a practical point of view a false praise. Now we +understand also why the stingless honey bees of South America collect +little honey. It is well known that never more than a very small store +of honey is found in felled trees inhabited by stingless _Melipona_. +What should induce the _Melipona_ to accumulate stores which they could +not preserve? They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen +different known species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A +peculiar phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. It is +well known that there are different grain-gathering species of ants. The +seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved for years in their +little magazines, without germinating. A very small red ant, which drags +grains of wheat and oats into its dwellings, lives in India. These ants +are so small that eight or twelve of them have to drag on one grain with +the greatest exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or +rough ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than a +thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun to +sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. Hence the +ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but the capacity +for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English investigator John +Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts in his work entitled +"Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not yet known in what way the +ants prevent the sprouting of the collected grains. But now it is +demonstrated that here also it is only the formic acid, whose +preservative influence goes so far that it can make seed incapable of +germination for a determinate time or continuously. + +It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant which +lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our _Lasius niger_, which +carries seeds of _Viola_ into its nests, and, as Wittmack has +communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der gesellschaft +naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with the seeds of +_Veronica hederaefolia_. + +Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, _Pheidole providens_, that +this species collects a great store of grass-seeds. But he observed that +the ants brought their store of grain into the open air to dry it after +the monsoon storms. From this it appears that the preservative effect of +the formic acid is destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying +process. So that among the bees the honey which is stored for winter +use, and among the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are +preserved by one and the same fluid, formic acid. + + +EDITORIAL NOTE. + +This same theory has been suggested many times by our most advanced +American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same formic acid was +what made honey a poison to many people, and that the sharp sting of +some honey, notably that from bass wood or linden, originated in this +acid from the poison sac. If this is the correct explanation, it seems +strange that the same kind of honey is always peculiar for greater or +less acidity as the case may be. We often see bees with sting extended +and tipped with a tiny drop of poison; but how do we know that this +poison is certainly mingled with the honey? Is this any more than a +guess?--_A.J. Cook, in Psyche_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884. + + +We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of distillation, and, +as such, very pure. A little reflection and a very slight amount of +experimental examination will quickly disabuse those who have this +mistaken and popular impression of their error. A great number of bodies +which arise from industrial processes, domestic combustion of coal, +natural changes in vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances +as tornadoes and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are +discharged into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving upon +its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable evidences of +their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali and sulphuric acid +works is well known; the acid character of rains collected near and in +cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal strength of some local rainfalls, +have been fully discussed. The exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith +in Scotland, and the interesting reports of French examiners, have made +the scientific world familiar, not only qualitatively but +quantitatively, with the chemical nature of some rains, as well as with +their solid sedimentary contents. + +Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact that the +rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding this due +solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended particles of +chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free chlorine, it appeared +interesting to determine the average amount of these salts in the rain +water of the sea coast. The results given in this paper refer to a +district on Staten Island, New York harbor, at a point four miles from +the ocean, slightly sheltered from the ocean's immediate influence by +the intervention of low ranges of hills. They were communicated to the +Natural Science Association of Staten Island, but the details of the +observations may prove of interest to the readers of the _Quarterly_, +and may there serve as a record more widely accessible. + +It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in rainfalls +near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, putting aside +local exceptions arising from cities or manufactories, increasing with +the proximity of the point of observation to the ocean, and also showing +a marked relation to the exposure of the position chosen to violent +storms. Thus the west coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger +quantities of chlorides than those of the east, and the table given by +Dr. Smith shows the variations in neighboring localities on the same +seafront. The chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer +leaves the sea coast. In the following observations the waters of +thirty-two rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of +silver in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a +liter, and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common salt, as +the position of the point of observation is not removed more than a mile +from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric acid works in New +Jersey, yet this could not even generally have been so, as the rain +storms came, for the greater number of instances, from the east, in an +opposite direction to the position of the factories alluded to. It has +also been noticed by Mr. A. Hollick, to whom these observations were of +interest, that in heavy storms a salt film often forms upon fruit +exposed to the easterly gales upon the shores of the island. + +The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for sodic +chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for 1884, as +reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, somewhat +higher than usual, as the average for a series of years before gives 46 +inches; but taking these former figures, we find that for that year +(1884) each acre of ground received, accepting the results obtained by +my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of common salt, if we regard +the entire chlorine contents of the rains as due to that body, or 46.23 +pounds of chlorine alone. + +In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, an +examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one year +about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds were +regarded as common salt. + +Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, it is +not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating it in +small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample supply. These +facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing influence of rains, and +they also suggest to what extent rains may exert a corrosive action when +they descend charged with acid vapors.--_L.P. Gratacap, in School of +Mines Quarterly_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHROMATOSCOPE. + + +Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has named a +chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot lens that we +take the following description from the _Journal_ of the Royal +Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of illuminating and +defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a similar manner to that +in which the polariscope defines polarizable objects. It can also be +applied to many polarizable objects. This quality, combined with the +transmission of a greater amount of light than is obtainable by the +polariscope, renders objects thus seen much more effective. It is +constructed as follows: Into the tube of the spot lens a short tube is +made to move freely and easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the +outer one, which is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying +a glass plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about 8, 5, +and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some extent through +the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong yellow, thus giving four +principal colors. Secondary colors are formed by a combination of the +rays in passing through the spot lens. + +"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in quality as +possible, and a better effect is obtained by three pieces of stained +glass than by a number of small pieces. The application of the +chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be used with all objectives +up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, particularly crystals which will not +polarize, diatoms, infusoria, palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be +seen to greater advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. +As its cost is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, +large or small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are +known, I am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to +the microscope." + + * * * * * + +Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, finds, +contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants assimilate +nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest quantity when +supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. Well fed plants +acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from the air. It seems +probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in some way assimilated by +the plants. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, November 7, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 3, 2004 [EBook #11761] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 514 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY.—Chlorides in the Rainfall of +1884. Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.—With +description and 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#2">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.—Relative Costs of +Fluid and Solid Fuels.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">The Manufacture of Steel Castings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Science in Diminishing Casualties at +Sea.—Extract of a paper read before the British Association +by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">The Span of Cabin John Bridge.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#9">TECHNOLOGY.—The Blue Print +Process.—R.W. JONES.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White +Ground.—By A.H. HAIG.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">A Plan for a Carbonizing House.—With full +description and 5 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">The Scholar's Compasses.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">The Integraph.—With full description and +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous +Beverages. 2 engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Field Kitchens. 8 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">The Preservation of Timber.—Report of the +Committee of the American Society of Engineers.—The Boucherie +process.—Experiments.—Decay of timber.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#19">PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.—Apparatus +for Measuring the Force of Explosives.—With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#20">Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.—Advantages +of gas over electricity, etc.—By WM. SUGG. 2 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Ander's Telephone. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#22">Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#24">The Chromatoscope.—An aid to +microscopy.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#25">ART AND ARCHITECTURE.—The Barbara Uttmann +Statue at Annaberg, Saxony.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#26">Improvements in Concrete Construction.—Use +of Portland cement.—System of building in concrete invented +by Messrs. F. & J.P. West, London.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">Albany Buildings. Southport.—An +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#28">PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.—The Sizes of +Blood Corpuscles in Mammals and Birds.—A table.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by +the Skin.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#30">MISCELLANEOUS.—The Missing German Corvette +Augusta.—With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#31">The Tails of Comets.—The effect by a +disturbance of solar waves, and not by special matter.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<h2>ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND.</h2> + +<p>The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it +has also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen +in a dark cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, +except by very few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved +to purchase the house and premises, with the object of preserving +the pavement <i>in situ</i>, and of giving additional light and +better access to it, and, this purchase having been completed in +the beginning of the present year, the work of improvement began. +It was now seen that the pavement was continuous under the premises +of the adjoining house, and under the public street, and +arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex these adjoining +parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. The +pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also +the entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive +skill, of variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least +part of the marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of +which the designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No +squared, artificially colored, or glazed tesseræ, such as we +see in a modern floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but +purposely formed of brick and stone. There are three shades of +brick—a bright red, a dull or Indian red, and a shade between +the two; slate from a neighboring quarry gives a dark bluish gray; +an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and a fine white composition +resembling limestone is used for the center points and borders. In +addition, the outside border is formed with tesseræ of rather +larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking generally, the +design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces +of the octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the +outer octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border +formed by a cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, +pear-shaped, and bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and +gray bands; and outside all is the limestone border already +described. This border is constructed with tesseræ about +five-eighths of an inch square. The remaining tesseræ vary +from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular rhomboidal form. The +construction of the pavement is remarkable. There is a foundation +of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded brick and +lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesseræ are laid with their +roughest side downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured +over the floor, filling up the interstices, after which the surface +would be rubbed down and polished.</p> + +<p>As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be +observed that the site of this pavement was near the center of the +western Roman town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the +military station and fortress. It was obviously the principal house +in the place, and as clearly, therefore, the residence of the +Præfectus, the local representative of the imperial power of +Rome. The Roman occupation of the district began with the +proprætorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. He was succeeded +in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through Leicester from the +Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea broke out. In +the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was elected +consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged +education. He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to +the decline of the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not +be far from the truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the +time or even to the personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years +ago.—<i>London Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany +had offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of +the Red Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field +hospital. Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a +design for competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice +that his invention had won the prize. Another instance of the +recognition of American genius abroad.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY.</h2> + +<p>The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was +the inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only +introduced it into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet +been solved, notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid +examinations have been made. It is the general belief, however, +that she only introduced the art, having learned it from a +foreigner in the year 1561. The person from whom she acquired this +knowledge is said to have been a Protestant fugitive from Brabant, +who was driven from her native land by the constables of the +Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann family. However, +the probability is that what the fugitive showed Barbara Uttmann +was the stitched, or embroidered, laces—points, so +called—which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the +present time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced +Barbara Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand +cushion.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +"BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.</p> + +<p>Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the +Saxon mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner +of extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at +Annaberg, Jan. 14, 1584.</p> + +<p>The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of +the residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as +the occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it +frequently happened that the wages were so low, and the means of +sustaining life so expensive, that some other resource had to be +found to make life more bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was +thus a blessing to the country, and her name is held in high +esteem. A monumental fountain is to be erected at Annaberg, and is +to be surmounted by a statue of the country's benefactress, Barbara +Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert Henze, is to be cast in +bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the costume worn at the +time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of lace, which she +has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles being +visible.</p> + +<p>Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a +cushion by hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the +pins for giving the desired pattern to the lace being stuck into +the cushion. A yard of hand cushion lace has been sold in England +for as much as $25,000. The annexed cut, representing the Barbara +Uttmann statue, was taken from the <i>Illustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, +one for himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a +furnace against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air +chamber he had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The +owner of the other house found it very hard to keep his own house +warm, and was astounded at the amount of coal it took to render his +family comfortable, while the "other fellow" kept himself warm at +his neighbor's expense nearly a whole winter before the trick was +discovered.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION.</h2> + +<p>Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not +hydraulically compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of +moisture from the air to prevent condensation upon the surface of +the walls. It not only resists the disintegrating influences of the +atmosphere, but becomes even harder with the lapse of time. It may +also be made in several different colors, and can be finished off +to nearly a polished surface or can be left quite rough. Walls +built of this material may be made so hard that a nail cannot be +driven into them, or they can be made sufficiently soft to become a +fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous aggregate be used, no damp +course is required. Further than this, if land be bought upon which +there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that can be burnt, the +greatest portion of the building material may be obtained in +excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the (salt) +shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be +found to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it +may be made fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in +dwellings for the poor will therefore resist the destructive +efforts of the "young barbarian." Nothing, therefore, can be better +as a building material. The system ordinarily employed to erect +structures in concrete consists of first forming casings of wood, +between which the liquid concrete is deposited, and allowed to +become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, the +cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, +but with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. +Besides this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, +especially if it has been applied some time after the concrete +forming the body of the wall has set, and the method of applying +ornament is not economical.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2a.png" alt="1.-18."></p> + +<p class="ctr">1.-18.</p> + +<p>A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by +Messrs. F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we +now present. To this system Messrs. West have given the name of +"Concrete Exstruction," from the Latin "exstructio," which they +consider to be a more appropriate word than "constructio," as +applied to concrete building in general. In Messrs. West's system +of building in concrete, instead of employing wood casings, between +which to deposit the concrete or beton, and removing them when the +beton has become hard, casings of concrete itself are employed. +These casings are not removed when the beton has set, but they +become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In order to +form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, +which may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of +rectangular (Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), +and indeed of any other form that will make a complete surface, +while for thickness it may be suited to the work to which it is to +be applied, that used for heavy engineering work differing from +that employed in house construction. It is found that the most +convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. 1) is 12 inches +and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure built with +slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with architectural +measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to measure 12 +inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of these +slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs +are made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of +India-rubber or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs +with their edges as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can +be manufactured. That portion of the back of the slab which is +undercut is formed by means of soft India-rubber cores. The moulds +for making portions of the slabs have a contrivance by which their +length may be adjusted to suit given dimensions.</p> + +<p>During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a +plastic state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a +suitable key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is +finished off to them (Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be +cast with ornaments, etc., complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but +it is more economical to have separate moulds for the mouldings and +other ornaments, and separate moulds for the slabs, and to apply +the mouldings, etc., during the process of casting the slab. +Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be somewhat similar to the +plinth course slab No. 10), and other constructive features may +also be applied in a similar way, or may be provided for during the +casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or other ornamental +solid or even plastic material may be applied to the face of the +slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work to be +finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face of +the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2b.png" alt= +"FIG. 19. FIG 20."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 19. FIG 20.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is +shown with the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that +the footings are constructed in the most economical manner by not +being stepped. As no damp-course is required in concrete work, when +the aggregate is of a non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon +the top of the footings is generally laid a horizontal slab, called +the wall-base slab, the special feature of which is that it enables +the thickness of the wall to be gauged accurately, and also +provides a fixing for the first course of slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show +such slabs for internal and external angles, and Fig. 6 shows one +for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is not essential, +although it is the more accurate method of building, for in cases +where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, the +slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set +behind them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first +course with breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being +keyed to the other by means of a quick-setting cementing material +poured into the key-holes provided in the edges of the slab for +that purpose, a bituminous cement being preferred. The key-holes +are made in several ways, those shown in the illustrations being of +a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed holes of any other +shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an oblique direction +are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or squint-quoins (Figs. +17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and 16) are +manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. +This gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the +quoin in one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course +above a three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or <i>vice +versa</i>. Thus are the walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For +openings, the jambs and lintels (and in window-openings the sill) +are made solid with a provision for a key-hole to the mass of +concrete filling behind them. That portion of the jambs against +which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a similar one in +the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle joint by +squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a +similar way.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2c.png" alt= +"FIG. 21.-FIG 25."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 21.-FIG 25.</p> + +<p>The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made +to contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of +courses (according to convenience) have been built up, and when set +practically forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to +which the face slabs are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland +cements, which are known to contract in setting, and with those +over-limed cements which expand (both of which are not true +Portland cements), the filling in is done in equal sections, with a +vertical space equal to each section left between them until the +first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are then +filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores +of the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where +required, slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails +may be driven, such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt +clay, coke, and such like. Hollow lintels are also made of the +slabs keyed together at their vertical joints, and when in position +these are filled in with beton. This system, however, is only +recommended for fire-place openings instead of arches.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the +apsidal end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 +being employed for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show +forms of slabs suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal +axes and domes. In Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is +shown a system of constructing floors of these slabs. It is only +necessary to explain that the slabs are first keyed to the lower +flange of the iron joist by means of a cement (bituminous +preferred), and the combination is then fixed in position, the +edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, the iron +joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening slabs, +the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists +are made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted +to iron girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This +provision secures the covering of the cross girders on their +undersides by the ceiling slabs. The concrete having been deposited +upon the slabs, its upper surface may be finished off in any of the +usual ways, while the ceiling may be treated in any of the ways +described for the walls. This system does not exclude the ordinary +methods of constructing floors and roofs, although it supplies a +fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, and, in fact, any +other building material, may be used in conjunction with the +slabs.</p> + +<p>The system of building construction is intended, as in the case +with all concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the +various uses to which they have been applied, and, at the same +time, to offer a more perfect system of building in concrete. +Hitherto slab concrete work has never been erected in a perfectly +finished state (i.e., with mouldings, etc., complete), but has +either been left in a rough state or without ornament, or else has +been constructed so as never to be capable of receiving good +ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in constructing +concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to prevent the +slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to +form, with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming +the slabs of L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of +internal buttress and shoring them up from the outside, or of +supporting the slabs upon framing fixed against the faces of the +wall, several devices have been used to obviate this +difficulty.</p> + +<p>In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the +slabs forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as +soon as the plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but +not before), these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or +cramps have been used, and, as their name implies, have been +allowed to remain in the wall and to be entirely buried in the +plastic filling-in material. These permanent transverse ties or +cramps have been of two kinds: those which were affixed as soon as +the slabs were placed in position, and those which were made to +form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, slabs of Z or +H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the plastic +filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse tie +by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs +forming each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in +some cases, being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being +undercut in some way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in +this latter system generally have wide bases, they may also be +bedded or jointed in cement, and, provided temporary ties be placed +across their upper edges to connect the slabs forming each face of +the wall together, the space between the faces of the wall may then +be filled in with the plastic concrete.</p> + +<p>All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they +are only temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton +has become hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two +faces of the wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of +all slab concrete construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the +plastic concrete used in forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the +slabs to the mass which they themselves have moulded; and (c) to +form a facing to the wall. When these objects shall have been +accomplished, there is no further need of any tie whatever beyond +that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. In West's system, +however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, any kind of +transverse tie to be used during the process of construction, +except that used in the starting course, is entirely dispensed +with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the courses +of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the time +that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/2d.png" alt= +"CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION"></p> + +<p class="ctr">CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION</p> + +<p>There is, however, a more decided difference between West's +system and those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact +that the slabs composing the shell of the whole structure in many +cases may be built up before the filling-in is deposited between +the slabs, and in none of the other cases can this be done. In +fact, only in the first two cases before mentioned can more than +one course of slabs be laid before filling-in of some kind must be +done. Compared with the ordinary method of building in concrete, +this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and waste of wood +casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside and +outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties +encountered in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of +the work by the ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a +face of any of the usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, +besides a facing of any other material, such as marble, etc., and +produces better and more durable work, at the same time showing a +saving in cost, especially in the better classes of work; all of +which is effected with less plant than ordinarily required. For +engineering work, such as sea walls, the hexagonal slabs, made of +greater thickness than those employed for ordinary walling, will +answer admirably, especially if the grooves be made proportionately +larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be built up with +great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the dwellings of +artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to render them +easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves in +order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of +the simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work.</p> + +<p>Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for +this system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. +Frank West, as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be +preferred. It not only supplies the necessary scaffold, but also +the necessary arrangements for hoisting the slabs, as well as for +raising the liquid concrete and depositing it behind the slabs. It +is really an independent scaffold, and may be used wherever a light +tramway of contractor's rails can be laid, which in crowded +thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a staging erected over the +footway. The under frame is carried upon two bogie frames running +upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is enabled to turn +sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being provided at +the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of a +climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to +the under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A +worm gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the +scaffold, causes the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, +made to act at the curves as well as on the straight portions of +the rail by being attached to a radial arm fixed to the under +frame, assists the stability of the scaffold where required, but +the gauge of the rails is altered to render the scaffold more or +less stable according to its height. Combined with the same +machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used for +the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a +triangle be altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are +altered. A portion of the vertical post up and down which the crane +climbs forms the base of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, +together with the stay, forms the remaining two sides. Hence, by +causing the foot of one or the other to travel upward, by means of +the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib is either elevated or +depressed.</p> + +<p>The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless +chains passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is +fixed a hopper, into which is thrown, either by hand or from a +concrete mixer running upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, +and from which it gravitates into a narrow channel, through which +pass the buckets (attached to the chain) with a shovel-like action. +The buckets, a motor being applied to one pair of wheels, thus +automatically fill themselves, and on arriving at top are made to +tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically into a hopper +by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which they are +attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken +away to the required destination by means of a worm working in a +tube. For varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are +inserted and secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and +secured by a nut. By using this scaffold, a saving in plant, +cartage, and labor is effected. The elevator may also be used for +raising any other material besides concrete.</p> + +<p>Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding +of Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, +and which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may +add in conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a +scaffold are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.—<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt= +"ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, +ARCHITECT.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS.</h2> + +<h3>R.W. JONES.</h3> + +<p>1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, +with two or three thicknesses of common blanket or its +equivalent.</p> + +<p>2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side +uppermost.</p> + +<p>3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by +means of a plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the +board.</p> + +<p>4. Expose the whole—in a clear sunlight—from 4 to 6 +minutes. In a winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, +from 20 to 30 minutes.</p> + +<p>5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one +or two minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry.</p> + +<p>The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite +quality in the <i>paper</i> itself being its ability to stand +washing.</p> + +<p>Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such +a brush as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part +soluble citrate of iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part +red prussiate of potash, and dissolve in 10 parts of water.</p> + +<p>The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and +better results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until +immediately required. After being coated with the solution, the +paper must be laid away to dry in a dark place, and must be +shielded entirely from light until used. When dry, the paper is of +a yellow and bronze color. After exposure the surface becomes +darker, with the lines of the tracing still darker. Upon washing, +the characteristic blue tint appears, with the lines of the tracing +in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been obtained from glass +negatives by this process.—<i>Proc. Eng. Club, Phila.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND.</h2> + +<h3>A.H. HAIG.</h3> + +<p>The following process for making photographic copies of drawings +in blue lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is +based on the property of perchloride of iron of being converted +into protochloride on exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when +brought into contact with the perchloride of iron immediately turns +the latter blue, but it does not affect the protochloride.</p> + +<p>A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of +iron, five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one +hundred parts water. Should the paper to be used not be +sufficiently sized, dextrine, gelatine, isinglass, or some similar +substance must be added to the solution. The paper is sensitized by +dipping in this solution and then dried in the dark, and may be +kept for some length of time. To take a copy of a drawing made on +cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a sheet of the sensitive +paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame or under a sheet of +glass. The length of exposure varies with the state of the weather +from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds in winter, +in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 minutes, +and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now +immersed in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of +potash per 100 parts of water. Those parts protected from the light +by the lines of the drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest +of the paper, where the coating has been converted into +protochloride by the effects of light, will remain white. Next, the +image is freely washed in water, and then passed through a bath +consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid to 100 parts of +water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron salt.</p> + +<p>It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, +when the drawing will appear in blue on a white +background.—<i>Proc. Eng. Club, Phila.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p>[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.]</p> + +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS.<a name= +"FNanchor11_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_11_1"><sup>1</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club.</h3> + +<p>During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous +efforts to introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the +evaporation of water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on +a small scale, for domestic purposes.</p> + +<p>The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the +number of stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using +solid fuel. Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the +better classes. Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about +thirty-six per cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount +of compression. Ease of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of +regulation of temperature. Almost perfect combustion and +cleanliness.</p> + +<p>Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well +known regenerative furnace.</p> + +<p>Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running +on the Paris and Strassburg Railroad.</p> + +<p>Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and +under the boilers of steamship Oberlin.</p> + +<p>Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a +locomotive running on the Long Island Railroad.</p> + +<p>Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of +United States steamers.</p> + +<p>Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their +locomotives, and steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel.</p> + +<p>Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace +at Jersey City.</p> + +<p>Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the +production of water gas.</p> + +<p>These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results +when considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in +advocating their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the +all-important item of cost.</p> + +<p>It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of +such systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long +as the supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable +limits.</p> + +<p>In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely +theoretical results, without allowing for losses in the +furnace.</p> + +<p>The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, +crude petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases.</p> + +<p>The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the +heating agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, +are:</p> + +<p>PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT.</p> + +<table summary="PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT." border="1"> +<tr> +<th> </th> +<th>C</th> +<th>H</th> +<th>O</th> +<th>CO</th> +<th>CH<sub>4</sub></th> +<th>C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>4</sub></th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Anthracite</td> +<td>87.7</td> +<td>3.3</td> +<td>3.2</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Bituminous</td> +<td>80.8</td> +<td>5.0</td> +<td>8.2</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Petroleum</td> +<td>84.8</td> +<td>13.1</td> +<td>1.5</td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Coal gas</td> +<td> </td> +<td>6.5</td> +<td> </td> +<td>14.3</td> +<td>52.4</td> +<td>14.8</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Generator gas</td> +<td> </td> +<td>1.98</td> +<td> </td> +<td>35.5</td> +<td>1.46</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">Water gas</td> +<td> </td> +<td>6.3</td> +<td>0.6</td> +<td>87.8</td> +<td>1.2</td> +<td> </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>We will employ the formula of Dulong—</p> + +<pre> + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) +</pre> + +<p>to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the +case of methane, CH<sub>4</sub>, the formula is not true, but the +error is not great enough to seriously affect the result. This +gives for the combustion of one pound of:</p> + +<pre> + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " +</pre> + +<p>Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from +212° F., we have:</p> + +<p>POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F.</p> + +<pre> + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 +</pre> + +<p>The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning +furnaces to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per +cent. may be taken as a good figure. The great difference in the +efficiencies is due to the fact that fluid fuels require for +combustion very little air above the theoretical quantity, while +with the solid fuels fully twice the theoretical quantity must be +admitted to dilute the products of combustion.</p> + +<p>Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we +have:</p> + +<p>POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212° F., PER POUND +OF FUEL.</p> + +<pre> + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 +</pre> + +<p>These figures agree closely with the results of experiments.</p> + +<p>We will now consider the subject of cost.</p> + +<p>The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing +centers, termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers.</p> + +<p>In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude +state, an approximation is made by adding to the cost at the +nearest shipping port the freight charged on refined petroleum, and +ten per cent. to cover duties and other charges.</p> + +<p>Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the +cities, there may be some errors.</p> + +<pre> + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. +<br> + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. +<br> + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 +<br> + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. +<br> + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. +</pre> + +<p>In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal +gas is taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; +petroleum, 0.8.</p> + +<pre> + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. +<br> + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. +<br> + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. +</pre> + +<p>These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give:</p> + +<pre> + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212° F. FOR $1. +<br> + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. +<br> + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. +<br> + RELATIVE COSTS. +<br> + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. +<br> + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 +</pre> + +<p>These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there +may be circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their +use will exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a +comparison without considering particular cases, but for +intermittent heating petroleum would probably be more economical, +though for a steady fire coal holds its own.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_11_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor11_1">[1]</a></p> + +<div class="note">Read June 20, 1885.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS.</h2> + +<p>At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and +Steel Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, +Mr. R. Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, +read a paper on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting +discussion upon steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it +was thirty years since the first crucible steel castings were made +in Sheffield in the general way, and with one exception the method +of manufacture was pretty much the same now as at that early date. +The improvement was the employment of gas furnaces instead of the +old coke holes for melting. Important economies had resulted from +this introduction. Where before it required 3 tons of coke to melt +1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with 35 cwt. of very +poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make crucible steel +castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true steel, that was +to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct proportions +of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to make +crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and +manganese to produce that chemical composition which was known to +be necessary in best castings. It was in consequence of this +difficulty that many makers resorted to the addition of hematite +pigs. The Bessemer process was used much more extensively upon the +Continent than in this country in the manufacture of castings. It +seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for agitating the steel in +the ladle so as to remove the gases would be taken up largely for +open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as it had a +wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in conjunction +with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some extremely +wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid being +melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied +greatly. The ordinary method generally practiced in this country +was a modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed +were only of secondary importance to the making of the steel +itself. Unless the mould was good, no matter how good the steel +was, the casing was spoiled. The best composition which had been +found for moulds was that of a large firm in Sheffield, but +unfortunately it was rather expensive. A good steel casting ought +to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 per cent. of silicon +and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a casting, if free +from other impurities, would have a strength of between 30 and 40 +tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 per +cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering.</p> + +<p>The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. +McCallem present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion +upon the open hearth basic system, in which they were greatly +interested.</p> + +<p>Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would +be worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace +before it would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, +he had seen the basic process worked very successfully in the +open-hearth furnace; and he was recently informed by the manager +that he was producing ingots at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per +ton.</p> + +<p>The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved +admirably. He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, +at Wednesbury, were at the present moment putting down an +open-hearth furnace on the basic process.</p> + +<p>The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. +H. Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, +Walker, W. Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave +it as their experience that the best castings contained the most +blowholes, and Mr. McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some +slight qualification.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA.</h2> + +<p>At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject.</p> + +<p>He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing +the safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions +with wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development +of maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied +with apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and +to the nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and +that reports given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more +extensively. He wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by +telegraph for the same purpose.</p> + +<p>In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. +Badeley in 1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and +last year at Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a +committee on life saving appliances of the United States had made +experiments. The conclusions of the committee were that in deep +water oil had a calming effect upon a rough sea, but there was +nothing in either source of information which yet answered the +question whether or not there is in the force exerted by the wind a +point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in causing +the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some utility +on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of rescue; +on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in +dangerous proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use +of automatic sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of +parabolic reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further +prosecution of experiments by Professor Bell in establishing +communication between vessels some distance apart by means of +interrupted electrical currents. The improvement of navigation, he +said, meant an international code of police to improve police rules +of navigation; an international code of universal telegraphy for +navigation; an international office of meteorology and navigation +to collect the studies; experiments on the weather, on the sea, on +the casualties; and the discovery by experiment of new apparatus +and appliances to diminish maritime disaster.</p> + +<p>He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, +and he hoped that before long there would be proposed an +international congress—such as the postal, telegraph, and +sanitary congresses, and the international convention to fix the +common meridian—by one of the maritime powers, by which would +be founded an international institution to diminish casualties at +sea. He recommended a universal system of buoys. The great losses +of life and property every year were worthy the devotion of +£300,000 by an international institution, which would be much +less than the monthly average loss in navigation.</p> + +<p>Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built—some +were ten times longer than their beam. There was nothing in the +world so ticklish as a ship; touch her in the waist, and down she +goes. He believed sailing ships ought not to exceed four times +their beam, and steamers certainly not more than six times. He +pointed out that a fruitful cause of accidents was the stopping of +steaming all at once in the case of impending collision, by which +the rudder lost control of the vessel. If constructors looked more +to the form of the ships, and got them to steer better, collisions +would be avoided.</p> + +<p>The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one +great secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, +which made it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another +vessel what it was about. The method of signaling was very crude, +and he ventured to say that it was quite out of date when vessels +met each other at a rate of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an +amateur, tried a method which he would attempt to explain. His idea +was to fit up a lantern on deck, showing an electric light. The +instrument would be controlled by the rudder, and the commanding +officer of the vessel would be able so to turn it when the helm was +put up or down that the light would flash at some distance in front +of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal to a vessel +coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was amidships, the +light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved until the +helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going could +not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If +the lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass +safely.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any +experiments.</p> + +<p>The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a +number of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they +were already disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left +the carrying out of the suggestion to others.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for +a short distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was +very difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile +out to sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to +three miles.</p> + +<p>The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object +light, but upon the sweep of the light on the water.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil +on troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully +studied all the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they +were all very well in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean +they were utterly hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. +They had been tried in the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had +prophesied the results before they were commenced. It was utterly +hopeless to think that a quantity of oil had the power of laying a +storm—all the world could not produce oil enough to bring +about that result.</p> + +<p>There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped +the experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or +three mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe +in powerful lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, +and a dazzling effect was the result. In regard to sound, he +wondered that no more effective alarm was used than the whistle. It +was well known that, as the whistle instrument was enlarged, the +sound became more and more a roar. He would have ships use all +their boiler power in sounding a siren, so that the sound could be +heard at a distance of not less than two or three miles in any +weather. With such a signal as that there ought to be, not absolute +safety, but collisions would be more easily prevented. He was glad +to say that a universal system of buoys had been practically +arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, so +that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language.</p> + +<p>Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, +while a green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so +that, if a green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels +were within two miles and a half of each other.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in +regard to these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of +lights effect should be given to the difference that existed in the +various lights, so that, by making the green light more powerful, +it could penetrate as far as the red, and in the same way making +the red and green lights proportionately more powerful, so that +they would penetrate as far as the white light.</p> + +<p>Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for +sound tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and +focused all the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea +that the operator could hear nothing but a chaos of sound.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE.</h2> + +<p>The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of +obtaining pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable +substances contained in the raw material, maybe divided into two +parts, viz., the immersion of the rags in acid, with subsequent +washing and drying, and the carbonization properly so called. The +first part is so well known, and is so simple in its details and +apparatus, that it is useless to dwell upon it in this place. But +the second requires more scientific arrangements than those that +seem to be generally adopted, and, as carbonization is now tending +to constitute a special industry, we think it is of interest to +give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. It will be +remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. The +object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus +being in operation while the other half is being emptied and +filled.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, +and Figs. 1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is +arranged like the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, +there is a double series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and +work generally. These two series are arranged on each side of a +central portion, which contains the heating and ventilating +apparatus and a stone stairway giving access to the upper stories. +The heating apparatus is a hot air stove provided with a system of +piping. The rags to be carbonized or the wool to be dried are +placed upon wire cloth frames.</p> + +<p>The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the +heating apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for +about half an hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the +air in, as are also those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into +the chambers. The hot air then descends from the top of the chamber +into the wool or rags, and, becoming saturated and heavier, +descends and makes its exit from the chamber through an aperture, +n, near the floor, whence it flows to the central chimney. This +latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains in its center a +second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) that serves to +carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion from the +heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes serves +at the same time to heat the annular space through which the vapors +derived from the wool are disengaged.</p> + +<p>The air, heated to 40° or 50°, is made to pass thus for +several hours, until the greater part of the humidity has been +removed. The temperature is then raised to 80° or 90° by +gradually closing the apertures that give access to the ventilating +chimney. In order that it may be possible to further increase the +temperature during the last hour, and raise it to 90° or +120°, an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such +air with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air +circulates in the pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually +hotter and hotter. The hot vapors that issue from the lower chamber +rise into the upper one, where they are used for the preliminary +drying of another part of the materials.</p> + +<p>The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in +order to prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate +should be of relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of +cast iron, and all the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see +to such matters, with a view to saving money, will surely lead in +the long run to bad results.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale +1-200.)</p> + +<p>The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired +to preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case +recourse is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting +the vapors of nitric acid heated to 115° or 125° for the +sulphuric acid. The arrangement of the rooms must likewise be +different. The chambers, which may be in duplicate, as in the +preceding case, are vaulted, and are about three yards long by +three wide and three high. The rags are put into wire cages that +have six divisions, and that are located in the middle of the +chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of gearings. Under +the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a reservoir for +holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. The +arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken +to have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.—<i>Bull, +de la Musee de l'Industrie</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS.</h2> + +<p>According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in +the dry distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for +the production of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that +the mass shall be divided as completely as possible, since it then +takes but a relatively moderate heat to completely destroy the +organic coloring matter contained in the wash. The apparatus shown +in Figs. 1 and 2 is based upon this observation.</p> + +<p>The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long +boiler, B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the +intermedium of a waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass +slowly to the other extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes +its exit in the form of dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the +scrapers, b, and the interrupted pieces, a, in front of which are +the hinged valves, c. In the motion of the pieces, a, from right to +left, these valves free the apertures thereof and allow the wash to +pass, while in the motion from left to right the apertures are +closed and the valves push the mass to be evaporated before +them.</p> + +<p>From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and +fro motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of +which is produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their +lower, forked extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the +piece, d, that supports the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, +f, pass through the side of the boiler, through the intermedium of +stuffing boxes, and are connected by their upper extremities, +through a link, with levers, g, that revolve around the point, h. A +cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, alternately rising and +descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods f. The same shaft, +M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, and thus +regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, E, +receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, +m. The material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash +is stored at the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating +vessel, G, provided with a stirrer, H. The salts and other +analogous matters are dissolved, and the residuum, which +constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out of the apparatus, +while the solution passes directly to the refinery, where it is +evaporated.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/5b.png" alt= +"APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC +LIQUIDS.</p> + +<p>In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in +powder is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is +cooled by means of water, and is removed from time to time with +shovels by the workmen, so that the orifice of the boiler remains +constantly covered externally by the mass, and that the air cannot +re-enter the apparatus.</p> + +<p>The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, +where they condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and +methylamine. The non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the +furnace of the manufactory.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we +find a leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. +Britton, of Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate.</p> + +<p>This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of +plates in order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are +clamped in the jaws or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by +means of a hydraulic ram connected directly to the nearest pair of +jaws. The power is obtained by means of a pair of pumps run through +spur-gearing by the belt pulleys shown. The action of the machine +puts a strain on those parts of the plates which are not "bagged" +or buckled, and this causes the surface to extend, the slack parts +of the plate not being subject to the same stretching action. The +machine shown is designed to operate on sheet iron from No. 7 to +No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for length being 120 +in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. The machine +appears to have met with considerable success in America, and has +been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in +Figs. 1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the +bed of the machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. +3 shows the bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with +the holes for adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 +is a back view and section of the crosshead and one of the bolts +that connect the moving grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a +plan and cross section of the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back +elevation of the same, with a front view and section of the +gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which the jaws are opened +and closed.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6a_th.jpg" alt= +"BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.</h2> + +<p>Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for +drawing circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is +doubtless that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and +which is known in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists +of a socket into which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to +which is hinged a tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil +are held at the proper distance apart by means of a slotted strip +of metal and a binding screw. When the instrument is closed, as +shown in the figure to the left, it takes up but little space, and +may be easily carried in the pocket without the point tearing the +clothing, as the binding screw holds the leg firmly against the +pencil.</p> + +<p>The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure +to the right that it is unnecessary to enter into any +explanation.—<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/6b.png" alt= +"THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES."></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>THE INTEGRAPH.</h2> + +<p>In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet +with the following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = +f(x), to find a curve whose equation shall be</p> + +<p><img src="./illustrations/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"y = \int f(x) dx + C."></p> + +<p>Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us +suppose that we know an induced current, and that we can represent +it by a curve y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive +current, that is to say, the curve represented by the equation</p> + +<p><img src="./illustrations/tex1.png" align="middle" alt= +"y = \int f(x) dx + C."></p> + +<p>The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli +and Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem +mechanically, by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another +example from the domain of electricity, in order to better show the +utility of the apparatus; let us suppose that we have a curve +representing the discharge of a pile or of an accumulator. The +abscisses represent the times, and the ordinates the amperes. The +question is to know at every moment the quantity of coulombs +produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve whose ordinates +give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a large number of +analogous applications.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7a_th.jpg" alt="THE INTEGRAPH."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE INTEGRAPH.</p> + +<p>The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron +ruler, I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a +drawing-board, and is provided with a longitudinal groove in its +upper surface. In this groove move two rollers, which, in the +center of the piece that connects them, carry two brass T-squares +that are parallel with each other and at right angles with the +first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. Between these two +rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest the axis of +the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour of the +curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point +is guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the +paper in such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given +straight line, and that have always a direction such that the +tangent of the point's angle with the axes of the X's is constantly +proportional to the ordinate of the primitive curve.</p> + +<p>The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling +for a sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities +of the axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made +thin, and roll over the plane surface of recesses formed for the +purpose in the lateral steel surfaces of the carriages, while the +circumference of the wheels rolls in grooves along the two +T-squares.</p> + +<p>These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run +in the groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller +that runs over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is +fixed a divided ruler, through one point of which continually +passes a third ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of +the first carriage.</p> + +<p>When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and +the point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the +figure to be integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the +inclined ruler with the axis of the X's will be proportional to the +ordinate of the figure. The wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, +A', of the second carriage must move parallel with this ruler. In +order to obtain such parallelism, we employ a parallelogram formed +as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same diameter are fixed upon the +ruler that ends at the point, A, of the first carriage, and their +line of centers is parallel with the latter. The second carriage +likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to those of the +toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers must +remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a +weak steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four +wheels, the two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by +means of a barrel and spring placed in the center of one of +them.</p> + +<p>The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents +the latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, +permitting it thus to move only in the direction of their +plane.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two +cog wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the +escape of but the same length of the two threads.</p> + +<p>It will be observed that in this system integration is effected +by forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that +consequently the curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the +different parts of the apparatus.—<i>La</i> <i>Lumiere +Electrique</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed +for the manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet +& Co.'s make. Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with +gasometer and bottling machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of +the apparatus properly so called, including the producer, the +purifier, and the saturator, all grouped upon a cast-iron +column.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS +BREEZES.</p> + +<p>The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and +carbonate of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, +and effects an intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the +necessity of the former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate +of lime (usually in the form of chalk) is introduced directly into +the producer through the aperture, K, while the acid contained in +the receptacle, B, at the side of the column and above the producer +flows put through a curved pipe in the bottom. The flow is +regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is lined with +platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper +part of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, +D, of glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, +into the gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very +carefully balanced.</p> + +<p>The saturator, which is the most important part of the +apparatus, comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The +pump, which is of bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at +the lower part (Fig. 1). This sucks up the gas stored in the +gasometer and the water contained in the reservoir, and forces them +into the sphere. This latter is of bronze, cast in a single piece, +and the thickness of its sides prevents all danger of explosion. It +is silvered internally, and provided with a powerful rotary +agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7c_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 2."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which +is placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. +This machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.—<i>Chronique Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.</h2> + +<p>Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for +determining the power of powder, those designed for military +purposes are the ones most extensively used. Up to the present, +very few experimental apparatus have been constructed for civil +uses, although such are no less necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. +Guttman has examined the principal types of dynamometers with +respect to their use for testing explosive materials, and, after +ascertaining wherein they are defective, has devised an apparatus +in which the principle is the same as that employed by Messrs. +Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in which the +force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed in a +conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already +begun when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. +Guttman responds that his apparatus operates only with small +charges (300 grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in +every part when the igniting is done in a closed space. In order +that the force may not be made to act in one direction only, the +inventor uses two leaden cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the +accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. It consists of a median piece, a, +and of two heads, b, of an external diameter of four inches. These +pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. The two heads are four +inches in length, one inch of which is provided with a screw +thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches wide +below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and +0.4 inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, +0.4 inch wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is +4 inches long. It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between +which there is a cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to +receive the charge. The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the +exact center of the median piece, a, which it enters to a depth of +one inch. Into the space that still remains free is screwed a plug, +h. The lower surface of the plug, g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 +inch wide and deep. This hollow is prolonged by another one, 0.24 +inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which has a play of about 0.08 +inch. The three parts are connected by a key which passes into the +holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, y.</p> + +<p>When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, +1.34 inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of +the heads, and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made +still tighter by a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches +wide by 0.2 inch thick, is placed against the cylinder, and against +this plate again is placed a cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by +0.4 inch thick. This completely closes the hollow space. The steel +plates and heads are marked with the figures 1 and 2, which, +through the pressure, are impressed upon the leaden cylinders. Then +the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 grains, is introduced, +and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a leaden cylinder are +inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The apparatus is now +ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the pyramid, h, +and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way that the +latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a smart +blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit +through the pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the +plug, so that their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the +explosion takes place without noise. A slight whistling, only, +indicates that the capsule has not missed fire, and that the +apparatus may be immediately opened, the gases having condensed in +the interior. It is well, however, to place the closed apparatus in +water, in order that the residua that have entered the threads of +the screw may become detached, and that the apparatus may be opened +easily. Although there is no danger in standing alongside the +apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means of a +cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of +powder the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently +replaced.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt= +"APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.</p> + +<p>The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an +inch by means of a gauge (Fig. 3).</p> + +<p>The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, +and thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by +powder very perfectly.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS.</h2> + +<p>For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly +from pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single +distillation, Mr. D. Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the +apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving. It consists of a +double-bottomed copper or enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for +being heated by steam, and the upper part of which is protected +against the action of the acid vapors disengaged during +distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone cover, B, is +provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is filled. +The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided with +radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the +tube, d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second +boiler, C. The head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal +arrangement, as a dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is +provided with a thermometer, f, and an aperture, p. Above the +spirals of the worm, e, are placed strips of glass, the free +intervals between which are filled in with pieces of glass, +porcelain, or any other material not attackable by acids. The +arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The +worm, e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the +cock, n.</p> + +<p>At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, +closed by a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This +tubulure permits of emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L.</p> + +<p>A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, +serve to introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the +two boilers. The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, +u. The water for cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through +the cocks, n, and flows out through the tubes, v.</p> + +<p>The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and +the quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass +is afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the +distillation may then proceed at once.</p> + +<p>The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, +C, through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, +D, they are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated +acetic acid, which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, +and into steam, which distills and carries along but a very small +amount of acetic acid. This steam passes through the pipe, G, into +the worm, H, condenses, and afterward flows into the vessel, N.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8b_th.jpg" alt= +"APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.</p> + +<p>The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the +worm, e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the +degree of concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as +the steam can no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and +temperature has reached 118 degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is +distilled through the tube, g, and received in the cooler, K, +wherein it condenses. When the contents of the boiler, A, have been +distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed and the cock of the +tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected directly through +the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that still remains +in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, e, into +the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S.</p> + +<p>There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for +purifying the acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or +acetate of soda, so as to obtain an absolutely pure +article.—<i>Dingler's Polytech. Journal</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>FIELD KITCHENS.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., +in the Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain +Baxter's Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for +traveling. These kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, +consist of from three to five annular kettles, either circular or +elliptical, which are placed one on another, and the fire lighted +inside the central tube. The kettles are built up on the top of the +outer case in which they are carried, the central tube being placed +over the grate in the lid. A small iron stand, supporting an +ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When packed up, the annular +kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the outer case; the +iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the top pot is +placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form of +kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active +service or in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, +colonists, boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for +all who may require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent +the kitchen of the field service pattern with conical kettles, +while Figs. 7 and 8 represent the same pattern with elliptical +kettles. These kitchens consist of five annular vessels, either +circular or elliptical, which are placed one upon another, and the +fire lighted in the central tube or flue. A small iron stand, +supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be placed on the top as +in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 inches deep, and +of the same width as the central tube of the annular kettles, may +be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few inches +from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be made +cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided +with straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is +intended for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or +barracks, workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for +cooking food for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to +cook and distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, +or to heat water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. +Adams & Son, London.—<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8c.png" alt= +"FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8d.png" alt= +"FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8e.png" alt= +"FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW COP-WINDER.</h2> + +<p>In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in +which the wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and +the position of which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive +type of the German apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop +is set in motion by a horizontal screw. It is at first the greater +diameter of the cone that moves the tube, and permits the thread to +accumulate beneath the narrow extremity. But, as soon as a core of +thread has been formed, it is in contact with the entire surface of +the cone, and thus revolves with a mean velocity until it is +finished.</p> + +<p>In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A +is the paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely +attached, and C is the cone that moves over the screw, D. The +thread passes into a groove which makes one revolution of the cone, +and from thence over the paper tube, where it receives the form of +a cop by reason of the transverse motion of the cone upon the +screw. This transverse motion is at first prevented by the click, +F, which falls into the teeth of the ratchet-wheel fixed behind the +cone. The shaft revolves continuously, but has, at the same time, a +to and fro motion in the direction of its axis, so as to cause the +thread to move forward constantly and form a cop. This to and fro +motion is obtained by means of a lever and a sleeve, I, the wheel, +H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, J, actuated by +the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, a core is +formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is kept +in motion by the thread until the cop is finished.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9a_th.jpg" alt="A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.</p> + +<p>Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the +system may likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the +arrangement in this case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary +motion of the shaft is useless here, as the click, F, acts in an +oblique position upon the ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason +of the to and fro motion of the screw.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.]</p> + +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER.<a name="FNanchor24_2"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_24_2"><sup>2</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL +ENGINEERS ON THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT +THE ANNUAL CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885.</h3> + +<h3>BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER.</h3> + +<p>The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the +<i>process</i>, which he invented and extensively applied, of +preparing wood by forcing a solution longitudinally through the +pores of the wood by means of hydraulic pressure. As, however, he +also patented the use of sulphate of copper, and his name became +attached to the use of that antiseptic, it will be convenient here +to classify experiments made with that substance under this +head.</p> + +<p>Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between +1836 and 1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon +the preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective.</p> + +<p>His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, +by tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry +up a preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or +satisfactory results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process +which bears his name. This was practiced either by applying a cap +to the end of a freshly cut log, through which the solution was +allowed to flow by pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in +the middle, raising it at the center slightly, so as to open the +joint, placing a strip of tarred rope or a rubber band just inside +the periphery of the cut log, and letting it spring back, so as to +form a tight joint by pressing upon the rope or band. An auger hole +bored diagonally into the cavity so formed then served to admit the +solution under pressure.</p> + +<p>This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of +sulphate of copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been +extensively applied in France for many years, with satisfactory +results. It was found, however, that to be successful it must be +applied to freshly cut trees in the log only, and that this +involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and annoyance, that it +has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be still greater +in this country, and in the Northern States the process could not +be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting down +trees), as the solution would freeze.</p> + +<p>On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee +have been able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of +copper in this country.</p> + +<p>RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS.</p> + +<p>SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE.</p> + +<pre> +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- +</pre> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS.</h3> + +<p>The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the +Southern Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee +that in 1860, when he left that country, the ties were still good +and in serviceable condition.</p> + +<p>We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from +Mr. E. Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie +process.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by +Mr. W. Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment +No. 2), when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods +of vital suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. +After describing the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of +copper, he states in his first pamphlet (1870): "This process +resulted very satisfactorily, but it was found that the sulphate of +copper became very much diluted by the sap, and when the same +liquid was used several times, the decaying substance of the sap, +viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, and left it +nearly in its primitive condition."</p> + +<p>He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of +barytes, and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by +the Boucherie process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in +experiment No. 2, which showed favorable results when examined in +1875, were prepared by that process.</p> + +<p>Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the +Bethell process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed +cylinders, and probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were +prepared in that way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. +Tilden, however, showed the "saturation very uneven; absorptive +power, high; block contains soluble salts of copper, removable by +washing."</p> + +<p>It was expected that the double solution, by forming an +insoluble compound, would prove an effective protection against the +<i>teredo</i>. Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the +contrary to be the fact.</p> + +<p>The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory +results against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz +Brewing Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in +1882, after some six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, +a chemist of Boston (experiment No. 9), indicated favorable +results, and the planks in a ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment +No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet sound in 1882.</p> + +<p>The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and +16), however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable +at first, and great things were expected of them; but late +examinations made on the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, +Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the Cleveland and Pittsburg +Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, and the results to be +unfavorable.</p> + +<p>This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. +Thilmany has patented still another combination, in which he uses +sulphate of zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed +under the head of burnettizing.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It +consisted of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the +South, by the Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron +and sulphate of copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid +in the tunnel at New Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, +in 1882, several of them were still in the track. The process, +however, was found to be so tedious that it was abandoned after a +year's trial, and has not since been resumed.</p> + +<p>In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is +the inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the +cap fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction +pump, and placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired +solution, he sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap +cells of the wood.</p> + +<p>Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this +way, with various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate +of copper, and there is probably no question but that the life of +the wood will be materially increased thereby.</p> + +<p>Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical +than the original Boucherie process can only be determined by +practical application upon an extensive scale.</p> + +<p>A considerable number of modifications and appliances for +working the Boucherie process have been patented in this country; +but none of them seems to have come into practical use, probably +because of the necessity for operating upon freshly cut logs, and +the inconvenience of such applications.</p> + +<p>The table on this page gives a record of various experiments +with miscellaneous substances.</p> + +<p>RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS—MISCELLANEOUS.</p> + +<pre> +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- +</pre> + +<h3>COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS.</h3> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from +which great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted +in immersing timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one +pound of sulphate of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron +mixed in twenty gallons of water. It was first tested on some +hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, and for a +time seemed to promise good results. Experiments with prepared +rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James Archbald, Chief +Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable.</p> + +<p>The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet +Arsenal, where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, +at a cost of about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used +for various ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its +life extended, as would naturally be expected from the known +character of the antiseptics used, its strength was so far +impaired, and it checked and warped so badly, that the process was +abandoned in 1844.</p> + +<p>The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of +Ordnance, for a full copy of the reports upon these +experiments.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has +been applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that +platforms and boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist +decay has repeatedly suggested the use of lime for preserving +timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia +and Columbia Railroad, laid a portion of its track on white pine +sills, which had been soaked for three months in a vat of +lime-water as strong as could be maintained. Similar experiments +were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The result was not +satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that lime is a +comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, +sometimes known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former +have been furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the +Philadelphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your +committee is much indebted for a large mass of information on the +subject of timber preservation.</p> + +<p>Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this +subject than any other person in this country. Beginning with +sulphate of copper in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in +1847, and chloride of zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of +mercury, and again to chloride of zinc, using the latter until +1865, then using creosote to protect the piles against the +<i>teredo</i> at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber +prepared by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our +disposal many original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which +are now very rare.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President +of this Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 +× 12 with a 1-1/8 inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 +inches. These were filled with common salt and plugged up, as is +not infrequently done in ship-building, but while the life of the +timber was somewhat lengthened, it was concluded that the process +did not pay.</p> + +<p>Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, +but is a comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being +58.8 in the hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of +mercury.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known +and most ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this +particular case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for +about three feet into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and +pulverized charcoal, which probably acted by closing the sap cells +against the intrusion of moisture, which, as is well known, much +hastens decay. The posts, which had been set butt-end upward, were +mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' exposure.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as +well, and numberless failures throughout the country attest that +charring is uncertain and disappointing in its results.</p> + +<p>Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting +machinery for charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against +decay. The process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the +benefits which it confers, and the charred surface is so +objectionable for many uses, that nothing is to be expected from +the process upon a large commercial scale.</p> + +<p>In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), +at Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate +with pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar +experiments had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. +Boucherie, but the result has not been found satisfactory.</p> + +<p>In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the +Nichols patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for +boring a 2 inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge +timbers. This continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and +in rebuilding them the boring machinery was not replaced. The +longitudinal hole allowed a portion of the sap to evaporate without +checking the outside of the timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its +life. It is believed there are yet (1885) some sticks of timber in +the bridges of the road that were so prepared in 1868 or 1869.</p> + +<p>In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, +by incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the +space between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic +cement. This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the +mainland with Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did +it seem to succeed at first that it was proposed to extend the +process to railroad trestlework, to fencing, to supports for +houses, and to telegraph poles. But after a while the earthenware +pipes were displaced and broken, the process was given up, and +Galveston bridge is now creosoted.</p> + +<p>In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by +simply washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that +borax is a solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by +boiling them in a solution of borax. For small specimens, this +answered well, and a signboard treated in that way (experiment No. +13) was preserved a long time; but when applied to large timber, +the process was found very tedious and slow, and no headway has +been made in introducing it.</p> + +<p>Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age +it was discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of +the Union Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles +in length, where the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, +Mr. Blinkinsderfer, kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which +had been laid in 1868, and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It +is as sound and a good deal harder than when first laid, 14 years +before, while on some other parts of the road cottonwood ties +perish in two or five years.</p> + +<p>The character of the soil where these results have been observed +is light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the +Laramie Division, furnishes the following analysis:</p> + +<pre> + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. +</pre> + +<p>The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis +may be of interest:</p> + +<p>"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of +substances which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in +the juices of the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous +matter, which, when beginning to decay, causes also the destruction +of the other constituents of the wood."</p> + +<p>"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by +decay is by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the +sap."</p> + +<p>"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some +substance which either enters into combination with the +constitutents of the sap or so alters their properties as to +prevent the setting up of decomposition."</p> + +<p>"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large +quantities of the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, +and iron) most used in the different processes of preserving or +kyanizing wood. It also contains much inorganic matter, which also +acts as a preserving agent."</p> + +<p>Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other +portions of the track, and some of the soil has also been +transported to other localities, so that it is hoped that in the +discussion that may be expected to follow this report, some further +light will be thrown on the subject by an account of the results of +these experiments.</p> + +<p>Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and +convey a useful lesson.</p> + +<p>In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry +powder for preserving wood, which was composed of certain +proportions of salt, arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action +was based upon an experience which he had had when, as a working +mechanic of Ellisburg, Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had +preserved a water-wheel shaft by inserting such a compound in +powder in the body of the wood, and ascertained that it was still +sound some 14 years later.</p> + +<p>His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly +this:</p> + +<p>"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that +fermentation cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the +chemical property or nature of his compound, when inserted dry into +wood, is to attract moisture, and this moisture, aided by +fermentation, liquefies the compound; that capillary attraction +must inevitably convey it through the sap ducts and medullary rays +to every fiber of the stick.... Were these crystallizations salt +alone, they would soon dissolve, but the arsenic and corrosive +sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they remain intact +while any fiber of the wood is left."</p> + +<p>"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and +have been known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the <i>mummies +of Egypt</i> to-day shows the presence of arsenic in large +quantities in every portion of their substance. Whatever other +ingredients may have entered into the compound that has been so +potent in preserving from decay the bodies of the old kings of +Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, arsenic was +most certainly one."</p> + +<p>The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes +two inches in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of +square timber, four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, +and to plug them up with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two +holes two inches in diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and +filled and plugged them. Fresh cut lumber and shingles were +prepared by piling layers upon each other with the dry powder +sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty pounds to the thousand +feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a temperature of at +least 458° F. until fermentation took place, when the lumber +was considered fully "foremanized."</p> + +<p>The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a +steamboat, and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It +was then applied to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, +where it did not succeed, and to some on the Chicago and +Northwestern, where they seem to have been lost sight of, being few +in number, so that your committee has not been able to learn the +result.</p> + +<p>Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional +sale was made to various parties of the right of using the process, +notably, it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for +$50,000; and some ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, +when the poisonous nature of the ingredients used brought about +disaster.</p> + +<p>Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East +St. Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very +ill, and one of them died.</p> + +<p>The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties +along the Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked +them for the sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for +ten miles was strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in +arms, and made the railroad take up and burn the ties. The company +promoting foremanizing was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it +went out of business.</p> + +<p>In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, +and the succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that +patent was submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, +D.C., and examined by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). +He found the impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, +but he did not find any arsenic, though its use was claimed.</p> + +<p>The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, +first, of a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common +burnt lime. Mr. Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the +water used to test the absorptive power to have been filled with +threads of fungi in forty-eight hours.</p> + +<p>The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of +sulphide of calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. +Tilden.</p> + +<p>The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a +solution of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was +also condemned by Mr. Tilden.</p> + +<p>The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen +different processes, most of which have already been noticed in +this report, and their practical results given.</p> + +<p>The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable +amount of prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is +understood to have proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of +inquiry, your committee has been enabled to obtain information of +the results of three of these experiments.</p> + +<p>The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) +were first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of +sulphate of iron.</p> + +<p>The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with +chloride of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of +application is not stated.</p> + +<p>The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were +treated with the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is +stated that this was the only process in which pressure was +used.</p> + +<p>In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks +were badly decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost +impassable, while other streets paved in the same year with +untreated woods remained in fair condition.</p> + +<p>It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did +much toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, +was chiefly owing to the very dishonest way in which the +preparation was done; that in fact there was a combination between +the officials and the contractors by which the latter were chiefly +interested "how not to do it," and that the above results, +therefore, prove very little on the subject of wood +preservation.</p> + +<p>Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your +committee is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments +(Nos. 26 to 41 inclusive) which have been carried on at the +Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. +Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to test the effect of various +substances as a protection against the <i>Teredo navalis</i>. It +will be noticed that the application of two coats of white zinc +paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster of Paris +mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil and +tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of +coal tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating +compound, of compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of +the Thilmany process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved +failures.</p> + +<p>The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the +month of January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or +five years, or till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress +piles, well charred, have resisted for nine years.</p> + +<p>This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been +stated under the head of creosoting, that nothing but the +impregnation with creosote, and plenty of it, is an effectual +protection against the <i>teredo</i>. Numberless experiments have +been tried abroad and in this country, and always with the same +result.</p> + +<p>There are quite a number of other experiments which your +committee has learned about which are here passed in silence. The +accounts of them are vague, or the promised results of such slight +importance as not to warrant cumbering with them this already too +voluminous report.</p> + +<p>The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the +many patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It +had prepared a list of them, and investigated the probable success +of many of them, but has concluded that it is better to confine +itself to the results of actual tests, and to stick to ascertained +facts.</p> + +<p>Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the +great importance of the subject, and the economical advantages +which will result from the artificial preparation of wood as its +price advances. They hope, however, that the members of this +Society, in discussing this report, will dwell upon this point.</p> + +<p>We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general +conclusions which we have reached as the result of our protracted +investigation.</p> + +<h3>DECAY OF TIMBER.</h3> + +<p>Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 +parts of carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, +and to be the same in all the different varieties. If it can be +entirely deprived of the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change +very slowly, if at all.</p> + +<p>Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per +cent. of the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great +many substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, +etc., etc., with a large portion of water.</p> + +<p>Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the +sap, fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as +may depend upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the +woody fiber, and produces decay. In order that this may take place, +it is believed that there must be a concurrence of four separate +conditions:</p> + +<p>1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation +when exposed to air and water.</p> + +<p>2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the +fermentation.</p> + +<p>3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting +products.</p> + +<p>4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50° and +100° F. Below 32° F. and above 150° F., no decay +occurs.</p> + +<p>When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, +and ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, +unless the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative.</p> + +<p>Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, +but does not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.<a name= +"FNanchor24_3"></a><a href="#Footnote_24_3"><sup>3</sup></a> It is +therefore necessary to poison the germs of decay which may exist, +or may subsequently enter the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, +and this is the office performed by the various antiseptics.</p> + +<p>We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, +whether fermentation and decay result from slow combustion +(eremacausis) or from the presence of living organisms (bacteria, +etc.); but having in the preceding pages detailed the results of +the application of various antiseptics, we may now indicate under +what circumstances they can economically be applied.</p> + +<p><i>(To be continued)</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_24_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor24_2">[2]</a></p> + +<div class="note">From the Transactions of the Society.</div> + +<a name="Footnote_24_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor24_3">[3]</a> + +<div class="note">Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, +1884, Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of +Timber."</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE.</h2> + +<p><i>To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:</i></p> + +<p>Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint +of Mr. B. Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association +of Aberdeen which has come into my hands.</p> + +<p>In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the +Adda as 500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as +stated in the same address, and he belittles the American Cabin +John Bridge by making its span <i>"after all only 215 ft."</i> As +the builder of this greatest American stone arch, I regret that on +so important and public an occasion the writer was not +accurate.</p> + +<p>The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is +not great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot +that counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one +minute is to fail to capture the cup.</p> + +<p>M.C. MEIGS.</p> + +<p>Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.</h2> + +<p>On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette +Augusta left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, +for Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, +the report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is +probably correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews +for the cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, +including the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is +still a possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting +somewhere in the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but +this is not very probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to +weather a typhoon. During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper +masts, spars, etc, had to be removed, that she might be better +adapted to weather a cyclone or like storm. If the Augusta had not +met with an accident, she would have arrived at Port Albany in +Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of July. She was due +June 17.</p> + +<p>The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and +was bought in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's +rigging, 237½ feet long, 35½ feet beam, 16 feet +draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her engines had 400 horse-power, +and her armament consisted of 14 pieces.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/11a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/11a_th.jpg" alt="THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.</p> + +<p>During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by +Captain Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French +coast. January 4, 1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in +the mouth of the Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to +Bordeaux with flour and bread for the Third French Division. The +Augusta then captured the Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which +was being carried from Havre to Bordeaux. Then the French transport +steamer Max was captured and burned. The French men of war finally +forced the Augusta to retreat into the Spanish port of Vigo, from +which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March 28 at Kiel, with the +captured brig St. Marc in tow.—<i>Illustrirte +Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS.</h2> + +<p>In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal +wheel, the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which +we illustrate.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/11b.png" alt= +"FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse +section, and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These +wheels are made in two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates +a wheel of the former class, these wheels being designed for use on +rough and uneven roads, and when very great jolting strains may be +met with, being stronger than those of class B design. The wheels +are made with mild steel spokes, which are secured by metal straps +in the recesses cut in the annular flanges on the boss, and by a +taper bolt or rivet through the tire and rim. These spokes can be +easily taken out and renewed when necessary by any unskilled person +in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway of their length +give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist side strains +in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing the +weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer +screwed up on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil +caps to the end of the bushes, which are provided with a small set +screw, so that the cap need not be taken off when it is necessary +to lubricate the wheel, as by simply taking out the set screw oil +may be poured through the hole into the cap. The set screw also +forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap can be taken off or put +on when required, as well as a means of preventing the cap being +lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all hot and dry climates, +the continued shrinking of wood wheels and loosening of the tires +is a constant source of expense and inconvenience. This wheel +having a tire and rim entirely of metal does away with the +difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and +others can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, +which can be done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B +design are the same in principle of construction as those of class +A, but they have cast metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, +and are suitable for general work and ordinary roads where the +strains are not so severe. The bosses or naves are readily removed +in case of breakage, and they can be fitted with steel oil caps for +lubricating.—<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS.</h2> + +<p>The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed +for the manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is +described in a communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American +Institute of Mining Engineers.</p> + +<p>The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled +with fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous +material. B and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined +with refractory brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks +piled up as shown in the figure. The partitions, C and C', are +likewise of refractory brick, and are rendered as air-proof as +possible. Apertures, D and D', are formed alternately at the base +of one partition and the top of the adjacent one, in order to +oblige the gases that traverse the series of chambers to descend in +one of them and to rise in the following, whatever be the number of +chambers in use.</p> + +<p>The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and +serve to bring the current of air or steam into contact with the +fuel. Valves, F and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating +the current in the two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with +valves, G and G', put the upper part of the generator in +communication with the contiguous chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, +N and N', with valves, H and H', permit of the introduction of a +current of air from the outside into the chambers, T and T'. The +pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', connected with a blower, +serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and P', and their valves, +J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q and Q', and +their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the purifiers and +the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with valves, +L and L', are connected with a chimney.</p> + +<p>The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed +hopper. The doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures +through which the ashes are removed.</p> + +<p>When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, +are closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, +of the pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, +while the flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator +the reverse order is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is +closed, the pipes, M' and N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and +Q', are closed, and R' is opened.</p> + +<p>A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this +traverses the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the +generator, A, through the flue, E. As this air rises through the +mass of incandescent fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of +carbon and forms carbonic oxide. This gas that is disengaged from +the upper part of the fuel consists chiefly of nitrogen and +carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile hydrocarburets derived from the +fuel used. This gas, through the action of the air upon the fuel, +is called "air gas," in order to distinguish it from the "water +gas" formed in the second period of the process.</p> + +<p>The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', +in order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second +current of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it +and produces, in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated +gases resulting from the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', +and give up to the bricks therein the greater part of their heat, +and finally make their exit, relatively cool, through the pipe, R', +which leads them to the chimney. When the operation has been +continued for a sufficient length of time to give the refractory +bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a high temperature, +the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the entrance of air +through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is also closed, +and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', of the +pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet +of steam is introduced through the latter.</p> + +<p>The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, +B', and in this state enters the bottom of the generator through +the flue, E'. In passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the +generator, the steam is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, +while hydrogen is liberated. The mixture of these two gases with +the hydrocarburets furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. +This gas on making its exit from the generator through the pipe, +M', passes through the chambers, B, and abandons therein the +greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, R, whence it passes +through Q into the purifiers, and then into the gasometer.</p> + +<p>As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the +generator, A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but +moderately heated by the sensible heat of the current of gas +produced. When this cooling has continued so long that the +temperature in the generator, A, is no longer high enough to allow +the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the valve, J', of the +pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also the valve, K, +of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R and N, +are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the +heat remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of +the generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its +exit from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of +air coming from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products +resulting from such combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then +into the chimney, through the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly +lowers in the chambers, B', and rises no less rapidly in the +generator, A, while the chambers, B, are soon heated to the same +temperature that first existed in the chambers, B'. As soon as the +desired temperature is obtained in the generator, A, and the +chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the valve, I', of the +pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also closed, the +valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the valves, +G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the valve, +F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. A +current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, +traverses the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the +flue, E. The gas produced makes its exit from the generator, passes +through the pipe, M', and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, +and enters the gasometer through the pipe, Q'.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt="WATER-GAS APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">WATER-GAS APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool +a state that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the +valves are so maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and +to send a current of air into the apparatus in the same direction +that the steam had just been taking. The temperature thereupon +quickly rises in the generator, A, while, at the same time, the +combustion of the air gas produced soon reheats the chambers, B'. +The cooled products of combustion go, as before, to the chimney. +The position of the valves is then changed again so as to send a +current of steam into the apparatus in a direction contrary to that +which the air took in the last place, and the water gas obtained +again is sent to the gasometer.</p> + +<p>As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each +current of air following the same direction in the apparatus (from +left to right, or right to left) that the current of steam did +which preceded it, while each current of steam follows a direction +opposite that of the current of air which preceded it.</p> + +<p>The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for +his process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of +gas.</p> + +<p>One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made +of any dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size +and form shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the +removal of the ashes by hand from time to time, it may be +constructed after the general model of the shaft of blast furnaces, +with a hearth at the base. Upon adding to the fuel a small quantity +of flux, all the mineral parts thereof can be melted into a liquid +slag, which may be carried off just like that of blast furnaces. +There is no difficulty in constructing regenerators of refractory +bricks of sufficient capacity, however large the generators be; and +a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one thousand tons of +anthracite per day into more than five million cubic feet of +gas.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS.<a name="FNanchor29_4"></a><a +href="#Footnote_29_4"><sup>4</sup></a></h2> + +<h3>By WILLIAM SUGG, of London.</h3> + +<p>Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public +have been assured, by those interested in the different kinds of +lamps—arc, glow or otherwise—that henceforth, by means +of such lamps, rooms are to be lighted without heat or baneful +products such as they assert attend the use of gas, lamps, or +candles. But I think it must not be implied, from what any one has +said in favor of the electric light as a means of lighting our +dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that the glow +lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very large +difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the +glow lamp is only one more means (not without certain +disadvantages) of producing light added to those which already +exist, and of which the public have the choice. Now, looking to +best means of lighting rooms, and particularly the principal rooms +of a small dwelling-house, I beg to say that the arguments which +can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in preference to any other +means greatly preponderate, and that it can be substantiated that, +light for light, under the heads of convenience, health, comfort, +reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior to all.</p> + +<p>As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is +comparatively untried. This assertion may sound somewhat +astounding; but I think it is a true one. More than that, even in +the crude and unscientific way in which it has most frequently been +used up to the present, it has been far from unsuccessful in +comparison with electricity or other means of lighting; and in the +future it will prove the best and cheapest practical means, +although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in palatial dwellings +in conjunction with it.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of +artificial lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that +most beautiful and perfect natural light which, without our aid, +and without even a thought from us, shines regularly every day upon +all, in such an immense volume, so perfectly diffused, and in such +wonderful chemical combination, that it may safely be said that not +one atom of the whole economy of Nature is unaffected by it, and +that we and all the animal kingdom, in common with trees and +plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious natural +light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we +cannot hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of +daylight, or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make +the lighting of our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to +the eyes and to the general health) by the aid of gas than by any +other means. It must also be borne in mind that, in this country at +least, we have to fulfill the conditions of artificial lighting +under frequent differences of temperature and barometric influence, +exaggerated by the manner in which our homes are built; and that +for at least nine months of the year we require heat as well as +light in our dwellings, and that for the other three months +(excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are often +chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions +of the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control.</p> + +<p>As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside +over a meeting which was held in a large room—one of two +built exactly alike, and in communication with each other by means +of folding doors. These rooms formed part of one of the best hotels +in London—let us call it the "Magnificent." Of course, it was +lighted by electric glow lamps, in accordance with the latest +fashion in that department of artificial lighting, viz., suspension +lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of leaves and scrolls, +twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the pattern of our +most æsthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the style +of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed +the Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some +lamps he had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by +means of the good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's +heart; and they were ventilated with all due regard to the latest +state of knowledge on the subject among architects and builders. In +fact, no pains had been spared to make these rooms comfortable in +the highest acceptation of the word.</p> + +<p>There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat +and deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and +therefore, under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of +such human felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty +business men, intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost +tissue by means of a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according +to the calculations of the architect of the building, to have been +reached. I instance this case because it is a typical one, which, +under most aspects, does not materially differ from the conditions +of home life in such residences as those whose occupiers are likely +to use electric lighting. The rooms were spacious (about 20 feet by +35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and they were lighted during the +day by means of large lantern ceiling-lights, with double glass +windows. The evening in question was chilly, not to say cold.</p> + +<p>Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the +room; but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of +a little draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, +which at first was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in +another hour or so, by the time our business was over, +notwithstanding a screen placed before the door, and a blazing +fire, we were delighted to make a change to the comfortable +dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just left by +means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to +pass in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we +became aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow +lamps (merely for artistic effect) began to flare in a most +uncandlelike manner—the flames turning down, as if some one +were blowing downward on the wicks; and at the same time the +complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" became general, and from +every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went on, the discomfort +became unbearable, even although the doors were shut and screens +put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to +order "those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the +foliage of the electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three +minutes the flames of the candles burned upright and steadily, and +in less than ten minutes the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, +the room became really comfortable.</p> + +<p>The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up +at the ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air +from the bodies of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced +by the movements of themselves and the waiters, together with the +steam from the viands and respiration, displaced the colder air at +the ceiling, and notably that coldest air lying against the surface +of the glass. This cold air simply dropped straight down, after the +manner of a douche, on candles and heads below. The remedy I +advised was the setting up of a current of hotter steam and air +from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling effect of the +glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in slow +movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the +table. Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, +the gas was put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. +But before we left, the chilliness and draughts began to be again +felt.</p> + +<p>The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of +April last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably +warm nights. It is therefore clear that in this instance neither +electricity nor candles could effectually replace gas for lighting +purposes. They both did the lighting, but they utterly failed to +keep the currents of air steady. I have always remarked draughts +whenever I have remained any length of time in rooms where the +electric light is used. On a warm evening the electric light and +candles would undoubtedly have kept the room cooler than gas, with +the same kind of ventilation; I do not think they would have put an +end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas does in all +fairly built rooms.</p> + +<p>It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively +small amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid +manner, to anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the +contrary, from its great specific heat, remains in a heated state +for a much longer time than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a +low temperature, and in parting with its own heat it communicates a +considerable amount of warmth to those bodies with which it comes +in contact. Thus the products of the combustion of gas (which are +principally steam) serve a useful purpose in lighting, by keeping +at the ceiling level a certain stratum of heated vapor, which holds +up, as it were, the carbonic acid and exhalation from the lungs +given off by those using the room. The obvious inference, +therefore, is that if we take off these products from the level of +the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we +shall have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level +warm, in order to prevent the heated impure air from descending in +comparatively rapid currents, after having parted with its heat to +the ceiling. It may very frequently be observed on chilly days that +a number of currents of cold air seem to travel about our rooms, +although there may be no crevices in the doors and windows +sufficient to account for them; and, further, that these currents +of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn and the gas +is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough heat +at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we +constantly hear when electric lights are used for the illumination +of public buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the +Institution of Civil Engineers, held at the end of April last in +the Conservatory of the Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the +five hundred guests, and from an almost equal number of waiters and +attendants, displaced the cold air from the dome of the roof, and +literally poured down on the assembly (who were in evening dress) +in a manner to compel many of them to put on overcoats. If the +Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below the roof, +this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam would +have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up in +the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, +to keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and +thus steady the currents.</p> + +<p>Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain +conditions of the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them +comfortable when electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will +lay before you some few particulars relative to the condition of +small rooms of about 12 ft. by 15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary +room such as may be found in the usual run of houses in this +country. The cubical contents of such a room equals 1,700 cubic +feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, we shall for +the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken out of +it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) +from 600 to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, +therefore, be admitted by some means or other into the room, or the +chimney will, in ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products +of combustion, very largely diluted with fresh air, will not all +find their way up the flue with sufficient velocity to overcome the +pressure of the heavy cold air at the top of the chimney. If no +proper inlets for air are made, this supply to the fire must be +kept up from the crevices of the doors and windows. In the line of +these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as they are usually +called, it is impossible to experience any comfort—quite the +contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other serious maladies +are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh air in the +wrong way and place.</p> + +<p>According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on +ventilation), 300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every +adult person in ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet +are sufficient; less than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and +unhealthy. It is generally admitted that an average adult breathes +out from 20 to 30 cubic inches of steam and vitiated air per +minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity equal in bulk to that of +a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and steam is respired at a +temperature of 90° Fahr.; and therefore, by reason of this +heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together with the heat +and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. This fact, +by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person in the +direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every +fiber of his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is +passing upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white +lines on the surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the +extreme rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the +rays of light to pass through them with less refraction than +through the denser and more moist surrounding cold air. An adult +makes, on an average, about 15 respirations per minute, and +therefore he in every hour renders to the atmosphere of the room in +which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet of poisonous air. This +rises to the ceiling line, if it is not prevented; and thus +vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the extent of 1 per +cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not good which +contained more than ½ per cent, of air which had been +exhaled from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to +health these exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in +his view. Therefore in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is +vitiated to more than 2 feet from the ceiling by one person to the +extent of ½ per cent., and it will be vitiated by two +persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same time.</p> + +<p>It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the +vitiated air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 +feet of the height of the room depends very materially on the +difference of temperature between these upper and lower strata and +the movements of air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and +gases fall into and diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the +lower strata—very readily if they are nearly the same +temperature as the upper, but scarcely at all if the air at the +ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, in warmed rooms +of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two petroleum lamps +are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of occupation +by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the air at +the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time—sometimes, +indeed, for only a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination +of the room is maintained at the same degree as in the case of +lamps, the contamination of the air is very much worse. It is +doubtless the case that poisonous germs are rapidly developed in +atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" and although, in a healthy +state of the body, we are able to breathe them without perceptible +harm, yet even then the slight headache and uneasiness we feel is a +symptom which does not suffer itself to be lightly regarded, +whenever, from some cause or other, the general condition is +weak.</p> + +<p>The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and +carbonic acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the +products from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil +or candles. They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ +life; and therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where +they always collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience +or danger to health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our +endeavors to take off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our +first serious check in all schemes of ventilation. We draw the +elevation and section of the room, and put in our flues with pretty +little black arrows flying out of the outlets for vitiated air, and +other pretty little red arrows flying in at the inlets; but when we +see our scheme in practice, the black arrows will persist in +putting their wings where their points ought to be; in other words, +flying into instead of out of the room.</p> + +<p>One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot +and cold currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such +as used to be employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of +gases; and, having filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by +weights tied on to the car till it will rest without going up or +down in a part of the room where the air can be felt to be at about +the mean temperature, and free from draught. Then leave it to +itself, to go where it will.</p> + +<p>As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will +ascend, passing along with the current, and descending or rising as +the current is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh +air from windows or doors, as well as the effect of the radiant +heat from the fire, can be thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet +theories may receive a cruel shock from this experiment; but, in +the end, the ventilation of the room will doubtless be benefited, +if we apply the information obtained. It will be discovered that +the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the little black arrows +turning their backs on the right path and our theoretical outlets +for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue must have an +enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the most easily +accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per hour +is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless +to attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by +ventilating gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little +talc flappers, opening into the chimney when there is an up +draught, and shutting themselves up when there is any tendency to +down draught. The success of these and all other ventilators +depends upon there being a good supply of air from under the door +or through the spaces round the window frames. These fresh air +supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one of the spaces +between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an air +conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised +about two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things +will be set up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will +satisfy the fire, without drawing from the doors and windows, and +at the same time supply a small quantity of fresh air into the +room. But the important fact that the radiant heat from the fire +will pass through the cold air without warming it all must not be +lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only warms the furniture +and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its rays. The air of +the room is warmed by passing over these more or less heated +surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to +the fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender +may be used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along +the front, as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. +This will also prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be +found that for the greater part of the year the chimney ventilator +and the supply to the fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," +and keep those disagreeable draughts under control, even although +the room be lighted with a 3 light chandelier burning a large +quantity of gas.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/13a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms +perfectly with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we +cannot light a room without in some measure creating heat; and I +think I have shown that we want this heat at the ceiling line for +the greater part of the year.</p> + +<p>In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other +hand, it is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65° +to 70° Fahr., to keep the air in proper movement in small +rooms. There are also times in the fall of the year, and also in +spring, when the nights are unusually warm; and, with a few friends +in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" question, not to say a +"burning" one. On these occasions we have to resort to exceptional +ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life would be too much. +It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of ventilation by +diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes of air of +different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves on +opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or +some more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through +this medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal +density or temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a +window (which can be opened, downward) with a strained piece of +fine muslin or washed common calico, the air in the room, if hotter +than the external air, will, when the window is more or less +opened, pass out readily into the cooler air, and the cooler air +will pass in through the pores of the medium. The hotter air +passing out faster than the cooler air will come in, no draught +will be experienced; and the window may be opened very widely +without any discomfort from it.</p> + +<p>It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to +do more than indicate a means of ventilation which will be +effective under most circumstances of lighting with those gas +burners and fittings usually employed, and which will lend itself +readily to modifications which will be necessitated by the use of +some of the newest forms of burners and ventilating gas lights.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/13b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important +discovery I have made in reference to blackened ceilings, for +which, up to the present time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have +long entertained the belief that with a proper burner it is +possible to obtain perfect combustion, without any smoke; and a +series of experiments with white porcelain plates hung over some +burners used in my own house proved conclusively that the +discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed ceilings +arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large towns is +largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or dirt +created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, +escapes from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of +my best rooms, which required to have the ceilings whitened every +year, substituted varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply +put on in the usual way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I +also changed the coal fires for gas fires. These alterations have +gone through the test of two winters, and the ceilings are now as +clean as when they were first done. The burners have been used +every night, and the gas fires every day, during the two winters. +No alteration has been made in the burners employed, and no +"consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished paper +ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine +sieve. This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, +which, after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than +the spaces between.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_29_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor29_4">[4]</a></p> + +<div class="note">A paper read before the Gas Institute, +Manchester, June, 1885.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>ANDERS' TELEPHONE.</h2> + +<p>Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, +combines in a single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and +a pile, C. The transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing +several large apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a +metallic disk, d, situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are +filled with powdered carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal +plate, f, which is fixed to the insulating ring, c, by means of a +metallic washer, g. Back of the transmitter is arranged the +receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary electro-magnet with a +disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed behind the +receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a partition, i, +and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of zinc, l, +which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a spring, m, +fixed to the insulating piece, n.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/13c.png" alt= +"ANDERS TELEPHONE"></p> + +<p class="ctr">ANDERS TELEPHONE</p> + +<p>When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the +zinc plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the +circuit is closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, +the transmitter, and the line wire 2, while when the button is +freed the current no longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve +as a receiver or transmitter only when the button is +pressed.—<i>Bull. de la Musee de l'Industrie</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.</h2> + +<p>When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a +consequence of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw +and engine increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance +that the screw was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When +the screw enters the water again, the resistance makes itself +abruptly felt, and causes powerful shocks, which put both the screw +and engine in danger. Ordinary regulators are powerless to overcome +this trouble, since their construction is such that they act upon +the engine only when the excess of velocity has already been +reached.</p> + +<p>Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For +example, use has been made of a float placed in a channel at the +side of the screw, and which closes the moderator valve by +mechanical means or by electricity when the screw descends too low +or rises too high.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/14a.png" alt= +"BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR."></p> + +<p class="ctr">BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.</p> + +<p>Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see +figure) consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. +One of them, b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be +constantly in the water, while the other, a, corresponds to the +position above which the screw cannot rise without taking on a +dangerous velocity. In the normal situation of the ship, the +electric circuit, c (in which circulates a current produced by a +dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of the water, which +establishes a connection between the two contacts. When the +contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled +back by a spring—a motion that sets in action a small steam +engine that closes the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is +again immersed, the electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus +brings the moderator valve back to its normal position. It is clear +that the contact, a, must be insulated from the ship's side.</p> + +<p>Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above +another, in order to close the moderator valve more or less, +according to the extent of the screw's rise or fall.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL.</h2> + +<p>We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to +railroad crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, +of Steelton, Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated +highway crossing in the woods or any lonely place can be made +perfectly safe, and that, too, without the expense of gates and a +man to work them or of a flagman. It is surely a great improvement +over the old methods, and it is likely to have a large sale. In +addition to considerations of safety, possible saving in salaries +to railroad companies by its use will be great. This device is more +reliable than a human being, and can make any crossing safe to +which it is applied. Its operation is described as follows:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL</p> + +<p>The illustration shows the device as used on a single track +railroad, where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains +approaching the crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the +right). A similar box on the other side of the crossing is used for +trains approaching in the other direction. Two plates connected by +a link, and pivoted, are placed alongside of one rail, close enough +to it to be depressed by the treads of the wheels. By another link, +one of the plates called the rock plate (the one to the right) is +connected to a rock shaft which extends through a strong bearing +into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a suitable distance from +the rail, within which an electric generator is placed; the whole +being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long ties framed to +receive it.</p> + +<p>The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the +rear end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the +bearing for which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first +wheel of a train which is approaching in the desired direction +(from the right in the engraving) touches it, it will be seen that +it must not only depress it, but produce a slight forward motion, +causing a corresponding rotary motion in the rock shaft which +actuates the apparatus. On the other hand, when a train is +approaching from the other direction, or has already passed the +crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to the left of +the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link connections +shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels before the +wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so that +it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over +the apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it +whatever, the different point at which the same force is applied to +the rock plate giving the latter an entirely different motion.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/14c.png" alt= +"FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.—MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL</p> + +<p>The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to +the rock shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, +compresses a spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the +rock plate, the reaction of the spring throws it up again to its +former position, giving additional speed to the gearing within, +which is set in motion at the passage of the first wheel, and +operates the electric "generator." The spring is really the motive +power of the alarm. A small but heavy fly-wheel is connected with +the apparatus, the top of which is just visible in the engraving, +which serves to store up power to run the "generator," which is +nothing more than a small dynamo, for the necessary number of +seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The dynamo +dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if +any part has been broken.</p> + +<p>A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator +with insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary +telegraph wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees +leading to the electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the +armature revolves. It is a simple matter so to proportion the +mechanism for the required distance and speed that the revolutions +of the armature and the ringing of the gong shall continue until +the train reaches the crossing; and as each wheel acts upon the +apparatus, the more wheels there are in the train the longer the +bell will ring, a very convenient property, since the slowest +trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical limits to +the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after the +head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly +might not actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even +then it is not unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last +long enough for all practical requirements, as a team approaching a +crossing at eight miles per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. +All the bearings of any importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, +the whole apparatus being designed to require inspection not more +than once a month. The iron case when shut is water-tight, and when +duly locked cannot be maliciously tampered with without breaking +open the case; so that, the manufacturers claim, it will not be +essential to examine it more than once a month. The parts outside +the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to get out of +order, while easily inspected.</p> + +<p>The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as +sounding alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or +building. The gong has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of +noise, so that no one should fail to hear it.—<i>Railway +Review</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES.</h2> + +<p>Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, +gives the following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by +himself and Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for +mammals and birds. It will be seen that, with three or four +exceptions, the sizes obtained by the two observers are practically +the same:</p> + +<pre> + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. +<br> + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 +<br> + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. +<br> + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 +</pre> + +<p>The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an +interesting manner in an address before the Microscopical Section +of the A.A.A.S. last year, an abstract of which was published in +this journal, vol. v., p. 181.</p> + +<p>The slight differences in size accurately given in this table +are not always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a +power of 1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of +an inch are readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. +Wormley as regards the possibility of identifying blood of +different animals, the reader is referred to his book on +Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.—<i>Amer. Micro. Jour.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN.<a +name="FNanchor34_5"></a><a href= +"#Footnote_34_5"><sup>5</sup></a></h2> + +<p>E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made +with vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult +of resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal +ingredients to the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this +question, he considered himself justified in drawing conclusions +from the manner in which such compounds behaved toward <i>dead</i> +animal membrane. If any kind of osmosis could take place, he +argued, from ointments prepared with vaseline, etc., through dead +membranes, such osmosis would most probably also take place through +living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic or exosmotic action +of the skin of a living body must necessarily play an important +<i>role</i> in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following +experiments:</p> + +<p>Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, +with bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium +ointment.</p> + +<p>No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard.</p> + +<p>No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (<i>Germ. Pharm</i>.), +and</p> + +<p>No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. +of lard.</p> + +<p>All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with +water. After standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary +temperature, the contents of none of the beakers gave any iodine +reaction. After having been placed into a warm temperature, between +25-37° C., all three showed iodine reactions after three hours, +Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with lard alone) very +faintly.</p> + +<p>The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that +the bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. +Each vial was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27° C., in 50 +grammes of distilled water. After three hours, the contents of No. +1 (containing the ointment made with <i>lard</i>) gave <i>no</i> +iodine reaction; the contents of the other two, however, gave +traces. After eight hours no further change had taken place. The +temperature was now raised to 30-35° C., and kept so for eight +hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes +of the contents of the beakers.</p> + +<p>In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed +through the membrane in each case.</p> + +<p>The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin +(freed from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the +bladder. The ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per +cent. of lard. No reaction was obtained, at the ordinary +temperature, after twelve hours, nor after eight more hours, at a +temperature of 25-30° C. After letting them stand for eight +hours longer at 30-37° C., a faint reaction was obtained in the +case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a still fainter +with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made with +lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, +but no fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of +the contents of each beaker,</p> + +<pre> + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " +</pre> + +<p>showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the +ointment made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to +vaseline).</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_34_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor34_5">[5]</a></p> + +<div class="note">From the <i>American Druggist</i>.</div> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>THE TAILS OF COMETS.</h2> + +<p>I.—If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be +produced that will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and +the velocity with which it extends depend upon the size of the +stone, that is to say, upon the intensity of the mechanical action +that created it. The extent and depth of the water are likewise +factors.</p> + +<p>If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a +succession of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived +from the cord's size and the intensity of its action. These waves, +which are visible upon the surface, constitute what I shall call +<i>mechanical waves</i>. But there will be created at the same time +other waves, whose velocity of propagation will be much greater +than that of the mechanical ones, and apparently independent of +mechanical intensity. These are <i>acoustic waves</i>. Finally, +there will doubtless be created <i>optical waves</i>, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if +a person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses +were sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous +sensation when the first optical wave reached him, then he would +perceive the sound produced, and later still he would feel, through +a slight tremor, the mechanical wave.<a name="FNanchor35_6"></a><a +href="#Footnote_35_6"><sup>6</sup></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15a.png" alt="I"></p> + +<p class="ctr">I</p> + +<p>Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, +in a mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and +velocity of propagation; and although but three modes appreciable +to our senses have been cited, it does not follow that these are +the only ones possible.</p> + +<p>We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon +water, it will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in +front of it successive waves whose velocity of propagation is +accelerated.</p> + +<p>This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are +briefer than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead +sound at a few yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a +great distance.</p> + +<p>The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, +very complex.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15b.png" alt="II"></p> + +<p class="ctr">II</p> + +<p>II.—If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will +occur in each of them an <i>alteration</i>, a break, which it will +carry along with it to a greater or less distance. This succession +of alterations forms a trace behind the obstacle, and in opposition +to the line of the centers. Finally, if the obstacle itself emits +waves in space that are of less intensity then those which meet it, +these little waves will extend in the wake of the large ones, and +will form a trace of parabolic form situated upon the line of the +centers.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15c.png" alt="III"></p> + +<p class="ctr">III</p> + +<p>III.—Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the +peculiar energy that develops upon its surface or in its +atmosphere, engenders in ethereal space successive waves of varying +nature and intensity, as has been said above, and let us admit that +its <i>mechanical</i> waves are traversed obliquely (Fig. 1) by any +spherical body—by a comet, for example; then, under the +excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar +waves consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will +become apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced +by an excitation—a setting of the ether in vibration. The +mechanical waves engender of themselves, then, an emission of +optical waves that render perceptible the alteration which they +create in each other.</p> + +<p>Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will +carry along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while +at the same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the +comet. During this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave +will be altered in its turn, and carry such alteration in the +direction, a' b'.</p> + +<p>The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, +upon a curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the +comet, will be upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of +the propagation of the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the +motion of the comet, with respect to the velocity of the solar +waves, the closer will such resultant approach the line of centers, +and the more rectilinear will appear the trace or tail of the +comet.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15d.png" alt="IV"></p> + +<p class="ctr">IV</p> + +<p>IV.—If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according +to the relative position of these, several tails appear, and these +will seem to form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions +of a comet and a satellite, it will be seen that if, while the +comet is proceeding to c', the satellite, through its revolution +around it, goes to s', the traces formed at c and s will be +extended to d and d', and that we shall have two tails, c' d and s' +d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem to be confounded +toward c' s'.</p> + +<p>V.—When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect +will occur—the tail will precede it, and will be so much the +more in a line with the sun in proportion as the velocity of the +solar waves exceeds that of the comet.</p> + +<p>If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the +alteration of the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see +(supposing the phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at +a 1, the tail will and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be +at a 2 b'; and when it is at a 4, the tail will have become an +immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in reality the trace is extinguished +in space, we never see but the origin of it, which is the part of +it that is constantly new—that is to say, the part +represented in the spirals of Fig. 4.</p> + +<p>The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 +leagues per second; it would have only required the velocity of the +solar waves' propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to +have put the tail in a sensibly direct opposition with the sun.</p> + +<p>Knowing the angle γ (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit +makes with the sun at a given point, and the angle δ of the +track upon such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we +can deduce therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the +simple expression:</p> + +<pre> + V = v × (sinus δ / sinus(γ - δ)) or (Fig. 1), +<br> + V = da/t'', +</pre> + +<p>t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15e.png" alt="V"></p> + +<p class="ctr">V</p> + +<p>VI.—The tail, then, is not a special matter which is +transported in space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar +waves, just as sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is +propagated with the velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air +is not transported. The tail which we see in one position, then, is +not that which we see in another; it is constantly renewed. +Consequently, it is easy to conceive how, in as brief a time as it +took the comet of 1843 to make a half revolution round the sun, the +tail which extended to so great a distance appeared to sweep the +180° of space, while at the same time remaining in opposition +to the great luminary.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15f.png" alt="VI"></p> + +<p class="ctr">VI</p> + +<p>The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. +If to a vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with +a certain velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be +understood that, from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a +spiral. Each drop of water will recede radially in space, the +spiral will keep forming at the jet, and if, through any reason, +the latter alone be visible, we shall see a nearly rectilinear jet +that will seem to revolve with the pipe.</p> + +<p>Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), +while it is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the +projected water will mark the spiral indicated, and this will +continue to widen, and each drop will recede in the direction shown +by the arrows.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/15g.png" alt="VII"></p> + +<p class="ctr">VII</p> + +<p>VII.—It seems to result from this explanation that all the +planets and their satellites ought to produce identical effects, +and have the appearance of comets. In order to change the +conditions, it suffices to admit that the ethereal mass revolves in +space around the sun with a velocity which is in each place that of +the planets there; and this is very reasonable if, admitting the +nebular hypothesis, we draw the deduction that the cause that has +communicated the velocity to the successive rings has communicated +it to the ethereal mass.</p> + +<p>The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in +space, and for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if +they become capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed +at their surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too +weak to give very perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, +have relatively too feeble velocities.</p> + +<p>The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, +and sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its +proper velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the +ethereal mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing +sufficiently intense mechanical effects to affect our vision.</p> + +<p>VIII.—Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these +stars pass the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its +satellites may be very different, and the velocity of rotation of +the latter, being added to or deducted from that of the forward +motion, there may occur (as in the case shown in Fig. 6) a +separation of a satellite from the principal star. The comet then +appears to separate into two, and each part follows different +routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may either +fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic +orbit, and make but one appearance.—<i>A. Goupil.</i></p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_35_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor35_6">[6]</a></p> + +<div class="note">Certain persons, as well known, undergo an +optical impression under the action of certain sounds.</div> + +<hr> +<h2>THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE.<a name= +"FNanchor36_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_36_7"><sup>7</sup></a></h2> + +<p>Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently +been made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the +honey bee. These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable +phenomena in the domestic economy of the ants. It is already known +that the honey of our honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of +litmus, shows a distinct red color, or, in other words, has an acid +reaction. It manifests this peculiarity because of the volatile +formic acid which it contains. This admixed acid confers upon crude +honey its preservative power. Honey which is purified by treatment +with water under heat, or the so-called honey-sirup, spoils sooner, +because the formic acid is volatilized. The honey of vicious swarms +of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a pungent odor. This +effect is produced by the formic acid, which is present in excess +in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in what way the +substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in the +honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only +for defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance.</p> + +<p>The observation has recently been made that the bees in the +hive, even when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the +minute drops of bee poison (formic acid) which from time to time +exude from the tip of their sting. And this excellent preservative +medium is thus sooner or later contributed to the stored honey. The +more excitable and the more ready to sting the bees are, the +greater will be the quantity of formic acid which is added to the +honey, and the admixture of which good honey needs. The praise +which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race of our honey +bees, which is indisposed to sting—and such praise is still +expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German +bee-masters—is therefore from a practical point of view a +false praise. Now we understand also why the stingless honey bees +of South America collect little honey. It is well known that never +more than a very small store of honey is found in felled trees +inhabited by stingless <i>Melipona</i>. What should induce the +<i>Melipona</i> to accumulate stores which they could not preserve? +They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen different known +species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A peculiar +phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. +It is well known that there are different grain-gathering species +of ants. The seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved +for years in their little magazines, without germinating. A very +small red ant, which drags grains of wheat and oats into its +dwellings, lives in India. These ants are so small that eight or +twelve of them have to drag on one grain with the greatest +exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or rough +ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than +a thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun +to sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. +Hence the ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but +the capacity for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English +investigator John Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts +in his work entitled "Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not +yet known in what way the ants prevent the sprouting of the +collected grains. But now it is demonstrated that here also it is +only the formic acid, whose preservative influence goes so far that +it can make seed incapable of germination for a determinate time or +continuously.</p> + +<p>It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant +which lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our <i>Lasius +niger</i>, which carries seeds of <i>Viola</i> into its nests, and, +as Wittmack has communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der +gesellschaft naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with +the seeds of <i>Veronica hederaefolia</i>.</p> + +<p>Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, <i>Pheidole +providens</i>, that this species collects a great store of +grass-seeds. But he observed that the ants brought their store of +grain into the open air to dry it after the monsoon storms. From +this it appears that the preservative effect of the formic acid is +destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying process. So that +among the bees the honey which is stored for winter use, and among +the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are preserved by +one and the same fluid, formic acid.</p> + +<h3>EDITORIAL NOTE.</h3> + +<p>This same theory has been suggested many times by our most +advanced American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same +formic acid was what made honey a poison to many people, and that +the sharp sting of some honey, notably that from bass wood or +linden, originated in this acid from the poison sac. If this is the +correct explanation, it seems strange that the same kind of honey +is always peculiar for greater or less acidity as the case may be. +We often see bees with sting extended and tipped with a tiny drop +of poison; but how do we know that this poison is certainly mingled +with the honey? Is this any more than a guess?—<i>A.J. Cook, +in Psyche</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="Footnote_36_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor36_7">[7]</a></p> + +<div class="note">Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine +doppelrolle des stachels der honigbienen" in +<i>Deutschamerikanische Apotheker Zeitung</i>, 15 Jan., 1885, +Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from <i>Ind. Blatter</i>.</div> + +<hr> +<h2>CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884.</h2> + +<p>We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of +distillation, and, as such, very pure. A little reflection and a +very slight amount of experimental examination will quickly +disabuse those who have this mistaken and popular impression of +their error. A great number of bodies which arise from industrial +processes, domestic combustion of coal, natural changes in +vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances as tornadoes +and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are discharged +into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving +upon its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable +evidences of their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali +and sulphuric acid works is well known; the acid character of rains +collected near and in cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal +strength of some local rainfalls, have been fully discussed. The +exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith in Scotland, and the +interesting reports of French examiners, have made the scientific +world familiar, not only qualitatively but quantitatively, with the +chemical nature of some rains, as well as with their solid +sedimentary contents.</p> + +<p>Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact +that the rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding +this due solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended +particles of chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free +chlorine, it appeared interesting to determine the average amount +of these salts in the rain water of the sea coast. The results +given in this paper refer to a district on Staten Island, New York +harbor, at a point four miles from the ocean, slightly sheltered +from the ocean's immediate influence by the intervention of low +ranges of hills. They were communicated to the Natural Science +Association of Staten Island, but the details of the observations +may prove of interest to the readers of the <i>Quarterly</i>, and +may there serve as a record more widely accessible.</p> + +<p>It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in +rainfalls near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, +putting aside local exceptions arising from cities or +manufactories, increasing with the proximity of the point of +observation to the ocean, and also showing a marked relation to the +exposure of the position chosen to violent storms. Thus the west +coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger quantities of chlorides +than those of the east, and the table given by Dr. Smith shows the +variations in neighboring localities on the same seafront. The +chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer leaves the +sea coast. In the following observations the waters of thirty-two +rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of silver +in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a liter, +and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common +salt, as the position of the point of observation is not removed +more than a mile from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric +acid works in New Jersey, yet this could not even generally have +been so, as the rain storms came, for the greater number of +instances, from the east, in an opposite direction to the position +of the factories alluded to. It has also been noticed by Mr. A. +Hollick, to whom these observations were of interest, that in heavy +storms a salt film often forms upon fruit exposed to the easterly +gales upon the shores of the island.</p> + +<p>The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for +sodic chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for +1884, as reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, +somewhat higher than usual, as the average for a series of years +before gives 46 inches; but taking these former figures, we find +that for that year (1884) each acre of ground received, accepting +the results obtained by my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of +common salt, if we regard the entire chlorine contents of the rains +as due to that body, or 46.23 pounds of chlorine alone.</p> + +<p>In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, +an examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one +year about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds +were regarded as common salt.</p> + +<p>Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, +it is not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating +it in small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample +supply. These facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing +influence of rains, and they also suggest to what extent rains may +exert a corrosive action when they descend charged with acid +vapors.—<i>L.P. Gratacap, in School of Mines +Quarterly</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CHROMATOSCOPE.</h2> + +<p>Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has +named a chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot +lens that we take the following description from the <i>Journal</i> +of the Royal Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of +illuminating and defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a +similar manner to that in which the polariscope defines polarizable +objects. It can also be applied to many polarizable objects. This +quality, combined with the transmission of a greater amount of +light than is obtainable by the polariscope, renders objects thus +seen much more effective. It is constructed as follows: Into the +tube of the spot lens a short tube is made to move freely and +easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the outer one, which +is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying a glass +plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about +8, 5, and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some +extent through the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong +yellow, thus giving four principal colors. Secondary colors are +formed by a combination of the rays in passing through the spot +lens.</p> + +<p>"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in +quality as possible, and a better effect is obtained by three +pieces of stained glass than by a number of small pieces. The +application of the chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be +used with all objectives up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, +particularly crystals which will not polarize, diatoms, infusoria, +palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be seen to greater +advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. As its cost +is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, large or +small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are known, I +am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to the +microscope."</p> + +<hr> +<p>Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, +finds, contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants +assimilate nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest +quantity when supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. +Well fed plants acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from +the air. It seems probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in +some way assimilated by the plants.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 514, November 7, 1885 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: April 3, 2004 [EBook #11761] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN 514 *** + + + + +Produced by Jon Niehof, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 514 + + + + +NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 7, 1885 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XX., No. 514. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY.--Chlorides in the Rainfall of 1884. + Apparatus for Evaporating Organic Liquids.--With description + and 3 figures. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Relative Costs of Fluid and + Solid Fuels. + + The Manufacture of Steel Castings. + + Science in Diminishing Casualties at Sea.--Extract of a paper + read before the British Association by DON ARTURO DE MARCOARTER. + + Improved Leveling Machine. 9 figures. + + The Span of Cabin John Bridge. + + Improvements in Metal Wheels. 3 figures. + + Apparatus for the Production of Water Gas. 3 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--The Blue Print Process.--R.W. JONES. + + Reproductions of Drawings in Blue Lines on White Ground.--By + A.H. HAIG. + + A Plan for a Carbonizing House.--With full description and 5 + figures. + + The Scholar's Compasses. + + The Integraph.--With full description and engraving. + + Apparatus for the Manufacture of Gaseous Beverages. 2 engravings. + + Sandmann's Vinegar Apparatus. 1 figure. + + Field Kitchens. 8 figures. + + A New Cop Winding Machine. 3 figures. + + The Preservation of Timber.--Report of the Committee of the + American Society of Engineers.--The Boucherie + process.--Experiments.--Decay of timber. + +IV. PHYSICS, ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, ETC.--Apparatus for Measuring + the Force of Explosives.--With engraving. + + Lighting and Ventilating by Gas.--Advantages of gas over + electricity, etc.--By WM. SUGG. 2 figures. + + Ander's Telephone. 1 figure. + + Brown's Electric Speed Regulator. 1 figure. + + Magneto-electric Crossing Signal. 2 figures. + + The Chromatoscope.--An aid to microscopy. + +V. ART AND ARCHITECTURE.--The Barbara Uttmann Statue at + Annaberg, Saxony. + + Improvements in Concrete Construction.--Use of Portland + cement.--System of building in concrete invented by Messrs. F. & + J.P. West, London. + + Albany Buildings. Southport.--An engraving. + +VI. PHYSIOLOGY, HYGIENE, ETC.--The Sizes of Blood Corpuscles + in Mammals and Birds.--A table. + + The Absorption of Petroleum Ointment and Lard by the Skin. + +VII. MISCELLANEOUS.--The Missing German Corvette Augusta.--With + engraving. + + The Tails of Comets.--The effect by a disturbance of solar + waves, and not by special matter. + + * * * * * + + + + +ROMAN REMAINS AT LEICESTER, ENGLAND. + + +The Roman tessellated pavement in Jewry Wall Street, Leicester, +discovered in the year 1832, is well known to archaeologists; it has +also been known as difficult of access, and hardly to be seen in a dark +cellar, and, in fact, it has not been seen or visited, except by very +few persons. Some time ago the Town Council resolved to purchase the +house and premises, with the object of preserving the pavement _in +situ_, and of giving additional light and better access to it, and, this +purchase having been completed in the beginning of the present year, the +work of improvement began. It was now seen that the pavement was +continuous under the premises of the adjoining house, and under the +public street, and arrangements were at once made to uncover and annex +these adjoining parts, so as to permit the whole to be seen at one view. +The pavement thus uncovered forms a floor which, if complete, would +measure 23 feet square; it lacks a part on the west side, and also the +entire south border is missing. It is a marvel of constructive skill, of +variety and beauty in form and color, and not the least part of the +marvel arises from the almost beggarly elements out of which the +designer has produced his truly harmonious effects. No squared, +artificially colored, or glazed tesserae, such as we see in a modern +floor, are used, but little pieces, irregularly but purposely formed of +brick and stone. There are three shades of brick--a bright red, a dull +or Indian red, and a shade between the two; slate from a neighboring +quarry gives a dark bluish gray; an oolite supplies the warmer buff; and +a fine white composition resembling limestone is used for the center +points and borders. In addition, the outside border is formed with +tesserae of rather larger size of a sage green limestone. Speaking +generally, the design is formed by nine octagon figures, three by three, +surrounded and divided by a guilloche cable band; the interspaces of the +octagons are filled by four smaller square patterns, and the outer +octagon spaces by 12 triangles. Outside these is a border formed by a +cable band, by a second band of alternate heart-shaped, pear-shaped, and +bell-shaped flowers, and by alternate white and gray bands; and outside +all is the limestone border already described. This border is +constructed with tesserae about five-eighths of an inch square. The +remaining tesserae vary from one half to one-quarter inch of irregular +rhomboidal form. The construction of the pavement is remarkable. There +is a foundation of strong concrete below; over it is a bed of pounded +brick and lime three to four inches thick, and upon this a layer of fine +white cement, in which the tesserae are laid with their roughest side +downward. Liquid cement appears to have been poured over the floor, +filling up the interstices, after which the surface would be rubbed down +and polished. + +As to the probable date and occupation of the floor, it may be observed +that the site of this pavement was near the center of the western Roman +town. It is near the Jewry Wall, that is, near the military station and +fortress. It was obviously the principal house in the place, and as +clearly, therefore, the residence of the Praefectus, the local +representative of the imperial power of Rome. The Roman occupation of +the district began with the propraetorship of Ostorius Scapula, A.D. 50. +He was succeeded in 59 by Suetonius Paulinus, who passed through +Leicester from the Isle of Anglesea when the insurrection under Boadicea +broke out. In the service of Suetonius was Julius Agricola, who was +elected consul and governor of Britain about the year 70. He is commonly +described as a wise and good governor, who introduced the arts of +civilized life, taught the natives to build, and encouraged education. +He left Britain about the year 85, and from that time to the decline of +the Roman power is but about 300 years. We shall not be far from the +truth, therefore, if we assign this work to the time or even to the +personal influence of Agricola, 1,800 years ago.--_London Times_. + + * * * * * + +Some time ago we published the fact that the Empress of Germany had +offered a prize of $1,000 and the decoration of the Order of the Red +Cross to the successful inventor of the best portable field hospital. +Wm. M. Ducker, of No. 42 Fulton St., Brooklyn, sent in a design for +competition. A few days ago Mr. Ducker received notice that his +invention had won the prize. Another instance of the recognition of +American genius abroad. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BARBARA UTTMANN STATUE AT ANNABERG, SAXONY. + + +The question whether Barbara Uttmann, of Annaberg, Saxony, was the +inventor of the art of making hand cushion lace, or only introduced it +into Annaberg, in the Saxon mountains, has not yet been solved, +notwithstanding the fact that the most rigid examinations have been +made. It is the general belief, however, that she only introduced the +art, having learned it from a foreigner in the year 1561. The person +from whom she acquired this knowledge is said to have been a Protestant +fugitive from Brabant, who was driven from her native land by the +constables of the Inquisition, and who found a home in the Uttmann +family. However, the probability is that what the fugitive showed +Barbara Uttmann was the stitched, or embroidered, laces--points, so +called--which are still manufactured in the Netherlands at the present +time. It is very probable that the specimens shown induced Barbara +Uttmann to invent the art of making lace by means of a hand cushion. + +[Illustration: BARBARA UTTMANN, INVENTOR OF HAND CUSHION LACE.] + +Very little is known of the family of Barbara Uttmann, which was +originally from Nurnberg; but members of the same migrated to the Saxon +mountains. Barbara's husband, Christof Uttmann, was the owner of +extensive mines at Annaberg, and was very wealthy. She died at Annaberg, +Jan. 14, 1584. + +The art of making hand cushion lace was soon acquired by most of the +residents in the Saxon mountains, which is a poor country, as the +occupation of most of the inhabitants was mining, and it frequently +happened that the wages were so low, and the means of sustaining life so +expensive, that some other resource had to be found to make life more +bearable. Barbara Uttmann's invention was thus a blessing to the +country, and her name is held in high esteem. A monumental fountain is +to be erected at Annaberg, and is to be surmounted by a statue of the +country's benefactress, Barbara Uttmann. The statue, modeled by Robert +Henze, is to be cast in bronze. It represents Barbara Uttmann in the +costume worn at the time of the Reformation. She points to a piece of +lace, which she has just completed, lying on the cushion, the shuttles +being visible. + +Some point, Valenciennes, and Guipure laces are made on a cushion by +hand, with bobbins on which the thread is wound, the pins for giving the +desired pattern to the lace being stuck into the cushion. A yard of hand +cushion lace has been sold in England for as much as $25,000. The +annexed cut, representing the Barbara Uttmann statue, was taken from the +_Illustrirte Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + +A Boston paper tells of a man who built two houses side by side, one for +himself and one to sell. In the house sold he had placed a furnace +against the party wall of the cellar, and from its hot air chamber he +had constructed flues to heat his own domicile. The owner of the other +house found it very hard to keep his own house warm, and was astounded +at the amount of coal it took to render his family comfortable, while +the "other fellow" kept himself warm at his neighbor's expense nearly a +whole winter before the trick was discovered. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENTS IN CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION. + + +Portland cement concrete if made with a non-porous aggregate is +impervious to moisture, and yet at the same time, if not hydraulically +compressed, will take up a sufficient quantity of moisture from the air +to prevent condensation upon the surface of the walls. It not only +resists the disintegrating influences of the atmosphere, but becomes +even harder with the lapse of time. It may also be made in several +different colors, and can be finished off to nearly a polished surface +or can be left quite rough. Walls built of this material may be made so +hard that a nail cannot be driven into them, or they can be made +sufficiently soft to become a fixing for joinery, and, if a non-porous +aggregate be used, no damp course is required. Further than this, if +land be bought upon which there is sufficient gravel, or even clay that +can be burnt, the greatest portion of the building material may be +obtained in excavating for the cellar; and in seaside localities, if the +(salt) shingle from the beach be used, sound and dry walls will be +obtained. The use of concrete as a material for building will be found +to meet all the defects set forth by practical people, as it may be made +fire-proof, vermin-proof, and nail-proof, and in dwellings for the poor +will therefore resist the destructive efforts of the "young barbarian." +Nothing, therefore, can be better as a building material. The system +ordinarily employed to erect structures in concrete consists of first +forming casings of wood, between which the liquid concrete is deposited, +and allowed to become hard, or "to set." The casings are then removed, +the cavities and other imperfections are filled in, and the wall +receives a thin facing of a finer concrete. If mouldings or other +ornament be required, they are applied to this face by the ordinary +plasterer's methods. This system finds favor in engineering +construction, and also in very simple forms of architectural work, but +with very complicated work the waste in casings is very great. Besides +this, however, the face is found sometimes to burst off, especially if +it has been applied some time after the concrete forming the body of the +wall has set, and the method of applying ornament is not economical. + +[Illustration: 1.-18.] + +A system of building in concrete has recently been invented by Messrs. +F. & J.P. West, of London, illustrations of which we now present. To +this system Messrs. West have given the name of "Concrete Exstruction," +from the Latin "exstructio," which they consider to be a more +appropriate word than "constructio," as applied to concrete building in +general. In Messrs. West's system of building in concrete, instead of +employing wood casings, between which to deposit the concrete or beton, +and removing them when the beton has become hard, casings of concrete +itself are employed. These casings are not removed when the beton has +set, but they become a part of the wall and form a face to the work. In +order to form the casings, the concrete is moulded in the form of slabs. +Figs. 1 to 18 of our engravings show various forms of the slab, which +may be manufactured with a surface of any dimensions and of rectangular +(Fig. 1), triangular, hexagonal (Figs. 2, 14, and 15), and indeed of any +other form that will make a complete surface, while for thickness it may +be suited to the work to which it is to be applied, that used for heavy +engineering work differing from that employed in house construction. It +is found that the most convenient height for the rectangular slab (Fig. +1) is 12 inches and the breadth 18 inches, as the parts of a structure +built with slabs of these dimensions more often correspond with +architectural measurements. The hexagonal slab (Fig. 2) is made to +measure 12 inches between its parallel sides. Where combinations of +these slabs will not coincide with given dimensions, portions of slabs +are moulded to supply the deficiency. The moulds in which the slabs are +made are simple frames with linings having a thin face of India-rubber +or other suitable material, by the use of which slabs with their edges +as shown, and also of the greatest accuracy, can be manufactured. That +portion of the back of the slab which is undercut is formed by means of +soft India-rubber cores. The moulds for making portions of the slabs +have a contrivance by which their length may be adjusted to suit given +dimensions. + +During the process of casting the slabs, and while they are in a plastic +state, mouldings (if required) or other ornaments, having a suitable +key, are inserted in the plastic surface, which is finished off to them +(Figs. 7, 8, and 10). The slabs may also be cast with ornaments, etc., +complete at one operation (Fig. 11), but it is more economical to have +separate moulds for the mouldings and other ornaments, and separate +moulds for the slabs, and to apply the mouldings, etc., during the +process of casting the slab. Corbels (Fig. 9), sets off (which would be +somewhat similar to the plinth course slab No. 10), and other +constructive features may also be applied in a similar way, or may be +provided for during the casting of the slab. A thin facing of marble or +other ornamental solid or even plastic material may be applied to the +face of the slabs during the process of casting, thus enabling the work +to be finished as it is carried up, or a key may be formed on the face +of the slab to enable the structure to be plastered afterward. + +[Illustration: FIG. 19. FIG 20.] + +In Fig. 20, the structure from the bottom of the trenches is shown with +the sides of the trenches removed. It will be seen that the footings are +constructed in the most economical manner by not being stepped. As no +damp-course is required in concrete work, when the aggregate is of a +non-porous material, one is not shown. Upon the top of the footings is +generally laid a horizontal slab, called the wall-base slab, the special +feature of which is that it enables the thickness of the wall to be +gauged accurately, and also provides a fixing for the first course of +slabs. Figs. 4 and 5 show such slabs for internal and external angles, +and Fig. 6 shows one for straight work. The use of a wall-base slab is +not essential, although it is the more accurate method of building, for +in cases where it is desirable to economize labor, or from other causes, +the slabs forming the first course may be made with a thicker base, and +may be fixed by a deposition of concrete, which is allowed to set behind +them. The second course of slabs is laid upon the first course with +breaking joints of half-slab bond, each course being keyed to the other +by means of a quick-setting cementing material poured into the key-holes +provided in the edges of the slab for that purpose, a bituminous cement +being preferred. The key-holes are made in several ways, those shown in +the illustrations being of a dovetail shape; circular, square, or indeed +holes of any other shape formed in the edges of the slab and in an +oblique direction are also employed. Special slabs for cants, or +squint-quoins (Figs. 17 and 18) and angles (Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, and +16) are manufactured, the angle occurring (if we omit the hexagonals and +take the 18 inch slab) at three-quarters the length of each slab. This +gives a half-slab bond to each course, as on one face of the quoin in +one course will appear a quarter slab and in the course above a +three-quarter slab superimposed upon it, or _vice versa_. Thus are the +walls in Figs. 19 and 20 built up. For openings, the jambs and lintels +(and in window-openings the sill) are made solid with a provision for a +key-hole to the mass of concrete filling behind them. That portion of +the jambs against which the slabs butt has a groove coinciding with a +similar one in the edge of the slab, for the purpose of forming a joggle +joint by squeezing the bedding material into them or by joggling them in +with a cement grout. All the slabs are joggled together in a similar +way. + +[Illustration: FIG. 21.-FIG 25.] + +The plastic concrete filling or beton which the shells are made to +contain may be deposited between the slabs when any number of courses +(according to convenience) have been built up, and when set practically +forms with the solid work introduced a monolith, to which the face slabs +are securely keyed. With over-clayed Portland cements, which are known +to contract in setting, and with those over-limed cements which expand +(both of which are not true Portland cements), the filling in is done in +equal sections, with a vertical space equal to each section left between +them until the first sections have become thoroughly hard, and these are +then filled in at a second operation. In order to provide for flues, +air-passages, and ways for electric installations, and for gas and +water, pipes (made of an insulating material if required) or cores of +the required shape are inserted in the plastic beton, and where +necessary suitable openings are provided on the face of the work. +Provision is also made for fixing joinery by inserting, where required, +slabs made or partly made of a material into which nails may be driven, +such as concrete made with an aggregate of burnt clay, coke, and such +like. Hollow lintels are also made of the slabs keyed together at their +vertical joints, and when in position these are filled in with beton. +This system, however, is only recommended for fire-place openings +instead of arches. + +In Fig. 25, circular construction is exhibited as applied to the apsidal +end of a church, slabs similar to those shown in Fig. 21 being employed +for that purpose, while Figs. 22, 23, and 24 show forms of slabs +suitable for constructing cylinders with horizontal axes and domes. In +Fig. 19, which is the upper part of Fig. 20, is shown a system of +constructing floors of these slabs. It is only necessary to explain that +the slabs are first keyed to the lower flange of the iron joist by means +of a cement (bituminous preferred), and the combination is then fixed in +position, the edges of the slabs adhering to, or rather supported by, +the iron joist being rebated so as to receive and support intervening +slabs, the heading joints of which are laid to break with those of the +slabs supported by the joists. For double floors the iron joists are +made with a double flange on their lower edge, and are fitted to iron +girders, which cross in the opposite direction. This provision secures +the covering of the cross girders on their undersides by the ceiling +slabs. The concrete having been deposited upon the slabs, its upper +surface may be finished off in any of the usual ways, while the ceiling +may be treated in any of the ways described for the walls. This system +does not exclude the ordinary methods of constructing floors and roofs, +although it supplies a fireproof system. Where required, bricks, stone, +and, in fact, any other building material, may be used in conjunction +with the slabs. + +The system of building construction is intended, as in the case with all +concrete, to supersede brickwork and masonry in the various uses to +which they have been applied, and, at the same time, to offer a more +perfect system of building in concrete. Hitherto slab concrete work has +never been erected in a perfectly finished state (i.e., with mouldings, +etc., complete), but has either been left in a rough state or without +ornament, or else has been constructed so as never to be capable of +receiving good ornamental treatment. Hitherto the great difficulty in +constructing concrete walls of concrete and other slabs has been to +prevent the slabs from being forced outward or from toppling over by the +pressure of the plastic filling-in material from the time of its +deposition between the slabs until it has become hard enough to form, +with the slabs, a solid wall. Besides the system of forming the slabs of +L (vertical or horizontal) section, or with a kind of internal buttress +and shoring them up from the outside, or of supporting the slabs upon +framing fixed against the faces of the wall, several devices have been +used to obviate this difficulty. + +In the first place, temporary ties, or gauges, connecting the slabs +forming the two faces of the wall, have been used, and as soon as the +plastic filling-in material has set or become hard (but not before), +these have been removed. Secondly, permanent ties or cramps have been +used, and, as their name implies, have been allowed to remain in the +wall and to be entirely buried in the plastic filling-in material. These +permanent transverse ties or cramps have been of two kinds: those which +were affixed as soon as the slabs were placed in position, and those +which were made to form part of the manufactured slab, as, for instance, +slabs of Z or H horizontal section. Thirdly, a small layer of the +plastic filling-in material itself has been made to act as a transverse +tie by depositing it, when plastic, between the slabs forming the two +parallel faces of each course, allowing it (before filling in the +remaining part) to set and to thus connect together the slabs forming +each face of the wall, a suitable hold on the slabs, in some cases, +being given to the tie by a portion of the slab being undercut in some +way, as by being dovetailed, etc. As the slabs in this latter system +generally have wide bases, they may also be bedded or jointed in cement, +and, provided temporary ties be placed across their upper edges to +connect the slabs forming each face of the wall together, the space +between the faces of the wall may then be filled in with the plastic +concrete. + +All these devices, however, are not of permanent utility; they are only +temporarily required (i.e., up to the time that the beton has become +hard and formed a permanent traverse tie between the two faces of the +wall), for it is manifest that the ultimate object of all slab concrete +construction is: (a) To retain and to mould the plastic concrete used in +forming the wall; (b) to key or fix the slabs to the mass which they +themselves have moulded; and (c) to form a facing to the wall. When +these objects shall have been accomplished, there is no further need of +any tie whatever beyond that which naturally obtains in a concrete wall. +In West's system, however, where the slabs are keyed course to course, +any kind of transverse tie to be used during the process of +construction, except that used in the starting course, is entirely +dispensed with, and the courses of slabs above depend solely upon the +courses of slabs below them for their stability and rigidity up to the +time that the plastic filling-in has been deposited and become hard +between both faces of the wall. + +[Illustration: CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION] + +There is, however, a more decided difference between West's system and +those previously in use, for it is marked by the fact that the slabs +composing the shell of the whole structure in many cases may be built up +before the filling-in is deposited between the slabs, and in none of the +other cases can this be done. In fact, only in the first two cases +before mentioned can more than one course of slabs be laid before +filling-in of some kind must be done. Compared with the ordinary method +of building in concrete, this system avoids: 1. The charge for use and +waste of wood casings; 2. finishing the face of the work (both inside +and outside) after the structure is raised, and, therefore, the +bursting-off of the finished face; and 3. the difficulties encountered +in working mouldings and other ornaments on the face of the work by the +ordinary plasterer's methods. It also provides a face of any of the +usual colors that may be obtained in concrete, besides a facing of any +other material, such as marble, etc., and produces better and more +durable work, at the same time showing a saving in cost, especially in +the better classes of work; all of which is effected with less plant +than ordinarily required. For engineering work, such as sea walls, the +hexagonal slabs, made of greater thickness than those employed for +ordinary walling, will answer admirably, especially if the grooves be +made proportionately larger. By the use of these slabs the work may be +built up with great rapidity. For small domestic work, such as the +dwellings of artisans, these slabs; which are of such a form as to +render them easy of transport, may be supplied to the workmen themselves +in order that they may erect their own dwellings, as, on account of the +simplicity of this system and the absence of need of plant, any +intelligent mechanic can do the work. + +Any arrangement of independent scaffolding may be employed for this +system, but that invented specially for the purpose by Mr. Frank West, +as shown in Fig. 26 of our engravings, is to be preferred. It not only +supplies the necessary scaffold, but also the necessary arrangements for +hoisting the slabs, as well as for raising the liquid concrete and +depositing it behind the slabs. It is really an independent scaffold, +and may be used wherever a light tramway of contractor's rails can be +laid, which in crowded thoroughfares would of necessity be upon a +staging erected over the footway. The under frame is carried upon two +bogie frames running upon the contractor's rail, by which means it is +enabled to turn sharp curves, a guide plate inside the inner rail being +provided at the curves for this purpose. The scaffold itself consists of +a climbing platform made to travel up or down by means of four posts +which have racks attached to their faces, and which are fixed to the +under frame and securely braced to resist racking strains. A worm +gearing, actuated by a wheel on the upper side of the scaffold, causes +the scaffold to ascend or descend. A railgrip, made to act at the curves +as well as on the straight portions of the rail by being attached to a +radial arm fixed to the under frame, assists the stability of the +scaffold where required, but the gauge of the rails is altered to render +the scaffold more or less stable according to its height. Combined with +the same machine, and traveling up and down one of the same posts used +for the scaffold, is an improved crane. Its action depends upon the +proposition in geometry that if the length of the base of a triangle be +altered, its angles, and therefore its altitude, are altered. A portion +of the vertical post up and down which the crane climbs forms the base +of a triangle, and a portion of the jib, together with the stay, forms +the remaining two sides. Hence, by causing the foot of one or the other +to travel upward, by means of the worm gearing, the upper end of the jib +is either elevated or depressed. + +The concrete elevator, which is also combined with the scaffold, +consists of a series of buckets carried upon two parallel endless chains +passing over two pairs of wheels. On the under frame is fixed a hopper, +into which is thrown, either by hand or from a concrete mixer running +upon the rails, the material to be hoisted, and from which it gravitates +into a narrow channel, through which pass the buckets (attached to the +chain) with a shovel-like action. The buckets, a motor being applied to +one pair of wheels, thus automatically fill themselves, and on arriving +at top are made to tip their contents, and jar themselves, automatically +into a hopper by means of a small pinion, keyed to the shaft by which +they are attached to the endless chain, becoming engaged in a small rack +fixed for that purpose. From the upper hopper the material is taken away +to the required destination by means of a worm working in a tube. For +varying heights, extra lengths of chain and buckets are inserted and +secured by a bolt passed through each end link, and secured by a nut. By +using this scaffold, a saving in plant, cartage, and labor is effected. +The elevator may also be used for raising any other material besides +concrete. + +Such is the new system of concrete construction and scaffolding of +Messrs. West, which appears to be based on sound and reasonable +principles, and to have been thoughtfully and carefully worked out, and +which moreover gives promise of success in the future. We may add in +conclusion that specimens of the work and a model of a scaffold +are shown by Messrs. West at their stand in the Inventions +Exhibition.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + +[Illustration: ALBANY BUILDINGS SOUTHPORT. E.W. JOHNSON, ARCHITECT.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BLUE PRINT PROCESS. + +R.W. JONES. + + +1. Cover a flat board, the size of the drawing to be copied, with two or +three thicknesses of common blanket or its equivalent. + +2. Upon this place the prepared paper, sensitive side uppermost. + +3. Press the tracing firmly and smoothly upon this paper, by means of a +plate of clear glass, laid over both and clamped to the board. + +4. Expose the whole--in a clear sunlight--from 4 to 6 minutes. In a +winter's sun, from 6 to 10 minutes. In a clear sky, from 20 to 30 +minutes. + +5. Remove the prepared paper and pour clear water on it for one or two +minutes, saturating it thoroughly, and hang up to dry. + +The sensitive paper may be readily prepared, the only requisite quality +in the _paper_ itself being its ability to stand washing. + +Cover the surface evenly with the following solution, using such a brush +as is generally employed for the letter-press: 1 part soluble citrate of +iron (or citrate of iron and ammonia), 1 part red prussiate of potash, +and dissolve in 10 parts of water. + +The solution must be kept carefully protected from light, and better +results are obtained by not mixing the ingredients until immediately +required. After being coated with the solution, the paper must be laid +away to dry in a dark place, and must be shielded entirely from light +until used. When dry, the paper is of a yellow and bronze color. After +exposure the surface becomes darker, with the lines of the tracing still +darker. Upon washing, the characteristic blue tint appears, with the +lines of the tracing in vivid contrast. Excellent results have been +obtained from glass negatives by this process.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + + + + +REPRODUCTION OF DRAWINGS IN BLUE LINES ON WHITE GROUND. + +A.H. HAIG. + + +The following process for making photographic copies of drawings in blue +lines on white background was invented by H. Pellet, and is based on the +property of perchloride of iron of being converted into protochloride on +exposure to light. Prussiate of potash when brought into contact with +the perchloride of iron immediately turns the latter blue, but it does +not affect the protochloride. + +A bath is first prepared consisting of ten parts perchloride of iron, +five parts oxalic or some other vegetable acid, and one hundred parts +water. Should the paper to be used not be sufficiently sized, dextrine, +gelatine, isinglass, or some similar substance must be added to the +solution. The paper is sensitized by dipping in this solution and then +dried in the dark, and may be kept for some length of time. To take a +copy of a drawing made on cloth or transparent paper, it is laid on a +sheet of the sensitive paper, and exposed to light in a printing frame +or under a sheet of glass. The length of exposure varies with the state +of the weather from 15 to 30 seconds in summer to from 40 to 70 seconds +in winter, in full sunlight. In the shade, in clear weather, 2 to 6 +minutes, and in cloudy weather, 15 to 40 minutes may be necessary. The +printing may also be done by electric light. The print is now immersed +in a bath consisting of 15 to 18 parts of prussiate of potash per 100 +parts of water. Those parts protected from the light by the lines of the +drawing immediately turn blue, while the rest of the paper, where the +coating has been converted into protochloride by the effects of light, +will remain white. Next, the image is freely washed in water, and then +passed through a bath consisting of 8 to 10 parts of hydrochloric acid +to 100 parts of water, for the purpose of removing protoxide of iron +salt. + +It is now again washed well in clean water and finally dried, when the +drawing will appear in blue on a white background.--_Proc. Eng. Club, +Phila._ + + * * * * * + +[PROCEEDINGS OF THE ENGINEERS' CLUB OF PHILADELPHIA.] + + + + +RELATIVE COSTS OF FLUID AND SOLID FUELS. + +[Footnote: Read June 20, 1885.] + +By JAMES BEATTY, JR., Member of the Club. + + +During the past twenty-five years there have been numerous efforts to +introduce fluid fuels as substitutes for coal, for the evaporation of +water in boilers, metallurgical operations, and, on a small scale, for +domestic purposes. + +The advantages claimed for these fuels are: Reduction in the number of +stokers, one man being able to do the work of four using solid fuel. +Reduction in weight, amounting to one-half with the better classes. +Reduction in bulk; for petroleum amounting to about thirty-six per +cent., and with the gases, depending on the amount of compression. Ease +of kindling and extinguishing fires, and of regulation of temperature. +Almost perfect combustion and cleanliness. + +Siemens used gas, distilled from coal and burnt in his well known +regenerative furnace. + +Deville experimented with petroleum on two locomotives running on the +Paris and Strassburg Railroad. + +Selwyn experimented with creosote in a small steam yacht, and under the +boilers of steamship Oberlin. + +Holland experimented with water-gas in the furnace of a locomotive +running on the Long Island Railroad. + +Isherwood experimented with petroleum under the boilers of United States +steamers. + +Three railroads in Russia are using naphtha in their locomotives, and +steamers on the Volga are using the same fuel. + +Wurtz experimented with crude petroleum in a reheating furnace at Jersey +City. + +Dowson, Strong, Lowe, and others have devised systems for the production +of water gas. + +These experiments, in general, have produced excellent results when +considered merely in the light of heat production, but, in advocating +their systems, the inventors seem to have overlooked the all-important +item of cost. + +It is the object of this paper to show the impracticability of such +systems when considered from a commercial standpoint, so long as the +supply of coal lasts, and prices keep within reasonable limits. + +In many cases, authors on the subject have given purely theoretical +results, without allowing for losses in the furnace. + +The fuels to be considered are anthracite and bituminous coals, crude +petroleum, and coal, generator and water gases. + +The average compositions of these fuels (considering only the heating +agents), as deduced from the analysis of eminent chemists, are: + +PERCENTAGE BY WEIGHT. + + ________________________________________________________ + | C | H | O | CO |CH_{4}|C_{2}H_{4} + +----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + Anthracite |87.7| 3.3 |3.2| | | + Bituminous |80.8| 5.0 |8.2| | | + Petroleum |84.8|13.1 |1.5| | | + Coal gas | | 6.5 | |14.3| 52.4 | 14.8 + Generator gas | | 1.98| |35.5| 1.46| + Water gas | | 6.3 |0.6|87.8| 1.2 | + ------------------+----+-----+---+----+------+---------- + +We will employ the formula of Dulong-- + + h = 14,500 C + 62,000 (H - O/8) + +to compute the theoretical heating powers of these fuels. In the case of +methane, CH_{4}, the formula is not true, but the error is not great +enough to seriously affect the result. This gives for the combustion of +one pound of: + + Anthracite 14,500 Br. Heat Units. + Bituminous 14,200 " " " + Petroleum 20,300 " " " + Coal gas 20,200 " " " + Generator gas 3,100 " " " + Water gas 8,500 " " " + +Reducing the above to terms of pounds of water evaporated from 212 deg. F., +we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212 deg. F. + + Anthracite 15.023 + Bituminous 14.69 + Petroleum 21.00 + Coal gas 20.87 + Generator gas 3.21 + Water gas 8.7 + +The results of experiments show the efficiency of fluid-burning furnaces +to be about ninety per cent., while with coal sixty per cent. may be +taken as a good figure. The great difference in the efficiencies is due +to the fact that fluid fuels require for combustion very little air +above the theoretical quantity, while with the solid fuels fully twice +the theoretical quantity must be admitted to dilute the products of +combustion. + +Correcting our previous results for these efficiencies, we have: + +POUNDS OF WATER ACTUALLY EVAPORATED FROM 212 deg. F., PER POUND OF FUEL. + + Anthracite 9.0 + Bituminous 8.8 + Petroleum 18.9 + Coal gas 18.8 + Generator gas 2.9 + Water gas 7.8 + +These figures agree closely with the results of experiments. + +We will now consider the subject of cost. + +The following cities have been selected, as manufacturing centers, +termini of railroads, or fueling ports for steamers. + +In the case of petroleum, as it is rarely shipped in the crude state, an +approximation is made by adding to the cost at the nearest shipping port +the freight charged on refined petroleum, and ten per cent. to cover +duties and other charges. + +Owing to the difficulty of obtaining prices, in some of the cities, +there may be some errors. + + COSTS. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite Bituminous Coal gas + per ton of per ton of per 1,000 + 2,240 lb. 2,240 lb. cubic feet. + + New York $4 00 $4 25 $1 75 + Chicago 5 00 3 50 1 25 + New Orleans 6 00 3 50 3 00 + San Francisco 12 00 7 50 3 00 + London 5 00 3 00 0 75 + Port Natal 12 50 11 00 + Sydney 12 00 7 00 + Valpariso 11 50 7 50 + + Generator Crude Water gas + gas per 1,000 Petroleum per per 1,000 + cubic feet. bbl. of 42 gal. cubic feet. + + New York $0 45 $1 80 $0 50 + Chicago 45 2 00 50 + New Orleans 45 2 50 60 + San Francisco 55 2 00 60 + London 43 2 70 45 + Port Natal Ap- 4 00 Ap- + Sydney proxi- 4 50 proxi- + Valparaiso mation. 3 00 mation. + +In calculating the following table the specific gravity of coal gas is +taken at 0.4; generator gas at 0.44; water gas at 0.48; petroleum, 0.8. + + POUNDS OF FUEL FOR $1.00. MARCH, 1884. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Water Generator + gas gas. gas. + + New York 560 527 156 18 74 76 + Chicago 448 640 142 24 74 76 + New Orleans 374 640 114 10 74 76 + San Francisco 187 299 142 10 62 62 + London 448 747 104 40 82 79 + Port Natal 179 204 71 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 187 320 63 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 195 299 94 mate. mate. + +These figures, multiplied by the actual evaporative powers as +calculated, give: + + POUNDS OF WATER EVAPORATED FROM 212 deg. F. FOR $1. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York 5040 4643 2948 338 220 577 + Chicago 4032 5638 2684 451 220 577 + New Orleans 3366 5638 2155 188 220 577 + San Francisco 1683 2634 2684 188 179 484 + London 4032 6581 1966 751 228 640 + Port Natal 1611 1797 1342 Ap- Ap- + Sydney 1683 2819 1191 proxi- proxi- + Valparaiso 1755 2634 1776 mate. mate. + + RELATIVE COSTS. + + Anthracite. Bituminous. Petroleum. Coal Generator Water + gas gas. gas. + + New York $1 00 $1 08 $1 71 $14 92 $22 90 $8 70 + Chicago 1 00 71 1 50 8 72 18 30 7 00 + New Orleans 1 00 59 1 56 17 90 15 30 5 80 + San Francisco 1 00 64 1 50 8 75 9 40 3 50 + London 1 00 61 2 05 7 16 17 70 6 30 + Port Natal 1 00 90 1 21 + Sydney 1 00 34 1 39 + Valparaiso 1 00 44 1 03 + +These figures are very much against the fluid fuels, but there may be +circumstances in which the benefits to be derived from their use will +exceed the additional cost. It is difficult to make a comparison without +considering particular cases, but for intermittent heating petroleum +would probably be more economical, though for a steady fire coal holds +its own. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF STEEL CASTINGS. + + +At the opening meeting for the winter session of the Iron and Steel +Works Managers' Institute, held at Dudley on September 12, Mr. R. +Smith-Casson in the chair, Mr. B.F. McCallem, of Glasgow, read a paper +on "Steel Castings," which developed an interesting discussion upon +steel casting practice. Mr. McCallem said that it was thirty years since +the first crucible steel castings were made in Sheffield in the general +way, and with one exception the method of manufacture was pretty much +the same now as at that early date. The improvement was the employment +of gas furnaces instead of the old coke holes for melting. Important +economies had resulted from this introduction. Where before it required +3 tons of coke to melt 1 ton of steel, the same thing was now done with +35 cwt. of very poor slack. Though it was apparently easy to make +crucible steel castings, it was not in reality easy to make a true +steel, that was to say, to make a metal that contained only the correct +proportions of carbon and silicon and manganese. The only real way to +make crucible castings of true steel was to melt the proper proportions +of cast steel scrap with the proper amounts of silicon and manganese to +produce that chemical composition which was known to be necessary in +best castings. It was in consequence of this difficulty that many makers +resorted to the addition of hematite pigs. The Bessemer process was used +much more extensively upon the Continent than in this country in the +manufacture of castings. It seemed likely that Mr. Allen's agitator for +agitating the steel in the ladle so as to remove the gases would be +taken up largely for open-hearth castings and open-hearth mild steel, as +it had a wonderful effect. The Wilson gas producer, working in +conjunction with the open-hearth furnace, had recently produced some +extremely wonderful results. In some large works, steel was by its aid +being melted from slack which was previously absolutely a waste product. +The method of making open-hearth steel castings might be varied greatly. +The ordinary method generally practiced in this country was a +modification of the Terre Noire process. The moulds employed were only +of secondary importance to the making of the steel itself. Unless the +mould was good, no matter how good the steel was, the casing was +spoiled. The best composition which had been found for moulds was that +of a large firm in Sheffield, but unfortunately it was rather expensive. +A good steel casting ought to contain about 0.3 per cent. carbon and 0.3 +per cent. of silicon and from 0.6 to 1 per cent. of manganese. Such a +casting, if free from other impurities, would have a strength of between +30 and 40 tons, and on an 8 inch specimen would give an elongation of 20 +per cent. or even more. It was possible by the Terre Noire process to +produce by casting as good a piece of steel as could be made by any +amount of rolling and hammering. + +The chairman said that, as they had so high an authority as Mr. McCallem +present, Staffordshire men would like to know his opinion upon the open +hearth basic system, in which they were greatly interested. + +Mr. McCallem said that he believed that the basic process would be +worked successfully in this country in the open-hearth furnace before it +would be in the converter. At the Brymbo Works, in Wales, he had seen +the basic process worked very successfully in the open-hearth furnace; +and he was recently informed by the manager that he was producing ingots +at the remarkably low sum of 65s. per ton. + +The chairman said that some samples which had been sent into +Staffordshire from Brymbo for rolling into sheets had behaved admirably. +He thought that the Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, at Wednesbury, +were at the present moment putting down an open-hearth furnace on the +basic process. + +The discussion was continued with considerable vigor by Messrs. H. +Fisher (vice-president), James Rigby, J. Tibbs, M. Millard, Walker, W. +Yeomans (secretary), and others. Several of these gave it as their +experience that the best castings contained the most blowholes, and Mr. +McCallem accepted the pronouncement, with some slight qualification. + + * * * * * + + + + +SCIENCE IN DIMINISHING CASUALTIES AT SEA. + + +At the recent meeting of the British Association, Don Arturo de +Marcoartu read a paper on the above subject. + +He stated that he wished to draw special attention to increasing the +safety of navigation against storms, fogs, fire, and collisions with +wrecks, icebergs, or vessels, and recommending the development of +maritime telegraphy. He urged that vessels should be supplied with +apparatus to communicate with and telegraph to each other and to the +nearest coast the weather and sea passed over by them, and that reports +given by vessels should be used as "warnings" more extensively. He +wished the mid-Atlantic stations connected by telegraph for the same +purpose. + +In regard to the use of oil on rough seas, he said that Dr. Badeley in +1857, Mr. John Shields five years ago at Peterhead and last year at +Folkestone, the Board of Trade in 1883, and a committee on life saving +appliances of the United States had made experiments. The conclusions of +the committee were that in deep water oil had a calming effect upon a +rough sea, but there was nothing in either source of information which +yet answered the question whether or not there is in the force exerted +by the wind a point beyond which oil cannot counteract its influence in +causing the sea to break. He thought it appeared that oil had some +utility on tidal bars; on wrecks, to facilitate the operations of +rescue; on lifeboats and on lifebuoys. In regard to icebergs, he thought +the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg when in dangerous +proximity to a ship should be tried. He advocated the use of automatic +sprinklers in the case of fire, the establishment of parabolic +reflectors for concentration of sound, and the further prosecution of +experiments by Professor Bell in establishing communication between +vessels some distance apart by means of interrupted electrical currents. +The improvement of navigation, he said, meant an international code of +police to improve police rules of navigation; an international code of +universal telegraphy for navigation; an international office of +meteorology and navigation to collect the studies; experiments on the +weather, on the sea, on the casualties; and the discovery by experiment +of new apparatus and appliances to diminish maritime disaster. + +He had called the attention of two governments to this matter, and he +hoped that before long there would be proposed an international +congress--such as the postal, telegraph, and sanitary congresses, and +the international convention to fix the common meridian--by one of the +maritime powers, by which would be founded an international institution +to diminish casualties at sea. He recommended a universal system of +buoys. The great losses of life and property every year were worthy the +devotion of L300,000 by an international institution, which would be +much less than the monthly average loss in navigation. + +Admiral Pim said that ships were improperly built--some were ten times +longer than their beam. There was nothing in the world so ticklish as a +ship; touch her in the waist, and down she goes. He believed sailing +ships ought not to exceed four times their beam, and steamers certainly +not more than six times. He pointed out that a fruitful cause of +accidents was the stopping of steaming all at once in the case of +impending collision, by which the rudder lost control of the vessel. If +constructors looked more to the form of the ships, and got them to steer +better, collisions would be avoided. + +The Lord Advocate said it had always occurred to him that one great +secret of collisions at sea was the present system of lights, which made +it impossible for the vessel at once to inform another vessel what it +was about. The method of signaling was very crude, and he ventured to +say that it was quite out of date when vessels met each other at a rate +of speed of 24 to 25 knots. He had, as an amateur, tried a method which +he would attempt to explain. His idea was to fit up a lantern on deck, +showing an electric light. The instrument would be controlled by the +rudder, and the commanding officer of the vessel would be able so to +turn it when the helm was put up or down that the light would flash at +some distance in front of either bow of the vessel, and thus be a signal +to a vessel coming in an opposite direction. When the helm was +amidships, the light was shown straight ahead, and could not be moved +until the helm was shifted. The direction in which the vessel was going +could not by any possibility be mistaken, and it was plain that if the +lights from two ships crossed each other, then there was danger. If the +lights were clear of each other, then the ships would pass safely. + +Sir James Douglass asked if his Lordship had made any experiments. + +The Lord Advocate said he had not. The Board of Trade had such a number +of inventions on this subject on hand that he supposed they were already +disgusted. Besides, he was only an amateur, and left the carrying out of +the suggestion to others. + +Sir James Douglass said this idea of a lantern did very well for a short +distance, but for a long distance it utterly failed. It was very +difficult to realize a movement from a distance of over a mile out to +sea, and signals were required to be visible for from two to three +miles. + +The Lord Advocate said his idea depended not upon the object light, but +upon the sweep of the light on the water. + +Sir James Douglass said all those questions were of the utmost +importance to a maritime country. In regard to experiments with oil on +troubled water, he had witnessed them, and he had carefully studied all +the reports, and had come to the conclusion that they were all very well +in a tub of water or a pond, but on the ocean they were utterly +hopeless. He would stake his reputation on that. They had been tried in +the neighborhood of Aberdeen, and he had prophesied the results before +they were commenced. It was utterly hopeless to think that a quantity of +oil had the power of laying a storm--all the world could not produce oil +enough to bring about that result. + +There might be something in maritime telegraphy, and he hoped the +experiments of Mr. Graham Bell, in transmitting through two or three +mile distances, would come to something. He did not believe in powerful +lights. Increase the lights to any very great extent, and a dazzling +effect was the result. In regard to sound, he wondered that no more +effective alarm was used than the whistle. It was well known that, as +the whistle instrument was enlarged, the sound became more and more a +roar. He would have ships use all their boiler power in sounding a +siren, so that the sound could be heard at a distance of not less than +two or three miles in any weather. With such a signal as that there +ought to be, not absolute safety, but collisions would be more easily +prevented. He was glad to say that a universal system of buoys had been +practically arranged, thanks to the Duke of Edinburgh and his committee, +so that, as soon as an old system can be changed to a new one, all the +buoys would bear one universal language. + +Admiral Pim pointed out that a red light would show four miles, while a +green light was only visible for two miles and a half, so that, if a +green light were seen, it indicated that the two vessels were within two +miles and a half of each other. + +Sir James Douglass said there was undoubtedly a weakness in regard to +these lights; and he held that in the manufacture of lights effect +should be given to the difference that existed in the various lights, so +that, by making the green light more powerful, it could penetrate as far +as the red, and in the same way making the red and green lights +proportionately more powerful, so that they would penetrate as far as +the white light. + +Sir James Douglass said he had seen a parabolic reflector for sound +tried, but, unfortunately, the reflector so intensified and focused all +the sounds about the vessel and the noise of the sea that the operator +could hear nothing but a chaos of sound. + + * * * * * + + + + +A PLAN FOR A CARBONIZING HOUSE. + + +The operation of carbonizing woolen rags for the purpose of obtaining +pure wool, through the destruction of the vegetable substances contained +in the raw material, maybe divided into two parts, viz., the immersion +of the rags in acid, with subsequent washing and drying, and the +carbonization properly so called. The first part is so well known, and +is so simple in its details and apparatus, that it is useless to dwell +upon it in this place. But the second requires more scientific +arrangements than those that seem to be generally adopted, and, as +carbonization is now tending to constitute a special industry, we think +it is of interest to give here a typical plan for a plant of this kind. +It will be remarked that this plan contains all the parts in duplicate. +The object of this arrangement is to permit of a greater production, by +rendering the operation continuous through half of the apparatus being +in operation while the other half is being emptied and filled. + +Figs. 4 and 5 give plans of the ground floor and first story, and Figs. +1, 2, and 3 give vertical sections. The second story is arranged like +the first, and serves as a drier. As we have said, there is a double +series of chambers for carbonization, drying, and work generally. These +two series are arranged on each side of a central portion, which +contains the heating and ventilating apparatus and a stone stairway +giving access to the upper stories. The heating apparatus is a hot air +stove provided with a system of piping. The rags to be carbonized or the +wool to be dried are placed upon wire cloth frames. + +The carbonization is effected in the following way: When the heating +apparatus has been fired up, and has been operating for about half an +hour, the apertures, i, are opened so as to let the air in, as are also +those, m, which allow the hot air to pass into the chambers. The hot air +then descends from the top of the chamber into the wool or rags, and, +becoming saturated and heavier, descends and makes its exit from the +chamber through an aperture, n, near the floor, whence it flows to the +central chimney. This latter, which is built of brick or stone, contains +in its center a second chimney (formed of cast or forged iron pipes) +that serves to carry off into the atmosphere the products of combustion +from the heating apparatus. The heat that radiates from these pipes +serves at the same time to heat the annular space through which the +vapors derived from the wool are disengaged. + +The air, heated to 40 deg. or 50 deg., is made to pass thus for several hours, +until the greater part of the humidity has been removed. The temperature +is then raised to 80 deg. or 90 deg. by gradually closing the apertures that +give access to the ventilating chimney. In order that it may be possible +to further increase the temperature during the last hour, and raise it +to 90 deg. or 120 deg., an arrangement is provided that prevents all entrance of +the external air into the heating apparatus, and that replaces such air +with the hot air of the chamber; so that this hot air circulates in the +pipes of the stove and thus becomes gradually hotter and hotter. The hot +vapors that issue from the lower chamber rise into the upper one, where +they are used for the preliminary drying of another part of the +materials. + +The hot air stove should be well lined with refractory clay, in order to +prevent the iron from getting red hot, and the grate should be of +relatively wide surface. All the pipes should be of cast iron, and all +the joints be well turned. Every neglect to see to such matters, with a +view to saving money, will surely lead in the long run to bad results. + +[Illustration: PLAN OF WORKS FOR CARBONIZING WOOL. (Scale 1-200.)] + +The mode of work indicated here is called the moist process. It +necessitates the use of a solution of sulphuric acid, but, as this +latter destroys most colors, it cannot be used when it is desired to +preserve the tint of the woolen under treatment. In this case recourse +is had to the dry process, which consists in substituting the vapors of +nitric acid heated to 115 deg. or 125 deg. for the sulphuric acid. The +arrangement of the rooms must likewise be different. The chambers, which +may be in duplicate, as in the preceding case, are vaulted, and are +about three yards long by three wide and three high. The rags are put +into wire cages that have six divisions, and that are located in the +middle of the chamber, where they are slowly revolved by means of +gearings. Under the floor are the heating flues, and upon it is a +reservoir for holding the vessel that contains the acid to be vaporized. +The arrangements for the admission of air and carrying along the vapors +are the same as in the other case. Great precaution should be taken to +have the flues so constructed as to prevent fire.--_Bull, de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EVAPORATING ORGANIC LIQUIDS. + + +According to Mr. D'A. Bernard, it is especially important, in the dry +distillation of distiller's wash in a closed vessel, for the production +of methyls, ammonia, acetates, and methylamine, that the mass shall be +divided as completely as possible, since it then takes but a relatively +moderate heat to completely destroy the organic coloring matter +contained in the wash. The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 and 2 is based +upon this observation. + +The wash enters, through the hopper, D, and the valve, z, a long boiler, +B, which is heated by the furnace, F, through the intermedium of a +waterbath, w. An agitator, E, moves the mass slowly to the other +extremity of the boiler, from whence it makes its exit in the form of +dust. To the frame, E, are fixed the scrapers, b, and the interrupted +pieces, a, in front of which are the hinged valves, c. In the motion of +the pieces, a, from right to left, these valves free the apertures +thereof and allow the wash to pass, while in the motion from left to +right the apertures are closed and the valves push the mass to be +evaporated before them. + +From any motor whatever, the frame, E, receives a double to and fro +motion in a horizontal and vertical direction, the latter of which is +produced by the rods, f, which are provided at their lower, forked +extremity with rollers, e, over which passes the piece, d, that supports +the frame, E. At their upper part the rods, f, pass through the side of +the boiler, through the intermedium of stuffing boxes, and are connected +by their upper extremities, through a link, with levers, g, that revolve +around the point, h. A cam shaft, M, communicates a temporary, +alternately rising and descending motion to the levers, g, and the rods +f. The same shaft, M, opens and closes the valve, z, of the hopper, D, +and thus regulates the entrance of the wash into the boiler. The frame, +E, receives its horizontal to and fro motion from the rod, l, which +traverses a stuffing-box and is moved by a crank on an eccentric, m. The +material in powder derived from the evaporation of the wash is stored at +the extremity of the apparatus into a lixiviating vessel, G, provided +with a stirrer, H. The salts and other analogous matters are dissolved, +and the residuum, which constitutes a carbonaceous mass, is forced out +of the apparatus, while the solution passes directly to the refinery, +where it is evaporated. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE EVAPORATION OF ORGANIC LIQUIDS.] + +In manufactories where no refining is done, the crude potassa in powder +is pushed on to a prolongation of the apparatus which is cooled by means +of water, and is removed from time to time with shovels by the workmen, +so that the orifice of the boiler remains constantly covered externally +by the mass, and that the air cannot re-enter the apparatus. + +The gases disengaged during the operation pass into a cooler, where they +condense into a liquid which contains ammonia and methylamine. The +non-condensable part of the gases is burned in the furnace of the +manufactory. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED LEVELING MACHINE. + + +In the American Court of the Inventions Exhibition, London, we find a +leveling machine for sheet metals exhibited by Mr. J.W. Britton, of +Cleveland, Ohio, and which we illustrate. + +This apparatus is intended to supersede the cold rolling of plates in +order to take the buckle out of them. The sheets are clamped in the jaws +or grips shown, and the stretch is effected by means of a hydraulic ram +connected directly to the nearest pair of jaws. The power is obtained by +means of a pair of pumps run through spur-gearing by the belt pulleys +shown. The action of the machine puts a strain on those parts of the +plates which are not "bagged" or buckled, and this causes the surface to +extend, the slack parts of the plate not being subject to the same +stretching action. The machine shown is designed to operate on sheet +iron from No. 7 to No. 30 gauge, and up to 36 in. wide, the limit for +length being 120 in. About a dozen sheets can be operated on at once. +The machine appears to have met with considerable success in America, +and has been used for mild steel, iron, galvanized or tinned sheets, +copper, brass, and zinc. The details of this machine are given in Figs. +1 to 8. Figs. 1 and 2 are a plan and side elevation of the bed of the +machine, showing the position of the hydraulic ram. Fig. 3 shows the +bars used for holding the back jaws in position, with the holes for +adjusting to different lengths of the plates. Fig. 4 is a back view and +section of the crosshead and one of the bolts that connect the moving +grip with the hydraulic ram. Fig. 5 gives a plan and cross section of +the back grip, and Fig. 6 is a back elevation of the same, with a front +view and section of the gripping part. Fig. 7 shows the gear by which +the jaws are opened and closed. + +[Illustration: BRITTON'S PLATE STRAIGHTENING MACHINE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES. + + +Among the numerous arrangements that have been devised for drawing +circles in diagrams, sketches, etc., one of the simplest is doubtless +that which is represented in the accompanying figure, and which is known +in England as the "scholar's compasses." It consists of a socket into +which slides a pencil by hard friction, and to which is hinged a +tapering, pointed leg. This latter and the pencil are held at the proper +distance apart by means of a slotted strip of metal and a binding screw. +When the instrument is closed, as shown in the figure to the left, it +takes up but little space, and may be easily carried in the pocket +without the point tearing the clothing, as the binding screw holds the +leg firmly against the pencil. + +The mode of using the apparatus is so well shown in the figure to the +right that it is unnecessary to enter into any explanation.--_La +Nature_. + +[Illustration: THE SCHOLAR'S COMPASSES.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE INTEGRAPH. + + +In scientific researches in the domain of physics we often meet with the +following problem: Being given any function whatever, y = f(x), to find +a curve whose equation shall be + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +Let us take an example that touches us more closely; let us suppose that +we know an induced current, and that we can represent it by a curve +y=f(x). The question is to find the inductive current, that is to say, +the curve represented by the equation + + _ + / + | +y = | f(x)dx + C. + | + _/ + +[TEX: y = \int f(x) dx + C.] + +The apparatus called an integraph, constructed by Messrs. Napoli and +Abdank-Abakanowicz, is designed for solving this problem mechanically, +by tracing the curve sought. Let us take another example from the domain +of electricity, in order to better show the utility of the apparatus; +let us suppose that we have a curve representing the discharge of a pile +or of an accumulator. The abscisses represent the times, and the +ordinates the amperes. The question is to know at every moment the +quantity of coulombs produced by the pile. The apparatus traces a curve +whose ordinates give the number of coulombs sought. We might find a +large number of analogous applications. + +[Illustration: THE INTEGRAPH.] + +The apparatus is represented in the accompanying figure. An iron ruler, +I, parallel with the axis of the X's, is fixed upon a drawing-board, and +is provided with a longitudinal groove in its upper surface. In this +groove move two rollers, which, in the center of the piece that connects +them, carry two brass T-squares that are parallel with each other and at +right angles with the first, or parallel with the axis of the Y's. +Between these two rulers move two carriages, the first of which (nearest +the axis of the X's) carries a point, A, designed to follow the contour +of the curve to be integrated, while the second, which is placed further +away, is provided at the center with a drawing-pen, A', whose point is +guided by two equidistant wheels, R, R', that roll over the paper in +such a way as to have their plane parallel with a given straight line, +and that have always a direction such that the tangent of the point's +angle with the axes of the X's is constantly proportional to the +ordinate of the primitive curve. + +The carriages are rendered very movable by substituting rolling for a +sliding friction of the axes. To this effect, the extremities of the +axes of the wheels that support and guide them are made thin, and roll +over the plane surface of recesses formed for the purpose in the lateral +steel surfaces of the carriages, while the circumference of the wheels +rolls in grooves along the two T-squares. + +These latter are, on the one hand, carried by rollers that run in the +groove of the iron, I, and, on the other, by a single roller that runs +over the paper. At right angles with one of these bars is fixed a +divided ruler, through one point of which continually passes a third +ruler, whose extremity pivots upon the point, A, of the first carriage. + +When the divided ruler is placed upon the axis of the X's, and the +point, A, of this carriage is following the contours of the figure to be +integrated, the tangent of the angle made by the inclined ruler with the +axis of the X's will be proportional to the ordinate of the figure. The +wheels, R and R', of the drawing-pen, A', of the second carriage must +move parallel with this ruler. In order to obtain such parallelism, we +employ a parallelogram formed as follows: Two gear-wheels of the same +diameter are fixed upon the ruler that ends at the point, A, of the +first carriage, and their line of centers is parallel with the latter. +The second carriage likewise carries two drums equal in diameter to +those of the toothed wheels. These are fixed, and their line of centers +must remain constantly parallel with the line of centers of the +gear-wheels, and consequently with the straight line which passes +through the point, A. This parallelism is obtained by means of a weak +steel spring, or of a silken thread passing over the four wheels, the +two first of which (the gear-wheels) hold it taut by means of a barrel +and spring placed in the center of one of them. + +The edge of the wheels, R, R', of the second carriage prevents the +latter from giving way to the traction of the threads, permitting it +thus to move only in the direction of their plane. + +It will be seen that by this system two of the sides of the +parallelogram are capable of elongating or contracting through the +unwinding and winding of the silken thread on the drums of the two cog +wheels, which latter, gearing with each other, allow of the escape of +but the same length of the two threads. + +It will be observed that in this system integration is effected by +forcing the pen to follow a certain direction, and that consequently the +curve does not depend upon the dimensions of the different parts of the +apparatus.--_La_ _Lumiere Electrique_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BEVERAGES. + + +The apparatus represented in the accompanying cuts is designed for the +manufacture of gaseous beverages, and is of Messrs. Boulet & Co.'s make. +Fig. 1 represents the apparatus complete, with gasometer and bottling +machine. Fig. 2 gives a vertical section of the apparatus properly so +called, including the producer, the purifier, and the saturator, all +grouped upon a cast-iron column. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. APPARATUS FOR MANUFACTURING GASEOUS BREEZES.] + +The producer, A, is designed to receive the sulphuric acid and carbonate +of lime. A mixer, F, revolves in the interior of this, and effects an +intimate admixture of the lime and acid without the necessity of the +former being pulverized beforehand. The carbonate of lime (usually in +the form of chalk) is introduced directly into the producer through the +aperture, K, while the acid contained in the receptacle, B, at the side +of the column and above the producer flows put through a curved pipe in +the bottom. The flow is regulated by the valve, C. The receptacle, B, is +lined with platinum. As soon as the acid comes into contact with the +carbonate, there occurs a disengagement of carbonic acid gas, which +flows directly through the pipe, F, into the purifier at the upper part +of the column. From thence the gas passes into a third washer, D, of +glass. When thoroughly washed, it flows through the pipe, L, into the +gasometer, which is of galvanized iron, and is very carefully balanced. + +The saturator, which is the most important part of the apparatus, +comprises a pump, a feed reservoir, and a sphere. The pump, which is of +bronze, is placed at the side of the column, at the lower part (Fig. 1). +This sucks up the gas stored in the gasometer and the water contained in +the reservoir, and forces them into the sphere. This latter is of +bronze, cast in a single piece, and the thickness of its sides prevents +all danger of explosion. It is silvered internally, and provided with a +powerful rotary agitator that favors the admixture of the water and gas. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The apparatus it rendered complete by a bottling machine, which is +placed either on a line with the apparatus or in front of it. This +machine is connected directly with the sphere by a block-tin +pipe.--_Chronique Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES. + + +Among the numerous apparatus that have been devised for determining the +power of powder, those designed for military purposes are the ones most +extensively used. Up to the present, very few experimental apparatus +have been constructed for civil uses, although such are no less +necessary than the others. Mr. D'O. Guttman has examined the principal +types of dynamometers with respect to their use for testing explosive +materials, and, after ascertaining wherein they are defective, has +devised an apparatus in which the principle is the same as that employed +by Messrs. Montluisant and Reffye at Meudon, that is to say, one in +which the force of the powder is made to act upon a lead cylinder fixed +in a conical channel. Mr. Desortiaux objects that in this system, when +it is employed with charges for cannons, the action has already begun +when only a portion of the powder is burned. To this, Mr. Guttman +responds that his apparatus operates only with small charges (300 +grains), which practically inflame simultaneously in every part when the +igniting is done in a closed space. In order that the force may not be +made to act in one direction only, the inventor uses two leaden +cylinders. His apparatus is shown in the accompanying Figs. 1, 2, and 3. +It consists of a median piece, a, and of two heads, b, of an external +diameter of four inches. These pieces are of tempered Bessemer steel. +The two heads are four inches in length, one inch of which is provided +with a screw thread. Each of them contains an aperture, c, 1.34 inches +wide below, 1.3 inches wide above, and 1.18 inches deep. This aperture +is followed by another and conical one, d, 1.38 inches deep, and 0.4 +inch wide at its narrowest end, and finally by another one, e, 0.4 inch +wide, which runs to the exterior. The median piece, a, is 4 inches long. +It is provided at the two sides with nuts, between which there is a +cylindrical space, f, 1.8 inches long, designed to receive the charge. +The inflaming plug, g, is screwed into the exact center of the median +piece, a, which it enters to a depth of one inch. Into the space that +still remains free is screwed a plug, h. The lower surface of the plug, +g, contains a hollow space, 0.6 inch wide and deep. This hollow is +prolonged by another one, 0.24 inch wide, and contains a valve, i, which +has a play of about 0.08 inch. The three parts are connected by a key +which passes into the holes, x, and are rendered tight by copper rings, +y. + +When it is desired to charge the apparatus, a leaden cylinder, 1.34 +inches long and 1.3 inches in diameter, is placed in one of the heads, +and the median piece is so screwed that it can be made still tighter by +a few turns. Then a steel plate, k, 1.3 inches wide by 0.2 inch thick, +is placed against the cylinder, and against this plate again is placed a +cardboard disk, 1.34 inches wide by 0.4 inch thick. This completely +closes the hollow space. The steel plates and heads are marked with the +figures 1 and 2, which, through the pressure, are impressed upon the +leaden cylinders. Then the charge of powder, weighing exactly 300 +grains, is introduced, and a new cardboard disk, a steel plate, and a +leaden cylinder are inserted, and the second head is screwed up. The +apparatus is now ready to operate. An ordinary priming is placed on the +pyramid, h, and the plug with the valve is screwed down in such a way +that the latter shall have a little play. By means of a hammer, m, a +smart blow is given the valve i, and this detonates the priming, and +causes an explosion of the charge. The gases make their exit through the +pyramid, h, and lift the valve and press it against the plug, so that +their escape is effectually prevented. In fact, the explosion takes +place without noise. A slight whistling, only, indicates that the +capsule has not missed fire, and that the apparatus may be immediately +opened, the gases having condensed in the interior. It is well, however, +to place the closed apparatus in water, in order that the residua that +have entered the threads of the screw may become detached, and that the +apparatus may be opened easily. Although there is no danger in standing +alongside the apparatus, it is much better to spring the hammer by means +of a cord of a certain length, since the valve and especially the +pyramid gradually burn and may be thrown out. With some kinds of powder +the pyramid rapidly melts, and must be frequently replaced. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR MEASURING THE FORCE OF EXPLOSIVES.] + +The two cones of lead obtained are then measured to 0.004 of an inch by +means of a gauge (Fig. 3). + +The inventor has made numerous experiments with his apparatus, and +thinks it permits of determining the total force developed by powder +very perfectly. + + * * * * * + + + + +SANDMANN'S VINEGAR APPARATUS. + + +For obtaining anhydrous or very concentrated vinegar directly from +pyrolignite of lime or other acetates by a single distillation, Mr. D. +Sandmann, of Charlottenburg, employs the apparatus shown in the +accompanying engraving. It consists of a double-bottomed copper or +enameled iron boiler, A, arranged for being heated by steam, and the +upper part of which is protected against the action of the acid vapors +disengaged during distillation by a lining of refractory clay. The stone +cover, B, is provided with an aperture, b, through which the boiler is +filled. The steam pipe, k, is inclosed in a second pipe, f, provided +with radii. This tube serves as a stirrer; and is set in motion by means +of a pulley, g. The tube, c, is connected with a worm, h, and the tube, +d, which is provided with a valve, leads to the second boiler, C. The +head, D, which acts, by reason of its internal arrangement, as a +dephlegmator, is of enameled iron, and is provided with a thermometer, +f, and an aperture, p. Above the spirals of the worm, e, are placed +strips of glass, the free intervals between which are filled in with +pieces of glass, porcelain, or any other material not attackable by +acids. The arrangement is such that the rising vapors can regularly and +without obstruction traverse these materials of wide surface. The +condensed liquid falls back into the lower part of the boiler. The worm, +e, debouches into a cooler, F, fed with water through the cock, n. + +At the bottom of the boiler, A, there is fixed a tubulure, r, closed by +a lever, s, and having a fastening device, o. This tubulure permits of +emptying the boiler into the reservoir, L. + +A like arrangement is found in the boiler, C. The valves, V, serve to +introduce steam for heating into the double bottoms of the two boilers. +The water of condensation flows out through the tubes, u. The water for +cooling enters the coolers, F, J, and Z, through the cocks, n, and flows +out through the tubes, v. + +The acetate, previously crushed, is placed in the boiler, A, and the +quantity of acid necessary to decompose it is added. The mass is +afterward mixed with care by means of the stirrer, and the distillation +may then proceed at once. + +The vapors of acetic acid that are disengaged enter the boiler, C, +through the tube, d, and are kept hot by the steam. In the head, D, they +are separated into two portions, viz., into concentrated acetic acid, +which condenses by reason of its high boiling point, and into steam, +which distills and carries along but a very small amount of acetic acid. +This steam passes through the pipe, G, into the worm, H, condenses, and +afterward flows into the vessel, N. + +[Illustration: APPARATUS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF VINEGAR.] + +The acetic acid that accumulates in the boiler, C, must be again +vaporized and treated until it no longer gives off any steam at all +through the pipe, G. The amount of cooling water admitted into the worm, +e, that traverses the head, D, is regulated according to the degree of +concentration it is desired to give the acid. As soon as the steam can +no longer be separated in the boiler, C, and temperature has reached 118 +degrees, the anhydrous acetic acid is distilled through the tube, g, and +received in the cooler, K, wherein it condenses. When the contents of +the boiler, A, have been distilled to dryness, the tube, d, is closed +and the cock of the tube, c, is opened. After this, steam is injected +directly through the tube, k, in order to distill the acetic acid that +still remains in the residuum, and which passes thus through the tube, +e, into the worm, h, and flows into the two-necked bottle, S. + +There may be added to the boiler, C, certain materials for purifying the +acetic acid, such as permanganate of potassa or acetate of soda, so as +to obtain an absolutely pure article.--_Dingler's Polytech. Journal_. + + * * * * * + + + + +FIELD KITCHENS. + + +We illustrate the field kitchens of Captain J.C. Baxter, R.E., in the +Inventions Exhibition. Figs. 1 to 3 represent Captain Baxter's +Telescopic Kitchen, both open for use and packed up for traveling. These +kitchens, which are on an entirely new principle, consist of from three +to five annular kettles, either circular or elliptical, which are placed +one on another, and the fire lighted inside the central tube. The +kettles are built up on the top of the outer case in which they are +carried, the central tube being placed over the grate in the lid. A +small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot, is placed on the top. When +packed up, the annular kettles fit or nest into each other, and into the +outer case; the iron stand packs inside the innermost kettle, and the +top pot is placed on the outer case, being secured by a strap. This form +of kitchen is intended for the use of officers, both regular and +volunteer, and for officers' and sergeants' messes on active service or +in camp. They are also suited for travelers, explorers, colonists, +boating, shooting, and fishing parties, and in fact for all who may +require to cook in the open air. Figs. 4 to 6 represent the kitchen of +the field service pattern with conical kettles, while Figs. 7 and 8 +represent the same pattern with elliptical kettles. These kitchens +consist of five annular vessels, either circular or elliptical, which +are placed one upon another, and the fire lighted in the central tube or +flue. A small iron stand, supporting an ordinary pot or kettle, may be +placed on the top as in the other set. A small hole, 18 inches long, 6 +inches deep, and of the same width as the central tube of the annular +kettles, may be made for an ashpit, or the kitchen may be raised a few +inches from the ground on stones or turf. The annular vessels may be +made cylindrical or conical; in the latter case they will fit or nest +into one another, and save space when not in use. They may be made +circular or elliptical. Those intended for cavalry are provided with +straps to attach them to the saddle. This form of kitchen is intended +for the use of troops on active service, or in camp or barracks, +workhouses prisons, schools, and soup kitchens; also for cooking food +for cattle and hounds; and for all who may require to cook and +distribute quickly large quantities of food, soup, or tea, or to heat +water rapidly at a small cost. The manufacturers are M. Adams & Son, +London.--_Iron_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.-FIG. 3. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.-FIG. 6. FIELD KITCHENS.] + +[Illustration: FIG. 7.-FIG. 8. FIELD KITCHENS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW COP-WINDER. + + +In Germany extensive use is made of a cop-winding machine in which the +wooden spindle consists of a cone moved by a screw, and the position of +which is horizontal. Fig. 1 shows the primitive type of the German +apparatus, in which the cone that forms the cop is set in motion by a +horizontal screw. It is at first the greater diameter of the cone that +moves the tube, and permits the thread to accumulate beneath the narrow +extremity. But, as soon as a core of thread has been formed, it is in +contact with the entire surface of the cone, and thus revolves with a +mean velocity until it is finished. + +In the new model (Fig. 2) the arrangement is different. Here A is the +paper tube, with wooden base, to which it is freely attached, and C is +the cone that moves over the screw, D. The thread passes into a groove +which makes one revolution of the cone, and from thence over the paper +tube, where it receives the form of a cop by reason of the transverse +motion of the cone upon the screw. This transverse motion is at first +prevented by the click, F, which falls into the teeth of the +ratchet-wheel fixed behind the cone. The shaft revolves continuously, +but has, at the same time, a to and fro motion in the direction of its +axis, so as to cause the thread to move forward constantly and form a +cop. This to and fro motion is obtained by means of a lever and a +sleeve, I, the wheel, H, of the shaft being set in motion by the pinion, +J, actuated by the transmission of the machine. As the spindle advances, +a core is formed; the click, F, is then pushed backward, and the cone is +kept in motion by the thread until the cop is finished. + +[Illustration: A NEW COP-WINDING MACHINE.] + +Preference is usually given to the horizontal model; but the system may +likewise be applied to a vertical spindle, and the arrangement in this +case is simpler, as shown in Fig. 3. A rotary motion of the shaft is +useless here, as the click, F, acts in an oblique position upon the +ratchet-wheel, O, and pushes it by reason of the to and fro motion of +the screw. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 513, page 8191.] + + + + +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. + +[Footnote: From the Transactions of the Society.] + +REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS ON +THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER, PRESENTED AND ACCEPTED AT THE ANNUAL +CONVENTION, JUNE 25, 1885. + +BOUCHERIE, OR SULPHATE OF COPPER. + + +The name of Dr. Boucherie is generally applied to the _process_, which +he invented and extensively applied, of preparing wood by forcing a +solution longitudinally through the pores of the wood by means of +hydraulic pressure. As, however, he also patented the use of sulphate of +copper, and his name became attached to the use of that antiseptic, it +will be convenient here to classify experiments made with that substance +under this head. + +Dr. Boucherie was a distinguished French chemist, who between 1836 and +1846 made many elaborate researches and experiments upon the +preservation of timber. He tried many substances, and at first +recommended the use of pyrolignite of iron, but subsequently used +sulphate of copper, which he considered more effective. + +His first experiments were conducted by vital suction, that is, by +tapping the living tree, and allowing the ascending sap to carry up a +preserving solution. This was not found to give uniform or satisfactory +results, and Dr. Boucherie then invented the process which bears his +name. This was practiced either by applying a cap to the end of a +freshly cut log, through which the solution was allowed to flow by +pressure, or by sawing a log nearly through in the middle, raising it at +the center slightly, so as to open the joint, placing a strip of tarred +rope or a rubber band just inside the periphery of the cut log, and +letting it spring back, so as to form a tight joint by pressing upon the +rope or band. An auger hole bored diagonally into the cavity so formed +then served to admit the solution under pressure. + +This process, applied with a solution of about one pound of sulphate of +copper to one hundred pounds of water, has been extensively applied in +France for many years, with satisfactory results. It was found, however, +that to be successful it must be applied to freshly cut trees in the log +only, and that this involved so much delay, moving about, waste, and +annoyance, that it has now been abandoned. These difficulties would be +still greater in this country, and in the Northern States the process +could not be applied at all during the winter (or season for cutting +down trees), as the solution would freeze. + +On this page is a list of the experiments which your committee have been +able to learn about, as having been made with sulphate of copper in this +country. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS. + +SULPHATE OF COPPER, OR BOUCHERIE. + +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + | | | | Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year|Process.| Treated. | Exposure.| Results. | Authority. +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + 1|Chili, S.A. |1857|Boucher.|Poplar |R.R. track|Favorable |W.W. Evans + | | | | ties | | | + 2|Cleveland, O |1870|Thilmany|Ties | " " |Favorable |J.R. Conrad + | | | | | | to 1875 | + 3|Washington |1872| " |Paving |Laboratory|Unfavor. |W.C. Tilden + | | | | blocks | | | + 4|Pensacola |1874| " |Live oak |Teredo |Failure |W.H. Varney + | | | | | | | + 5|Charleston, SC|1875| " |Pine block| " | " |Q.A. Gillmore + | | | | | | | + 6|San Francisco |1876| " | " " | " | " |C.S. Stewart + | | | | | | | + 7|Milwaukee |1876| " | " " |Pavement |Favorable,|Schlitz Bg. + | | | | | | 1882 | Co. + 8|Norfolk, Va. |1876| " |Hackmatack|Teredo |Failure |P.C. Asserson + | | | | | | | + 9|Charlestown, |1877| " |Various |Laboratory|Favorable |J.F. Babcock + | Mass | | | | | | +10|Wabash R.R. |1877| " |Ties |R.R. track|Unfavor. |R.A. Houghton + | | | | | | | +11|Wabash R.R. |1878| " | " | " " | " |W.S. Lincoln + | | | | | | | +12|New York, |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + | Pennsylvania,| | | | | | + | and Ohio R.R.| | | | | | +13|Lake Shore and|1879| " | " | " " | " |R.A. Houghton + | Michigan | | | | | | + | Southern R.R.| | | | | | +14|Cleveland and |1879| " | " | " " | " |C. Latimer + |Pittsburg R.R.| | | | | | +15|Charlestown, |1879| " |Spruce |Sidewalk |Success |S.G. White + | Mass | | | plank | | to 1882 | +16|Baltimore and |1879| " |Ties |R.R. track|Too recent|J.L. Randolph + | Ohio | | | | | | +17|Hudson River |1869|Hamar | " | " " |Success |E.W. Vanderbilt + | R.R. | | | | | | +18|St. Louis |1882|Fladd | " | " " |Too recent|H. Fladd +--+--------------+----+--------+----------+----------+----------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON SULPHATE OF COPPER EXPERIMENTS. + +The first experiment was carried out by Mr. W.W. Evans, on the Southern +Railway of Chili, in 1857, and he informs your committee that in 1860, +when he left that country, the ties were still good and in serviceable +condition. + +We give herewith, in Appendix No. 16, an interesting letter from Mr. E. +Pontzen to Mr. Evans, on the subject of the Boucherie process. + +Experiments Nos. 2 to 16, inclusive, were all tried with various +modifications of the sulphate of copper process as introduced by Mr. W. +Thilmany in this country. They date back to 1870 (experiment No. 2), +when Mr. Thilmany was working and recommending the methods of vital +suction and of the Boucherie hydraulic pressure system. After describing +the foreign methods of injection with sulphate of copper, he states in +his first pamphlet (1870): "This process resulted very satisfactorily, +but it was found that the sulphate of copper became very much diluted by +the sap, and when the same liquid was used several times, the decaying +substance of the sap, viz., the albumen, was reintroduced into the wood, +and left it nearly in its primitive condition." + +He accordingly proposed a double injection, first by muriate of barytes, +and, secondly, by sulphate of copper, forced through by the Boucherie +process, and it is presumed that the ties of 1870, in experiment No. 2, +which showed favorable results when examined in 1875, were prepared by +that process. + +Subsequently Mr. Thilmany changed his mode of application to the Bethell +process of injecting solutions under pressure in closed cylinders, and +probably the paving blocks for experiment No. 3 were prepared in that +way. The chemical examination of them by Mr. Tilden, however, showed the +"saturation very uneven; absorptive power, high; block contains soluble +salts of copper, removable by washing." + +It was expected that the double solution, by forming an insoluble +compound, would prove an effective protection against the _teredo_. +Experiments Nos. 4, 5, 6, and 8, however, proved the contrary to be the +fact. + +The process, when well done, gave moderately satisfactory results +against decay. A pavement laid in the yard of the Schlitz Brewing +Company, in Milwaukee (experiment No. 7), was sound in 1882, after some +six years' exposure. A report by Mr. J.F. Babcock, a chemist of Boston +(experiment No. 9), indicated favorable results, and the planks in a +ropewalk at Charlestown (experiment No. 15), laid in 1879, were yet +sound in 1882. + +The experiments on railroad ties (Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 16), +however, did not result satisfactorily. They seemed favorable at first, +and great things were expected of them; but late examinations made on +the Wabash Railroad, on the New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio, and on the +Cleveland and Pittsburg Railroad, have shown the ties to be decaying, +and the results to be unfavorable. + +This applies to the sulphate of copper and barium process. Mr. Thilmany +has patented still another combination, in which he uses sulphate of +zinc and chloride of barium, which has been noticed under the head of +burnettizing. + +Experiment No. 17 was tried on the Hudson River Railroad. It consisted +of 1,000 sap pine ties, which had been impregnated in the South, by the +Boucherie process, with a mixture of sulphate of iron and sulphate of +copper, under Hamar's patent. These ties were laid in the tunnel at New +Hamburg, a trying exposure, and when examined, in 1882, several of them +were still in the track. The process, however, was found to be so +tedious that it was abandoned after a year's trial, and has not since +been resumed. + +In 1882 Mr. H. Fladd, of St. Louis, patented a method which is the +inverse of the Boucherie process (experiment No. 18). To the cap +fastened to the end of a freshly cut log he applies a suction pump, and +placing the other end into a vat, filled with the desired solution, he +sucks up the preserving fluid through the pores or sap cells of the +wood. + +Quite a number of experimental ties have been prepared in this way, with +various chemical solutions, chief of which was sulphate of copper, and +there is probably no question but that the life of the wood will be +materially increased thereby. + +Whether the process will prove more convenient and economical than the +original Boucherie process can only be determined by practical +application upon an extensive scale. + +A considerable number of modifications and appliances for working the +Boucherie process have been patented in this country; but none of them +seems to have come into practical use, probably because of the necessity +for operating upon freshly cut logs, and the inconvenience of such +applications. + +The table on this page gives a record of various experiments with +miscellaneous substances. + +RECORD OF AMERICAN EXPERIMENTS--MISCELLANEOUS. + +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + | | | |Material |Subsequent| | +No| Locality |Year| Process. | Treated.| Exposure | Results.| Authority. +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + 1|Chestnut |1839|Earle's |Hemlock |Paving |Failure |S.V. Beuet + | Street, | | | blocks | | | + | Philadelpha| | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 2|Watervliet |1840| " |Oak |Gun | " | " + | Arsenal | | | timber | carriage | | + | | | | | | | + 3|Delaware & |1840| " |Rope |Fungus |Favorable| " + | Hudson | | | | pit | | + | Canal | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 4|Philadelphia|1840|Lime bath |Pine |Railroad |Unfavor. |M. Coryell + | & Columbia | | |stringers| track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 5|Boston & |1844|Sulphate |Ties | " | " |I. Hinckley + | Providence | | of iron | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 6|Belvedere |1850|Salt |Hemlock | " | " |M. Coryell + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 7|Baltimore |1850|Lime |Ties | " | " |J.L. Randolph + | & Ohio | | | | | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | + 8|Rochester |1852|Payenizing |Ties | " | " |T. Hilliard + | | | | | | | + 9|Germantown, |1855|Charring |Fence |Fence |Favorable|G. McGrew + | Ind. | | | posts | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +10|Pottsville, |1857|Pyrolig'ite|Timber |Railroad |Unfavor. |H.K. Nichols + | Pa. | | of iron | | sills | | + | | | | | | | +11|Erie Railway|1858|Boring | " |Bridges |Favorable|H.D.V. Prait + | | | | | | | +12|Galveston |1867|Casing |Piles |Bridge |Failure |W.H. Smith + | | | | | | | +13|New York |1868|Beerizing |Lumber |Signs |Doubtful |S. Beer + | | | | | | | +14|Wyoming |1868|Natural |Ties |Railroad |Preserved|J. + | Territory | | soil | | track | | Blinkinsderfer + | | | | | | | +15|Chicago, |1870|Foreman- |Timber |Steamboat |Favorable|M.B. Brown + | Ill. | | izing | | | 1879 | + | | | | | | | +16|Illinois |1871| " |Ties |Railroad |Failure |L.P. Morehouse + | Central | | | | track | | + | Railroad | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +17|St. Louis |1871| " |Shingles |Roof | " |F. De Funiak + | | | | | | | +18|Memphis & |1871| " |Ties |Railroad | " |F. De Funiak + | Charleston | | | | track | | + | | | | | | | +19|Washington, |1871|Tripler |Paving |Laboratory| " |W.C. Tilden + | D.C. | | | blocks | | | + | | | | | | | +20| " |1872|Samuel | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +21| " |1872|Taylor | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +22| " |1872|Waterbury | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +23| " |1872|Sulphate | " |Pennsyl- | " |J.A. Partridge + | | | of iron | | vania Ave| | + | | | | | | | +24| " |1872|Samuel | " |F. Street | " | " + | | | | | | | +25| " |1872|Samuel | " |16th St. | " | " + | | | | | | | +26|Norvolk, Va.| - |Red lead |Pine and |Teredo | " |P.C. Asserson + | | | | oak | | | + | | | | | | | +27| " | - |White zinc | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +28| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | plaster | | | | + | | | | | | | +29| " | - |Kerosene | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +30| " | - |Rosin and | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +31| " | - |Fish oil & | " | " | " | " + | | | tallow | | | | + | | | | | | | +32| " | - |Verdigris | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +33| " | - |Bark on | " | " |Good for | " + | | | pile | | | 5 years | + | | | | | | | +34| " | - |Carbolic | " | " |Failure | " + | | | acid | | | | + | | | | | | | +35| " | - |Tar and | " | " | " | " + | | | cement | | | | + | | | | | | | +36| " | - |Davis' | " | " | " | " + | | | compound | | | | + | | | | | | | +37| " | - |Carbolized | " | " | " | " + | | | paper | | | | + | | | | | | | +38| " | - |Paint | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +39| " | - |Thilmany | " | " | " | " + | | | | | | | +40| " | - |Vulcanized | " | " | " | " + | | | fiber | | | | + | | | | | | | +41| " | - |Charring | " | " |Good for | " + | | | | | | 9 years | + | | | | | | | +42|New Orleans |1872| " |Piles | " |Failure |J.W. Putnam + | & Mobile | | | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | + | | | | | | | +43| " |1872| " & | " | " |Temporary| " + | | | oiling | | | prot'n | + | | | | | | | +44|Galveston & |1870|Charring | " | " | " | " + | Houston |1874| | | | | + | R.R. | | | | | | +--+------------+----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+--------------- + + +COMMENTS ON MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS. + +Experiments Nos. 1, 2, and 3 relate to the Earle process, from which +great results were expected from 1839 to 1844. It consisted in immersing +timber, rope, canvas, etc., in a hot solution of one pound of sulphate +of copper and three pounds of sulphate of iron mixed in twenty gallons +of water. It was first tested on some hemlock paving blocks on Chestnut +Street, Philadelphia, and for a time seemed to promise good results. +Experiments with prepared rope, exposed in a fungus pit, by Mr. James +Archbald, Chief Engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, seemed also +favorable. + +The process was, therefore, thoroughly tried at the Watervliet Arsenal, +where it was applied to some 63,000 cubic ft. of timber, at a cost of +about seven cents per cubic foot. The timber was used for various +ordnance purposes, and while it was found to have its life extended, as +would naturally be expected from the known character of the antiseptics +used, its strength was so far impaired, and it checked and warped so +badly, that the process was abandoned in 1844. + +The committee is indebted to General S.V. Benet, Chief of Ordnance, for +a full copy of the reports upon these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 4 and 7 represent the lime process, which has been +applied to a considerable extent in France. The fact that platforms and +boxes used for mixing lime mortar seem to resist decay has repeatedly +suggested the use of lime for preserving timber. In 1840 Mr. W.R. +Huffnagle, Engineer of the Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad, laid a +portion of its track on white pine sills, which had been soaked for +three months in a vat of lime-water as strong as could be maintained. +Similar experiments were tried on the Baltimore and Ohio in 1850. The +result was not satisfactory, as might be expected from the fact that +lime is a comparatively weak antiseptic (52.5 by atomic weight, while +creosote is 216), and from the extreme tediousness of three months' +soaking. + +Experiments Nos. 5 and 8 were tried with sulphate of iron, sometimes +known as payenizing, and the particulars of the former have been +furnished by Mr. I. Hinckley, President of the Philadelphia, Wilmington, +and Baltimore Railroad, to whom your committee is much indebted for a +large mass of information on the subject of timber preservation. + +Mr. Hinckley has had longer and more varied experience on this subject +than any other person in this country. Beginning with sulphate of copper +in 1846, following with chloride of mercury in 1847, and chloride of +zinc in 1852, going back to chloride of mercury, and again to chloride +of zinc, using the latter until 1865, then using creosote to protect the +piles against the _teredo_ at Taunton Great River (experiment No. 2. +creosoting), he has had millions of feet of timber and lumber prepared +by the various processes, and has kindly placed at our disposal many +original reports in manuscript and pamphlets which are now very rare. + +Experiment No. 6 was made by Mr. Ashbel Welch, former President of this +Society, and consisted in boring hemlock track sills 6 x 12 with a 1-1/8 +inch auger-hole 10 inches deep every 15 inches. These were filled with +common salt and plugged up, as is not infrequently done in +ship-building, but while the life of the timber was somewhat lengthened, +it was concluded that the process did not pay. + +Salt has been experimented with numberless times. It is cheap, but is a +comparatively weak antiseptic, its atomic weight being 58.8 in the +hydrogen scale, as against 135.5 for chloride of mercury. + +Experiment No. 9 is included in order to notice the well-known and most +ancient process of charring the outside of timber. In this particular +case, the fence posts after charring were dipped for about three feet +into a hot mixture of raw linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, which +probably acted by closing the sap cells against the intrusion of +moisture, which, as is well known, much hastens decay. The posts, which +had been set butt-end upward, were mostly sound in 1879, after 24 years' +exposure. + +Experiments Nos. 41, 42, 43, and 44 did not, however, result as well, +and numberless failures throughout the country attest that charring is +uncertain and disappointing in its results. + +Much ingenuity has been wasted in devising and patenting machinery for +charring wood on a large scale to preserve it against decay. The +process, however, is so tedious in comparison with the benefits which it +confers, and the charred surface is so objectionable for many uses, that +nothing is to be expected from the process upon a large commercial +scale. + +In 1857-58 Mr. H.K. Nichols tried sundry experiments (No. 10), at +Pottsville, Pa., upon timber which he endeavored to impregnate with +pyrolignite of iron by means of capillary action. Similar experiments +had previously been thoroughly tried in France by Dr. Boucherie, but the +result has not been found satisfactory. + +In 1858 the Erie Railway purchased the right of using the Nichols +patent, and erected machinery at its Owego Bridge shop for boring a 2 +inch hole longitudinally through the center of bridge timbers. This +continued till 1870, when the works were burned, and in rebuilding them +the boring machinery was not replaced. The longitudinal hole allowed a +portion of the sap to evaporate without checking the outside of the +timber, and undoubtedly lengthened its life. It is believed there are +yet (1885) some sticks of timber in the bridges of the road that were so +prepared in 1868 or 1869. + +In 1867 Mr. W.H. Smith patented a method of preserving timber, by +incasing it in vitrified earthenware pipes, and filling the space +between the timber and the pipe with a grouting of hydraulic cement. +This was applied to the railroad bridge connecting the mainland with +Galveston Island (experiment No. 12), and so well did it seem to succeed +at first that it was proposed to extend the process to railroad +trestlework, to fencing, to supports for houses, and to telegraph poles. +But after a while the earthenware pipes were displaced and broken, the +process was given up, and Galveston bridge is now creosoted. + +In 1868 Mr. S. Beer patented a process for preserving wood by simply +washing out the sap from its cells. Having ascertained that borax is a +solvent for sap, he prepared a number of specimens by boiling them in a +solution of borax. For small specimens, this answered well, and a +signboard treated in that way (experiment No. 13) was preserved a long +time; but when applied to large timber, the process was found very +tedious and slow, and no headway has been made in introducing it. + +Experiment No. 14 was brought about by accident. Some years age it was +discovered that there was a strip of road in the track of the Union +Pacific Railroad, in Wyoming Territory, about ten miles in length, where +the ties do not decay at all. The Chief Engineer, Mr. Blinkinsderfer, +kindly took up a cotton wood tie in 1882, which had been laid in 1868, +and sent a, piece of it to the committee. It is as sound and a good deal +harder than when first laid, 14 years before, while on some other parts +of the road cottonwood ties perish in two or five years. + +The character of the soil where these results have been observed is +light and soapy, and Mr. E. Dickinson, Superintendent of the Laramie +Division, furnishes the following analysis: + + Sodium chloride 10.64 + Potassium 4.70 + Magnesium sulphate 1.70 + Silica 0.09 + Alumina 1.94 + Ferric oxide 5.84 + Calcium carbonate 22.33 + Magnesium 3.39 + Organic matter 4.20 + Insoluble matter 941.47 + Loss in analysis 4.00 + Traces of phosphorous acid and ammonia. + +The following remarks made by the chemists who made the analysis may be +of interest: + +"The decay of wood arises from the presence in the wood of substances +which are foreign to the woody fiber, but are present in the juices of +the wood while growing, and consist of albuminous matter, which, when +beginning to decay, causes also the destruction of the other +constituents of the wood." + +"One of the means adopted to prevent the destruction of wood by decay is +by the chemical alteration of the constituents of the sap." + +"This is brought about by impregnating the wood with some substance +which either enters into combination with the constitutents of the sap +or so alters their properties as to prevent the setting up of +decomposition." + +"The analysis of this soil shows that it contains large quantities of +the substances (sodium, potassium chloride, calcium, and iron) most used +in the different processes of preserving or kyanizing wood. It also +contains much inorganic matter, which also acts as a preserving agent." + +Some of the ties so preserved have been transferred to other portions of +the track, and some of the soil has also been transported to other +localities, so that it is hoped that in the discussion that may be +expected to follow this report, some further light will be thrown on the +subject by an account of the results of these experiments. + +Experiments Nos. 15, 16, 17, and 18 are most instructive, and convey a +useful lesson. + +In 1865 Mr. B.S. Foreman patented the application of a dry powder for +preserving wood, which was composed of certain proportions of salt, +arsenic, and corrosive sublimate. This action was based upon an +experience which he had had when, as a working mechanic of Ellisburg, +Jefferson County, N.Y., in 1838, he had preserved a water-wheel shaft by +inserting such a compound in powder in the body of the wood, and +ascertained that it was still sound some 14 years later. + +His theory of the action of his compound upon timber was briefly this: + +"That all wood before it can decay must ferment; that fermentation +cannot exist without heat and moisture; that the chemical property or +nature of his compound, when inserted dry into wood, is to attract +moisture, and this moisture, aided by fermentation, liquefies the +compound; that capillary attraction must inevitably convey it through +the sap ducts and medullary rays to every fiber of the stick.... Were +these crystallizations salt alone, they would soon dissolve, but the +arsenic and corrosive sublimate have rendered them insoluble; hence they +remain intact while any fiber of the wood is left." + +"The antiseptic qualities of arsenic are also well known, and have been +known for centuries. Chemical analysis of the _mummies of Egypt_ to-day +shows the presence of arsenic in large quantities in every portion of +their substance. Whatever other ingredients may have entered into the +compound that has been so potent in preserving from decay the bodies of +the old kings of Egypt, and even the linen vestments of their tombs, +arsenic was most certainly one." + +The mode of application used by Mr. Foreman was to bore holes two inches +in diameter three-fourths of the way through sticks of square timber, +four feet apart, to fill them with the dry powder, and to plug them up +with a bung. For railroad ties he bored two holes two inches in +diameter, six inches inside of the rails, and filled and plugged them. +Fresh cut lumber and shingles were prepared by piling layers upon each +other with the dry powder sprinkled between in the ratio of twenty +pounds to the thousand feet of lumber. This was allowed to remain at a +temperature of at least 458 deg. F. until fermentation took place, when the +lumber was considered fully "foremanized." + +The process was first applied to the timber and lumber for a steamboat, +and in 1879 the result was reported to be favorable. It was then applied +to some ties on the Illinois Central Railroad, where it did not succeed, +and to some on the Chicago and Northwestern, where they seem to have +been lost sight of, being few in number, so that your committee has not +been able to learn the result. + +Great expectations were, however, entertained, and a conditional sale +was made to various parties of the right of using the process, notably, +it is said, to the Memphis and Charleston Railroad for $50,000; and some +ten miles of ties were prepared on that road, when the poisonous nature +of the ingredients used brought about disaster. + +Some shingles were prepared for a railroad freight house at East St. +Louis, but all the carpenters who put them on were taken very ill, and +one of them died. + +The arsenic and corrosive sublimate effloresced from the ties along the +Memphis and Charleston Railroad. Cattle came and licked them for the +sake of the salt, and they died, so that the track for ten miles was +strewed with dead cattle. The farmers rose up in arms, and made the +railroad take up and burn the ties. The company promoting foremanizing +was sued and cast in heavy damages, and it went out of business. + +In 1870 Mr. A.B. Tripler patented a mixture of arsenic and salt, and the +succeeding year a specimen of wood prepared under that patent was +submitted to the Board of Public Works of Washington, D.C., and examined +by its chemist, Mr. W.C. Tilden (experiment 19). He found the +impregnation uneven, and the absorptive power high, but he did not find +any arsenic, though its use was claimed. + +The Samuel process (experiment 20) consisted in the injection, first, of +a solution of sulphate of iron, and afterward of common burnt lime. Mr. +Tilden reported the wood to be brittle, and the water used to test the +absorptive power to have been filled with threads of fungi in +forty-eight hours. + +The Taylor process (experiment No. 21) used a solution of sulphide of +calcium in pyroligneous acid. It was condemned by Mr. Tilden. + +The Waterbury process (experiment 22) consisted in forcing in a solution +of common salt, followed by dead oil or creosote. It was also condemned +by Mr. Tilden. + +The examinations of Mr. Tilden extended to some fourteen different +processes, most of which have already been noticed in this report, and +their practical results given. + +The Board of Public Works, however, laid down a considerable amount of +prepared wood pavement in Washington, all of which is understood to have +proved a dismal failure. After a good deal of inquiry, your committee +has been enabled to obtain information of the results of three of these +experiments. + +The pine paving blocks upon Pennsylvania Avenue (experiment 23) were +first kiln-dried, and then immersed in a hot solution of sulphate of +iron. + +The spruce blocks on E Street (experiment 24) were treated with chloride +of zinc, or, in other words, burnettized; but the mode of application is +not stated. + +The pine blocks upon Sixteenth Street (experiment 25) were treated with +the residual products of petroleum distillation. It is stated that this +was the only process in which pressure was used. + +In from three and a half to four and a half years the blocks were badly +decayed, and large portions of the streets were almost impassable, while +other streets paved in the same year with untreated woods remained in +fair condition. + +It has been stated to your committee that this result, which did much +toward bringing all wood preserving processes into contempt, was chiefly +owing to the very dishonest way in which the preparation was done; that +in fact there was a combination between the officials and the +contractors by which the latter were chiefly interested "how not to do +it," and that the above results, therefore, prove very little on the +subject of wood preservation. + +Through the kindness of the United States Navy Department your committee +is enabled to give the results of a series of experiments (Nos. 26 to 41 +inclusive) which have been carried on at the Norfolk, Va., Navy Yard, +for a series of years, by Mr. P.C. Asserson, Civil Engineer, U.S.N., to +test the effect of various substances as a protection against the +_Teredo navalis_. It will be noticed that the application of two coats +of white zinc paint, of two coats of red lead, of coal tar and plaster +of Paris mixed, of kerosene oil, of rosin and tallow mixed, of fish oil +and tallow mixed and put on hot, of verdigris, of carbolic acid, of coal +tar and hydraulic cement, of Davis' patent insulating compound, of +compressed carbolized paper, of anti-fouling paint, of the Thilmany +process, and of "vulcanized fiber," have proved failures. + +The only favorable results have been that oak piles cut in the month of +January and driven with the bark on have resisted four or five years, or +till the bark chafed or rubbed off, and that cypress piles, well +charred, have resisted for nine years. + +This merely confirms the general conclusion which has been stated under +the head of creosoting, that nothing but the impregnation with creosote, +and plenty of it, is an effectual protection against the _teredo_. +Numberless experiments have been tried abroad and in this country, and +always with the same result. + +There are quite a number of other experiments which your committee has +learned about which are here passed in silence. The accounts of them are +vague, or the promised results of such slight importance as not to +warrant cumbering with them this already too voluminous report. + +The committee also forbears from discussing the merits of the many +patents which have been taken out for wood preservation. It had prepared +a list of them, and investigated the probable success of many of them, +but has concluded that it is better to confine itself to the results of +actual tests, and to stick to ascertained facts. + +Neither does the committee feel called upon to point out the great +importance of the subject, and the economical advantages which will +result from the artificial preparation of wood as its price advances. +They hope, however, that the members of this Society, in discussing this +report, will dwell upon this point. + +We shall instead give as briefly as possible the general conclusions +which we have reached as the result of our protracted investigation. + + +DECAY OF TIMBER. + +Pure woody fiber is said by chemists to be composed of 52.4 parts of +carbon, 41.9 parts of oxygen, and 5.7 parts of hydrogen, and to be the +same in all the different varieties. If it can be entirely deprived of +the sap and of moisture, it undergoes change very slowly, if at all. + +Decay originates with the sap. This varies from 35 to 55 per cent. of +the whole, when the tree is felled, and contains a great many +substances, such as albuminous matter, sugar, starch, resin, etc., etc., +with a large portion of water. + +Woody fiber alone will not decay, but when associated with the sap, +fermentation takes place in the latter (with such energy as may depend +upon its constituent elements), which acts upon the woody fiber, and +produces decay. In order that this may take place, it is believed that +there must be a concurrence of four separate conditions: + +1st. The wood must contain the elements or germs of fermentation when +exposed to air and water. + +2d. There must be water or moisture to promote the fermentation. + +3d. There must be air present to oxidize the resulting products. + +4th. The temperature must be approximately between 50 deg. and 100 deg. F. Below +32 deg. F. and above 150 deg. F., no decay occurs. + +When, therefore, wood is exposed to the weather (air, moisture, and +ordinary temperatures), fermentation and decay will take place, unless +the germs can be removed or rendered inoperative. + +Experience has proved that the coagulation of the sap retards, but does +not prevent, the decay of wood permanently.[1] It is therefore necessary +to poison the germs of decay which may exist, or may subsequently enter +the wood, or to prevent their intrusion, and this is the office +performed by the various antiseptics. + +[Footnote 1: Angus Smith, 1869, "Disinfectants." S.B. Boulton, 1884, +Institution Civil Engineers, "On the Antiseptic Treatment of Timber."] + +We need not here discuss the mooted question between chemists, whether +fermentation and decay result from slow combustion (eremacausis) or from +the presence of living organisms (bacteria, etc.); but having in the +preceding pages detailed the results of the application of various +antiseptics, we may now indicate under what circumstances they can +economically be applied. + +_(To be continued)_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPAN OF CABIN JOHN BRIDGE. + + +_To the Editor of the Scientific American Supplement:_ + +Your issue of 17th October contains the fifth or sixth imprint of Mr. B. +Baker's, C.E., recent address at the British Association of Aberdeen +which has come into my hands. + +In speaking of stone bridges, he alludes to the bridge over the Adda as +500 years old. It was never more than 39 years old as stated in the same +address, and he belittles the American Cabin John Bridge by making its +span _"after all only 215 ft."_ As the builder of this greatest American +stone arch, I regret that on so important and public an occasion the +writer was not accurate. + +The clear span of Cabin John Bridge is 220 ft. The difference is not +great, but in the length of a bridge span it is the last foot that +counts, as in an international yacht race to be beaten by one minute is +to fail to capture the cup. + +M.C. MEIGS. + +Washington, D.C., Oct. 16, 1885. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA. + + +On the 3d of June of this year, the German cruising corvette Augusta +left the island of Perrin, in the Straits of Bab el Mandeb, for +Australia; and as nothing has been heard of her since that day, the +report that she was destroyed in the typhoon on June 3 is probably +correct. The vessel left Kiel on April 28, with the crews for the +cruisers of the Australian squadron; 283 men were on board, including +the commander, Corvette Captain Von Gloeden. There is still a +possibility that the Augusta was dismasted, and is drifting somewhere in +the Indian Ocean, or has stranded on an island; but this is not very +probable, as the Augusta was not well adapted to weather a typhoon. +During her cruise of 1876 to 1878, all the upper masts, spars, etc, had +to be removed, that she might be better adapted to weather a cyclone or +like storm. If the Augusta had not met with an accident, she would have +arrived at Port Albany in Australia by the 30th of June or beginning of +July. She was due June 17. + +The Augusta was built at Armands' ship yards at Bordeaux, and was bought +in 1864 by Prussia. She was a screw steamer with ship's rigging, 2371/2 +feet long, 351/2 feet beam, 16 feet draught, and 1,543 tons burden. Her +engines had 400 horse-power, and her armament consisted of 14 pieces. + +[Illustration: THE GERMAN CORVETTE AUGUSTA.] + +During the Franco-German war of 1870-71, she was commanded by Captain +Weikhmann, and captured numerous vessels on the French coast. January 4, +1871, she captured the French brig St. Marc, in the mouth of the +Gironde; the brig was sailing from Dunkirken to Bordeaux with flour and +bread for the Third French Division. The Augusta then captured the +Pierre Adolph, loaded with wheat, which was being carried from Havre to +Bordeaux. Then the French transport steamer Max was captured and burned. +The French men of war finally forced the Augusta to retreat into the +Spanish port of Vigo, from which she sailed Jan. 28, and arrived March +28 at Kiel, with the captured brig St. Marc in tow.--_Illustrirte +Zeitung_. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVEMENT IN METAL WHEELS. + + +In the Inventions Exhibitions may be seen a good form of metal wheel, +the invention of Mr. H.J. Barrett, of Hull, Eng., and which we +illustrate. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2. FIG. 3.] + +Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the wheel, Fig. 2 a transverse section, +and Fig. 3 a longitudinal section of the boss. These wheels are made in +two classes, A and B. Our engraving illustrates a wheel of the former +class, these wheels being designed for use on rough and uneven roads, +and when very great jolting strains may be met with, being stronger than +those of class B design. The wheels are made with mild steel spokes, +which are secured by metal straps in the recesses cut in the annular +flanges on the boss, and by a taper bolt or rivet through the tire and +rim. These spokes can be easily taken out and renewed when necessary by +any unskilled person in a few minutes. The spokes being twisted midway +of their length give greater strength to the wheel and power to resist +side strains in pulling out of deep ruts or holes, without increasing +the weight. The bosses and straps are made of malleable iron, in which +the metal bushes are secured by means of a key with a washer screwed up +on the front end. They are also fitted with steel oil caps to the end of +the bushes, which are provided with a small set screw, so that the cap +need not be taken off when it is necessary to lubricate the wheel, as by +simply taking out the set screw oil may be poured through the hole into +the cap. The set screw also forms a fulcrum for a key, so that the cap +can be taken off or put on when required, as well as a means of +preventing the cap being lost by shaking loose on rough roads. In all +hot and dry climates, the continued shrinking of wood wheels and +loosening of the tires is a constant source of expense and +inconvenience. This wheel having a tire and rim entirely of metal does +away with the difficulty, as the expansion and contraction are equal, +consequently the tires need only be removed when worn out, and others +can be supplied, drilled complete, ready for putting on, which can be +done by any unskilled person. The wheels of class B design are the same +in principle of construction as those of class A, but they have cast +metal bosses or naves, without loose bushes, and are suitable for +general work and ordinary roads where the strains are not so severe. The +bosses or naves are readily removed in case of breakage, and they can be +fitted with steel oil caps for lubricating.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR THE PRODUCTION OF WATER GAS. + + +The apparatus shown in the accompanying engraving is designed for the +manufacture of water gas for heating purposes, and is described in a +communication, by Mr. W.A. Goodyear, to the American Institute of Mining +Engineers. + +The generator, A, is lined with refractory bricks and is filled with +fuel, which may be coal, coke, or any suitable carbonaceous material. B +and B' are two series of regenerating chambers lined with refractory +brick, and, besides, filled with refractory bricks piled up as shown in +the figure. The partitions, C and C', are likewise of refractory brick, +and are rendered as air-proof as possible. Apertures, D and D', are +formed alternately at the base of one partition and the top of the +adjacent one, in order to oblige the gases that traverse the series of +chambers to descend in one of them and to rise in the following, +whatever be the number of chambers in use. + +The two flues, E and E', lead from the bottom of the two nearest +regenerator on each side to the bottom of the generator A, and serve to +bring the current of air or steam into contact with the fuel. Valves, F +and F', placed in these flues, permit of regulating the current in the +two directions. Pipes, M and M', provided with valves, G and G', put the +upper part of the generator in communication with the contiguous +chambers, T and T'. Other pipes, N and N', with valves, H and H', permit +of the introduction of a current of air from the outside into the +chambers, T and T'. The pipes, O and O', and the valves, I and I', +connected with a blower, serve for the same purpose. The pipes, P and +P', and their valves, J and J', lead a current of steam. The conduits, Q +and Q', and their valves, K and K', direct the gases toward the +purifiers and the gasometer. Finally, the pipes, R and R', provided with +valves, L and L', are connected with a chimney. + +The generator, A, is provided at its upper part with a feed hopper. The +doors, S and S', of the ash box close the apertures through which the +ashes are removed. + +When it is desired to use the apparatus, the pipes, P, Q, and R, are +closed by means of their valves, J, K, and L, and the valve, I, of the +pipe, O, is opened. The pipes, M and N, are likewise closed, while the +flue, E, is opened. On the other side of the generator the reverse order +is followed, that is to say, the flue, E', is closed, the pipes, M' and +N', are opened, the pipes, O', P', and Q', are closed, and R' is opened. + +A current of air is introduced through the pipe, O, and this traverses +the regenerators, B, enters the chamber, T, and the generator, A, +through the flue, E. As this air rises through the mass of incandescent +fuel, its oxygen combines with an atom of carbon and forms carbonic +oxide. This gas that is disengaged from the upper part of the fuel +consists chiefly of nitrogen and carbonic oxide, mixed with volatile +hydrocarburets derived from the fuel used. This gas, through the action +of the air upon the fuel, is called "air gas," in order to distinguish +it from the "water gas" formed in the second period of the process. + +The air gas, on issuing from the generator through the pipe, M', in +order to pass into the chamber, F', meets in the latter a second current +of air coming in through the pipe, N', and which burns it and produces, +in doing so, considerable heat. The strongly heated gases resulting from +the combustion traverse the regenerators, B', and give up to the bricks +therein the greater part of their heat, and finally make their exit, +relatively cool, through the pipe, R', which leads them to the chimney. +When the operation has been continued for a sufficient length of time to +give the refractory bricks in the chamber, B', next the regenerator a +high temperature, the valve, I, is closed, thus shutting off the +entrance of air through the pipe, Q. The valve, F, of the flue, E, is +also closed, and that of the pipe, M, is opened. The valves, G', H', L', +of the pipes, M', N', R', are closed, and that, F', of the flue, E', is +opened. The valve, J', of the pipe, P', is then opened, and a jet of +steam is introduced through the latter. + +The steam becomes superheated in traversing the regenerators, B', and in +this state enters the bottom of the generator through the flue, E'. In +passing into the incandescent fuel that fills the generator, the steam +is decomposed, and there forms carbonic oxide, while hydrogen is +liberated. The mixture of these two gases with the hydrocarburets +furnished by the fuel constitutes water gas. This gas on making its exit +from the generator through the pipe, M', passes through the chambers, B, +and abandons therein the greater part of its heat, and enters the pipe, +R, whence it passes through Q into the purifiers, and then into the +gasometer. + +As the production of water gas implies the absorption of a large +quantity of sensible heat, it is accompanied with a rapid fall of +temperature in the chambers, B', and eventually also in the generator, +A, while at the same time the chambers, B, are but moderately heated by +the sensible heat of the current of gas produced. When this cooling has +continued so long that the temperature in the generator, A, is no longer +high enough to allow the fuel to decompose the steam with ease, the +valve, J', of the pipe, P', that leads the steam is closed, as is also +the valve, K, of the pipe, Q, while the valves, L and H, of the pipes, R +and N, are opened. After this the valve, I', is opened, and a current of +air is let in through the pipe, O'. This air, upon traversing the +chambers, B' and T', is raised to a high temperature through the heat +remaining in these chambers, and then enters at the bottom of the +generator, through the flue, E'. The air gas that now makes its exit +from the pipe, M, in the chamber, T, meets another current of air coming +from the pipe, N, and is thus burned. The products resulting from such +combustion pass into the chambers, B, and then into the chimney, through +the pipe, R. The temperature then rapidly lowers in the chambers, B', +and rises no less rapidly in the generator, A, while the chambers, B, +are soon heated to the same temperature that first existed in the +chambers, B'. As soon as the desired temperature is obtained in the +generator, A, and the chambers, B, the air is shut off by closing the +valve, I', of the pipe, O'; the valve, F', of the flue, E', is also +closed, the valves, G' and K', of the pipes, M' and Q', are opened, the +valves, G, H, and L, of the pipes, M, N, and R, are closed, and the +valve, F, of the flue, E, and the valve, J, of the pipe, P, are opened. +A current of steam enters the apparatus through the pipe, P, traverses +the chambers, B, and enters the generator through the flue, E. The gas +produced makes its exit from the generator, passes through the pipe, M', +and the chambers, T' and B', and the pipe, R, and enters the gasometer +through the pipe, Q'. + +[Illustration: WATER-GAS APPARATUS.] + +When the chamber, B, and the generator, A, are again in so cool a state +that the fuel no longer decomposes the steam easily, the valves are so +maneuvered as to stop the entrance of the latter, and to send a current +of air into the apparatus in the same direction that the steam had just +been taking. The temperature thereupon quickly rises in the generator, +A, while, at the same time, the combustion of the air gas produced soon +reheats the chambers, B'. The cooled products of combustion go, as +before, to the chimney. The position of the valves is then changed again +so as to send a current of steam into the apparatus in a direction +contrary to that which the air took in the last place, and the water gas +obtained again is sent to the gasometer. + +As will be seen, the process is entirely continuous, each current of air +following the same direction in the apparatus (from left to right, or +right to left) that the current of steam did which preceded it, while +each current of steam follows a direction opposite that of the current +of air which preceded it. + +The inventor estimates that the cost of the coal necessary for his +process will not exceed a tenth of a cent per cubic foot of gas. + +One important advantage of the apparatus is that it can be made of any +dimensions. Instead of giving the generator the limited size and form +shown in the engraving, with doors at the bottom for the removal of the +ashes by hand from time to time, it may be constructed after the general +model of the shaft of blast furnaces, with a hearth at the base. Upon +adding to the fuel a small quantity of flux, all the mineral parts +thereof can be melted into a liquid slag, which may be carried off just +like that of blast furnaces. There is no difficulty in constructing +regenerators of refractory bricks of sufficient capacity, however large +the generators be; and a single apparatus might, if need be, convert one +thousand tons of anthracite per day into more than five million cubic +feet of gas. + + * * * * * + + + + +LIGHTING AND VENTILATING BY GAS. + +[Footnote: A paper read before the Gas Institute, Manchester, June, +1885.] + +By WILLIAM SUGG, of London. + + +Ever since the introduction of electric lighting, the public have been +assured, by those interested in the different kinds of lamps--arc, glow +or otherwise--that henceforth, by means of such lamps, rooms are to be +lighted without heat or baneful products such as they assert attend the +use of gas, lamps, or candles. But I think it must not be implied, from +what any one has said in favor of the electric light as a means of +lighting our dwellings, that gas is unsuitable for the purpose, or that +the glow lamp is a perfect substitute for gas, or that there is a very +large difference throughout the year on the points of health, +convenience, or comfort, or that the balance in favor rests with +electric light upon all or any of these points. The fact is, the glow +lamp is only one more means (not without certain disadvantages) of +producing light added to those which already exist, and of which the +public have the choice. Now, looking to best means of lighting rooms, +and particularly the principal rooms of a small dwelling-house, I beg to +say that the arguments which can be adduced in favor of gas lighting in +preference to any other means greatly preponderate, and that it can be +substantiated that, light for light, under the heads of convenience, +health, comfort, reliability, readiness, and cheapness, gas is superior +to all. + +As a scientific means for the purposes mentioned, gas is comparatively +untried. This assertion may sound somewhat astounding; but I think it is +a true one. More than that, even in the crude and unscientific way in +which it has most frequently been used up to the present, it has been +far from unsuccessful in comparison with electricity or other means of +lighting; and in the future it will prove the best and cheapest +practical means, although, for effect, glow lamps may be used in +palatial dwellings in conjunction with it. + +It must be remembered that, in laying down a system of artificial +lighting, we have to imitate, as well as we can, that most beautiful and +perfect natural light which, without our aid, and without even a thought +from us, shines regularly every day upon all, in such an immense volume, +so perfectly diffused, and in such wonderful chemical combination, that +it may safely be said that not one atom of the whole economy of Nature +is unaffected by it, and that we and all the animal kingdom, in common +with trees and plants, derive health and vigor therefrom. This glorious +natural light leaves our best gas, electricity, oil lamp, and all our +multiplicity of candles, immeasurably behind. But although we cannot +hope to equal, in all its beneficent results, the effects of daylight, +or to perfectly replace it, we can more perfectly make the lighting of +our homes comfortable (and as little destructive to the eyes and to the +general health) by the aid of gas than by any other means. It must also +be borne in mind that, in this country at least, we have to fulfill the +conditions of artificial lighting under frequent differences of +temperature and barometric influence, exaggerated by the manner in which +our homes are built; and that for at least nine months of the year we +require heat as well as light in our dwellings, and that for the other +three months (excepting in some few favored localities) the nights are +often chilly, even though the days may be hot. Therefore, independently +of any effect produced by the lighting arrangements, there must be +widely different effects produced in the temperature and conditions of +the air in rooms by influences entirely beyond our control. + +As an example of what I mean, a short time ago I had to preside over a +meeting which was held in a large room--one of two built exactly alike, +and in communication with each other by means of folding doors. These +rooms formed part of one of the best hotels in London--let us call it +the "Magnificent." Of course, it was lighted by electric glow lamps, in +accordance with the latest fashion in that department of artificial +lighting, viz., suspension lamps, in which the glow lamps grew out of +leaves and scrolls, twisted and twirled in and out, very much after the +pattern of our most aesthetic gas lamps, which, of course, are in the +style of the most artistic (late eighteenth century) oil lamps, which +were in imitation of the most classic Roman lamps, which followed the +Persian, and so on back to the time of Tubal Cain, the great +arch-artificer in metals, who most likely copied in metal some lamps he +had seen in shells or flints. Both rooms were heated by means of the +good old blazing coal fire so dear to a Briton's heart; and they were +ventilated with all due regard to the latest state of knowledge on the +subject among architects and builders. In fact, no pains had been spared +to make these rooms comfortable in the highest acceptation of the word. + +There were, some of our members remarked, no gas burners to heat and +deteriorate the atmosphere, or to blacken the ceilings; and therefore, +under the brilliant sparkle of glow lamps, the summit of such human +felicity as is expected by a body of eighteen or twenty business men, +intent on dispatching business and restoring the lost tissue by means of +a nice little dinner afterward, ought, according to the calculations of +the architect of the building, to have been reached. I instance this +case because it is a typical one, which, under most aspects, does not +materially differ from the conditions of home life in such residences as +those whose occupiers are likely to use electric lighting. The rooms +were spacious (about 20 feet by 35 feet, and about 15 feet high); and +they were lighted during the day by means of large lantern +ceiling-lights, with double glass windows. The evening in question was +chilly, not to say cold. + +Upon commencing our business, we all admired the comfort of the room; +but as time went on, most of the company began to complain of a little +draught on the head and back of the neck. The draught, which at first +was only a suspicion, became a certainty, and in another hour or so, by +the time our business was over, notwithstanding a screen placed before +the door, and a blazing fire, we were delighted to make a change to the +comfortable dining-room, which communicated with the room we had just +left by means of folding doors, closed with the exception of just +sufficient space left at one end of the room to allow a waiter to pass +in and out. Very curiously, before the soup was finished, we became +aware that the candles which assisted the electric glow lamps (merely +for artistic effect) began to flare in a most uncandlelike manner--the +flames turning down, as if some one were blowing downward on the wicks; +and at the same time the complaints of "Draughts, horrid draughts!" +became general, and from every quarter. Finding that, as the dinner went +on, the discomfort became unbearable, even although the doors were shut +and screens put before them, I gave up dining, and took to scientific +discovery. The result of a few moments' observation induced me to order +"those gas jets," which I saw peeping out from among the foliage of the +electroliers, to be lighted up. In two or three minutes the flames of +the candles burned upright and steadily, and in less than ten minutes +the draughts were no longer felt; in fact, the room became really +comfortable. + +The reason of the change was simple. The stratum of air lying up at the +ceiling was comparatively cold. The column of heated air from the bodies +of the twenty guests, joined to the heat produced by the movements of +themselves and the waiters, together with the steam from the viands and +respiration, displaced the colder air at the ceiling, and notably that +coldest air lying against the surface of the glass. This cold air simply +dropped straight down, after the manner of a douche, on candles and +heads below. The remedy I advised was the setting up of a current of +hotter steam and air from the gas burners, which stopped the cooling +effect of the glass, and created a stratum of heated steam and air in +slow movement all over the ceiling. The effect was a comfortable +sensation of warmth and entire absence of draught all round the table. +Later on, to avoid the possibility of overheating the room, the gas was +put out, and the electric lights left to themselves. But before we left, +the chilliness and draughts began to be again felt. + +The incident here narrated occurred at the end of the month of April +last, when we might reasonably have hoped to have tolerably warm nights. +It is therefore clear that in this instance neither electricity nor +candles could effectually replace gas for lighting purposes. They both +did the lighting, but they utterly failed to keep the currents of air +steady. I have always remarked draughts whenever I have remained any +length of time in rooms where the electric light is used. On a warm +evening the electric light and candles would undoubtedly have kept the +room cooler than gas, with the same kind of ventilation; I do not think +they would have put an end to cold draughts. This the steam from the gas +does in all fairly built rooms. + +It is a well-known fact that dry air parts with its relatively small +amount of specific heat, in an almost incredibly rapid manner, to +anything against which it impinges. Steam, on the contrary, from its +great specific heat, remains in a heated state for a much longer time +than air. It is not so suddenly reduced to a low temperature, and in +parting with its own heat it communicates a considerable amount of +warmth to those bodies with which it comes in contact. Thus the products +of the combustion of gas (which are principally steam) serve a useful +purpose in lighting, by keeping at the ceiling level a certain stratum +of heated vapor, which holds up, as it were, the carbonic acid and +exhalation from the lungs given off by those using the room. The obvious +inference, therefore, is that if we take off these products from the +level of the ceiling, we shall take off at the same time the impure and +vitiated air. On the other hand, if we make use of a system of +artificial lighting, which does not produce any steam, then we shall +have to adopt means to keep the air at the ceiling level warm, in order +to prevent the heated impure air from descending in comparatively rapid +currents, after having parted with its heat to the ceiling. It may very +frequently be observed on chilly days that a number of currents of cold +air seem to travel about our rooms, although there may be no crevices in +the doors and windows sufficient to account for them; and, further, that +these currents of cold air are not noticed when the curtains are drawn +and the gas is lighted. The reason is that there is generally not enough +heat at the ceiling level in a room unlighted with gas to keep these +currents steady. Hence the complaints of chilliness which we constantly +hear when electric lights are used for the illumination of public +buildings. For example, at the annual dinner of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, held at the end of April last in the Conservatory of the +Horticultural Gardens, the heat from the five hundred guests, and from +an almost equal number of waiters and attendants, displaced the cold air +from the dome of the roof, and literally poured down on the assembly +(who were in evening dress) in a manner to compel many of them to put on +overcoats. If the Conservatory had been lighted with gas suspended below +the roof, this would not have been the case, because sufficient steam +would have been generated to stop these cold douches, and keep them up +in the roof. In fact, if electric lights are to be used in such a +building, it will be necessary to lay hot-water pipes in the roof, to +keep warm the upper as well as the lower stratum of air, and thus steady +the currents. + +Having pointed out difficulties which arise under certain conditions of +the atmosphere in rooms built with care, to make them comfortable when +electric lighting is substituted for gas, I will lay before you some few +particulars relative to the condition of small rooms of about 12 ft. by +15 ft. by 10 ft., or any ordinary room such as may be found in the usual +run of houses in this country. The cubical contents of such a room +equals 1,700 cubic feet. If the room is heated by means of a coal fire, +we shall for the greatest part of the year have a quantity of air taken +out of it at about 2 feet from the floor by the chimney draught, varying +(according to atmospheric conditions and the state of the fire) from 600 +to 2,000 or more cubic feet. This quantity of air must, therefore, be +admitted by some means or other into the room, or the chimney will, in +ordinary parlance, "smoke;" that is, the products of combustion, very +largely diluted with fresh air, will not all find their way up the flue +with sufficient velocity to overcome the pressure of the heavy cold air +at the top of the chimney. If no proper inlets for air are made, this +supply to the fire must be kept up from the crevices of the doors and +windows. In the line of these currents of cold air, or "draughts" as +they are usually called, it is impossible to experience any +comfort--quite the contrary; and colds, rheumatism, and many other +serious maladies are brought on through this abundant supply of fresh +air in the wrong way and place. + +According to General Morin (one of the best authorities on ventilation), +300 cubic feet of air per hour are required for every adult person in +ordinary living rooms. Peclet says 250 cubic feet are sufficient; less +than this renders the atmosphere stuffy and unhealthy. It is generally +admitted that an average adult breathes out from 20 to 30 cubic inches +of steam and vitiated air per minute, or, as Dr. Arnott says, a quantity +equal in bulk to that of a full-sized orange. This vitiated air and +steam is respired at a temperature of 90 deg. Fahr.; and therefore, by +reason of this heat, it immediately ascends to the ceiling, together +with the heat and carbonic acid given off from the pores of the skin. +This fact, by the bye, can be clearly demonstrated by placing a person +in the direct rays from a powerful limelight or electric lamp, and thus +projecting his shadow sharply on a smooth white surface. It will be +observed that from every hair of the head and beard, and every fiber of +his clothing, a current of heated air in rapid movement is passing +upward toward the ceiling. These currents appear as white lines on the +surface of the wall; the cause probably being that the extreme +rarefaction of the air by the heat of the body enables the rays of light +to pass through them with less refraction than through the denser and +more moist surrounding cold air. An adult makes, on an average, about 15 +respirations per minute, and therefore he in every hour renders to the +atmosphere of the room in which he is staying from 10 to 15 cubic feet +of poisonous air. This rises to the ceiling line, if it is not +prevented; and thus vitiates from 100 to 150 cubic feet of air to the +extent of 1 per cent, in an hour. General Morin thought that air was not +good which contained more than 1/2 per cent, of air which had been exhaled +from the lungs; and when we consider how dangerous to health these +exhalations are, we must admit that he was right in his view. Therefore +in one hour the 15 foot by 12 foot room is vitiated to more than 2 feet +from the ceiling by one person to the extent of 1/2 per cent., and it will +be vitiated by two persons to the extent of 1 per cent, in the same +time. + +It must be remembered here that the degree of diffusion of the vitiated +air into the lower fresh air contained in the remaining 8 feet of the +height of the room depends very materially on the difference of +temperature between these upper and lower strata and the movements of +air in the room. The heavy poisonous vapors and gases fall into and +diffuse themselves among the fresh air of the lower strata--very readily +if they are nearly the same temperature as the upper, but scarcely at +all if the air at the ceiling line is much hotter. Hence it occurs that, +in warmed rooms of such size as I have mentioned, where one or two +petroleum lamps are used for lighting them, after two or three hours of +occupation by a family of three or four persons in winter weather, the +air at the ceiling line has become so poisonous that a bird dies if +allowed to breathe it for a very short time--sometimes, indeed, for only +a few minutes. With candles, if the illumination of the room is +maintained at the same degree as in the case of lamps, the contamination +of the air is very much worse. It is doubtless the case that poisonous +germs are rapidly developed in atmospheres which are called "stuffy;" +and although, in a healthy state of the body, we are able to breathe +them without perceptible harm, yet even then the slight headache and +uneasiness we feel is a symptom which does not suffer itself to be +lightly regarded, whenever, from some cause or other, the general +condition is weak. + +The products of combustion from coal gas (which are steam and carbonic +acid mixed with an infinitesimal quantity of sulphur) are, +proportionately, far less injurious to animal life than the products +from an equal illuminating power derived from either oil or candles. +They are, however, it is certain, destructive to germ life; and +therefore, if taken off from the ceiling level, where they always +collect if allowed to do so, no possible inconvenience or danger to +health can be felt by any one in the room. But in our endeavors to take +off the foul air at the ceiling, we encounter our first serious check in +all schemes of ventilation. We draw the elevation and section of the +room, and put in our flues with pretty little black arrows flying out of +the outlets for vitiated air, and other pretty little red arrows flying +in at the inlets; but when we see our scheme in practice, the black +arrows will persist in putting their wings where their points ought to +be; in other words, flying into instead of out of the room. + +One of the best ways of finding the true course of all the hot and cold +currents in a room is to make use of a small balloon, such as used to be +employed for ascertaining the specific gravity of gases; and, having +filled it with ordinary coal gas, balance it by weights tied on to the +car till it will rest without going up or down in a part of the room +where the air can be felt to be at about the mean temperature, and free +from draught. Then leave it to itself, to go where it will. + +As soon as it arrives in a current of heated air, it will ascend, +passing along with the current, and descending or rising as the current +is either warm or cold. The effect of the cold fresh air from windows or +doors, as well as the effect of the radiant heat from the fire, can be +thus thoroughly studied. Some of our pet theories may receive a cruel +shock from this experiment; but, in the end, the ventilation of the room +will doubtless be benefited, if we apply the information obtained. It +will be discovered that the wide-throated chimney is the cause of the +little black arrows turning their backs on the right path and our +theoretical outlets for vitiated air becoming inlets. The chimney flue +must have an enormous supply of air, and it simply draws it from the +most easily accessible places. From 1,000 to 2,000 cubic feet of air per +hour is a large "order" for a small room. Therefore, until we have made +ample provision for the air supply to the fire, it is quite useless to +attempt to ventilate the upper part of the room, either by ventilating +gas lights or one of the cheap ventilators with little talc flappers, +opening into the chimney when there is an up draught, and shutting +themselves up when there is any tendency to down draught. The success of +these and all other ventilators depends upon there being a good supply +of air from under the door or through the spaces round the window +frames. These fresh air supplies are, of course, unendurable; but if one +of the spaces between the joists of the floor is utilized to serve as an +air conduit, and made to discharge itself under the fender (raised about +two inches for the purpose), quite another state of things will be set +up. Then the supply of air thus arranged for will satisfy the fire, +without drawing from the doors and windows, and at the same time supply +a small quantity of fresh air into the room. But the important fact that +the radiant heat from the fire will pass through the cold air without +warming it all must not be lost sight of. In reality, radiant heat only +warms the furniture and walls of the room or whatever intercepts its +rays. The air of the room is warmed by passing over these more or less +heated surfaces; and as it is warmed, it rises away to the ceiling. +Therefore, if we desire to warm any of this fresh air supplied to the +fire, it must be made to pass over a heated surface. The fender may be +used for this purpose by filling up the two inch space along the front, +as shown in the drawing, with coarse perforated metal. This will also +prevent cinders from getting under it. It will be found that for the +greater part of the year the chimney ventilator and the supply to the +fire will materially prevent "stuffiness," and keep those disagreeable +draughts under control, even although the room be lighted with a 3 light +chandelier burning a large quantity of gas. + +[Illustration] + +With improvements in gas burners, we may expect to light rooms perfectly +with a less expenditure of gas than we now do. But we cannot light a +room without in some measure creating heat; and I think I have shown +that we want this heat at the ceiling line for the greater part of the +year. + +In summer we do not use gas for many hours; but, on the other hand, it +is more difficult, with an outside temperature at 65 deg. to 70 deg. Fahr., to +keep the air in proper movement in small rooms. There are also times in +the fall of the year, and also in spring, when the nights are unusually +warm; and, with a few friends in our rooms, the lighting becomes a "hot" +question, not to say a "burning" one. On these occasions we have to +resort to exceptional ventilation, which for ordinary every-day life +would be too much. It is then, and on summer nights, that the system of +ventilation by diffusion is most useful. To explain it, when two volumes +of air of different temperatures or specific gravities find themselves +on opposite sides of a screen or other medium, of muslin, cloth, or some +more or less porous substance, they diffuse themselves through this +medium with varying rapidity, until they become of equal density or +temperature. Therefore, if we fill the upper part of a window (which can +be opened, downward) with a strained piece of fine muslin or washed +common calico, the air in the room, if hotter than the external air, +will, when the window is more or less opened, pass out readily into the +cooler air, and the cooler air will pass in through the pores of the +medium. The hotter air passing out faster than the cooler air will come +in, no draught will be experienced; and the window may be opened very +widely without any discomfort from it. + +It is, of course, quite impossible, in the limits of a paper, to do more +than indicate a means of ventilation which will be effective under most +circumstances of lighting with those gas burners and fittings usually +employed, and which will lend itself readily to modifications which will +be necessitated by the use of some of the newest forms of burners and +ventilating gas lights. + +[Illustration] + +In conclusion, I wish to draw attention to an important discovery I have +made in reference to blackened ceilings, for which, up to the present +time, gas has been chiefly blamed. I have long entertained the belief +that with a proper burner it is possible to obtain perfect combustion, +without any smoke; and a series of experiments with white porcelain +plates hung over some burners used in my own house proved conclusively +that the discoloration which spread itself all over my whitewashed +ceilings arose from the state of the atmosphere, which in all large +towns is largely mixed with heavy smoky particles, and from the dust or +dirt created in rooms by the use of coal fires as well as from the smoke +which, more frequently than one is at first supposed to imagine, escapes +from the fire-place into the room. I therefore, in two of my best rooms, +which required to have the ceilings whitened every year, substituted +varnished paper ceilings (light oak paper, simply put on in the usual +way, and varnished) instead of whitewash. I also changed the coal fires +for gas fires. These alterations have gone through the test of two +winters, and the ceilings are now as clean as when they were first done. +The burners have been used every night, and the gas fires every day, +during the two winters. No alteration has been made in the burners +employed, and no "consumers" have been used over them. If the varnished +paper ceilings are tried, I am sure that every one will like them better +than the time honored dirty whitewash, which is simply a fine sieve. +This fact is clearly shown by the appearance of the rafters, which, +after a short time, invariably show themselves whiter than the spaces +between. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANDERS' TELEPHONE. + + +Mr. G.L. Anders' telephone, shown in the accompanying cut, combines in a +single apparatus a transmitter, A, a receiver, B, and a pile, C. The +transmitter consists of a felt disk, a, containing several large +apertures, and fixed by an insulating ring, c, to a metallic disk, d, +situated within the box, D. The apertures, b, are filled with powdered +carbon, e, and are covered by a thin metal plate, f, which is fixed to +the insulating ring, c, by means of a metallic washer, g. Back of the +transmitter is arranged the receiver, B, which consists of an ordinary +electro-magnet with a disk in front of its poles. The pile, C, placed +behind the receiver, consists of a piece of carbon, h, held by a +partition, i, and covered with a salt of mercury, and of a plate of +zinc, l, which is held at a distance from the mercurial salt by a +spring, m, fixed to the insulating piece, n. + +[Illustration: ANDERS TELEPHONE] + +When the button, o, which is a poor conductor, is pressed, the zinc +plate, l, comes into contact with the mercurial salt, and the circuit is +closed through the line wire 1, the pile, the receiver, the transmitter, +and the line wire 2, while when the button is freed the current no +longer passes. The apparatus, then, can serve as a receiver or +transmitter only when the button is pressed.--_Bull. de la Musee de +l'Industrie_. + + * * * * * + + + + +BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR. + + +When the sea is rough, and the screw leaves the water as a consequence +of the ship's motions, the rotary velocity of the screw and engine +increases to a dangerous degree, because the resistance that the screw +was meeting in the water suddenly disappears. When the screw enters the +water again, the resistance makes itself abruptly felt, and causes +powerful shocks, which put both the screw and engine in danger. Ordinary +regulators are powerless to overcome this trouble, since their +construction is such that they act upon the engine only when the excess +of velocity has already been reached. + +Several remedies have been proposed for this danger. For example, use +has been made of a float placed in a channel at the side of the screw, +and which closes the moderator valve by mechanical means or by +electricity when the screw descends too low or rises too high. + +[Illustration: BROWN'S ELECTRIC SPEED REGULATOR.] + +Mr. Brown's system is based upon a new idea. The apparatus (see figure) +consists of two contacts connected by an electric circuit. One of them, +b, is fixed to the ship in such a way as to be constantly in the water, +while the other, a, corresponds to the position above which the screw +cannot rise without taking on a dangerous velocity. In the normal +situation of the ship, the electric circuit, c (in which circulates a +current produced by a dynamo, d), is closed through the intermedium of +the water, which establishes a connection between the two contacts. When +the contact, a, rises out of the water, the current is interrupted. The +electro, d, then frees its armature, f, and the latter is pulled back by +a spring--a motion that sets in action a small steam engine that closes +the moderator valve. When the contact, a, is again immersed, the +electro, e, attracts its armature, and thus brings the moderator valve +back to its normal position. It is clear that the contact, a, must be +insulated from the ship's side. + +Several contacts, a, might be advantageously arranged one above another, +in order to close the moderator valve more or less, according to the +extent of the screw's rise or fall. + + * * * * * + + + + +MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL. + + +We illustrate to-day a new application of electricity to railroad +crossing signaling which the Pennsylvania Steel Company, of Steelton, +Pa., has just perfected. By its operation an isolated highway crossing +in the woods or any lonely place can be made perfectly safe, and that, +too, without the expense of gates and a man to work them or of a +flagman. It is surely a great improvement over the old methods, and it +is likely to have a large sale. In addition to considerations of safety, +possible saving in salaries to railroad companies by its use will be +great. This device is more reliable than a human being, and can make any +crossing safe to which it is applied. Its operation is described as +follows: + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The illustration shows the device as used on a single track railroad, +where it is so arranged as to be operated only by trains approaching the +crossing (i.e., in the form illustrated, from the right). A similar box +on the other side of the crossing is used for trains approaching in the +other direction. Two plates connected by a link, and pivoted, are placed +alongside of one rail, close enough to it to be depressed by the treads +of the wheels. By another link, one of the plates called the rock plate +(the one to the right) is connected to a rock shaft which extends +through a strong bearing into the heavy iron case or box shown, at a +suitable distance from the rail, within which an electric generator is +placed; the whole being mounted and secured upon the ends of two long +ties framed to receive it. + +The action of this rock plate is peculiar. It is pivoted at the rear +end, not to a fixed point, but to a short crank arm, the bearing for +which is inclosed in the small box shown. As the first wheel of a train +which is approaching in the desired direction (from the right in the +engraving) touches it, it will be seen that it must not only depress it, +but produce a slight forward motion, causing a corresponding rotary +motion in the rock shaft which actuates the apparatus. On the other +hand, when a train is approaching from the other direction, or has +already passed the crossing, its wheels strike first the curved plate to +the left of the illustration, and by means of the peculiar link +connections shown, depress the rock plate so as to clear the wheels +before the wheels touch it, but the depression is directly vertical, so +that it does not give any horizontal motion to it, which would have the +effect of actuating the rock shaft. Consequently, trains pass over the +apparatus in one direction without having any effect upon it whatever, +the different point at which the same force is applied to the rock plate +giving the latter an entirely different motion. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--MAGNETO-ELECTRIC CROSSING SIGNAL] + +The slight rotary motion which is in this way communicated to the rock +shaft, when a train is approaching in the right direction, compresses a +spring inside the case. As each wheel passes off the rock plate, the +reaction of the spring throws it up again to its former position, giving +additional speed to the gearing within, which is set in motion at the +passage of the first wheel, and operates the electric "generator." The +spring is really the motive power of the alarm. A small but heavy +fly-wheel is connected with the apparatus, the top of which is just +visible in the engraving, which serves to store up power to run the +"generator," which is nothing more than a small dynamo, for the +necessary number of seconds after the rear of the train has passed. The +dynamo dispenses with all need for batteries, and reduces the work of +maintenance to occasionally refilling the oil-cups and noticing if any +part has been broken. + +A suitable wire circuit is provided, commencing at the generator with +insulated and protected wire, and continued with ordinary telegraph +wire, which can be strung on telegraph poles or trees leading to the +electric gong, Fig. 2, which rings as long as the armature revolves. It +is a simple matter so to proportion the mechanism for the required +distance and speed that the revolutions of the armature and the ringing +of the gong shall continue until the train reaches the crossing; and as +each wheel acts upon the apparatus, the more wheels there are in the +train the longer the bell will ring, a very convenient property, since +the slowest trains have nearly always the most wheels. The practical +limits to the ringing of the gong are that it will stop sounding after +the head of the train has passed the crossing and before or very soon +after the rear has passed. A "wild" engine running very slowly might not +actuate the signal as long as was desirable, but even then it is not +unreasonably claimed the warning would probably last long enough for all +practical requirements, as a team approaching a crossing at eight miles +per hour takes 42 seconds to go 500 feet. All the bearings of any +importance are self-lubricated by oil cups, the whole apparatus being +designed to require inspection not more than once a month. The iron case +when shut is water-tight, and when duly locked cannot be maliciously +tampered with without breaking open the case; so that, the manufacturers +claim, it will not be essential to examine it more than once a month. +The parts outside the case are all strong and heavy, and not likely to +get out of order, while easily inspected. + +The apparatus can be used for announcing trains as well as sounding +alarms, as the gongs can be placed upon any post or building. The gong +has a heavy striker, and makes a great deal of noise, so that no one +should fail to hear it.--_Railway Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SIZES OF BLOOD CORPUSCLES. + + +Professor Theodore G. Wormley, in the new edition of his work, gives the +following sizes of blood corpuscles, as measured by himself and +Professor Gulliver. We have only copied the sizes for mammals and birds. +It will be seen that, with three or four exceptions, the sizes obtained +by the two observers are practically the same: + + Mammals Wormley. Gulliver. + + Man 1-3250 1-3260 + Monkey 1-3382 1-3412 + Opossum 1-3145 1-3557 + Guinea pig 1-3223 1-3538 + Kangaroo 1-3410 1-3440 + Muskrat 1-3282 1-3550 + Dog 1-3561 1-3532 + Rabbit 1-3653 1-3607 + Rat 1-3652 1-3754 + Mouse 1-3743 1-3814 + Pig 1-4268 1-4230 + Ox 1-4219 1-4267 + Horse 1-4243 1-4600 + Cat 1-4372 1-4404 + Elk 1-4384 1-3938 + Buffalo 1-4351 1-4586 + Wolf (prairie) 1-3422 1-3600 + Bear (black) 1-3656 1-3693 + Hyena 1-3644 1-3735 + Squirrel (red) 1-4140 1-4000 + Raccoon 1-4084 1-3950 + Elephant 1-2738 1-2745 + Leopard 1-4390 1-4319 + Hippopotamus 1-3560 1-3429 + Rhinoceros 1-3649 1-3765 + Tapir 1-4175 1-4000 + Lion 1-4143 1-4322 + Ocelot 1-3885 1-4220 + Mule 1-3760 + Ass 1-3620 1-4000 + Ground squirrel 1-4200 + Bat 1-3966 1-4173 + Sheep 1-4912 1-5300 + Ibex 1-6445 + Goat 1-6189 1-6366 + Sloth 1-2865 + Platypus (duck-billed) 1-3000 + Whale 1-3099 + Capybara 1-3164 1-3190 + Seal 1-3281 + Woodchuck 1-3484 + Muskdeer 1-12325 + Beaver 1-3325 + Porcupine 1-3369 + Llama, Long diam. 1-3201 1-3361 + Short " 1-6408 1-6229 + Camel, Long diam. 1-3331 1-3123 + Short " 1-5280 1-5876 + + WORMLEY GULLIVER. + Birds. Length. Breadth. Length. Breadth. + + Chicken 1-2080 1-3483 1-2102 1-3466 + Turkey 1-1894 1-3444 1-2045 1-3599 + Duck 1-1955 1-3504 1-1937 1-3424 + Pigeon 1-1892 1-3804 1-1973 1-3643 + Goose 1836 1-3839 + Quail 2347 1-3470 + Dove 2005 1-3369 + Sparrow 2140 1-3500 + Owl 1736 1-4076 + +The subject of minute measurements was discussed in an interesting +manner in an address before the Microscopical Section of the A.A.A.S. +last year, an abstract of which was published in this journal, vol. v., +p. 181. + +The slight differences in size accurately given in this table are not +always appreciable under modern amplification, but under a power of +1,150 diameters "corpuscles differing by the 1-100000 of an inch are +readily discriminated." For the conclusions of Prof. Wormley as regards +the possibility of identifying blood of different animals, the reader is +referred to his book on Micro-Chemistry of Poisons.--_Amer. Micro. +Jour._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ABSORPTION OF PETROLEUM OINTMENT AND LARD BY THE SKIN. + +[Footnote: From the _American Druggist_.] + + +E. Joerss has investigated the question whether ointments made with +vaseline or other petroleum ointments are really as difficult of +resorption by the skin, or of yielding their medicinal ingredients to +the latter, as has been asserted. In solving this question, he +considered himself justified in drawing conclusions from the manner in +which such compounds behaved toward _dead_ animal membrane. If any kind +of osmosis could take place, he argued, from ointments prepared with +vaseline, etc., through dead membranes, such osmosis would most probably +also take place through living membranes. At all events, the endosmotic +or exosmotic action of the skin of a living body must necessarily play +an important _role_ in the absorption of medicinal agents; and, on the +other hand, it is plain that fats, which render the living skin +impermeable, necessarily also diminish or entirely neutralize its +osmotic action. To test this, the author made the following experiments: + +Bladder was tied over the necks of three wide-mouthed vials, with +bottoms cut off, and each was filled with iodide of potassium ointment. + +No. 1 contained an ointment made with lard. + +No. 2, one made with unguentum paraffini (_Germ. Pharm_.), and + +No. 3, one made with unguentum paraffini mixed with 3 per cent. of lard. + +All three vials were then suspended in beakers filled with water. After +standing twenty-four hours at the ordinary temperature, the contents of +none of the beakers gave any iodine reaction. After having been placed +into a warm temperature, between 25-37 deg. C., all three showed iodine +reactions after three hours, Nos. 2 and 3 very strongly, No. 1 (with +lard alone) very faintly. + +The same experiment was now repeated, with the precaution that the +bladder was previously washed completely free from chlorine. Each vial +was suspended, at a temperature of 25-27 deg. C., in 50 grammes of distilled +water. After three hours, the contents of No. 1 (containing the ointment +made with _lard_) gave _no_ iodine reaction; the contents of the other +two, however, gave traces. After eight hours no further change had taken +place. The temperature was now raised to 30-35 deg. C., and kept so for +eight hours. All three beakers now gave a strong iodine reaction, 0.2 +c.c. of normal silver solution being required for each 15 grammes of the +contents of the beakers. + +In addition to the iodide, some of the fatty base had osmosed through +the membrane in each case. + +The next experiment was made by substituting a piece of the skin (freed +from chlorine by washing) of a freshly killed sheep for the bladder. The +ointment in No. 3 in this case was made with 10 per cent. of lard. No +reaction was obtained, at the ordinary temperature, after twelve hours, +nor after eight more hours, at a temperature of 25-30 deg. C. After letting +them stand for eight hours longer at 30-37 deg. C., a faint reaction was +obtained in the case of the ointment made with unguentum paraffini; a +still fainter with No. 3; but no reaction at all with No. 1 (that made +with lard). None of the fats passed through by osmosis. After eight +hours more, the iodine reaction was quite decisive in all cases, but no +fat had passed through even now. On titrating 20 grammes of the contents +of each beaker, + + No. 1 required 0.5 c.c. of silver solution. + No. 3 " 0.5 c.c. " + No. 2 " 0.7 c.c. " + +showing that the most iodine had osmosed in the case of the ointment +made with unguentum paraffini (equivalent to vaseline). + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TAILS OF COMETS. + + +I.--If we throw a stone into the water, a wave will be produced that +will extend in a circle. The size of this wave and the velocity with +which it extends depend upon the size of the stone, that is to say, upon +the intensity of the mechanical action that created it. The extent and +depth of the water are likewise factors. + +If we cause a cord to vibrate in the water, we shall obtain a succession +of waves, the velocity and size of which will be derived from the cord's +size and the intensity of its action. These waves, which are visible +upon the surface, constitute what I shall call _mechanical waves_. But +there will be created at the same time other waves, whose velocity of +propagation will be much greater than that of the mechanical ones, and +apparently independent of mechanical intensity. These are _acoustic +waves_. Finally, there will doubtless be created _optical waves_, whose +velocity will exceed that of the acoustic ones. That is to say, if a +person fell into water from a great height, and all his senses were +sufficiently acute, he would first perceive a luminous sensation when +the first optical wave reached him, then he would perceive the sound +produced, and later still he would feel, through a slight tremor, the +mechanical wave.[1] + +[Footnote 1: Certain persons, as well known, undergo an optical +impression under the action of certain sounds.] + +[Illustration: I] + +Under the action of the same mechanical energy there form, then, in a +mass of fluid, waves that vary in nature, intensity, and velocity of +propagation; and although but three modes appreciable to our senses have +been cited, it does not follow that these are the only ones possible. + +We may remark, again, that if we produce a single wave upon water, it +will be propagated in a uniform motion, and will form in front of it +successive waves whose velocity of propagation is accelerated. + +This may explain why sounds perceived at great distances are briefer +than at small ones. A detonation that gives a quick dead sound at a few +yards is of much longer duration, and softer at a great distance. + +The laws that govern the system of wave propagation are, then, very +complex. + +[Illustration: II] + +II.--If an obstacle be in the way of the waves, there will occur in each +of them an _alteration_, a break, which it will carry along with it to a +greater or less distance. This succession of alterations forms a trace +behind the obstacle, and in opposition to the line of the centers. +Finally, if the obstacle itself emits waves in space that are of less +intensity then those which meet it, these little waves will extend in +the wake of the large ones, and will form a trace of parabolic form +situated upon the line of the centers. + +[Illustration: III] + +III.--Let us admit, then, that the sun, through the peculiar energy that +develops upon its surface or in its atmosphere, engenders in ethereal +space successive waves of varying nature and intensity, as has been said +above, and let us admit that its _mechanical_ waves are traversed +obliquely (Fig. 1) by any spherical body--by a comet, for example; then, +under the excitation of the waves that it is traversing, and through its +velocity, the comet will itself enter into action, and produce +mechanical waves in its turn. As the trace produced in the solar waves +consists of an agitation of the ether on such trace, it will become +apparent, if we admit that every luminous effect is produced by an +excitation--a setting of the ether in vibration. The mechanical waves +engender of themselves, then, an emission of optical waves that render +perceptible the alteration which they create in each other. + +Let a be the position of the comet. The altered wave, a, will carry +along the mark of such alteration in the direction a b, while at the +same time extending transversely the waves emitted by the comet. During +this time the comet will advance to a', and the wave will be altered in +its turn, and carry such alteration in the direction, a' b'. + +The succession of all these alterations will be found, then, upon a +curve a'' d' d, whose first elements, on coming from the comet, will be +upon the resultant of the comet's velocity, and of the propagation of +the solar waves. Consequently, the slower the motion of the comet, with +respect to the velocity of the solar waves, the closer will such +resultant approach the line of centers, and the more rectilinear will +appear the trace or tail of the comet. + +[Illustration: IV] + +IV.--If the comet have satellites, we shall see, according to the +relative position of these, several tails appear, and these will seem to +form at different epochs. If c and s be the positions of a comet and a +satellite, it will be seen that if, while the comet is proceeding to c', +the satellite, through its revolution around it, goes to s', the traces +formed at c and s will be extended to d and d', and that we shall have +two tails, c' d and s' d', which will be separated at d and d' and seem +to be confounded toward c' s'. + +V.--When the comet recedes from the sun, the same effect will occur--the +tail will precede it, and will be so much the more in a line with the +sun in proportion as the velocity of the solar waves exceeds that of the +comet. + +If we draw a complete diagram (Fig. 4), and admit that the alteration of +the solar waves persists indefinitely, we shall see (supposing the +phenomenon to begin at a) that when the comet is at a 1, the tail will +and be at a 1 b; when it is a 2 the tail will be at a 2 b'; and when it +is at a 4, the tail will have become an immense spiral, a 4 b'''. As in +reality the trace is extinguished in space, we never see but the origin +of it, which is the part of it that is constantly new--that is to say, +the part represented in the spirals of Fig. 4. + +The comet of 1843 crossed the perihelion with a velocity of 50 leagues +per second; it would have only required the velocity of the solar waves' +propagation to have been 500 leagues per second to have put the tail in +a sensibly direct opposition with the sun. + +Knowing the angle [gamma] (Fig. 5) that the tangent to the orbit makes +with the sun at a given point, and the angle [delta] of the track upon +such tangent, as well as the velocity v of the comet, we can deduce +therefrom the velocity V of the solar waves by the simple expression: + + V = v x (sinus [delta] / sinus([gamma] - [delta])) or (Fig. 1), + + V = da/t'', + +t'' being the time taken to pass over aa''. + +[Illustration: V] + +VI.--The tail, then, is not a special matter which is transported in +space with the comet, but a disturbance in the solar waves, just as +sound is an atmospheric disturbance which is propagated with the +velocity of the sonorous wave, although the air is not transported. The +tail which we see in one position, then, is not that which we see in +another; it is constantly renewed. Consequently, it is easy to conceive +how, in as brief a time as it took the comet of 1843 to make a half +revolution round the sun, the tail which extended to so great a distance +appeared to sweep the 180 deg. of space, while at the same time remaining in +opposition to the great luminary. + +[Illustration: VI] + +The spiral under consideration may be represented practically. If to a +vertical pipe we adapt a horizontal one that revolves with a certain +velocity, and throws out water horizontally, it will be understood that, +from a bird's eye view, the jet will form a spiral. Each drop of water +will recede radially in space, the spiral will keep forming at the jet, +and if, through any reason, the latter alone be visible, we shall see a +nearly rectilinear jet that will seem to revolve with the pipe. + +Finally, if the jet be made to describe a curve, m n (Fig. 4), while it +is kept directed toward the opposite of a point, c, the projected water +will mark the spiral indicated, and this will continue to widen, and +each drop will recede in the direction shown by the arrows. + +[Illustration: VII] + +VII.--It seems to result from this explanation that all the planets and +their satellites ought to produce identical effects, and have the +appearance of comets. In order to change the conditions, it suffices to +admit that the ethereal mass revolves in space around the sun with a +velocity which is in each place that of the planets there; and this is +very reasonable if, admitting the nebular hypothesis, we draw the +deduction that the cause that has communicated the velocity to the +successive rings has communicated it to the ethereal mass. + +The planets, then, have no appreciable, relative velocity in space, and +for this reason do not produce mechanical waves; and, if they become +capable of doing so through a peculiar energy developed at their +surface, as in the case of the sun, they are still too weak to give very +perceptible effects. The satellites, likewise, have relatively too +feeble velocities. + +The comet, on the contrary, directly penetrates the solar waves, and +sometimes has a relatively great velocity in space. If its proper +velocity be of directly opposite direction to that of the ethereal +mass's rotation, it will then be capable of producing sufficiently +intense mechanical effects to affect our vision. + +VIII.--Finally, seeing the slight distances at which these stars pass +the sun, the attraction upon the comet and its satellites may be very +different, and the velocity of rotation of the latter, being added to or +deducted from that of the forward motion, there may occur (as in the +case shown in Fig. 6) a separation of a satellite from the principal +star. The comet then appears to separate into two, and each part follows +different routes in space; or, as in Fig. 7, one of the satellites may +either fall into the sun or pursue an elliptical orbit and become +periodical, while the principal star may preserve a parabolic orbit, and +make but one appearance.--_A. Goupil._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE DOUBLE ROLE OF THE STING OF THE HONEY BEE. + +[Footnote: Translated from an article entitled "Ueber eine doppelrolle +des stachels der honigbienen" in _Deutschamerikanische Apotheker +Zeitung_, 15 Jan., 1885, Jahrg. 5, p. 664; there reprinted from _Ind. +Blatter_.] + + +Very important and highly interesting discoveries have recently been +made in regard to a double role played by the sting of the honey bee. +These discoveries explain some hitherto inexplicable phenomena in the +domestic economy of the ants. It is already known that the honey of our +honey bees, when mixed with a tincture of litmus, shows a distinct red +color, or, in other words, has an acid reaction. It manifests this +peculiarity because of the volatile formic acid which it contains. This +admixed acid confers upon crude honey its preservative power. Honey +which is purified by treatment with water under heat, or the so-called +honey-sirup, spoils sooner, because the formic acid is volatilized. The +honey of vicious swarms of bees is characterized by a tart taste and a +pungent odor. This effect is produced by the formic acid, which is +present in excess in the honey. Hitherto it has been entirely unknown in +what way the substratum of this peculiarity of honey, the formic acid in +the honey, could enter into this vomit from the honey stomach of the +workers. Only the most recent investigations have furnished us an +explanation of this process. The sting of the bees is used not only for +defense, but quite principally serves the important purpose of +contributing to the stored honey an antizymotic and antiseptic +substance. + +The observation has recently been made that the bees in the hive, even +when they are undisturbed, wipe off on the combs the minute drops of bee +poison (formic acid) which from time to time exude from the tip of their +sting. And this excellent preservative medium is thus sooner or later +contributed to the stored honey. The more excitable and the more ready +to sting the bees are, the greater will be the quantity of formic acid +which is added to the honey, and the admixture of which good honey +needs. The praise which is so commonly lavished upon the Ligurian race +of our honey bees, which is indisposed to sting--and such praise is +still expressed at the peripatetic gatherings of German bee-masters--is +therefore from a practical point of view a false praise. Now we +understand also why the stingless honey bees of South America collect +little honey. It is well known that never more than a very small store +of honey is found in felled trees inhabited by stingless _Melipona_. +What should induce the _Melipona_ to accumulate stores which they could +not preserve? They lack formic acid. Only three of the eighteen +different known species of honey bees of northern Brazil have a sting. A +peculiar phenomenon in the life of certain ants has always been +problematical, but now it finds also its least forced explanation. It is +well known that there are different grain-gathering species of ants. The +seeds of grasses and other plants are often preserved for years in their +little magazines, without germinating. A very small red ant, which drags +grains of wheat and oats into its dwellings, lives in India. These ants +are so small that eight or twelve of them have to drag on one grain with +the greatest exertion. They travel in two separate ranks over smooth or +rough ground, just as it comes, and even up and down steps, at the same +regular pace. They have often to travel with their booty more than a +thousand meters, to reach their communal storehouse. The renowned +investigator Moggridge repeatedly observed that when the ants were +prevented from reaching their magazines of grain, the seeds begun to +sprout. The same was the case in abandoned magazines of grain. Hence the +ants know how to prevent the sprouting of the grains, but the capacity +for sprouting is not destroyed. The renowned English investigator John +Lubbock, who communicates this and similar facts in his work entitled +"Ants, Bees, and Wasps," adds that it is not yet known in what way the +ants prevent the sprouting of the collected grains. But now it is +demonstrated that here also it is only the formic acid, whose +preservative influence goes so far that it can make seed incapable of +germination for a determinate time or continuously. + +It may be mentioned that we have also among us a species of ant which +lives on seeds, and stores these up. This is our _Lasius niger_, which +carries seeds of _Viola_ into its nests, and, as Wittmack has +communicated recently to the Sitzungsberichte der gesellschaft +naturforschender freunde zu Berlin, does the same with the seeds of +_Veronica hederaefolia_. + +Syke states in his account of an Indian ant, _Pheidole providens_, that +this species collects a great store of grass-seeds. But he observed that +the ants brought their store of grain into the open air to dry it after +the monsoon storms. From this it appears that the preservative effect of +the formic acid is destroyed by great moisture, and hence this drying +process. So that among the bees the honey which is stored for winter +use, and among the ants the stores of grain which serve for food, are +preserved by one and the same fluid, formic acid. + + +EDITORIAL NOTE. + +This same theory has been suggested many times by our most advanced +American bee-keepers. It has been hinted that this same formic acid was +what made honey a poison to many people, and that the sharp sting of +some honey, notably that from bass wood or linden, originated in this +acid from the poison sac. If this is the correct explanation, it seems +strange that the same kind of honey is always peculiar for greater or +less acidity as the case may be. We often see bees with sting extended +and tipped with a tiny drop of poison; but how do we know that this +poison is certainly mingled with the honey? Is this any more than a +guess?--_A.J. Cook, in Psyche_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHLORIDES IN RAINFALL OF 1884. + + +We are apt to regard the rain solely as a product of distillation, and, +as such, very pure. A little reflection and a very slight amount of +experimental examination will quickly disabuse those who have this +mistaken and popular impression of their error. A great number of bodies +which arise from industrial processes, domestic combustion of coal, +natural changes in vegetable and animal matter, terrestrial disturbances +as tornadoes and volcanic eruptions, vital exhalations, etc., are +discharged into the atmosphere, and, whether by solution or mechanical +contact, descend to the surface of the earth in the rain, leaving upon +its evaporation in many instances the most incontestable evidences of +their presence. The acid precipitation around alkali and sulphuric acid +works is well known; the acid character of rains collected near and in +cities, and the remarkable ammoniacal strength of some local rainfalls, +have been fully discussed. The exhaustive experiments of Dr. Angus Smith +in Scotland, and the interesting reports of French examiners, have made +the scientific world familiar, not only qualitatively but +quantitatively, with the chemical nature of some rains, as well as with +their solid sedimentary contents. + +Some years ago my attention was unpleasantly drawn to the fact that the +rain water in our use reacted for chlorine; and on finding this due +solely to the washing out from the atmosphere of suspended particles of +chloride of sodium or other chlorides or free chlorine, it appeared +interesting to determine the average amount of these salts in the rain +water of the sea coast. The results given in this paper refer to a +district on Staten Island, New York harbor, at a point four miles from +the ocean, slightly sheltered from the ocean's immediate influence by +the intervention of low ranges of hills. They were communicated to the +Natural Science Association of Staten Island, but the details of the +observations may prove of interest to the readers of the _Quarterly_, +and may there serve as a record more widely accessible. + +It has long been recognized that the source of chlorine in rainfalls +near the sea was the sea itself, the amount of chlorides, putting aside +local exceptions arising from cities or manufactories, increasing with +the proximity of the point of observation to the ocean, and also showing +a marked relation to the exposure of the position chosen to violent +storms. Thus the west coast rainfalls of Ireland contain larger +quantities of chlorides than those of the east, and the table given by +Dr. Smith shows the variations in neighboring localities on the same +seafront. The chlorides of the English rains diminish as the observer +leaves the sea coast. In the following observations the waters of +thirty-two rains were collected, the chlorine determined by nitrate of +silver in amounts of the water varying from one liter to one-half a +liter, and in some instances less. While it is likely that some of the +chlorine was due to the presence of chlorides other than common salt, as +the position of the point of observation is not removed more than a mile +from oil distilleries and smelting and sulphuric acid works in New +Jersey, yet this could not even generally have been so, as the rain +storms came, for the greater number of instances, from the east, in an +opposite direction to the position of the factories alluded to. It has +also been noticed by Mr. A. Hollick, to whom these observations were of +interest, that in heavy storms a salt film often forms upon fruit +exposed to the easterly gales upon the shores of the island. + +The yearly average for chlorine is 0.228 grain per gallon; for sodic +chloride, 0.376 grain. The total rainfall in our region for 1884, as +reported by Dr. Draper at Central Park, was 52.25 inches, somewhat +higher than usual, as the average for a series of years before gives 46 +inches; but taking these former figures, we find that for that year +(1884) each acre of ground received, accepting the results obtained by +my examination, 76.24 avoirdupois pounds of common salt, if we regard +the entire chlorine contents of the rains as due to that body, or 46.23 +pounds of chlorine alone. + +In comparison with this result, we find that at Caen, in France, an +examination of the saline ingredients of the rain gave for one year +about 85 pounds of mineral matter per acre, of which 40 pounds were +regarded as common salt. + +Although chlorine is almost constantly present in plant tissues, it is +not indispensable for most plants, and for those assimilating it in +small amounts, our rainfall would seem to offer an ample supply. These +facts open our eyes to the possible fertilizing influence of rains, and +they also suggest to what extent rains may exert a corrosive action when +they descend charged with acid vapors.--_L.P. Gratacap, in School of +Mines Quarterly_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE CHROMATOSCOPE. + + +Some time ago Mr. J.D. Hardy devised an instrument, which he has named a +chromatoscope, so easily made by any one who has a spot lens that we +take the following description from the _Journal_ of the Royal +Microscopical Society: "Its chief purpose is that of illuminating and +defining objects which are nonpolarizable, in a similar manner to that +in which the polariscope defines polarizable objects. It can also be +applied to many polarizable objects. This quality, combined with the +transmission of a greater amount of light than is obtainable by the +polariscope, renders objects thus seen much more effective. It is +constructed as follows: Into the tube of the spot lens a short tube is +made to move freely and easily. This inner tube has a double flange, the +outer one, which is milled, for rotating, and the inner one for carrying +a glass plate. This plate is made of flat, clear glass, and upon it are +cemented by a very small quantity of balsam three pieces of colored +(stained) glass, blue, red, and green, in the proportion of about 8, 5, +and 3. The light from the lamp is allowed to pass to some extent through +the interspaces, and is by comparison a strong yellow, thus giving four +principal colors. Secondary colors are formed by a combination of the +rays in passing through the spot lens. + +"The stained glass should be as rich in color and as good in quality as +possible, and a better effect is obtained by three pieces of stained +glass than by a number of small pieces. The application of the +chromatoscope is almost unlimited, as it can be used with all objectives +up to the 1/8. Transparent objects, particularly crystals which will not +polarize, diatoms, infusoria, palates of mollusks, etc., can not only be +seen to greater advantage, but their parts can be more easily studied. +As its cost is merely nominal, it can be applied to every instrument, +large or small; and when its merits and its utility by practice are +known, I am confident that it will be considered a valuable accessory to +the microscope." + + * * * * * + +Prof. W.O. Atwater, as the results of a series of experiments, finds, +contrary to the general opinion of chemists, that plants assimilate +nitrogen from the atmosphere. They take up the greatest quantity when +supplied with abundant nourishment from the soil. Well fed plants +acquired fully one-half their total nitrogen from the air. It seems +probable that the free nitrogen of the air is in some way assimilated by +the plants. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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