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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/1172-0.txt b/1172-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..935851c --- /dev/null +++ b/1172-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,1582 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1172 *** + +THE CAVALRY GENERAL + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + + + The Cavalry General is a discourse on the merits + a cavalry general, or hipparch, in Athens should + have. Xenophon also describes the development of + a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be + applied in the field and in festival exhibition. + + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +THE CAVALRY GENERAL + + + + +THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH (1) + +or + +Commander of Cavalry at Athens + + + +I + +Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods to grant +you such good gifts (2) as shall enable you in thought, word, and deed +to discharge your office in the manner most acceptable to Heaven, and +with fullest increase to yourself, and friends, and to the state at +large of affection, glory, and wide usefulness. The goodwill of +Heaven (3) so obtained, you shall proceed to mount your troopers, +taking care that the full complement which the law demands is reached, +and that the normal force of cavalry is not diminished. There will +need to be a reserve of remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at +any moment, (4) looking to the fact that some will certainly succumb to +old age, and others, from one reason or another, prove unserviceable. + + (1) For the title, etc., see Schneid. "Praemon. de Xeno." {Ipp}. + Boeckh, "P. E. A." 251. + + (2) Or, "with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and + speech and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most + acceptably to the gods themselves, and with..." Cf. Plat. + "Phaedr." 273 E; "Euthr." 14 B. + + (3) The Greek phrase is warmer, {theon d' ileon onton}, "the gods + being kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. "Laws," 712 B. + + (4) Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See "Les Cavaliers + Atheniens," par Albert Martin, p. 308. + +But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied, (5) the duty will +devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your horses are +well fed and in condition to stand their work, since a horse which +cannot endure fatigue will clearly be unable to overhaul the foeman or +effect escape; (6) and in the second place, you will have to see to it +the animals are tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not +obey is only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, an +animal that kicks when mounted must be cast; since brutes of that sort +may often do more mischief than the foe himself. Lastly, you must pay +attention to the horses' feet, and see that they will stand being +ridden over rough ground. A horse, one knows, is practically useless +where he cannot be galloped without suffering. + + (5) Lit. "in process of being raised." + + (6) Or, "to press home a charge a l'outrance, or retire from the field + unscathed." + +And now, supposing that your horses are all that they ought to be, +like pains must be applied to train the men themselves. The trooper, +in the first place, must be able to spring on horseback easily--a feat +to which many a man has owed his life ere now. And next, he must be +able to ride with freedom over every sort of ground, since any +description of country may become the seat of war. When, presently, +your men have got firm seats, your aim should be to make as many +members of the corps as possible not only skilled to hurl the javelin +from horseback with precision, but to perform all other feats expected +of the expert horseman. Next comes the need to arm both horse and man +in such a manner as to minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to +increase the force of every blow delivered. (7) This attended to, you +must contrive to make your men amenable to discipline, without which +neither good horses, nor a firm seat, nor splendour of equipment will +be of any use at all. + + (7) Lit. "so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they + may most be able to injure the enemy." + +The general of cavalry, (8) as patron of the whole department, is +naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, however, of +the task imposed upon that officer had he to carry out these various +details single-handed, the state has chosen to associate (9) with him +certain coadjutors in the persons of the phylarchs (or tribal +captains), (10) and has besides imposed upon the senate a share in the +superintendence of the cavalry. This being so, two things appear to me +desirable; the first is, so to work upon the phylarch that he shall +share your own enthusiasm for the honour of the corps; (11) and +secondly, to have at your disposal in the senate able orators, (12) +whose language may instil a wholesome fear into the knights +themselves, and thereby make them all the better men, or tend to +pacify the senate on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger. + + (8) See "Mem." III. iii. + + (9) Cf. Theophr. xxix. "The Oligarchic Man": "When the people are + deliberating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint + directors of the procession." (Jebb.) + + (10) Or, "squadron-leaders." + + (11) "Honour and prestige of knighthood." + + (12) "To keep a staff of orators." Cf. "Anab." VII. vi. 41; "Cyrop." + I. vi. 19; "Hell." VI. ii. 39. + +The above may serve as memoranda (13) of the duties which will claim +your chief attention. How the details in each case may best be carried +out is a further matter, which I will now endeavour to explain. + + (13) "A sort of notes and suggestions," "mementoes." Cf. + "Horsemanship," iii. 1, xii. 14. + +As to the men themselves--the class from which you make your pick of +troopers--clearly according to the law you are bound to enrol "the +ablest" you can find "in point of wealth and bodily physique"; and "if +not by persuasion, then by prosecution in a court of law." (14) And for +my part, I think, if legal pressure is to be applied, you should apply +it in those cases where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed +to interested motives; (15) since if you fail to put compulsion on the +greater people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those +of humbler means. But there will be other cases; (16) say, of young men +in whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be kindled by recounting +to them all the brilliant feats of knighthood; while you may disarm +the opposition of their guardians by dwelling on the fact that, if not +you, at any rate some future hipparch will certainly compel them to +breed horses, (17) owing to their wealth; whereas, if they enter the +service (18) during your term of office, you will undertake to deter +their lads from mad extravagance in buying horses, (19) and take pains +to make good horsemen of them without loss of time; and while pleading +in this strain, you must endeavour to make your practice correspond +with what you preach. + + (14) Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by + legal if not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321 + foll. + + (15) i.e. "would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of + gain." + + (16) Reading {esti de kai ous}, or if as vulg. {eti de kai}, "More + than that, it strikes me one may work on the feelings of young + fellows in such a way as to disarm." See Hartmann, "An. Xen. N." + 325. + + (17) Cf. Aesch. "P. V." 474; Herod. vi. 35; Dem. 1046. 14; Thuc. vi. + 12; Isocr. {peri tou zeugous}, 353 C. {ippotrophein d' + epikheiresas, o ton eudaimonestaton ergon esti.} See Prof. Jebb's + note to Theophr. "Ch." vi. p. 197, note 16. + + (18) Lit. "if they mount." + + (19) Like that of Pheidippides in the play; see Aristoph. "Clouds," 23 + foll. And for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas (= L12 + circa) for a common horse, or 12 minas (say L50) for a good saddle + or race-horse, up to the extravagant sum of 13 talents (say 3000 + guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see Boeckh, "P. E. A." (Eng. tr.) + p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22; 88. 17; Lys. "de Maled." 133. 10; Aul. + Gell. "Noct. Att." v. 2. + +To come to the existing body of knights, (20) it would tend, (21) I +think, to better rearing and more careful treatment of their horses if +the senate issued a formal notice that for the future twice the amount +of drill will be required, and that any horse unable to keep up will +be rejected. And so, too, with regard to vicious horses, I should like +to see an edict promulgated to the effect that all such animals will +be rejected. This threat would stimulate the owners of such brutes to +part with them by sale, and, what is more, to exercise discretion at +the time of purchase. So, too, it would be a good thing if the same +threat of rejection were made to include horses that kick on the +exercising-grounds, since it is impossible to keep such animals in the +ranks; and in case of an advance against a hostile force at any +point, (22) they must perforce trail in the rear, so that, thanks to +the vice of the animal which he bestrides, the trooper himself is +rendered useless. + + (20) Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry." + For a plausible emend. of this passage (S. 13) see Courier ("Notes + sur le texte," p. 54); L. Dind. ad loc. + + (21) Lit. "the senate might incite to..." + + (22) Reading {ean}, or if {kan} with the MSS., trans. "even in case of + an advance against the enemy." + +With a view to strengthening the horses' feet: if any one has an +easier or more simple treatment to suggest, by all means let it be +adopted; but for myself, as the result of experience, I maintain that +the proper course is to lay down a loose layer of cobbles from the +road, a pound or so in weight, on which the horse should be put to +stand, when taken from the manger to be groomed. (23) The point is, +that the horse will keep perpetually moving first one foot and then +another on the stones, whilst being rubbed down or simply because he +is fidgeted by flies. Let any one try the experiment, and, I venture +to predict, not only will he come to trust my guidance, but he will +see his horse's hoofs grow just as round and solid as the cobbles. + + (23) See below, "Horse." iv. 4. The Greeks did not "shoe" their + horses. + +Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to be, how is +the trooper to attain a like degree of excellence? To that question I +will now address myself. The art of leaping on to horseback is one +which we would fain persuade the youthful members of the corps to +learn themselves; though, if you choose to give them an +instructor, (24) all the greater credit to yourself. And as to the +older men you cannot do better than accustom them to mount, or rather +to be hoisted up by aid of some one, Persian fashion. (25) + + (24) Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play "The Breeder + of Horses," ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55. + + (25) See "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Horsemanship," vi. 12. + +With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, it may be +perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually marching out, +when there is no war; (26) but all the same, I would have you call your +men together and impress upon them the need to train themselves, when +they ride into the country to their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving +the high road and galloping at a round pace on ground of every +description. (27) This method will be quite as beneficial to them as +the regular march out, and at the same time not produce the same sense +of tedium. You may find it useful also to remind them that the state +on her side is quite willing to expend a sum of nearly forty +talents (28) yearly, so that in the event of war she may not have to +look about for cavalry, but have a thoroughly efficient force to hand +for active service. Let these ideas be once instilled into their +minds, and, mark my words, your trooper will fall with zest to +practising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war burst out he +may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, unskilled to fight +for fame and fatherland or even life itself. + + (26) In the piping days of peace. + + (27) See "Econ." xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. "Ch." viii. "The Late Learner": + {kai eis agron eph' ippou allotriou katakhoumenos ama meletan + ippazesthai, kai peson ten kephalon kateagenai}, "Riding into the + country on another's horse, he will practise his horsemanship by + the way, and falling, will break his head" (Jebb). + + (28) = L10,000 circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251. + +It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers that one +day you will take them out yourself for a long march, and lead them +across country over every kind of ground. Again, whilst practising the +evolutions of the rival cavalry display, (29) it will be well to gallop +out at one time to one district and again to another. Both men and +horses will be benefited. + + (29) Lit. "the anthippasia." See iii. 11, and "Horsemanship," viii. + 10. + +Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best way to secure +as wide a practice of the art as possible, it strikes me, would be to +issue an order to your phylarchs that it will be their duty to put +themselves at the head of the marksmen of several tribes, and to ride +out to the butts for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will +be roused--the several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out +as many marksmen as they can to aid the state. (30) + + (30) On competition cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22, and our author passim. + +And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which the force +requires, (31) the greatest help may once again be looked for from the +phylarchs; let these officers but be persuaded that from the public +point of view the splendid appearance of their squadrons (32) will +confer a title to distinction far higher than that of any personal +equipment. Nor is it reasonable to suppose that they will be deaf to +such an argument, since the very desire to hold the office of phylarch +itself proclaims a soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is +more, they have it in their power, in accordance with the actual +provisions of the law, to equip their men without the outlay of a +single penny, by enforcing that self-equipment out of pay (33) which +the law prescribes. + + (31) Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph. + "Lysistr." 561, and a fragment of "The Knights," of Antiphanes, + ap. Athen. 503 B, {pant' 'Amaltheias keras}. See "Hiero," ix. 6; + "Horse." xi. 10. + + (32) Lit. "tribes," {phulai} (each of the ten tribes contributing + about eighty men, or, as we might say, a squadron). + + (33) i.e. the {katastasis}, "allowance," so technically called. Cf. + Lys. "for Mantitheos"; Jebb, "Att. Or." i. 246; Boeckh, "P. E. A." + II. xxi. p. 263; K. F. Hermann, 152, 19; Martin, op. cit. p. 341. + +But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience in your +subordinates, you have two formidable instruments; (34) as a matter of +plain reason you can show them what a host of blessings the word +discipline implies; and as a matter of hard fact you can, within the +limits of the law, enable the well-disciplined to reap advantage, +while the undisciplined are made to feel the pinch at every turn. + + (34) "The one theoretic, the other practical." + +But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if you would +stir in each a personal ambition to appear at the head of his own +squadron in all ways splendidly appointed, the best incentive will be +your personal example. You must see to it that your own bodyguard (35) +are decked with choice accoutrement and arms; you must enforce on them +the need to practise shooting pertinaciously; you must expound to them +the theory of the javelin, yourself an adept in the art through +constant training. (36) + + (35) Techn. {prodromoi}, possibly = the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200 + mounted archers--Scythians; cf. "Mem." III. iii. 11. Or, probably, + "mounted skirmishers," distinct from the {ippotexotai}. Cf. + Arrian, "An." i. 12. 7. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49. 5. + + (36) Reading as vulg. {eisegoio}, or if with L. D. {egoio} (cf. above, + S. 21), trans. "you must lead them out to the butts yourself." + +Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the several +tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of knighthood known to +custom in the public spectacles of our city, we have here, I think, an +incentive which will appeal to the ambition of every true Athenian. +How small, in the like case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and +yet how great the labour and how vast the sums expended! (37) But we +must discover umpires of such high order that to win their verdict +will be as precious to the victor as victory itself. + + (37) See "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Hiero," ix. 3; "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; + Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f. + + + +II + +Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained in all the +above particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that they should +further be instructed in a type of evolution the effect of which will +show itself not only in the splendour of the great processions (1) in +honour of the gods, but in the manouvres of the exercising-ground; in +the valorous onslaught of real battle when occasion calls; and in the +ease with which whole regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a +river, or thread a defile without the slightest symptom of confusion. +What this formation is--essential, at least in my opinion, to the +noblest execution of their several duties--I will now, without delay, +endeavour to explain. (2) + + (1) e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon. + + (2) Or, "what this best order is, the adoption of which will give + these several features fair accomplishment, I will without further + pause set forth." + +We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division of ten +tribes. (3) Given these, the proper course, I say, is to appoint, with +the concurrence of the several phylarchs, certain decadarchs + (file-leaders) (4) to be selected from the men ripest of age and +strength, most eager to achieve some deed of honour and to be known to +fame. These are to form your front-rank men; (5) and after these, a +corresponding number should be chosen from the oldest and the most +sagacious members of the squadron, to form the rear-rank of the files +or decads; since, to use an illustration, iron best severs iron when +the forefront of the blade (6) is strong and tempered, and the momentum +at the back is sufficient. + + (3) See "Revenues," iv. 30. + + (4) Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally + (or ideally) of ten men. Cf. "Cyrop. II." ii. 30; VIII. i. 14. It + will be borne in mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be + drawn up in battle line at least four deep (see "Hell." III. iv. + 13), and frequently much deeper. (The Persian cavalry in the + engagement just referred to were twelve deep.) + + (5) See "Cyrop." III. iii. 41, 57; VI. iii. 24, 27; VII. i. 15; "Pol. + Lac." xi. 5. These front-rank men would seem to correspond to our + "troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some + extent. + + (6) Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier. + +The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best be filled +supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their own supports, +and those chosen theirs, and so on following suit; since on this +principle we may expect each man to have his trustiest comrade at his +back. + +As to your lieutenant, (7) it is every way important to appoint a good +man to this post, whose bravery will tell; and in case of need at any +time to charge the enemy, the cheering accents of his voice will +infuse strength into those in front; or when the critical moment of +retreat arrives, his sage conduct in retiring will go far, we may well +conclude, towards saving his division. (8) + + (7) {ton aphegoumenon}, lit. "him who leads back" (a function which + would devolve upon the {ouragos} under many circumstances). Cf. + "Cyrop." II. iii. 21; "Hell." IV. viii. 37; Plat. "Laws," 760 D. = + our "officer serre-file," to some extent. So Courier: "Celui qui + commande en serre-file. C'est chez nous le capitaine en second." + + (8) Or, "the rest of the squadron." Lit. "his own tribesmen." + +An even number of file-leaders will admit of a greater number of equal +subdivisions than an odd. + +The above formation pleases me for two good reasons: in the first +place, all the front-rank men are forced to act as officers; (9) and +the same man, mark you, when in command is somehow apt to feel that +deeds of valour are incumbent on him which, as a private, he ignores; +and in the next place, at a crisis when something calls for action on +the instant, the word of command passed not to privates but to +officers takes speedier effect. + + (9) i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is + nothing like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige + which is often lacking in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66; + "Pol. Lac." xi. 5. + +Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this formation: +just as the squadron-leaders have their several positions for the march + (or the attack (10)) assigned them by the commander, so the file-leaders +will depend upon the captain for the order passed along the line in what +formation they are severally to march; and all being prearranged by word +of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than if left to chance--like +people crowding out of a theatre to their mutual annoyance. And when it +comes to actual encounter greater promptitude will be displayed: +supposing the attack is made in front, by the file-leaders who know that +this is their appointed post; or in case of danger suddenly appearing in +rear, then by the rear-rank men, whose main idea is that to desert one's +post is base. A want of orderly arrangement, on the contrary, leads to +confusion worse confounded at every narrow road, at every passage of a +river; and when it comes to fighting, no one of his own free will +assigns himself his proper post in face of an enemy. + + (10) Lit. "where to ride," i.e. in what formation whether on the line + of march or in action. + +The above are fundamental matters not to be performed without the +active help of every trooper who would wish to be a zealous and +unhesitating fellow-worker with his officer. (11) + + (11) Cf. "Hiero," vii. 2; "Cyrop." II. iv. 10. + + + +III + +I come at length to certain duties which devolve upon the general of +cavalry himself in person: and first and foremost, it concerns him to +obtain the favour of the gods by sacrifices in behalf of the state +cavalry; and in the next place to make the great procession at the +festivals a spectacle worth seeing; and further, with regard to all +those public shows demanded by the state, wherever held, (1) whether in +the grounds of the Academy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the +hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights to see that +every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited. + + (1) Cf. Theophr. "Ch." vii. (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25). + +But these, again, are memoranda. (2) To the question how the several +features of the pageant shall receive their due impress of beauty, I +will now address myself. + + (2) Read {tauta men alla upomnemata}, or if with Pantazid. {apla}, + trans. "these are simply memoranda." + +And first to speak of the Processions. (3) These will, I think, be +rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's spectators were the +riders to ride round the Agora and temples, commencing from the +Hermae, and pay honour to the sacred beings, each in turn, whose +shrines and statues are there congregated. (Thus in the great +Dionysia (4) the choruses embrace their gracious service to the other +gods and to the Twelve with circling dance. (5)) When the circuit is +completed, and the riders are back again in front of the Hermae, it +would add, I think, to the beauty of the scene (6) if at this point +they formed in companies of tribes, and giving their horses rein, +swept forward at the gallop to the Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note +the right position of the lance, to lessen as far as possible the risk +of mutual interference. (7) Each trooper should hold his lance straight +between the ears of his charger, which in proportion to the +distinctness given to the weapon will rouse terror, and at the same +time create a vague idea of multitudinousness. (8) + + (3) {tas pompas}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160. + + (4) Celebrated in March (Elaphebolion). + + (5) Or, "by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The + Twelve"; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 235, + "Birds," 95; Plat. "Laws," 654; Paus. i. 3. 3; 40. 3; viii. 25. 3; + Plut. "Nic." 13; Lycurg. 198. + + (6) Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my + opinion, if at this point they formed in squadron column, and + giving rein to their chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the + Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. i. 296. + + (7) Lit. "nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible + overlap one another." + + (8) Lit. "Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight + between the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be + distinct and terror-striking, and at the same time to appear + numerous." + +As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, the pace +should at once be changed; and now, with footing slow, let them +retrace their course back to the temples. In this way every detail +characteristic of knightly pageantry (9) will have been displayed to +the delight of god and man. That our knights are not accustomed to +these actual evolutions, I am well aware; but I also recognise the +fact that the performances are good and beautiful and will give +pleasure to spectators. I do not fail to note, moreover, that novel +feats of horsemanship have before now been performed by our knights, +when their commanders have had the ability to get their wishes readily +complied with. + + (9) Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse." + Possibly, as Cobet suggests, {kala} has dropped out. See + "Horsemanship," xi. 3, 6. + +But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march-past, (10) in +the grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin-throwing. The scene +would gain in beauty if the tribal squadrons were to ride in line of +columns (11) as if for battle, in two divisions, five squadrons in the +one and five in the other, with the hipparch and the phylarchs at +their head, in such formation as to allow the whole breadth of the +racecourse to be filled. Then, as soon as they have gained the top (12) +of the incline, which leads down to the theatre opposite, it would, I +think, be obviously useful here to show the skill with which your +troopers can gallop down a steep incline (13) with as broad a front as +the nature of the ground permits. I am quite clear that your troopers, +if they can trust their own skill in galloping, will take kindly to +such an exhibition; while as certainly, if unpractised, they must look +to it that the enemy does not give them a lesson in the art some day, +perforce. + + (10) {dielaunosin en Lukeio}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196; cf. Arist. + "Peace," 356. + + (11) Or, as we might say, "in regimental order," "with the commanding + officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders"; and for + the Lyceum see "Hell." I. i. 33; II. iv. 27. + + (12) Lit. "the apex of the confronting theatre." + + (13) See "Horsemanship," viii. 6; "Anab." IV. viii. 28. + +To come to the test manouvres. (14) The order in which the men will +ride with showiest effect on these occasions has been already +noted. (15) As far as the leader is himself concerned, and presuming he +is mounted on a powerful horse, I would suggest that he should each +time ride round on the outer flank; in which case he will himself be +kept perpetually moving at a canter, and those with him, as they +become the wheeling flank, will, by turns, fall into the same pace, +with this result: the spectacle presented to the senate will be that +of an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers; and the horses having, +each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, will not be overdone. + + (14) {dokimasiais}, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit. + p. 333. + + (15) Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work (see Courier, p. + 111, n. 1); or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene + of the {dokimasiai} Phaleron? There is no further reference to {ta + Phaleroi}. Cf. S. 1, above. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49 (now the + locus classicus on the subject), and Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene + is represented on a patera from Orvieto, now in the Berlin Museum, + reproduced and fully described in "The Art of Horsemanship by + Xenophon," translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse, + and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76. + +On occasions when the display takes place in the hippodrome, (16) the +best arrangement would be, in the first place, that the troops should +fill the entire space with extended front, so forcing out the mob of +people from the centre; (17) and secondly, that in the sham fight (18) +which ensues, the tribal squadrons, swiftly pursuing and retiring, +should gallop right across and through each other, the two hipparchs +at their head, each with five squadrons under him. Consider the effect +of such a spectacle: the grim advance of rival squadrons front to +front; the charge; the solemn pause as, having swept across the +hippodrome, they stand once more confronting one another; and then the +trumpet sounds, whereat a second and yet swifter hostile advance, how +fine the effect!--and once again they are at the halt; and once again +the trumpet sounds, and for the third time, at the swiftest pace of +all, they make a final charge across the field, before dismissal; +after which they come to a halt en masse, in battle order; and, as now +customary, (19) ride up to salute the senate, and disband. These +evolutions will at once approve themselves, I think, not only for +their novelty, but for their resemblance to real warfare. The notion +that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, and +to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me below the +dignity of the office. + + (16) In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose. + + (17) Lit. "... it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so + as to fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people + from the central space, beautiful to..." The new feature of the + review would seem to have been the introduction of a sham fight in + three parts, down to the customary advance of the whole corps, + {epi phalaggos}. Cf. Virg. "Aen." v. 545 foll. But see Martin, op. + cit. 197. + + (18) Lit. "the anthippasia." + + (19) "As is your custom." See "Mem." III. iii. 6. + +When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard-trodden (20) ground of +the Academy, I have the following advice to give. To avoid being +jolted off his horse at any moment, the trooper should, in charging, +lean well back, (21) and to prevent his charger stumbling, he should +while wheeling hold his head well up, but along a straight stretch he +should force the pace. Thus the spectacle presented to the senate will +combine the elements of beauty and of safety. + + (20) Cf. Thuc. vii. 27. + + (21) See "Horsemanship," vii. 17. + + + +IV + +To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general will need to +exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' backs and the +troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding and of marching. +Wherein consists the golden mean, will not be hard to find; since +"every man a standard to himself," (1) applies, and your sensations are +an index to prevent your fellows being overdone through inadvertence. + + (1) The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 183 B. + +But now supposing you are on the march in some direction, and it is +uncertain whether you will stumble on the enemy, your duty is to rest +your squadrons in turn; since it will go hard with you, if the enemy +come to close quarters when the whole force is dismounted. (2) Or, +again, suppose the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile, +you will pass, by word of mouth, the command to diminish the front; (3) +or given, again, you are debouching on broad roads, again the word of +command will pass by word of mouth, to every squadron, "to increase +their front"; or lastly, supposing you have reached flat country, "to +form squadron in order of battle." If only for the sake of practice, +it is well to go through evolutions of the sort; (4) besides which it +adds pleasure to the march thus to diversify the line of route with +cavalry maneuvers. + + (2) See "Hell." V. iv. 40 for a case in point. + + (3) Or, "advance by column of route." See "Hell." VII. iv. 23. + + (4) Or, "it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat. + "Laws," i. 625 B. + +Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and moving fast over +difficult ground, no matter whether you are in hostile or in friendly +territory, it will be useful if the scouts attached to squadrons (5) +rode on in advance, their duty being, in case of encountering pathless +clefts or gullies, to work round on to practicable ground, and to +discover at what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that +whole ranks may not go blindly roaming. (6) + + (5) {ton upereton} = "ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances, + trabans (Courier). See Rustow and Kochly, p. 140. "Cyrop." II. i. + 21; II. iv. 4; V. iii. 52; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13; "Anab." I. + ix. 27; II. i. 9; where "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be + implied. + + (6) Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. "Anab." + VIII. iii. 18. + +Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a prudent general +can hardly show his wisdom better than by sending out advanced patrols +in front of the ordinary exploring parties to reconnoitre every inch +of ground minutely. So to be apprised of the enemy's position in +advance, and at as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be +useful, whether for purposes of attack or defence; just as it is +useful also to enforce a halt at the passage of a river or some other +defile, so that the men in rear may not knock their horses all to bits +in endeavouring to overtake their leader. These are precepts known, I +admit, to nearly all the world, but it is by no means every one who +will take pains to apply them carefully. (7) + + (7) See "Econ." xx. 6. foll. + +It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite precautions while +it is still peace, to make himself acquainted with the details, not +only of his own, but of the hostile territory; (8) or if, as may well +betide, he personally should lack the knowledge, he should invite the +aid of others (9)--those best versed in the topography of any district. +Since there is all the difference in the world between a leader +acquainted with his roads and one who is not; and when it comes to +actual designs upon the enemy, the difference between knowing and not +knowing the locality can hardly be exaggerated. + + (8) Or, "with hostile and friendly territories alike." + + (9) Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest"; i.e. + his colleagues or other members of the force. + +So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war commences +your business is to provide yourself with a supply of people friendly +to both states, or maybe merchants (since states are ready to receive +the importer of goods with open arms); sham deserters may be found +occasionally useful. (10) Not, of course, that the confidence you feel +in your spies must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your +state of preparation should at any moment be precisely what it ought +to be, supposing the approach or the imminent arrival of the enemy +were to be announced. Let a spy be ever so faithful, there is always +the risk he may fail to report his intelligence at the critical +moment, since the obstacles which present themselves in war are not to +be counted on the fingers. + + (10) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas, + undertakes to play this role to good effect. + +But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely to get wind +of an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march were passed from +mouth to mouth rather than announced by voice of herald, or public +notice. (11) Accordingly, in addition to (12) this method of +ordering the march by word passed along the line, the appointment +of file-leaders seems desirable, who again are to be supplemented by +section-leaders, (13) so that the number of men to whom each petty +officer has to transmit an order will be very few; (14) while the +section-leaders will deploy and increase the front, whatever the +formation, without confusion, whenever there is occasion for the +movement. (15) + + (11) i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the + "word-of-mouth command," see above, S. 3; "Hell." VII. v. 9; and + for the "herald," see "Anab." III. iv. 36. + + (12) Reading {pros to dia p.}, or if {pros to}... transl. "with a + view to." + + (13) Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See "Cyrop." II. i. 22 + foll., iii. 21. + + (14) Lit. "so that each officer may pass the word to as few as + possible." + + (15) Cf. "Anab." IV. vi. 6. + +When an advanced guard is needed, I say for myself I highly approve of +secret pickets and outposts, if only because in supplying a guard to +protect your friends you are contriving an ambuscade to catch the +enemy. Also the outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack, +being themselves unseen, and yet a source of great alarm to the enemy; +since the bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, though +where precisely no man knows, will prevent the enemy from feeling +confident, and oblige him to mistrust every tenable position. An +exposed outpost, on the contrary, presents to the broad eye of day its +dangers and also its weaknesses. (16) Besides which, the holder of a +concealed outpost can always place a few exposed vedettes beyond his +hidden pickets, and so endeavour to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade. +Or he may play the part of trapper with effect by placing a second +exposed outpost in rear of the other; a device which may serve to take +in the unwary foeman quite as well as that before named. + + (16) Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence." + +Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general never to +run a risk of his own choosing, except where it is plain to him +beforehand, that he will get the better of his adversary. To play into +the enemy's hands may more fitly be described as treason to one's +fellow-combatants than true manliness. So, too, true generalship +consists in attacking where the enemy is weakest, even if the point be +some leagues distant. Severity of toil weighs nothing in the scale +against the danger of engaging a force superior to your own. (17) +Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in any way to place +himself between fortified points that are friendly to you, let him be +never so superior in force, your game is to attack on whichever flank +you can best conceal your advance, or, still better, on both flanks +simultaneously; since, while one detachment is retiring after +delivering its attack, a charge pressed home from the opposite quarter +cannot fail to throw the enemy into confusion and to give safety to +your friends. + + (17) N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of + a small force of cavalry acting on the defensive. + +How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an enemy's +position by means of spies and so forth, as in ancient story; yet best +of all, in my opinion, is it for the commander to try to seize some +coign of vantage, from which with his own eyes he may descry the +movements of the enemy and watch for any error on his part. (18) + + (18) As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See "Hell." VII. v. 9. + +Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion, (19) your business is +to send a competent patrol to seize; or again where capture by coup de +main (20) is practicable, you will despatch a requisite body of troops +to effect a coup de main. Or take the case: the enemy is on the march +in some direction, and a portion of his force becomes detached from +his main body or through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do +not let the opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue a +weaker with a stronger force. (21) These, indeed, are rules of +procedure, which it only requires a simple effort of the mind to +appreciate. Creatures far duller of wit than man have this ability: +kites and falcons, when anything is left unguarded, pounce and carry +it off and retire into safety without being caught; or wolves, again, +will hunt down any quarry left widowed of its guard, or thieve what +they can in darksome corners. (22) In case a dog pursues and overtakes +them, should he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks him, or if +stronger, the wolf will slaughter (23) his quarry and make off. At +other times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the +guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as it were, +some to drive off the guard and others to effect the capture, and so +by stealth or fair fight they provide themselves with the necessaries +of life. I say, if dumb beasts are capable of conducting a raid with +so much sense and skill, it is hard if any average man cannot prove +himself equally intelligent with creatures which themselves fall +victims to the craft of man. + + (19) e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc. + + (20) e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc. + + (21) "It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer." + + (22) Zeune cf. Ael. "N. A." viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in + hunting. + + (23) For {aposphaxas} Courier suggests {apospasas}, "dragging off what + he can." + + + +V + +Here is another matter which every horseman ought to know, and that is +within what distance a horse can overhaul a man on foot; or the +interval necessary to enable a slower horse to escape one more fleet. +It is the business rather of the cavalry general to recognise at a +glance the sort of ground on which infantry will be superior to +cavalry and where cavalry will be superior to infantry. He should be a +man of invention, ready of device to turn all circumstances to +account, so as to give at one time a small body of cavalry the +appearance of a larger, and again a large the likeness of a smaller +body; he should have the craft to appear absent when close at hand, +and within striking distance when a long way off; he should know +exactly not only how to steal an enemy's position, but by a master +stroke of cunning (1) to spirit his own cavalry away, and, when least +expected, deliver his attack. Another excellent specimen of +inventiveness may be seen in the general's ability, while holding a +weak position himself, to conjure up so lively an apprehension in the +enemy that he will not dream of attacking; or conversely, when, being +in a strong position himself, he can engender a fatal boldness in the +adversary to venture an attack. Thus with the least cost to yourself, +you will best be able to catch your enemy tripping. + + (1) Or, "sleight of hand"; and for {kleptein} = escamoter see "Anab." + IV. vi. 11, 15; V. vi. 9. + +But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible feats, I +will set down, in so many words, the procedure in certain crucial +instances. + +The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to enforce pursuit +or conduct a retreat lies in a thorough knowledge of your horse's +powers. (2) But how is this experience to be got? Simply by paying +attention to their behaviour in the peaceable manouvres of the sham +fight, when there is no real enemy to intervene--how the animals come +off, in fact, and what stamina they show in the various charges and +retreats. + + (2) {empeiria}, "empirical knowledge." + +Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear numerous. In the +first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if possible, not to attempt +to delude the enemy at close quarters; distance, as it aids illusion, +will promote security. The next point is to bear in mind that a mob of +horses clustered together (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will +give a suggestion of number, whereas scattered they may easily be +counted. + +Another means by which you may give your troop an appearance of +numerical strength beyond reality consists in posting, in and out +between the troopers, so many lines of grooms (3) who should carry +lances if possible, or staves at any rate to look like lances--a plan +which will serve alike whether you mean to display your cavalry force +at the halt or are deploying to increase front; in either case, +obviously the bulk and volume of the force, whatever your formation, +will appear increased. Conversely, if the problem be to make large +numbers appear small, supposing you have ground at command adapted to +concealment, the thing is simple: by leaving a portion of your men +exposed and hiding away a portion in obscurity, you may effect your +object. (4) But if the ground nowhere admits of cover, your best course +is to form your files (5) into ranks one behind the other, and wheel +them round so as to leave intervals between each file; the troopers +nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, and the +rest low enough not to show above. + + (3) Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C. (our + author was probably present); IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly, + 323 B.C. + + (4) Lit. "steal your troopers." See "Cyrop." V. iv. 48. + + (5) Lit. "form your decads (squads of ten; cf. our 'fours') in ranks + and deploy with intervals." + +To come to the next topic: you may work on the enemy's fears by the +various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief parties, false +information. Conversely, his confidence will reach an overweening +pitch, if the idea gets abroad that his opponents have troubles of +their own and little leisure for offensive operations. + +But over and beyond all that can be written on the subject--inventiveness +is a personal matter, beyond all formulas--the true general must be able +to take in, deceive, decoy, delude his adversary at every turn, as the +particular occasion demands. In fact, there is no instrument of war more +cunning than chicanery; (6) which is not surprising when one reflects +that even little boys, when playing, "How many (marbles) have I got in +my hand?" (7) are able to take one another in successfully. Out goes a +clenched fist, but with such cunning that he who holds a few is thought +to hold several; or he may present several and appear to be holding only +a few. Is it likely that a grown man, giving his whole mind to methods +of chicanery, will fail of similar inventiveness? Indeed, when one comes +to consider what is meant by advantages snatched in war, one will find, +i think, that the greater part of them, and those the more important, +must be attributed in some way or other to displays of craft; (8) which +things being so, a man had better either not attempt to exercise +command, or, as part and parcel of his general equipment, let him pray +to Heaven to enable him to exercise this faculty and be at pains himself +to cultivate his own inventiveness. + + (6) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. ii. 26; VII. i. 18. + + (7) {posinda}, lit. "How many?" (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.); cf. + the old game, "Buck! buck! how many horns do I hold up?" Schneid. + cf. Aristot. "Rhet."iii. 5. 4. + + (8) "Have been won in connection with craft." See "Cyrop." I. vi. 32; + "Mem." III. i. 6; IV. ii. 15. + +A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the faculty as +follows: he may either, whilst apparently engaged in fitting out his +vessels, strike a blow on land; (9) or with a make-believe of some +aggressive design by land, hazard an adventure by sea. (10) + + (9) A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 21. + + (10) Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi. + 64. + +I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to point out +clearly to the state authority the essential weakness of a force of +cavalry unaided by light infantry, as opposed to cavalry with +foot-soldiers attached. (11) It is duty also, having got his footmen, to +turn the force to good account. It is possible to conceal them +effectively, not only between the lines, but in rear also of the +troopers--the mounted soldier towering high above his follower on foot. + + (11) Or, "divorced from infantry." In reference to {amippoi}, cf. + Thuc. v. 57; "Hell." VII. v. 23. + +With regard to these devices and to any others which invention may +suggest towards capturing the foeman by force or fraud, I have one +common word of advice to add, which is, to act with God, and then +while Heaven propitious smiles, fortune will scarcely dare to +frown. (12) + + (12) Or, "and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of + fortune," reading with Courier, etc., {ina kai e tukhe sunepaine}. + Cf. "Cyrop." III. iii. 20. + +At times there is no more effective fraud than a make-believe (13) of +over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This itself will put +the enemy off his guard and ten to one will lure him into some +egregious blunder; or conversely, once get a reputation for +foolhardiness established, and then with folded hands sit feigning +future action, and see what a world of trouble you will thereby cause +your adversary. + + (13) S. 15 should perhaps stand before S. 13. + + + +VI + +But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, can hope to +mould and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, unless the stuff on +which he works be first prepared and made ready to obey the +craftsman's will. Nor certainly where the raw material consists of +men, will you succeed, unless, under God's blessing, these same men +have been prepared and made ready to meet their officer in a friendly +spirit. They must come to look upon him as of greater sagacity than +themselves in all that concerns encounter with the enemy. This +friendly disposition on the part of his subordinates, one must +suppose, will best be fostered by a corresponding sympathy on the part +of their commander towards the men themselves, and that not by simple +kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their behalf, at one +time to provide them with food, and at another to secure safety of +retreat, or again by help of outposts and the like, to ensure +protection during rest and sleep. + +When on active service (1) the commander must prove himself +conspicuously careful in the matter of forage, quarters, water-supply, +outposts, (2) and all other requisites; forecasting the future and +keeping ever a wakeful eye in the interest of those under him; and in +case of any advantage won, the truest gain which the head of affairs +can reap is to share with his men the profits of success. + + (1) Al. "on garrison outpost duty." + + (2) Reading {phulakon}, or if with Courier {thulakon}, "haversacks," + i.e. "la farine, le contenant pour le contenu." + +Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small risk a general +will be regarded with contempt by those he leads, if, whatever he may +have to preach, he shows himself best able to perform. + +Beginning with the simple art of mounting on horseback, let him so +train himself in all particulars of horsemanship that, to look at him, +the men must see their leader is a horseman who can leap a trench +unscathed or scale a parapet, (3) or gallop down a bank, and hurl a +javelin with the best. These are accomplishments which one and all +will pave the way to make contempt impossible. If, further, the men +shall see in their commander one who, with the knowledge how to act, +has force of will and cunning to make them get the better of the +enemy; and if, further, they have got the notion well into their heads +that this same leader may be trusted not to lead them recklesssly +against the foe, without the help of Heaven, or despite the auspices--I +say, you have a list of virtues which will make those under his command +the more obedient to their ruler. + + (3) Or, "stone walls," "dykes." + + + +VII + +If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality distinctive of true +generalship, there are two respects in which a general of cavalry at +Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not only must he show a dutiful +submission to the gods; but he must possess great fighting qualities, +seeing that he has on his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in +number and backed by a large force of heavy infantry. (1) So that, if +he undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the other +forces of the city (2)--in dealing with two descriptions of forces +single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a desperate adventure; +or to take the converse case, that the enemy invades the soil of +Attica, to begin with, he will not invade at all, unless supported by +other cavalry besides his own and an infantry force sufficient to +warrant the supposition that no force on our side can cope with him. + + (1) The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not + know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in + the field at Leuctra or at Mantinea. + + (2) Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc. + +Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city will +determine to sally out en masse to protect her rural districts, the +prospect is fair. Under God, our troopers, if properly cared for, are +the finer men; our infantry of the line are no less numerous, and as +regards physique, if it comes to that, not one whit inferior, while in +reference to moral qualities, they are more susceptible to the spur of +a noble ambition, if only under God's will they be correctly trained. +Or again, as touching pride of ancestry, what have Athenians to fear +as against Boeotians on that score? (3) + + (3) See "Mem." III. v. 3, where it is contended that in pride of + ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians. + +But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake herself to her +navy, as in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, leagued with the +rest of Hellas, brought invasion; (4) and is content once more simply +to protect her walls through thick and thin. As to protecting what +lies outside the city wall she looks to her cavalry for that; and +single-handed her troopers must do desperate encounter against the +united forces of the enemy. I say, under these circumstances, we shall +need in the first place the strong support of Heaven; and in the +second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry commander prove +himself a consummate officer. (5) Indeed, he will have need of large +wisdom to deal with a force so vastly superior in numbers, and of +enterprise to strike when the critical moment comes. + + (4) See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95, + Hippocrates' speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C. + + (5) A "parfait marechal." + +He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great physical +endurance; (6) since clearly, if he has to run full tilt against an +armament present, as we picture, in such force that not even our whole +state cares to cope with it, it is plain he must accept whatever fate +is due, where might is right, himself unable to retaliate. + + (6) So Jason, "Hell." VI. i. 4. + +If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside the +walls (7) with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on the +enemy, and to withdraw into safe quarters from a distance whatever +needs protection--a small number, be it observed, is just as capable +of vedette duty, as well able, say, to scan the distant horizon, as a +large; and by the same token men with no great confidence in +themselves or in their horses are not ill-qualified to guard, or +withdraw within shelter (8) the property of friends; since fear, as the +proverb has it, makes a shrewd watchman. The proposal, therefore, to +select from these a corps of observation will most likely prove true +strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for outpost duty? If +any one imagines he has got an armament, he will find it miserably +small, and lacking in every qualification necessary to risk an open +encounter. + + (7) Or, "His better plan would be to." + + (8) Reading {anakhorizein}. Cf. "Cyrop." II. ii. 8; "Anab." V. ii. 10; + or if {anakhorein eis}, transl. "or retire into safe quarters." + See "Hell." IV. vi. 44. + +But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla war, and he will +find the force quite competent for that, I warrant. His business, so +at least it seems to me, will be to keep his men perpetually in +readiness to strike a blow, and without exposing himself, to play +sentinel, waiting for any false move on the part of the hostile +armament. And it is a way with soldiers, bear in mind, the more +numerous they are, the more blunders they commit. They must needs +scatter of set purpose (9) in search of provisions; or through the +disorder incidental to a march, some will advance and others lag +behind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, then, our hipparch +must not let pass unpunished (unless he wishes the whole of Attica to +become a gigantic camp); (10) keeping his single point steadily in +view, that when he strikes a blow he must be expeditious and retire +before the main body has time to rally to the rescue. + + (9) {epimeleia}. Cf. "Cyrop." V. iii. 47. + + (10) Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As at + the date of the fortification of Decelea (413 B.C.), which + permanently commanded the whole country. See Thuc. vii. 27. Al. + Courier, "autrement vous n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire, + tout le pays devient votre camp." + +Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an army will get into +roads where numbers are no advantage. Again, in the passage of rivers, +defiles, and the like, it is possible for a general with a head on his +shoulders to hang on the heels of an enemy in security, and to +determine with precision (11) the exact number of the enemy he will +care to deal with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to attack the +foe while encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men turn out +of bed: seasons at which the soldier is apt to be unharnessed--the +hoplite for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for a longer period. (12) + + (11) See "Anab." II. v. 18; "Cyrop." III. iii. 47; IV. i. 18. + {tamieusasthai}, "with the precision of a controller." + + (12) Cf. "Hell." II. iv. 6; VII. i. 16. + +As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never cease planning +and plotting against them. For these in their turn, as a rule, are apt +to consist of small numbers, and are sometimes posted at a great +distance from their own main body. But if after all it turns out that +the enemy are well on their guard against all such attempts, then, God +helping, it would be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country, +first making it your business to ascertain (13) his defences, the +number of men at this, that, and the other point, and how they are +distributed throughout the country. For there is no booty so splendid +as an outpost so overmastered; and these frontier outposts are +especially prone to be deceived, with their propensity to give chase +to any small body they set eyes on, regarding that as their peculiar +function. You will have to see, however, in retiring that your line of +retreat is not right into the jaws of the enemy's reliefs hastening to +the scene of action. + + (13) Or, "having first studied." Cf. "Mem." III. vi. 10. + + + +VIII + +It stands to reason, however, that in order to be able to inflict real +damage upon a greatly superior force, the weaker combatant must +possess such a moral superiority over the other as shall enable him to +appear in the position of an expert, trained in all the feats of +cavalry performance in the field, and leave his enemy to play the part +of raw recruits or amateurs. (1) + + (1) Cf. "Cyrop." I. v. 11; "Mem." III. vii. 7. + +And this end may be secured primarily on this wise: those who are to +form your guerilla bands (2) must be so hardened and inured to the +saddle that they are capable of undergoing all the toils of a +campaign. (3) That a squadron (and I speak of horse and man alike) +should enter these lists in careless, disorderly fashion suggests the +idea of a troop of women stepping into the arena to cope with male +antagonists. + + (2) Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be." + + (3) Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter." + +But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have been taught +and trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to spring up banks, and +plunge from heights without scathe, to gallop headlong at full speed +adown a steep: they will tower over unpractised opponents as the birds +of the air tower over creatures that crawl and walk. (4) Their feet are +case-hardened by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping +over rough ground, must differ from the uninitiated as the sound man +from the lame. And so again, when it comes to charging and retiring, +the onward-dashing gallop, the well-skilled, timely retreat, expert +knowledge of the ground and scenery will assert superiority over +inexpertness like that of eyesight over blindness. + + (4) See "Horse." viii. 6; cf. "Hunting," xii. 2; "Cyrop." I. vi. 28 + foll. + +Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough efficiency +the horses must not only be well fed and in good condition, but at the +same time so seasoned by toil that they will go through their work +without the risk of becoming broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and +saddle-cloths (to be efficient) (5) need to be attached by straps, a +cavalry general should never be without a good supply, whereby at a +trifling expense he may convert a number of nonplussed troopers into +serviceable fighting men. (6) + + (5) ({khresima}) L.D. For the {upomnema} itself cf. "Cyrop." VI. ii. + 32. + + (6) Or, "thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many + non-efficients useful." Al. "make the articles as good as new." + +But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of trouble it will +cost him, if he is required to devote himself to horsemanship so +assiduously, let him console himself with the reflection that the +pains and labours undergone by any man in training for a gymnastic +contest are far larger and more formidable than any which the severest +training of the horseman will involve; and for this reason, that the +greater part of gymnastic exercises are performed "in the sweat of the +brow," while equestrian exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed, +there is no accomplishment which so nearly realises the aspiration of +a man to have the wings of a bird than this of horsemanship. (7) But +further, to a victory obtained in war attaches a far greater weight of +glory than belongs to the noblest contest of the arena. (8) Of these +the state indeed will share her meed of glory, (9) but in honour of +victory in war the very gods are wont to crown whole states with +happiness. (10) So that, for my part, I know not if there be aught else +which has a higher claim to be practised than the arts of war. + + (7) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. iii. 15; Herod. iv. 132; Plat. "Rep." v. 467 D. + + (8) Cf. Eur. "Autolycus," fr. 1, trans. by J. A. Symonds, "Greek + Poets," 2nd series, p. 283. + + (9) Cf. Plut. "Pelop." 34 (Clough, ii. p. 235): "And yet who would + compare all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put + together, with one of these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he + successfully performed so many?" + + (10) "To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal." + +And this, too, is worth noting: that the buccaneer by sea, the +privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is able to live at +the expense of far superior powers. Yes, and the life of the +freebooter is no less natural and appropriate to landsmen--I do not +say, to those who can till and gather in the fruit of their fields, +but to those who find themselves deprived of sustenance; since there +is no alternative--either men must till their fields or live on the +tillage of others, otherwise how will they find the means either of +living or of obtaining peace? (11) + + (11) Cf. "Econ." v. 7. + +Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory: in charging a +superior force, never to leave a difficult tract of ground in the rear +of your attack, since there is all the difference in the world between +a stumble in flight and a stumble in pursuit. + +There is another precaution which I feel called upon to note. Some +generals, (12) in attacking a force which they imagine to be inferior +to their own, will advance with a ridiculously insufficient force, (13) +so that it is the merest accident if they do not experience the injury +they were minded to inflict. Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose +superiority is a well-known fact, they will bring the whole of their +force into action. + + (12) Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C. + Cf. "Hell." VI. v. 51. + + (13) Lit. "an absolutely weak force." + +Now, my maxim would be precisely converse: if you attack with a +prospect of superiority, do not grudge employing all the power at your +command; excess of victory (14) never yet caused any conqueror one pang +of remorse. + + (14) Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. "Hiero," ii. 16. + +But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full certainty that, +do what you can, you must eventually retire, it is far better, say I, +under these circumstances to bring a fraction only of your whole force +into action, which fraction should be the pick and flower of the +troops at your command, both horses and men. A body of that size and +quality will be able to strike a blow and to fall back with greater +security. Whereas, if a general brings all his troops into action +against a superior force, when he wishes to retire, certain things +must happen: those of his men who are worse mounted will be captured, +others through lack of skill in horsemanship will be thrown, and a +third set be cut off owing to mere difficulties of ground; since it is +impossible to find any large tract of country exactly what you would +desire. If for no other reason, through sheer stress of numbers there +will be collisions, and much damage done by kicks through mutual +entanglement; whereas a pick of horse and men will be able to escape +offhand, (15) especially if you have invention to create a scare in the +minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety of troops who are out of +action. (16) For this purpose false ambuscades will be of use. + + (15) Or, "by themselves," reading {ex auton}, as L. Dind. suggests. + Cf. Polyb. x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. {ex auton} (sub. {kheiron}, + Weiske), transl. "to slip through their fingers." + + (16) Zeune and other commentators cf Liv. v. 38 (Diod. xiv. 114), but + the part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the + Allia, if indeed "una salus fugientibus," was scarcely happy. + Would not "Hell." VII. v. 26 be more to the point? The detachment + of cavalry and infantry placed by Epaminondas "on certain crests, + to create an apprehension in the minds of the Athenians" in that + quarter of the field at Mantinea was a {mekhanema} of the kind + here contemplated. + +Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which side a +friendly force may suddenly appear and without risk to itself put a +drag on the wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self-evident, I think, +that, as far as work and speed are concerned, it is the small body +which will assert its superiority more rapidly over the larger, and +not vice versa--not of course that the mere fact of being a small body +will enable them to endure toil or give them wings; but simply it is +easier to find five men than five hundred, who will take the requisite +care and pains with their horses, and personally practise of their own +accord the art of horsemanship. + +But suppose the chance should occur of entering the lists against an +equal number of the enemy's cavalry, according to my judgment it were +no bad plan to split the squadron into divisions, (17) the first of +which should be commanded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the +ablest officer to be found. This second-officer will for the time +being follow in rear of the leading division with the squadron leader; +and by and by, when the antagonist is in near proximity, and when the +word of command is passed, form squadron to the front and charge the +hostile ranks (18)--a maneuver calculated, as I conceive, to bring the +whole mass down upon the enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him +some trouble to extricate himself. Ideally speaking, both +divisions (19) will be backed by infantry kept in rear of the cavalry; +these will suddenly disclose themselves, and rushing to close +quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory. (20) So at any +rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what is +unexpected--how, in the case of good things, the soul of man is filled +to overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of things terrible, +paralysed with amazement. In proof of what I say, let any one reflect on +the stupor into which a body of men with all the weight of numerical +advantage on their side will be betrayed by falling into an ambuscade; +or again, on the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in belligerents +during the first few days, of finding themselves posted in face of one +another. + + (17) Or, "troops." + + (18) Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry + tactics. + + (19) Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc. + + (20) Or, "achieve a much more decisive victory." Cf. "Cyrop." III. + iii. 28. + +To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty is to discover +a body of men who will dash forward (21) and charge an enemy as above +described intelligently and loyally, with an eager spirit and +unfailing courage. That is a problem for a good cavalry general to +solve. I mean an officer who must be competent to so assert himself in +speech or action (22) that those under him will no longer hesitate. +They will recognise of themselves that it is a good thing and a right +to obey, (23) to follow their leader, to rush to close quarters with +the foe. A desire will consume them to achieve some deed of glory and +renown. A capacity will be given them patiently to abide by the +resolution of their souls. + + (21) {parelontas}, in reference to S. 18 above, {parelaunoi}, "form + squadron to the front." + + (22) "To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of + action." Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 11. + + (23) Cf. Tennyson's "The Charge of the Light Brigade": + + Their's not to make reply, + Their's not to reason why, + Their's but to do and die. + + +To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have two armeis +facing one another in battle order, or a pair of fortresses (24) +belonging to rival powers, and in the space between all kinds of +cavalry manouvres are enacted, wheelings and charges and retreats. (25) +Under such circumstances the custom usually is for either party after +wheeling to set off at a slow pace and to gallop full speed only in +the middle of the course. But now suppose that a commander, after +making feint (26) in this style, presently on wheeling quickens for the +charge and quickens to retire--he will be able to hit the enemy far +harder, and pull through absolutely without scathe himself most +likely; through charging at full speed whilst in proximity to his own +stronghold (or main body), and quickening to a gallop as he retires +from the stronghold (or main body) of the enemy. If further, he could +secretly contrive to leave behind four or five troopers, the bravest +and best mounted of the squadron, it would give them an immense +advantage in falling upon the enemy whilst wheeling to return to the +charge. (27) + + (24) Al. "fields and farmsteads between." + + (25) Or, "retirements," see "Horsemanship," viii. 12; "Cyrop." V. iv. + 8; "Hell." IV. ii. 6; "Ages." ii. 3. + + (26) Or, "having precluded in this fashion." See Theocr. xxii. 102: + + {ton men anax ataraxen etosia khersi prodeiknus Pantothen}, + + "feinting on every side" (A. Lang). Al. "having given due warning + of his intention." Cf. Aristot. "H. A." ix. 37. + + (27) Cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 244 (Demosthenes calls to the + hipparchs (?)): + + {andres eggus. all' amunou, kapanastrephou palin}. + + + +IX + +To read these observations over a few times will be sufficient, but +for giving them effect the officer will need perpetually to act as +circumstances require. (1) He must take in the situation at a glance, +and carry out unflinchingly whatever is expedient for the moment. To +set down in writing everything that he must do, is not a whit more +possible than to know the future as a whole. (2) But of all hints and +suggestions the most important to my mind is this: whatever you +determine to be right, with diligence endeavour to perform. For be it +tillage of the soil, or trading, or seafaring, or the art of ruling, +without pains applied to bring the matter to perfection, the best +theories in the world, the most correct conclusions, will be +fruitless. + + (1) {pros to paratugkhanon}, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i. + 122: "For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules; + it strikes out a path for itself when the moment comes" (Jowett). + + (2) Or, "is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in + the womb of futurity." + +One thing I am prepared to insist on: it is clear to myself that by +Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much more quickly +raised to the full quota of a thousand troopers, (3) and with far less +friction to the mass of citizens, by the enrolment of two hundred +foreign cavalry. Their acquisition will be doubly helpful, as +intensifying the loyalty of the entire force and as kindling a mutual +ambition to excel in manly virtue. + + (3) See Schneid. ad loc.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." pp. 263, 264; Herod. vi. + 112; Thuc. vi. 31; Aristoph. "Knights," 223; Aeschin. "De F. L." + 334-337. See for this reform, Martin, op. cit. 343, 368. + +I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian cavalry only +began to be famous (4) with the introduction of foreign troopers; and +in the other states of Hellas everywhere the foreign brigades stand in +high esteem, as I perceive. Need, in fact, contributes greatly to +enthusiasm. Towards the necessary cost of the horses I hold that an +ample fund will be provided, (5) partly out of the pockets of those who +are only too glad to escape cavalry service (in other words, those on +whom the service devolves prefer to pay a sum of money down and be +quit of the duty), (6) and from wealthy men who are physically +incompetent; and I do not see why orphans possessed of large estates +should not contribute. (7) Another belief I hold is that amongst our +resident aliens (8) there are some who will show a laudable ambition if +incorporated with the cavalry. I argue from the fact, apparent to +myself, that amongst this class persons are to be found most zealously +disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every other branch +of honourable service which the citizens may choose to share with +them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an energetic infantry +to support your cavalry, you will find it in a corps composed of +individuals whose hatred to the foe is naturally intense. (9) But the +success of the above suggestions will depend doubtless on the +consenting will of Heaven. (10) + + (4) "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after + Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See "Hell." + VI. iv. 10. + + (5) Or, "money will be forthcoming for them." Cf. Lys. "Against + Philon," xxxi. 15; Martin, op. cit. 319. + + (6) Cf. "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Ages." i. 23. Courier brackets this + sentence ({oti... ippeuein}) as a gloss; Martin, p. 323, + emends. + + (7) As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. "Symm." + 182. 15; Lys. "Against Diogeit." 24. + + (8) Lit. "metoecs." See "Revenues," ii. + + (9) Lit. "men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author + thinking of Boeotian emigres? Cf. "Hell." VI. iii. 1, 5; Diod. xv. + 46. 6. + + (10) Lit. "with the consenting will of the gods these things all may + come to pass." + +And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this treatise "act +with God," surprises any one, he may take my word for it that with the +daily or hourly occurrence of perils which must betide him, his +wonderment will diminish; as also with the clearer recognition of the +fact that in time of war the antagonists are full of designs against +each other, but the precise issue of these plots and counterplots is +rarely known. To what counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in +his extremity save only to the gods, who know all things and forewarn +whomsoever they will by victims or by omens, by voice or vision? Is it +not rational to suppose that they will prefer to help in their need, +not those who only seek them in time of momentary stress and trouble, +but those rather who in the halcyon days of their prosperity make a +practice of rendering to Heaven the service of heart and soul? + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cavalry General, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1172 *** diff --git a/1172-h/1172-h.htm b/1172-h/1172-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b61809b --- /dev/null +++ b/1172-h/1172-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1776 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Cavalry General, by Xenophon + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1172 ***</div> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE CAVALRY GENERAL + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Xenophon + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + Translation by H. G. Dakyns + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + </pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Cavalry General is a discourse on the merits + a cavalry general, or hipparch, in Athens should + have. Xenophon also describes the development of + a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be + applied in the field and in festival exhibition. + </pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> PREPARER'S NOTE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE CAVALRY GENERAL </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREPARER'S NOTE + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THE CAVALRY GENERAL + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH (1) + </h2> + <h3> + or + </h3> + <h2> + Commander of Cavalry at Athens + </h2> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods to grant you + such good gifts (2) as shall enable you in thought, word, and deed to + discharge your office in the manner most acceptable to Heaven, and with + fullest increase to yourself, and friends, and to the state at large of + affection, glory, and wide usefulness. The goodwill of Heaven (3) so + obtained, you shall proceed to mount your troopers, taking care that the + full complement which the law demands is reached, and that the normal + force of cavalry is not diminished. There will need to be a reserve of + remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at any moment, (4) looking to the + fact that some will certainly succumb to old age, and others, from one + reason or another, prove unserviceable. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) For the title, etc., see Schneid. "Praemon. de Xeno." {Ipp}. + Boeckh, "P. E. A." 251. + + (2) Or, "with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and + speech and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most + acceptably to the gods themselves, and with..." Cf. Plat. + "Phaedr." 273 E; "Euthr." 14 B. + + (3) The Greek phrase is warmer, {theon d' ileon onton}, "the gods + being kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. "Laws," 712 B. + + (4) Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See "Les Cavaliers + Atheniens," par Albert Martin, p. 308. +</pre> + <p> + But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied, (5) the duty will + devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your horses are well + fed and in condition to stand their work, since a horse which cannot + endure fatigue will clearly be unable to overhaul the foeman or effect + escape; (6) and in the second place, you will have to see to it the + animals are tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not obey is + only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, an animal that + kicks when mounted must be cast; since brutes of that sort may often do + more mischief than the foe himself. Lastly, you must pay attention to the + horses' feet, and see that they will stand being ridden over rough ground. + A horse, one knows, is practically useless where he cannot be galloped + without suffering. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Lit. "in process of being raised." + + (6) Or, "to press home a charge a l'outrance, or retire from the field + unscathed." +</pre> + <p> + And now, supposing that your horses are all that they ought to be, like + pains must be applied to train the men themselves. The trooper, in the + first place, must be able to spring on horseback easily—a feat to + which many a man has owed his life ere now. And next, he must be able to + ride with freedom over every sort of ground, since any description of + country may become the seat of war. When, presently, your men have got + firm seats, your aim should be to make as many members of the corps as + possible not only skilled to hurl the javelin from horseback with + precision, but to perform all other feats expected of the expert horseman. + Next comes the need to arm both horse and man in such a manner as to + minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to increase the force of every blow + delivered. (7) This attended to, you must contrive to make your men + amenable to discipline, without which neither good horses, nor a firm + seat, nor splendour of equipment will be of any use at all. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Lit. "so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they + may most be able to injure the enemy." +</pre> + <p> + The general of cavalry, (8) as patron of the whole department, is + naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, however, of the + task imposed upon that officer had he to carry out these various details + single-handed, the state has chosen to associate (9) with him certain + coadjutors in the persons of the phylarchs (or tribal captains), (10) and + has besides imposed upon the senate a share in the superintendence of the + cavalry. This being so, two things appear to me desirable; the first is, + so to work upon the phylarch that he shall share your own enthusiasm for + the honour of the corps; (11) and secondly, to have at your disposal in + the senate able orators, (12) whose language may instil a wholesome fear + into the knights themselves, and thereby make them all the better men, or + tend to pacify the senate on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) See "Mem." III. iii. + + (9) Cf. Theophr. xxix. "The Oligarchic Man": "When the people are + deliberating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint + directors of the procession." (Jebb.) + + (10) Or, "squadron-leaders." + + (11) "Honour and prestige of knighthood." + + (12) "To keep a staff of orators." Cf. "Anab." VII. vi. 41; "Cyrop." + I. vi. 19; "Hell." VI. ii. 39. +</pre> + <p> + The above may serve as memoranda (13) of the duties which will claim your + chief attention. How the details in each case may best be carried out is a + further matter, which I will now endeavour to explain. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) "A sort of notes and suggestions," "mementoes." Cf. + "Horsemanship," iii. 1, xii. 14. +</pre> + <p> + As to the men themselves—the class from which you make your pick of + troopers—clearly according to the law you are bound to enrol "the + ablest" you can find "in point of wealth and bodily physique"; and "if not + by persuasion, then by prosecution in a court of law." (14) And for my + part, I think, if legal pressure is to be applied, you should apply it in + those cases where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed to + interested motives; (15) since if you fail to put compulsion on the + greater people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those of + humbler means. But there will be other cases; (16) say, of young men in + whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be kindled by recounting to + them all the brilliant feats of knighthood; while you may disarm the + opposition of their guardians by dwelling on the fact that, if not you, at + any rate some future hipparch will certainly compel them to breed horses, + (17) owing to their wealth; whereas, if they enter the service (18) during + your term of office, you will undertake to deter their lads from mad + extravagance in buying horses, (19) and take pains to make good horsemen + of them without loss of time; and while pleading in this strain, you must + endeavour to make your practice correspond with what you preach. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by + legal if not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321 + foll. + + (15) i.e. "would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of + gain." + + (16) Reading {esti de kai ous}, or if as vulg. {eti de kai}, "More + than that, it strikes me one may work on the feelings of young + fellows in such a way as to disarm." See Hartmann, "An. Xen. N." + 325. + + (17) Cf. Aesch. "P. V." 474; Herod. vi. 35; Dem. 1046. 14; Thuc. vi. + 12; Isocr. {peri tou zeugous}, 353 C. {ippotrophein d' + epikheiresas, o ton eudaimonestaton ergon esti.} See Prof. Jebb's + note to Theophr. "Ch." vi. p. 197, note 16. + + (18) Lit. "if they mount." + + (19) Like that of Pheidippides in the play; see Aristoph. "Clouds," 23 + foll. And for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas (= L12 + circa) for a common horse, or 12 minas (say L50) for a good saddle + or race-horse, up to the extravagant sum of 13 talents (say 3000 + guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see Boeckh, "P. E. A." (Eng. tr.) + p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22; 88. 17; Lys. "de Maled." 133. 10; Aul. + Gell. "Noct. Att." v. 2. +</pre> + <p> + To come to the existing body of knights, (20) it would tend, (21) I think, + to better rearing and more careful treatment of their horses if the senate + issued a formal notice that for the future twice the amount of drill will + be required, and that any horse unable to keep up will be rejected. And + so, too, with regard to vicious horses, I should like to see an edict + promulgated to the effect that all such animals will be rejected. This + threat would stimulate the owners of such brutes to part with them by + sale, and, what is more, to exercise discretion at the time of purchase. + So, too, it would be a good thing if the same threat of rejection were + made to include horses that kick on the exercising-grounds, since it is + impossible to keep such animals in the ranks; and in case of an advance + against a hostile force at any point, (22) they must perforce trail in the + rear, so that, thanks to the vice of the animal which he bestrides, the + trooper himself is rendered useless. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (20) Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry." + For a plausible emend. of this passage (S. 13) see Courier ("Notes + sur le texte," p. 54); L. Dind. ad loc. + + (21) Lit. "the senate might incite to..." + + (22) Reading {ean}, or if {kan} with the MSS., trans. "even in case of + an advance against the enemy." +</pre> + <p> + With a view to strengthening the horses' feet: if any one has an easier or + more simple treatment to suggest, by all means let it be adopted; but for + myself, as the result of experience, I maintain that the proper course is + to lay down a loose layer of cobbles from the road, a pound or so in + weight, on which the horse should be put to stand, when taken from the + manger to be groomed. (23) The point is, that the horse will keep + perpetually moving first one foot and then another on the stones, whilst + being rubbed down or simply because he is fidgeted by flies. Let any one + try the experiment, and, I venture to predict, not only will he come to + trust my guidance, but he will see his horse's hoofs grow just as round + and solid as the cobbles. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (23) See below, "Horse." iv. 4. The Greeks did not "shoe" their + horses. +</pre> + <p> + Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to be, how is the + trooper to attain a like degree of excellence? To that question I will now + address myself. The art of leaping on to horseback is one which we would + fain persuade the youthful members of the corps to learn themselves; + though, if you choose to give them an instructor, (24) all the greater + credit to yourself. And as to the older men you cannot do better than + accustom them to mount, or rather to be hoisted up by aid of some one, + Persian fashion. (25) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play "The Breeder + of Horses," ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55. + + (25) See "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Horsemanship," vi. 12. +</pre> + <p> + With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, it may be + perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually marching out, when + there is no war; (26) but all the same, I would have you call your men + together and impress upon them the need to train themselves, when they + ride into the country to their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving the high + road and galloping at a round pace on ground of every description. (27) + This method will be quite as beneficial to them as the regular march out, + and at the same time not produce the same sense of tedium. You may find it + useful also to remind them that the state on her side is quite willing to + expend a sum of nearly forty talents (28) yearly, so that in the event of + war she may not have to look about for cavalry, but have a thoroughly + efficient force to hand for active service. Let these ideas be once + instilled into their minds, and, mark my words, your trooper will fall + with zest to practising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war + burst out he may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, unskilled + to fight for fame and fatherland or even life itself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (26) In the piping days of peace. + + (27) See "Econ." xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. "Ch." viii. "The Late Learner": + {kai eis agron eph' ippou allotriou katakhoumenos ama meletan + ippazesthai, kai peson ten kephalon kateagenai}, "Riding into the + country on another's horse, he will practise his horsemanship by + the way, and falling, will break his head" (Jebb). + + (28) = L10,000 circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251. +</pre> + <p> + It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers that one day + you will take them out yourself for a long march, and lead them across + country over every kind of ground. Again, whilst practising the evolutions + of the rival cavalry display, (29) it will be well to gallop out at one + time to one district and again to another. Both men and horses will be + benefited. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (29) Lit. "the anthippasia." See iii. 11, and "Horsemanship," viii. + 10. +</pre> + <p> + Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best way to secure as + wide a practice of the art as possible, it strikes me, would be to issue + an order to your phylarchs that it will be their duty to put themselves at + the head of the marksmen of several tribes, and to ride out to the butts + for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will be roused—the + several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out as many marksmen as + they can to aid the state. (30) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (30) On competition cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22, and our author passim. +</pre> + <p> + And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which the force + requires, (31) the greatest help may once again be looked for from the + phylarchs; let these officers but be persuaded that from the public point + of view the splendid appearance of their squadrons (32) will confer a + title to distinction far higher than that of any personal equipment. Nor + is it reasonable to suppose that they will be deaf to such an argument, + since the very desire to hold the office of phylarch itself proclaims a + soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is more, they have it in their + power, in accordance with the actual provisions of the law, to equip their + men without the outlay of a single penny, by enforcing that self-equipment + out of pay (33) which the law prescribes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (31) Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph. + "Lysistr." 561, and a fragment of "The Knights," of Antiphanes, + ap. Athen. 503 B, {pant' 'Amaltheias keras}. See "Hiero," ix. 6; + "Horse." xi. 10. + + (32) Lit. "tribes," {phulai} (each of the ten tribes contributing + about eighty men, or, as we might say, a squadron). + + (33) i.e. the {katastasis}, "allowance," so technically called. Cf. + Lys. "for Mantitheos"; Jebb, "Att. Or." i. 246; Boeckh, "P. E. A." + II. xxi. p. 263; K. F. Hermann, 152, 19; Martin, op. cit. p. 341. +</pre> + <p> + But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience in your + subordinates, you have two formidable instruments; (34) as a matter of + plain reason you can show them what a host of blessings the word + discipline implies; and as a matter of hard fact you can, within the + limits of the law, enable the well-disciplined to reap advantage, while + the undisciplined are made to feel the pinch at every turn. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (34) "The one theoretic, the other practical." +</pre> + <p> + But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if you would stir + in each a personal ambition to appear at the head of his own squadron in + all ways splendidly appointed, the best incentive will be your personal + example. You must see to it that your own bodyguard (35) are decked with + choice accoutrement and arms; you must enforce on them the need to + practise shooting pertinaciously; you must expound to them the theory of + the javelin, yourself an adept in the art through constant training. (36) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (35) Techn. {prodromoi}, possibly = the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200 + mounted archers—Scythians; cf. "Mem." III. iii. 11. Or, probably, + "mounted skirmishers," distinct from the {ippotexotai}. Cf. + Arrian, "An." i. 12. 7. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49. 5. + + (36) Reading as vulg. {eisegoio}, or if with L. D. {egoio} (cf. above, + S. 21), trans. "you must lead them out to the butts yourself." +</pre> + <p> + Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the several + tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of knighthood known to + custom in the public spectacles of our city, we have here, I think, an + incentive which will appeal to the ambition of every true Athenian. How + small, in the like case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and yet how + great the labour and how vast the sums expended! (37) But we must discover + umpires of such high order that to win their verdict will be as precious + to the victor as victory itself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (37) See "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Hiero," ix. 3; "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; + Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f. +</pre> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained in all the above + particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that they should further be + instructed in a type of evolution the effect of which will show itself not + only in the splendour of the great processions (1) in honour of the gods, + but in the manouvres of the exercising-ground; in the valorous onslaught + of real battle when occasion calls; and in the ease with which whole + regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a river, or thread a defile + without the slightest symptom of confusion. What this formation is—essential, + at least in my opinion, to the noblest execution of their several duties—I + will now, without delay, endeavour to explain. (2) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon. + + (2) Or, "what this best order is, the adoption of which will give + these several features fair accomplishment, I will without further + pause set forth." +</pre> + <p> + We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division of ten tribes. (3) + Given these, the proper course, I say, is to appoint, with the concurrence + of the several phylarchs, certain decadarchs (file-leaders) (4) to be + selected from the men ripest of age and strength, most eager to achieve + some deed of honour and to be known to fame. These are to form your + front-rank men; (5) and after these, a corresponding number should be + chosen from the oldest and the most sagacious members of the squadron, to + form the rear-rank of the files or decads; since, to use an illustration, + iron best severs iron when the forefront of the blade (6) is strong and + tempered, and the momentum at the back is sufficient. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See "Revenues," iv. 30. + + (4) Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally + (or ideally) of ten men. Cf. "Cyrop. II." ii. 30; VIII. i. 14. It + will be borne in mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be + drawn up in battle line at least four deep (see "Hell." III. iv. + 13), and frequently much deeper. (The Persian cavalry in the + engagement just referred to were twelve deep.) + + (5) See "Cyrop." III. iii. 41, 57; VI. iii. 24, 27; VII. i. 15; "Pol. + Lac." xi. 5. These front-rank men would seem to correspond to our + "troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some + extent. + + (6) Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier. +</pre> + <p> + The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best be filled + supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their own supports, and + those chosen theirs, and so on following suit; since on this principle we + may expect each man to have his trustiest comrade at his back. + </p> + <p> + As to your lieutenant, (7) it is every way important to appoint a good man + to this post, whose bravery will tell; and in case of need at any time to + charge the enemy, the cheering accents of his voice will infuse strength + into those in front; or when the critical moment of retreat arrives, his + sage conduct in retiring will go far, we may well conclude, towards saving + his division. (8) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) {ton aphegoumenon}, lit. "him who leads back" (a function which + would devolve upon the {ouragos} under many circumstances). Cf. + "Cyrop." II. iii. 21; "Hell." IV. viii. 37; Plat. "Laws," 760 D. = + our "officer serre-file," to some extent. So Courier: "Celui qui + commande en serre-file. C'est chez nous le capitaine en second." + + (8) Or, "the rest of the squadron." Lit. "his own tribesmen." +</pre> + <p> + An even number of file-leaders will admit of a greater number of equal + subdivisions than an odd. + </p> + <p> + The above formation pleases me for two good reasons: in the first place, + all the front-rank men are forced to act as officers; (9) and the same + man, mark you, when in command is somehow apt to feel that deeds of valour + are incumbent on him which, as a private, he ignores; and in the next + place, at a crisis when something calls for action on the instant, the + word of command passed not to privates but to officers takes speedier + effect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is + nothing like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige + which is often lacking in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66; + "Pol. Lac." xi. 5. +</pre> + <p> + Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this formation: just as + the squadron-leaders have their several positions for the march (or the + attack (10)) assigned them by the commander, so the file-leaders will + depend upon the captain for the order passed along the line in what + formation they are severally to march; and all being prearranged by word + of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than if left to chance—like + people crowding out of a theatre to their mutual annoyance. And when it + comes to actual encounter greater promptitude will be displayed: supposing + the attack is made in front, by the file-leaders who know that this is + their appointed post; or in case of danger suddenly appearing in rear, + then by the rear-rank men, whose main idea is that to desert one's post is + base. A want of orderly arrangement, on the contrary, leads to confusion + worse confounded at every narrow road, at every passage of a river; and + when it comes to fighting, no one of his own free will assigns himself his + proper post in face of an enemy. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Lit. "where to ride," i.e. in what formation whether on the line + of march or in action. +</pre> + <p> + The above are fundamental matters not to be performed without the active + help of every trooper who would wish to be a zealous and unhesitating + fellow-worker with his officer. (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Cf. "Hiero," vii. 2; "Cyrop." II. iv. 10. +</pre> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + I come at length to certain duties which devolve upon the general of + cavalry himself in person: and first and foremost, it concerns him to + obtain the favour of the gods by sacrifices in behalf of the state + cavalry; and in the next place to make the great procession at the + festivals a spectacle worth seeing; and further, with regard to all those + public shows demanded by the state, wherever held, (1) whether in the + grounds of the Academy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the + hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights to see that + every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Cf. Theophr. "Ch." vii. (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25). +</pre> + <p> + But these, again, are memoranda. (2) To the question how the several + features of the pageant shall receive their due impress of beauty, I will + now address myself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Read {tauta men alla upomnemata}, or if with Pantazid. {apla}, + trans. "these are simply memoranda." +</pre> + <p> + And first to speak of the Processions. (3) These will, I think, be + rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's spectators were the + riders to ride round the Agora and temples, commencing from the Hermae, + and pay honour to the sacred beings, each in turn, whose shrines and + statues are there congregated. (Thus in the great Dionysia (4) the + choruses embrace their gracious service to the other gods and to the + Twelve with circling dance. (5)) When the circuit is completed, and the + riders are back again in front of the Hermae, it would add, I think, to + the beauty of the scene (6) if at this point they formed in companies of + tribes, and giving their horses rein, swept forward at the gallop to the + Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note the right position of the lance, to + lessen as far as possible the risk of mutual interference. (7) Each + trooper should hold his lance straight between the ears of his charger, + which in proportion to the distinctness given to the weapon will rouse + terror, and at the same time create a vague idea of multitudinousness. (8) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) {tas pompas}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160. + + (4) Celebrated in March (Elaphebolion). + + (5) Or, "by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The + Twelve"; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 235, + "Birds," 95; Plat. "Laws," 654; Paus. i. 3. 3; 40. 3; viii. 25. 3; + Plut. "Nic." 13; Lycurg. 198. + + (6) Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my + opinion, if at this point they formed in squadron column, and + giving rein to their chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the + Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. i. 296. + + (7) Lit. "nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible + overlap one another." + + (8) Lit. "Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight + between the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be + distinct and terror-striking, and at the same time to appear + numerous." +</pre> + <p> + As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, the pace + should at once be changed; and now, with footing slow, let them retrace + their course back to the temples. In this way every detail characteristic + of knightly pageantry (9) will have been displayed to the delight of god + and man. That our knights are not accustomed to these actual evolutions, I + am well aware; but I also recognise the fact that the performances are + good and beautiful and will give pleasure to spectators. I do not fail to + note, moreover, that novel feats of horsemanship have before now been + performed by our knights, when their commanders have had the ability to + get their wishes readily complied with. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse." + Possibly, as Cobet suggests, {kala} has dropped out. See + "Horsemanship," xi. 3, 6. +</pre> + <p> + But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march-past, (10) in the + grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin-throwing. The scene would gain + in beauty if the tribal squadrons were to ride in line of columns (11) as + if for battle, in two divisions, five squadrons in the one and five in the + other, with the hipparch and the phylarchs at their head, in such + formation as to allow the whole breadth of the racecourse to be filled. + Then, as soon as they have gained the top (12) of the incline, which leads + down to the theatre opposite, it would, I think, be obviously useful here + to show the skill with which your troopers can gallop down a steep incline + (13) with as broad a front as the nature of the ground permits. I am quite + clear that your troopers, if they can trust their own skill in galloping, + will take kindly to such an exhibition; while as certainly, if + unpractised, they must look to it that the enemy does not give them a + lesson in the art some day, perforce. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) {dielaunosin en Lukeio}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196; cf. Arist. + "Peace," 356. + + (11) Or, as we might say, "in regimental order," "with the commanding + officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders"; and for + the Lyceum see "Hell." I. i. 33; II. iv. 27. + + (12) Lit. "the apex of the confronting theatre." + + (13) See "Horsemanship," viii. 6; "Anab." IV. viii. 28. +</pre> + <p> + To come to the test manouvres. (14) The order in which the men will ride + with showiest effect on these occasions has been already noted. (15) As + far as the leader is himself concerned, and presuming he is mounted on a + powerful horse, I would suggest that he should each time ride round on the + outer flank; in which case he will himself be kept perpetually moving at a + canter, and those with him, as they become the wheeling flank, will, by + turns, fall into the same pace, with this result: the spectacle presented + to the senate will be that of an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers; + and the horses having, each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, + will not be overdone. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) {dokimasiais}, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit. + p. 333. + + (15) Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work (see Courier, p. + 111, n. 1); or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene + of the {dokimasiai} Phaleron? There is no further reference to {ta + Phaleroi}. Cf. S. 1, above. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49 (now the + locus classicus on the subject), and Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene + is represented on a patera from Orvieto, now in the Berlin Museum, + reproduced and fully described in "The Art of Horsemanship by + Xenophon," translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse, + and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76. +</pre> + <p> + On occasions when the display takes place in the hippodrome, (16) the best + arrangement would be, in the first place, that the troops should fill the + entire space with extended front, so forcing out the mob of people from + the centre; (17) and secondly, that in the sham fight (18) which ensues, + the tribal squadrons, swiftly pursuing and retiring, should gallop right + across and through each other, the two hipparchs at their head, each with + five squadrons under him. Consider the effect of such a spectacle: the + grim advance of rival squadrons front to front; the charge; the solemn + pause as, having swept across the hippodrome, they stand once more + confronting one another; and then the trumpet sounds, whereat a second and + yet swifter hostile advance, how fine the effect!—and once again + they are at the halt; and once again the trumpet sounds, and for the third + time, at the swiftest pace of all, they make a final charge across the + field, before dismissal; after which they come to a halt en masse, in + battle order; and, as now customary, (19) ride up to salute the senate, + and disband. These evolutions will at once approve themselves, I think, + not only for their novelty, but for their resemblance to real warfare. The + notion that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, + and to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me below the + dignity of the office. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose. + + (17) Lit. "... it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so + as to fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people + from the central space, beautiful to..." The new feature of the + review would seem to have been the introduction of a sham fight in + three parts, down to the customary advance of the whole corps, + {epi phalaggos}. Cf. Virg. "Aen." v. 545 foll. But see Martin, op. + cit. 197. + + (18) Lit. "the anthippasia." + + (19) "As is your custom." See "Mem." III. iii. 6. +</pre> + <p> + When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard-trodden (20) ground of the + Academy, I have the following advice to give. To avoid being jolted off + his horse at any moment, the trooper should, in charging, lean well back, + (21) and to prevent his charger stumbling, he should while wheeling hold + his head well up, but along a straight stretch he should force the pace. + Thus the spectacle presented to the senate will combine the elements of + beauty and of safety. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (20) Cf. Thuc. vii. 27. + + (21) See "Horsemanship," vii. 17. +</pre> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general will need to + exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' backs and the + troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding and of marching. + Wherein consists the golden mean, will not be hard to find; since "every + man a standard to himself," (1) applies, and your sensations are an index + to prevent your fellows being overdone through inadvertence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 183 B. +</pre> + <p> + But now supposing you are on the march in some direction, and it is + uncertain whether you will stumble on the enemy, your duty is to rest your + squadrons in turn; since it will go hard with you, if the enemy come to + close quarters when the whole force is dismounted. (2) Or, again, suppose + the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile, you will pass, by + word of mouth, the command to diminish the front; (3) or given, again, you + are debouching on broad roads, again the word of command will pass by word + of mouth, to every squadron, "to increase their front"; or lastly, + supposing you have reached flat country, "to form squadron in order of + battle." If only for the sake of practice, it is well to go through + evolutions of the sort; (4) besides which it adds pleasure to the march + thus to diversify the line of route with cavalry maneuvers. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) See "Hell." V. iv. 40 for a case in point. + + (3) Or, "advance by column of route." See "Hell." VII. iv. 23. + + (4) Or, "it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat. + "Laws," i. 625 B. +</pre> + <p> + Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and moving fast over + difficult ground, no matter whether you are in hostile or in friendly + territory, it will be useful if the scouts attached to squadrons (5) rode + on in advance, their duty being, in case of encountering pathless clefts + or gullies, to work round on to practicable ground, and to discover at + what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that whole ranks may not + go blindly roaming. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) {ton upereton} = "ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances, + trabans (Courier). See Rustow and Kochly, p. 140. "Cyrop." II. i. + 21; II. iv. 4; V. iii. 52; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13; "Anab." I. + ix. 27; II. i. 9; where "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be + implied. + + (6) Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. "Anab." + VIII. iii. 18. +</pre> + <p> + Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a prudent general can + hardly show his wisdom better than by sending out advanced patrols in + front of the ordinary exploring parties to reconnoitre every inch of + ground minutely. So to be apprised of the enemy's position in advance, and + at as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be useful, whether + for purposes of attack or defence; just as it is useful also to enforce a + halt at the passage of a river or some other defile, so that the men in + rear may not knock their horses all to bits in endeavouring to overtake + their leader. These are precepts known, I admit, to nearly all the world, + but it is by no means every one who will take pains to apply them + carefully. (7) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See "Econ." xx. 6. foll. +</pre> + <p> + It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite precautions while it + is still peace, to make himself acquainted with the details, not only of + his own, but of the hostile territory; (8) or if, as may well betide, he + personally should lack the knowledge, he should invite the aid of others + (9)—those best versed in the topography of any district. Since there + is all the difference in the world between a leader acquainted with his + roads and one who is not; and when it comes to actual designs upon the + enemy, the difference between knowing and not knowing the locality can + hardly be exaggerated. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Or, "with hostile and friendly territories alike." + + (9) Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest"; i.e. + his colleagues or other members of the force. +</pre> + <p> + So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war commences + your business is to provide yourself with a supply of people friendly to + both states, or maybe merchants (since states are ready to receive the + importer of goods with open arms); sham deserters may be found + occasionally useful. (10) Not, of course, that the confidence you feel in + your spies must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your state + of preparation should at any moment be precisely what it ought to be, + supposing the approach or the imminent arrival of the enemy were to be + announced. Let a spy be ever so faithful, there is always the risk he may + fail to report his intelligence at the critical moment, since the + obstacles which present themselves in war are not to be counted on the + fingers. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas, + undertakes to play this role to good effect. +</pre> + <p> + But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely to get wind of + an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march were passed from mouth to + mouth rather than announced by voice of herald, or public notice. (11) + Accordingly, in addition to (12) this method of ordering the march by word + passed along the line, the appointment of file-leaders seems desirable, + who again are to be supplemented by section-leaders, (13) so that the + number of men to whom each petty officer has to transmit an order will be + very few; (14) while the section-leaders will deploy and increase the + front, whatever the formation, without confusion, whenever there is + occasion for the movement. (15) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the + "word-of-mouth command," see above, S. 3; "Hell." VII. v. 9; and + for the "herald," see "Anab." III. iv. 36. + + (12) Reading {pros to dia p.}, or if {pros to}... transl. "with a + view to." + + (13) Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See "Cyrop." II. i. 22 + foll., iii. 21. + + (14) Lit. "so that each officer may pass the word to as few as + possible." + + (15) Cf. "Anab." IV. vi. 6. +</pre> + <p> + When an advanced guard is needed, I say for myself I highly approve of + secret pickets and outposts, if only because in supplying a guard to + protect your friends you are contriving an ambuscade to catch the enemy. + Also the outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack, being + themselves unseen, and yet a source of great alarm to the enemy; since the + bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, though where precisely + no man knows, will prevent the enemy from feeling confident, and oblige + him to mistrust every tenable position. An exposed outpost, on the + contrary, presents to the broad eye of day its dangers and also its + weaknesses. (16) Besides which, the holder of a concealed outpost can + always place a few exposed vedettes beyond his hidden pickets, and so + endeavour to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade. Or he may play the part of + trapper with effect by placing a second exposed outpost in rear of the + other; a device which may serve to take in the unwary foeman quite as well + as that before named. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence." +</pre> + <p> + Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general never to run a + risk of his own choosing, except where it is plain to him beforehand, that + he will get the better of his adversary. To play into the enemy's hands + may more fitly be described as treason to one's fellow-combatants than + true manliness. So, too, true generalship consists in attacking where the + enemy is weakest, even if the point be some leagues distant. Severity of + toil weighs nothing in the scale against the danger of engaging a force + superior to your own. (17) Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in + any way to place himself between fortified points that are friendly to + you, let him be never so superior in force, your game is to attack on + whichever flank you can best conceal your advance, or, still better, on + both flanks simultaneously; since, while one detachment is retiring after + delivering its attack, a charge pressed home from the opposite quarter + cannot fail to throw the enemy into confusion and to give safety to your + friends. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of + a small force of cavalry acting on the defensive. +</pre> + <p> + How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an enemy's position + by means of spies and so forth, as in ancient story; yet best of all, in + my opinion, is it for the commander to try to seize some coign of vantage, + from which with his own eyes he may descry the movements of the enemy and + watch for any error on his part. (18) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (18) As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See "Hell." VII. v. 9. +</pre> + <p> + Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion, (19) your business is to + send a competent patrol to seize; or again where capture by coup de main + (20) is practicable, you will despatch a requisite body of troops to + effect a coup de main. Or take the case: the enemy is on the march in some + direction, and a portion of his force becomes detached from his main body + or through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do not let the + opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue a weaker with a + stronger force. (21) These, indeed, are rules of procedure, which it only + requires a simple effort of the mind to appreciate. Creatures far duller + of wit than man have this ability: kites and falcons, when anything is + left unguarded, pounce and carry it off and retire into safety without + being caught; or wolves, again, will hunt down any quarry left widowed of + its guard, or thieve what they can in darksome corners. (22) In case a dog + pursues and overtakes them, should he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks + him, or if stronger, the wolf will slaughter (23) his quarry and make off. + At other times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the + guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as it were, some + to drive off the guard and others to effect the capture, and so by stealth + or fair fight they provide themselves with the necessaries of life. I say, + if dumb beasts are capable of conducting a raid with so much sense and + skill, it is hard if any average man cannot prove himself equally + intelligent with creatures which themselves fall victims to the craft of + man. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc. + + (20) e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc. + + (21) "It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer." + + (22) Zeune cf. Ael. "N. A." viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in + hunting. + + (23) For {aposphaxas} Courier suggests {apospasas}, "dragging off what + he can." +</pre> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + Here is another matter which every horseman ought to know, and that is + within what distance a horse can overhaul a man on foot; or the interval + necessary to enable a slower horse to escape one more fleet. It is the + business rather of the cavalry general to recognise at a glance the sort + of ground on which infantry will be superior to cavalry and where cavalry + will be superior to infantry. He should be a man of invention, ready of + device to turn all circumstances to account, so as to give at one time a + small body of cavalry the appearance of a larger, and again a large the + likeness of a smaller body; he should have the craft to appear absent when + close at hand, and within striking distance when a long way off; he should + know exactly not only how to steal an enemy's position, but by a master + stroke of cunning (1) to spirit his own cavalry away, and, when least + expected, deliver his attack. Another excellent specimen of inventiveness + may be seen in the general's ability, while holding a weak position + himself, to conjure up so lively an apprehension in the enemy that he will + not dream of attacking; or conversely, when, being in a strong position + himself, he can engender a fatal boldness in the adversary to venture an + attack. Thus with the least cost to yourself, you will best be able to + catch your enemy tripping. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "sleight of hand"; and for {kleptein} = escamoter see "Anab." + IV. vi. 11, 15; V. vi. 9. +</pre> + <p> + But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible feats, I will + set down, in so many words, the procedure in certain crucial instances. + </p> + <p> + The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to enforce pursuit or + conduct a retreat lies in a thorough knowledge of your horse's powers. (2) + But how is this experience to be got? Simply by paying attention to their + behaviour in the peaceable manouvres of the sham fight, when there is no + real enemy to intervene—how the animals come off, in fact, and what + stamina they show in the various charges and retreats. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) {empeiria}, "empirical knowledge." +</pre> + <p> + Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear numerous. In the + first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if possible, not to attempt to + delude the enemy at close quarters; distance, as it aids illusion, will + promote security. The next point is to bear in mind that a mob of horses + clustered together (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will give a + suggestion of number, whereas scattered they may easily be counted. + </p> + <p> + Another means by which you may give your troop an appearance of numerical + strength beyond reality consists in posting, in and out between the + troopers, so many lines of grooms (3) who should carry lances if possible, + or staves at any rate to look like lances—a plan which will serve + alike whether you mean to display your cavalry force at the halt or are + deploying to increase front; in either case, obviously the bulk and volume + of the force, whatever your formation, will appear increased. Conversely, + if the problem be to make large numbers appear small, supposing you have + ground at command adapted to concealment, the thing is simple: by leaving + a portion of your men exposed and hiding away a portion in obscurity, you + may effect your object. (4) But if the ground nowhere admits of cover, + your best course is to form your files (5) into ranks one behind the + other, and wheel them round so as to leave intervals between each file; + the troopers nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, + and the rest low enough not to show above. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C. (our + author was probably present); IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly, + 323 B.C. + + (4) Lit. "steal your troopers." See "Cyrop." V. iv. 48. + + (5) Lit. "form your decads (squads of ten; cf. our 'fours') in ranks + and deploy with intervals." +</pre> + <p> + To come to the next topic: you may work on the enemy's fears by the + various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief parties, false + information. Conversely, his confidence will reach an overweening pitch, + if the idea gets abroad that his opponents have troubles of their own and + little leisure for offensive operations. + </p> + <p> + But over and beyond all that can be written on the subject—inventiveness + is a personal matter, beyond all formulas—the true general must be + able to take in, deceive, decoy, delude his adversary at every turn, as + the particular occasion demands. In fact, there is no instrument of war + more cunning than chicanery; (6) which is not surprising when one reflects + that even little boys, when playing, "How many (marbles) have I got in my + hand?" (7) are able to take one another in successfully. Out goes a + clenched fist, but with such cunning that he who holds a few is thought to + hold several; or he may present several and appear to be holding only a + few. Is it likely that a grown man, giving his whole mind to methods of + chicanery, will fail of similar inventiveness? Indeed, when one comes to + consider what is meant by advantages snatched in war, one will find, i + think, that the greater part of them, and those the more important, must + be attributed in some way or other to displays of craft; (8) which things + being so, a man had better either not attempt to exercise command, or, as + part and parcel of his general equipment, let him pray to Heaven to enable + him to exercise this faculty and be at pains himself to cultivate his own + inventiveness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. ii. 26; VII. i. 18. + + (7) {posinda}, lit. "How many?" (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.); cf. + the old game, "Buck! buck! how many horns do I hold up?" Schneid. + cf. Aristot. "Rhet."iii. 5. 4. + + (8) "Have been won in connection with craft." See "Cyrop." I. vi. 32; + "Mem." III. i. 6; IV. ii. 15. +</pre> + <p> + A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the faculty as follows: + he may either, whilst apparently engaged in fitting out his vessels, + strike a blow on land; (9) or with a make-believe of some aggressive + design by land, hazard an adventure by sea. (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 21. + + (10) Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi. + 64. +</pre> + <p> + I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to point out clearly + to the state authority the essential weakness of a force of cavalry + unaided by light infantry, as opposed to cavalry with foot-soldiers + attached. (11) It is duty also, having got his footmen, to turn the force + to good account. It is possible to conceal them effectively, not only + between the lines, but in rear also of the troopers—the mounted + soldier towering high above his follower on foot. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Or, "divorced from infantry." In reference to {amippoi}, cf. + Thuc. v. 57; "Hell." VII. v. 23. +</pre> + <p> + With regard to these devices and to any others which invention may suggest + towards capturing the foeman by force or fraud, I have one common word of + advice to add, which is, to act with God, and then while Heaven propitious + smiles, fortune will scarcely dare to frown. (12) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Or, "and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of + fortune," reading with Courier, etc., {ina kai e tukhe sunepaine}. + Cf. "Cyrop." III. iii. 20. +</pre> + <p> + At times there is no more effective fraud than a make-believe (13) of + over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This itself will put the + enemy off his guard and ten to one will lure him into some egregious + blunder; or conversely, once get a reputation for foolhardiness + established, and then with folded hands sit feigning future action, and + see what a world of trouble you will thereby cause your adversary. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) S. 15 should perhaps stand before S. 13. +</pre> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, can hope to mould + and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, unless the stuff on which he + works be first prepared and made ready to obey the craftsman's will. Nor + certainly where the raw material consists of men, will you succeed, + unless, under God's blessing, these same men have been prepared and made + ready to meet their officer in a friendly spirit. They must come to look + upon him as of greater sagacity than themselves in all that concerns + encounter with the enemy. This friendly disposition on the part of his + subordinates, one must suppose, will best be fostered by a corresponding + sympathy on the part of their commander towards the men themselves, and + that not by simple kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their + behalf, at one time to provide them with food, and at another to secure + safety of retreat, or again by help of outposts and the like, to ensure + protection during rest and sleep. + </p> + <p> + When on active service (1) the commander must prove himself conspicuously + careful in the matter of forage, quarters, water-supply, outposts, (2) and + all other requisites; forecasting the future and keeping ever a wakeful + eye in the interest of those under him; and in case of any advantage won, + the truest gain which the head of affairs can reap is to share with his + men the profits of success. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Al. "on garrison outpost duty." + + (2) Reading {phulakon}, or if with Courier {thulakon}, "haversacks," + i.e. "la farine, le contenant pour le contenu." +</pre> + <p> + Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small risk a general + will be regarded with contempt by those he leads, if, whatever he may have + to preach, he shows himself best able to perform. + </p> + <p> + Beginning with the simple art of mounting on horseback, let him so train + himself in all particulars of horsemanship that, to look at him, the men + must see their leader is a horseman who can leap a trench unscathed or + scale a parapet, (3) or gallop down a bank, and hurl a javelin with the + best. These are accomplishments which one and all will pave the way to + make contempt impossible. If, further, the men shall see in their + commander one who, with the knowledge how to act, has force of will and + cunning to make them get the better of the enemy; and if, further, they + have got the notion well into their heads that this same leader may be + trusted not to lead them recklesssly against the foe, without the help of + Heaven, or despite the auspices—I say, you have a list of virtues + which will make those under his command the more obedient to their ruler. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Or, "stone walls," "dykes." +</pre> + <p> + VII + </p> + <p> + If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality distinctive of true + generalship, there are two respects in which a general of cavalry at + Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not only must he show a dutiful + submission to the gods; but he must possess great fighting qualities, + seeing that he has on his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in + number and backed by a large force of heavy infantry. (1) So that, if he + undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the other forces + of the city (2)—in dealing with two descriptions of forces + single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a desperate adventure; or + to take the converse case, that the enemy invades the soil of Attica, to + begin with, he will not invade at all, unless supported by other cavalry + besides his own and an infantry force sufficient to warrant the + supposition that no force on our side can cope with him. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not + know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in + the field at Leuctra or at Mantinea. + + (2) Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc. +</pre> + <p> + Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city will determine + to sally out en masse to protect her rural districts, the prospect is + fair. Under God, our troopers, if properly cared for, are the finer men; + our infantry of the line are no less numerous, and as regards physique, if + it comes to that, not one whit inferior, while in reference to moral + qualities, they are more susceptible to the spur of a noble ambition, if + only under God's will they be correctly trained. Or again, as touching + pride of ancestry, what have Athenians to fear as against Boeotians on + that score? (3) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See "Mem." III. v. 3, where it is contended that in pride of + ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians. +</pre> + <p> + But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake herself to her navy, as + in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, leagued with the rest of Hellas, + brought invasion; (4) and is content once more simply to protect her walls + through thick and thin. As to protecting what lies outside the city wall + she looks to her cavalry for that; and single-handed her troopers must do + desperate encounter against the united forces of the enemy. I say, under + these circumstances, we shall need in the first place the strong support + of Heaven; and in the second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry + commander prove himself a consummate officer. (5) Indeed, he will have + need of large wisdom to deal with a force so vastly superior in numbers, + and of enterprise to strike when the critical moment comes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95, + Hippocrates' speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C. + + (5) A "parfait marechal." +</pre> + <p> + He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great physical endurance; + (6) since clearly, if he has to run full tilt against an armament present, + as we picture, in such force that not even our whole state cares to cope + with it, it is plain he must accept whatever fate is due, where might is + right, himself unable to retaliate. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) So Jason, "Hell." VI. i. 4. +</pre> + <p> + If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside the walls (7) + with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on the enemy, and to + withdraw into safe quarters from a distance whatever needs protection—a + small number, be it observed, is just as capable of vedette duty, as well + able, say, to scan the distant horizon, as a large; and by the same token + men with no great confidence in themselves or in their horses are not + ill-qualified to guard, or withdraw within shelter (8) the property of + friends; since fear, as the proverb has it, makes a shrewd watchman. The + proposal, therefore, to select from these a corps of observation will most + likely prove true strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for + outpost duty? If any one imagines he has got an armament, he will find it + miserably small, and lacking in every qualification necessary to risk an + open encounter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Or, "His better plan would be to." + + (8) Reading {anakhorizein}. Cf. "Cyrop." II. ii. 8; "Anab." V. ii. 10; + or if {anakhorein eis}, transl. "or retire into safe quarters." + See "Hell." IV. vi. 44. +</pre> + <p> + But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla war, and he will + find the force quite competent for that, I warrant. His business, so at + least it seems to me, will be to keep his men perpetually in readiness to + strike a blow, and without exposing himself, to play sentinel, waiting for + any false move on the part of the hostile armament. And it is a way with + soldiers, bear in mind, the more numerous they are, the more blunders they + commit. They must needs scatter of set purpose (9) in search of + provisions; or through the disorder incidental to a march, some will + advance and others lag behind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, + then, our hipparch must not let pass unpunished (unless he wishes the + whole of Attica to become a gigantic camp); (10) keeping his single point + steadily in view, that when he strikes a blow he must be expeditious and + retire before the main body has time to rally to the rescue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) {epimeleia}. Cf. "Cyrop." V. iii. 47. + + (10) Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As at + the date of the fortification of Decelea (413 B.C.), which + permanently commanded the whole country. See Thuc. vii. 27. Al. + Courier, "autrement vous n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire, + tout le pays devient votre camp." +</pre> + <p> + Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an army will get into + roads where numbers are no advantage. Again, in the passage of rivers, + defiles, and the like, it is possible for a general with a head on his + shoulders to hang on the heels of an enemy in security, and to determine + with precision (11) the exact number of the enemy he will care to deal + with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to attack the foe while + encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men turn out of bed: + seasons at which the soldier is apt to be unharnessed—the hoplite + for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for a longer period. (12) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) See "Anab." II. v. 18; "Cyrop." III. iii. 47; IV. i. 18. + {tamieusasthai}, "with the precision of a controller." + + (12) Cf. "Hell." II. iv. 6; VII. i. 16. +</pre> + <p> + As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never cease planning and + plotting against them. For these in their turn, as a rule, are apt to + consist of small numbers, and are sometimes posted at a great distance + from their own main body. But if after all it turns out that the enemy are + well on their guard against all such attempts, then, God helping, it would + be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country, first making it your + business to ascertain (13) his defences, the number of men at this, that, + and the other point, and how they are distributed throughout the country. + For there is no booty so splendid as an outpost so overmastered; and these + frontier outposts are especially prone to be deceived, with their + propensity to give chase to any small body they set eyes on, regarding + that as their peculiar function. You will have to see, however, in + retiring that your line of retreat is not right into the jaws of the + enemy's reliefs hastening to the scene of action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Or, "having first studied." Cf. "Mem." III. vi. 10. +</pre> + <p> + VIII + </p> + <p> + It stands to reason, however, that in order to be able to inflict real + damage upon a greatly superior force, the weaker combatant must possess + such a moral superiority over the other as shall enable him to appear in + the position of an expert, trained in all the feats of cavalry performance + in the field, and leave his enemy to play the part of raw recruits or + amateurs. (1) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Cf. "Cyrop." I. v. 11; "Mem." III. vii. 7. +</pre> + <p> + And this end may be secured primarily on this wise: those who are to form + your guerilla bands (2) must be so hardened and inured to the saddle that + they are capable of undergoing all the toils of a campaign. (3) That a + squadron (and I speak of horse and man alike) should enter these lists in + careless, disorderly fashion suggests the idea of a troop of women + stepping into the arena to cope with male antagonists. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be." + + (3) Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter." +</pre> + <p> + But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have been taught and + trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to spring up banks, and plunge + from heights without scathe, to gallop headlong at full speed adown a + steep: they will tower over unpractised opponents as the birds of the air + tower over creatures that crawl and walk. (4) Their feet are case-hardened + by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping over rough ground, + must differ from the uninitiated as the sound man from the lame. And so + again, when it comes to charging and retiring, the onward-dashing gallop, + the well-skilled, timely retreat, expert knowledge of the ground and + scenery will assert superiority over inexpertness like that of eyesight + over blindness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See "Horse." viii. 6; cf. "Hunting," xii. 2; "Cyrop." I. vi. 28 + foll. +</pre> + <p> + Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough efficiency the + horses must not only be well fed and in good condition, but at the same + time so seasoned by toil that they will go through their work without the + risk of becoming broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and saddle-cloths (to + be efficient) (5) need to be attached by straps, a cavalry general should + never be without a good supply, whereby at a trifling expense he may + convert a number of nonplussed troopers into serviceable fighting men. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) ({khresima}) L.D. For the {upomnema} itself cf. "Cyrop." VI. ii. + 32. + + (6) Or, "thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many + non-efficients useful." Al. "make the articles as good as new." +</pre> + <p> + But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of trouble it will cost + him, if he is required to devote himself to horsemanship so assiduously, + let him console himself with the reflection that the pains and labours + undergone by any man in training for a gymnastic contest are far larger + and more formidable than any which the severest training of the horseman + will involve; and for this reason, that the greater part of gymnastic + exercises are performed "in the sweat of the brow," while equestrian + exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed, there is no accomplishment + which so nearly realises the aspiration of a man to have the wings of a + bird than this of horsemanship. (7) But further, to a victory obtained in + war attaches a far greater weight of glory than belongs to the noblest + contest of the arena. (8) Of these the state indeed will share her meed of + glory, (9) but in honour of victory in war the very gods are wont to crown + whole states with happiness. (10) So that, for my part, I know not if + there be aught else which has a higher claim to be practised than the arts + of war. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. iii. 15; Herod. iv. 132; Plat. "Rep." v. 467 D. + + (8) Cf. Eur. "Autolycus," fr. 1, trans. by J. A. Symonds, "Greek + Poets," 2nd series, p. 283. + + (9) Cf. Plut. "Pelop." 34 (Clough, ii. p. 235): "And yet who would + compare all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put + together, with one of these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he + successfully performed so many?" + + (10) "To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal." +</pre> + <p> + And this, too, is worth noting: that the buccaneer by sea, the + privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is able to live at the + expense of far superior powers. Yes, and the life of the freebooter is no + less natural and appropriate to landsmen—I do not say, to those who + can till and gather in the fruit of their fields, but to those who find + themselves deprived of sustenance; since there is no alternative—either + men must till their fields or live on the tillage of others, otherwise how + will they find the means either of living or of obtaining peace? (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Cf. "Econ." v. 7. +</pre> + <p> + Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory: in charging a superior + force, never to leave a difficult tract of ground in the rear of your + attack, since there is all the difference in the world between a stumble + in flight and a stumble in pursuit. + </p> + <p> + There is another precaution which I feel called upon to note. Some + generals, (12) in attacking a force which they imagine to be inferior to + their own, will advance with a ridiculously insufficient force, (13) so + that it is the merest accident if they do not experience the injury they + were minded to inflict. Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose + superiority is a well-known fact, they will bring the whole of their force + into action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C. + Cf. "Hell." VI. v. 51. + + (13) Lit. "an absolutely weak force." +</pre> + <p> + Now, my maxim would be precisely converse: if you attack with a prospect + of superiority, do not grudge employing all the power at your command; + excess of victory (14) never yet caused any conqueror one pang of remorse. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. "Hiero," ii. 16. +</pre> + <p> + But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full certainty that, do + what you can, you must eventually retire, it is far better, say I, under + these circumstances to bring a fraction only of your whole force into + action, which fraction should be the pick and flower of the troops at your + command, both horses and men. A body of that size and quality will be able + to strike a blow and to fall back with greater security. Whereas, if a + general brings all his troops into action against a superior force, when + he wishes to retire, certain things must happen: those of his men who are + worse mounted will be captured, others through lack of skill in + horsemanship will be thrown, and a third set be cut off owing to mere + difficulties of ground; since it is impossible to find any large tract of + country exactly what you would desire. If for no other reason, through + sheer stress of numbers there will be collisions, and much damage done by + kicks through mutual entanglement; whereas a pick of horse and men will be + able to escape offhand, (15) especially if you have invention to create a + scare in the minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety of troops who are + out of action. (16) For this purpose false ambuscades will be of use. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) Or, "by themselves," reading {ex auton}, as L. Dind. suggests. + Cf. Polyb. x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. {ex auton} (sub. {kheiron}, + Weiske), transl. "to slip through their fingers." + + (16) Zeune and other commentators cf Liv. v. 38 (Diod. xiv. 114), but + the part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the + Allia, if indeed "una salus fugientibus," was scarcely happy. + Would not "Hell." VII. v. 26 be more to the point? The detachment + of cavalry and infantry placed by Epaminondas "on certain crests, + to create an apprehension in the minds of the Athenians" in that + quarter of the field at Mantinea was a {mekhanema} of the kind + here contemplated. +</pre> + <p> + Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which side a friendly + force may suddenly appear and without risk to itself put a drag on the + wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self-evident, I think, that, as far as + work and speed are concerned, it is the small body which will assert its + superiority more rapidly over the larger, and not vice versa—not of + course that the mere fact of being a small body will enable them to endure + toil or give them wings; but simply it is easier to find five men than + five hundred, who will take the requisite care and pains with their + horses, and personally practise of their own accord the art of + horsemanship. + </p> + <p> + But suppose the chance should occur of entering the lists against an equal + number of the enemy's cavalry, according to my judgment it were no bad + plan to split the squadron into divisions, (17) the first of which should + be commanded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the ablest officer + to be found. This second-officer will for the time being follow in rear of + the leading division with the squadron leader; and by and by, when the + antagonist is in near proximity, and when the word of command is passed, + form squadron to the front and charge the hostile ranks (18)—a + maneuver calculated, as I conceive, to bring the whole mass down upon the + enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him some trouble to extricate + himself. Ideally speaking, both divisions (19) will be backed by infantry + kept in rear of the cavalry; these will suddenly disclose themselves, and + rushing to close quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory. + (20) So at any rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what is + unexpected—how, in the case of good things, the soul of man is + filled to overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of things terrible, + paralysed with amazement. In proof of what I say, let any one reflect on + the stupor into which a body of men with all the weight of numerical + advantage on their side will be betrayed by falling into an ambuscade; or + again, on the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in belligerents during + the first few days, of finding themselves posted in face of one another. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) Or, "troops." + + (18) Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry + tactics. + + (19) Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc. + + (20) Or, "achieve a much more decisive victory." Cf. "Cyrop." III. + iii. 28. +</pre> + <p> + To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty is to discover a + body of men who will dash forward (21) and charge an enemy as above + described intelligently and loyally, with an eager spirit and unfailing + courage. That is a problem for a good cavalry general to solve. I mean an + officer who must be competent to so assert himself in speech or action + (22) that those under him will no longer hesitate. They will recognise of + themselves that it is a good thing and a right to obey, (23) to follow + their leader, to rush to close quarters with the foe. A desire will + consume them to achieve some deed of glory and renown. A capacity will be + given them patiently to abide by the resolution of their souls. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) {parelontas}, in reference to S. 18 above, {parelaunoi}, "form + squadron to the front." + + (22) "To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of + action." Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 11. + + (23) Cf. Tennyson's "The Charge of the Light Brigade": + + Their's not to make reply, + Their's not to reason why, + Their's but to do and die. +</pre> + <p> + To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have two armeis + facing one another in battle order, or a pair of fortresses (24) belonging + to rival powers, and in the space between all kinds of cavalry manouvres + are enacted, wheelings and charges and retreats. (25) Under such + circumstances the custom usually is for either party after wheeling to set + off at a slow pace and to gallop full speed only in the middle of the + course. But now suppose that a commander, after making feint (26) in this + style, presently on wheeling quickens for the charge and quickens to + retire—he will be able to hit the enemy far harder, and pull through + absolutely without scathe himself most likely; through charging at full + speed whilst in proximity to his own stronghold (or main body), and + quickening to a gallop as he retires from the stronghold (or main body) of + the enemy. If further, he could secretly contrive to leave behind four or + five troopers, the bravest and best mounted of the squadron, it would give + them an immense advantage in falling upon the enemy whilst wheeling to + return to the charge. (27) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) Al. "fields and farmsteads between." + + (25) Or, "retirements," see "Horsemanship," viii. 12; "Cyrop." V. iv. + 8; "Hell." IV. ii. 6; "Ages." ii. 3. + + (26) Or, "having precluded in this fashion." See Theocr. xxii. 102: + + {ton men anax ataraxen etosia khersi prodeiknus Pantothen}, + + "feinting on every side" (A. Lang). Al. "having given due warning + of his intention." Cf. Aristot. "H. A." ix. 37. + + (27) Cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 244 (Demosthenes calls to the + hipparchs (?)): + + {andres eggus. all' amunou, kapanastrephou palin}. +</pre> + <p> + IX + </p> + <p> + To read these observations over a few times will be sufficient, but for + giving them effect the officer will need perpetually to act as + circumstances require. (1) He must take in the situation at a glance, and + carry out unflinchingly whatever is expedient for the moment. To set down + in writing everything that he must do, is not a whit more possible than to + know the future as a whole. (2) But of all hints and suggestions the most + important to my mind is this: whatever you determine to be right, with + diligence endeavour to perform. For be it tillage of the soil, or trading, + or seafaring, or the art of ruling, without pains applied to bring the + matter to perfection, the best theories in the world, the most correct + conclusions, will be fruitless. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) {pros to paratugkhanon}, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i. + 122: "For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules; + it strikes out a path for itself when the moment comes" (Jowett). + + (2) Or, "is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in + the womb of futurity." +</pre> + <p> + One thing I am prepared to insist on: it is clear to myself that by + Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much more quickly raised to + the full quota of a thousand troopers, (3) and with far less friction to + the mass of citizens, by the enrolment of two hundred foreign cavalry. + Their acquisition will be doubly helpful, as intensifying the loyalty of + the entire force and as kindling a mutual ambition to excel in manly + virtue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See Schneid. ad loc.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." pp. 263, 264; Herod. vi. + 112; Thuc. vi. 31; Aristoph. "Knights," 223; Aeschin. "De F. L." + 334-337. See for this reform, Martin, op. cit. 343, 368. +</pre> + <p> + I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian cavalry only began + to be famous (4) with the introduction of foreign troopers; and in the + other states of Hellas everywhere the foreign brigades stand in high + esteem, as I perceive. Need, in fact, contributes greatly to enthusiasm. + Towards the necessary cost of the horses I hold that an ample fund will be + provided, (5) partly out of the pockets of those who are only too glad to + escape cavalry service (in other words, those on whom the service devolves + prefer to pay a sum of money down and be quit of the duty), (6) and from + wealthy men who are physically incompetent; and I do not see why orphans + possessed of large estates should not contribute. (7) Another belief I + hold is that amongst our resident aliens (8) there are some who will show + a laudable ambition if incorporated with the cavalry. I argue from the + fact, apparent to myself, that amongst this class persons are to be found + most zealously disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every + other branch of honourable service which the citizens may choose to share + with them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an energetic infantry + to support your cavalry, you will find it in a corps composed of + individuals whose hatred to the foe is naturally intense. (9) But the + success of the above suggestions will depend doubtless on the consenting + will of Heaven. (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after + Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See "Hell." + VI. iv. 10. + + (5) Or, "money will be forthcoming for them." Cf. Lys. "Against + Philon," xxxi. 15; Martin, op. cit. 319. + + (6) Cf. "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Ages." i. 23. Courier brackets this + sentence ({oti... ippeuein}) as a gloss; Martin, p. 323, + emends. + + (7) As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. "Symm." + 182. 15; Lys. "Against Diogeit." 24. + + (8) Lit. "metoecs." See "Revenues," ii. + + (9) Lit. "men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author + thinking of Boeotian emigres? Cf. "Hell." VI. iii. 1, 5; Diod. xv. + 46. 6. + + (10) Lit. "with the consenting will of the gods these things all may + come to pass." +</pre> + <p> + And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this treatise "act with + God," surprises any one, he may take my word for it that with the daily or + hourly occurrence of perils which must betide him, his wonderment will + diminish; as also with the clearer recognition of the fact that in time of + war the antagonists are full of designs against each other, but the + precise issue of these plots and counterplots is rarely known. To what + counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in his extremity save only to + the gods, who know all things and forewarn whomsoever they will by victims + or by omens, by voice or vision? Is it not rational to suppose that they + will prefer to help in their need, not those who only seek them in time of + momentary stress and trouble, but those rather who in the halcyon days of + their prosperity make a practice of rendering to Heaven the service of + heart and soul? + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 1172 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Cavalry General + +Author: Xenophon + +Translator: H. G. Dakyns + +Release Date: August 16, 2008 [EBook #1172] +Last Updated: January 15, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAVALRY GENERAL *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE CAVALRY GENERAL + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Xenophon + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + Translation by H. G. Dakyns + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + </pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Cavalry General is a discourse on the merits + a cavalry general, or hipparch, in Athens should + have. Xenophon also describes the development of + a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be + applied in the field and in festival exhibition. + </pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + Contents + </h2> + <table summary="" style="margin-right: auto; margin-left: auto"> + <tr> + <td> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> PREPARER'S NOTE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> THE CAVALRY GENERAL </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH </a> + </p> + </td> + </tr> + </table> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + PREPARER'S NOTE + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + THE CAVALRY GENERAL + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH (1) + </h2> + <h3> + or + </h3> + <h2> + Commander of Cavalry at Athens + </h2> + <p> + I + </p> + <p> + Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods to grant you + such good gifts (2) as shall enable you in thought, word, and deed to + discharge your office in the manner most acceptable to Heaven, and with + fullest increase to yourself, and friends, and to the state at large of + affection, glory, and wide usefulness. The goodwill of Heaven (3) so + obtained, you shall proceed to mount your troopers, taking care that the + full complement which the law demands is reached, and that the normal + force of cavalry is not diminished. There will need to be a reserve of + remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at any moment, (4) looking to the + fact that some will certainly succumb to old age, and others, from one + reason or another, prove unserviceable. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) For the title, etc., see Schneid. "Praemon. de Xeno." {Ipp}. + Boeckh, "P. E. A." 251. + + (2) Or, "with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and + speech and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most + acceptably to the gods themselves, and with..." Cf. Plat. + "Phaedr." 273 E; "Euthr." 14 B. + + (3) The Greek phrase is warmer, {theon d' ileon onton}, "the gods + being kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. "Laws," 712 B. + + (4) Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See "Les Cavaliers + Atheniens," par Albert Martin, p. 308. +</pre> + <p> + But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied, (5) the duty will + devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your horses are well + fed and in condition to stand their work, since a horse which cannot + endure fatigue will clearly be unable to overhaul the foeman or effect + escape; (6) and in the second place, you will have to see to it the + animals are tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not obey is + only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, an animal that + kicks when mounted must be cast; since brutes of that sort may often do + more mischief than the foe himself. Lastly, you must pay attention to the + horses' feet, and see that they will stand being ridden over rough ground. + A horse, one knows, is practically useless where he cannot be galloped + without suffering. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) Lit. "in process of being raised." + + (6) Or, "to press home a charge a l'outrance, or retire from the field + unscathed." +</pre> + <p> + And now, supposing that your horses are all that they ought to be, like + pains must be applied to train the men themselves. The trooper, in the + first place, must be able to spring on horseback easily—a feat to + which many a man has owed his life ere now. And next, he must be able to + ride with freedom over every sort of ground, since any description of + country may become the seat of war. When, presently, your men have got + firm seats, your aim should be to make as many members of the corps as + possible not only skilled to hurl the javelin from horseback with + precision, but to perform all other feats expected of the expert horseman. + Next comes the need to arm both horse and man in such a manner as to + minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to increase the force of every blow + delivered. (7) This attended to, you must contrive to make your men + amenable to discipline, without which neither good horses, nor a firm + seat, nor splendour of equipment will be of any use at all. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Lit. "so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they + may most be able to injure the enemy." +</pre> + <p> + The general of cavalry, (8) as patron of the whole department, is + naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, however, of the + task imposed upon that officer had he to carry out these various details + single-handed, the state has chosen to associate (9) with him certain + coadjutors in the persons of the phylarchs (or tribal captains), (10) and + has besides imposed upon the senate a share in the superintendence of the + cavalry. This being so, two things appear to me desirable; the first is, + so to work upon the phylarch that he shall share your own enthusiasm for + the honour of the corps; (11) and secondly, to have at your disposal in + the senate able orators, (12) whose language may instil a wholesome fear + into the knights themselves, and thereby make them all the better men, or + tend to pacify the senate on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) See "Mem." III. iii. + + (9) Cf. Theophr. xxix. "The Oligarchic Man": "When the people are + deliberating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint + directors of the procession." (Jebb.) + + (10) Or, "squadron-leaders." + + (11) "Honour and prestige of knighthood." + + (12) "To keep a staff of orators." Cf. "Anab." VII. vi. 41; "Cyrop." + I. vi. 19; "Hell." VI. ii. 39. +</pre> + <p> + The above may serve as memoranda (13) of the duties which will claim your + chief attention. How the details in each case may best be carried out is a + further matter, which I will now endeavour to explain. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) "A sort of notes and suggestions," "mementoes." Cf. + "Horsemanship," iii. 1, xii. 14. +</pre> + <p> + As to the men themselves—the class from which you make your pick of + troopers—clearly according to the law you are bound to enrol "the + ablest" you can find "in point of wealth and bodily physique"; and "if not + by persuasion, then by prosecution in a court of law." (14) And for my + part, I think, if legal pressure is to be applied, you should apply it in + those cases where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed to + interested motives; (15) since if you fail to put compulsion on the + greater people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those of + humbler means. But there will be other cases; (16) say, of young men in + whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be kindled by recounting to + them all the brilliant feats of knighthood; while you may disarm the + opposition of their guardians by dwelling on the fact that, if not you, at + any rate some future hipparch will certainly compel them to breed horses, + (17) owing to their wealth; whereas, if they enter the service (18) during + your term of office, you will undertake to deter their lads from mad + extravagance in buying horses, (19) and take pains to make good horsemen + of them without loss of time; and while pleading in this strain, you must + endeavour to make your practice correspond with what you preach. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by + legal if not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321 + foll. + + (15) i.e. "would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of + gain." + + (16) Reading {esti de kai ous}, or if as vulg. {eti de kai}, "More + than that, it strikes me one may work on the feelings of young + fellows in such a way as to disarm." See Hartmann, "An. Xen. N." + 325. + + (17) Cf. Aesch. "P. V." 474; Herod. vi. 35; Dem. 1046. 14; Thuc. vi. + 12; Isocr. {peri tou zeugous}, 353 C. {ippotrophein d' + epikheiresas, o ton eudaimonestaton ergon esti.} See Prof. Jebb's + note to Theophr. "Ch." vi. p. 197, note 16. + + (18) Lit. "if they mount." + + (19) Like that of Pheidippides in the play; see Aristoph. "Clouds," 23 + foll. And for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas (= L12 + circa) for a common horse, or 12 minas (say L50) for a good saddle + or race-horse, up to the extravagant sum of 13 talents (say 3000 + guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see Boeckh, "P. E. A." (Eng. tr.) + p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22; 88. 17; Lys. "de Maled." 133. 10; Aul. + Gell. "Noct. Att." v. 2. +</pre> + <p> + To come to the existing body of knights, (20) it would tend, (21) I think, + to better rearing and more careful treatment of their horses if the senate + issued a formal notice that for the future twice the amount of drill will + be required, and that any horse unable to keep up will be rejected. And + so, too, with regard to vicious horses, I should like to see an edict + promulgated to the effect that all such animals will be rejected. This + threat would stimulate the owners of such brutes to part with them by + sale, and, what is more, to exercise discretion at the time of purchase. + So, too, it would be a good thing if the same threat of rejection were + made to include horses that kick on the exercising-grounds, since it is + impossible to keep such animals in the ranks; and in case of an advance + against a hostile force at any point, (22) they must perforce trail in the + rear, so that, thanks to the vice of the animal which he bestrides, the + trooper himself is rendered useless. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (20) Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry." + For a plausible emend. of this passage (S. 13) see Courier ("Notes + sur le texte," p. 54); L. Dind. ad loc. + + (21) Lit. "the senate might incite to..." + + (22) Reading {ean}, or if {kan} with the MSS., trans. "even in case of + an advance against the enemy." +</pre> + <p> + With a view to strengthening the horses' feet: if any one has an easier or + more simple treatment to suggest, by all means let it be adopted; but for + myself, as the result of experience, I maintain that the proper course is + to lay down a loose layer of cobbles from the road, a pound or so in + weight, on which the horse should be put to stand, when taken from the + manger to be groomed. (23) The point is, that the horse will keep + perpetually moving first one foot and then another on the stones, whilst + being rubbed down or simply because he is fidgeted by flies. Let any one + try the experiment, and, I venture to predict, not only will he come to + trust my guidance, but he will see his horse's hoofs grow just as round + and solid as the cobbles. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (23) See below, "Horse." iv. 4. The Greeks did not "shoe" their + horses. +</pre> + <p> + Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to be, how is the + trooper to attain a like degree of excellence? To that question I will now + address myself. The art of leaping on to horseback is one which we would + fain persuade the youthful members of the corps to learn themselves; + though, if you choose to give them an instructor, (24) all the greater + credit to yourself. And as to the older men you cannot do better than + accustom them to mount, or rather to be hoisted up by aid of some one, + Persian fashion. (25) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play "The Breeder + of Horses," ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55. + + (25) See "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Horsemanship," vi. 12. +</pre> + <p> + With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, it may be + perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually marching out, when + there is no war; (26) but all the same, I would have you call your men + together and impress upon them the need to train themselves, when they + ride into the country to their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving the high + road and galloping at a round pace on ground of every description. (27) + This method will be quite as beneficial to them as the regular march out, + and at the same time not produce the same sense of tedium. You may find it + useful also to remind them that the state on her side is quite willing to + expend a sum of nearly forty talents (28) yearly, so that in the event of + war she may not have to look about for cavalry, but have a thoroughly + efficient force to hand for active service. Let these ideas be once + instilled into their minds, and, mark my words, your trooper will fall + with zest to practising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war + burst out he may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, unskilled + to fight for fame and fatherland or even life itself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (26) In the piping days of peace. + + (27) See "Econ." xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. "Ch." viii. "The Late Learner": + {kai eis agron eph' ippou allotriou katakhoumenos ama meletan + ippazesthai, kai peson ten kephalon kateagenai}, "Riding into the + country on another's horse, he will practise his horsemanship by + the way, and falling, will break his head" (Jebb). + + (28) = L10,000 circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251. +</pre> + <p> + It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers that one day + you will take them out yourself for a long march, and lead them across + country over every kind of ground. Again, whilst practising the evolutions + of the rival cavalry display, (29) it will be well to gallop out at one + time to one district and again to another. Both men and horses will be + benefited. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (29) Lit. "the anthippasia." See iii. 11, and "Horsemanship," viii. + 10. +</pre> + <p> + Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best way to secure as + wide a practice of the art as possible, it strikes me, would be to issue + an order to your phylarchs that it will be their duty to put themselves at + the head of the marksmen of several tribes, and to ride out to the butts + for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will be roused—the + several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out as many marksmen as + they can to aid the state. (30) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (30) On competition cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22, and our author passim. +</pre> + <p> + And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which the force + requires, (31) the greatest help may once again be looked for from the + phylarchs; let these officers but be persuaded that from the public point + of view the splendid appearance of their squadrons (32) will confer a + title to distinction far higher than that of any personal equipment. Nor + is it reasonable to suppose that they will be deaf to such an argument, + since the very desire to hold the office of phylarch itself proclaims a + soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is more, they have it in their + power, in accordance with the actual provisions of the law, to equip their + men without the outlay of a single penny, by enforcing that self-equipment + out of pay (33) which the law prescribes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (31) Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph. + "Lysistr." 561, and a fragment of "The Knights," of Antiphanes, + ap. Athen. 503 B, {pant' 'Amaltheias keras}. See "Hiero," ix. 6; + "Horse." xi. 10. + + (32) Lit. "tribes," {phulai} (each of the ten tribes contributing + about eighty men, or, as we might say, a squadron). + + (33) i.e. the {katastasis}, "allowance," so technically called. Cf. + Lys. "for Mantitheos"; Jebb, "Att. Or." i. 246; Boeckh, "P. E. A." + II. xxi. p. 263; K. F. Hermann, 152, 19; Martin, op. cit. p. 341. +</pre> + <p> + But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience in your + subordinates, you have two formidable instruments; (34) as a matter of + plain reason you can show them what a host of blessings the word + discipline implies; and as a matter of hard fact you can, within the + limits of the law, enable the well-disciplined to reap advantage, while + the undisciplined are made to feel the pinch at every turn. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (34) "The one theoretic, the other practical." +</pre> + <p> + But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if you would stir + in each a personal ambition to appear at the head of his own squadron in + all ways splendidly appointed, the best incentive will be your personal + example. You must see to it that your own bodyguard (35) are decked with + choice accoutrement and arms; you must enforce on them the need to + practise shooting pertinaciously; you must expound to them the theory of + the javelin, yourself an adept in the art through constant training. (36) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (35) Techn. {prodromoi}, possibly = the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200 + mounted archers—Scythians; cf. "Mem." III. iii. 11. Or, probably, + "mounted skirmishers," distinct from the {ippotexotai}. Cf. + Arrian, "An." i. 12. 7. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49. 5. + + (36) Reading as vulg. {eisegoio}, or if with L. D. {egoio} (cf. above, + S. 21), trans. "you must lead them out to the butts yourself." +</pre> + <p> + Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the several + tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of knighthood known to + custom in the public spectacles of our city, we have here, I think, an + incentive which will appeal to the ambition of every true Athenian. How + small, in the like case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and yet how + great the labour and how vast the sums expended! (37) But we must discover + umpires of such high order that to win their verdict will be as precious + to the victor as victory itself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (37) See "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Hiero," ix. 3; "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; + Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f. +</pre> + <p> + II + </p> + <p> + Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained in all the above + particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that they should further be + instructed in a type of evolution the effect of which will show itself not + only in the splendour of the great processions (1) in honour of the gods, + but in the manouvres of the exercising-ground; in the valorous onslaught + of real battle when occasion calls; and in the ease with which whole + regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a river, or thread a defile + without the slightest symptom of confusion. What this formation is—essential, + at least in my opinion, to the noblest execution of their several duties—I + will now, without delay, endeavour to explain. (2) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon. + + (2) Or, "what this best order is, the adoption of which will give + these several features fair accomplishment, I will without further + pause set forth." +</pre> + <p> + We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division of ten tribes. (3) + Given these, the proper course, I say, is to appoint, with the concurrence + of the several phylarchs, certain decadarchs (file-leaders) (4) to be + selected from the men ripest of age and strength, most eager to achieve + some deed of honour and to be known to fame. These are to form your + front-rank men; (5) and after these, a corresponding number should be + chosen from the oldest and the most sagacious members of the squadron, to + form the rear-rank of the files or decads; since, to use an illustration, + iron best severs iron when the forefront of the blade (6) is strong and + tempered, and the momentum at the back is sufficient. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See "Revenues," iv. 30. + + (4) Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally + (or ideally) of ten men. Cf. "Cyrop. II." ii. 30; VIII. i. 14. It + will be borne in mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be + drawn up in battle line at least four deep (see "Hell." III. iv. + 13), and frequently much deeper. (The Persian cavalry in the + engagement just referred to were twelve deep.) + + (5) See "Cyrop." III. iii. 41, 57; VI. iii. 24, 27; VII. i. 15; "Pol. + Lac." xi. 5. These front-rank men would seem to correspond to our + "troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some + extent. + + (6) Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier. +</pre> + <p> + The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best be filled + supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their own supports, and + those chosen theirs, and so on following suit; since on this principle we + may expect each man to have his trustiest comrade at his back. + </p> + <p> + As to your lieutenant, (7) it is every way important to appoint a good man + to this post, whose bravery will tell; and in case of need at any time to + charge the enemy, the cheering accents of his voice will infuse strength + into those in front; or when the critical moment of retreat arrives, his + sage conduct in retiring will go far, we may well conclude, towards saving + his division. (8) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) {ton aphegoumenon}, lit. "him who leads back" (a function which + would devolve upon the {ouragos} under many circumstances). Cf. + "Cyrop." II. iii. 21; "Hell." IV. viii. 37; Plat. "Laws," 760 D. = + our "officer serre-file," to some extent. So Courier: "Celui qui + commande en serre-file. C'est chez nous le capitaine en second." + + (8) Or, "the rest of the squadron." Lit. "his own tribesmen." +</pre> + <p> + An even number of file-leaders will admit of a greater number of equal + subdivisions than an odd. + </p> + <p> + The above formation pleases me for two good reasons: in the first place, + all the front-rank men are forced to act as officers; (9) and the same + man, mark you, when in command is somehow apt to feel that deeds of valour + are incumbent on him which, as a private, he ignores; and in the next + place, at a crisis when something calls for action on the instant, the + word of command passed not to privates but to officers takes speedier + effect. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is + nothing like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige + which is often lacking in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66; + "Pol. Lac." xi. 5. +</pre> + <p> + Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this formation: just as + the squadron-leaders have their several positions for the march (or the + attack (10)) assigned them by the commander, so the file-leaders will + depend upon the captain for the order passed along the line in what + formation they are severally to march; and all being prearranged by word + of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than if left to chance—like + people crowding out of a theatre to their mutual annoyance. And when it + comes to actual encounter greater promptitude will be displayed: supposing + the attack is made in front, by the file-leaders who know that this is + their appointed post; or in case of danger suddenly appearing in rear, + then by the rear-rank men, whose main idea is that to desert one's post is + base. A want of orderly arrangement, on the contrary, leads to confusion + worse confounded at every narrow road, at every passage of a river; and + when it comes to fighting, no one of his own free will assigns himself his + proper post in face of an enemy. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Lit. "where to ride," i.e. in what formation whether on the line + of march or in action. +</pre> + <p> + The above are fundamental matters not to be performed without the active + help of every trooper who would wish to be a zealous and unhesitating + fellow-worker with his officer. (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Cf. "Hiero," vii. 2; "Cyrop." II. iv. 10. +</pre> + <p> + III + </p> + <p> + I come at length to certain duties which devolve upon the general of + cavalry himself in person: and first and foremost, it concerns him to + obtain the favour of the gods by sacrifices in behalf of the state + cavalry; and in the next place to make the great procession at the + festivals a spectacle worth seeing; and further, with regard to all those + public shows demanded by the state, wherever held, (1) whether in the + grounds of the Academy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the + hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights to see that + every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Cf. Theophr. "Ch." vii. (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25). +</pre> + <p> + But these, again, are memoranda. (2) To the question how the several + features of the pageant shall receive their due impress of beauty, I will + now address myself. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Read {tauta men alla upomnemata}, or if with Pantazid. {apla}, + trans. "these are simply memoranda." +</pre> + <p> + And first to speak of the Processions. (3) These will, I think, be + rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's spectators were the + riders to ride round the Agora and temples, commencing from the Hermae, + and pay honour to the sacred beings, each in turn, whose shrines and + statues are there congregated. (Thus in the great Dionysia (4) the + choruses embrace their gracious service to the other gods and to the + Twelve with circling dance. (5)) When the circuit is completed, and the + riders are back again in front of the Hermae, it would add, I think, to + the beauty of the scene (6) if at this point they formed in companies of + tribes, and giving their horses rein, swept forward at the gallop to the + Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note the right position of the lance, to + lessen as far as possible the risk of mutual interference. (7) Each + trooper should hold his lance straight between the ears of his charger, + which in proportion to the distinctness given to the weapon will rouse + terror, and at the same time create a vague idea of multitudinousness. (8) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) {tas pompas}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160. + + (4) Celebrated in March (Elaphebolion). + + (5) Or, "by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The + Twelve"; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 235, + "Birds," 95; Plat. "Laws," 654; Paus. i. 3. 3; 40. 3; viii. 25. 3; + Plut. "Nic." 13; Lycurg. 198. + + (6) Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my + opinion, if at this point they formed in squadron column, and + giving rein to their chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the + Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. i. 296. + + (7) Lit. "nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible + overlap one another." + + (8) Lit. "Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight + between the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be + distinct and terror-striking, and at the same time to appear + numerous." +</pre> + <p> + As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, the pace + should at once be changed; and now, with footing slow, let them retrace + their course back to the temples. In this way every detail characteristic + of knightly pageantry (9) will have been displayed to the delight of god + and man. That our knights are not accustomed to these actual evolutions, I + am well aware; but I also recognise the fact that the performances are + good and beautiful and will give pleasure to spectators. I do not fail to + note, moreover, that novel feats of horsemanship have before now been + performed by our knights, when their commanders have had the ability to + get their wishes readily complied with. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse." + Possibly, as Cobet suggests, {kala} has dropped out. See + "Horsemanship," xi. 3, 6. +</pre> + <p> + But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march-past, (10) in the + grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin-throwing. The scene would gain + in beauty if the tribal squadrons were to ride in line of columns (11) as + if for battle, in two divisions, five squadrons in the one and five in the + other, with the hipparch and the phylarchs at their head, in such + formation as to allow the whole breadth of the racecourse to be filled. + Then, as soon as they have gained the top (12) of the incline, which leads + down to the theatre opposite, it would, I think, be obviously useful here + to show the skill with which your troopers can gallop down a steep incline + (13) with as broad a front as the nature of the ground permits. I am quite + clear that your troopers, if they can trust their own skill in galloping, + will take kindly to such an exhibition; while as certainly, if + unpractised, they must look to it that the enemy does not give them a + lesson in the art some day, perforce. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) {dielaunosin en Lukeio}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196; cf. Arist. + "Peace," 356. + + (11) Or, as we might say, "in regimental order," "with the commanding + officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders"; and for + the Lyceum see "Hell." I. i. 33; II. iv. 27. + + (12) Lit. "the apex of the confronting theatre." + + (13) See "Horsemanship," viii. 6; "Anab." IV. viii. 28. +</pre> + <p> + To come to the test manouvres. (14) The order in which the men will ride + with showiest effect on these occasions has been already noted. (15) As + far as the leader is himself concerned, and presuming he is mounted on a + powerful horse, I would suggest that he should each time ride round on the + outer flank; in which case he will himself be kept perpetually moving at a + canter, and those with him, as they become the wheeling flank, will, by + turns, fall into the same pace, with this result: the spectacle presented + to the senate will be that of an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers; + and the horses having, each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, + will not be overdone. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) {dokimasiais}, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit. + p. 333. + + (15) Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work (see Courier, p. + 111, n. 1); or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene + of the {dokimasiai} Phaleron? There is no further reference to {ta + Phaleroi}. Cf. S. 1, above. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49 (now the + locus classicus on the subject), and Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene + is represented on a patera from Orvieto, now in the Berlin Museum, + reproduced and fully described in "The Art of Horsemanship by + Xenophon," translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse, + and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76. +</pre> + <p> + On occasions when the display takes place in the hippodrome, (16) the best + arrangement would be, in the first place, that the troops should fill the + entire space with extended front, so forcing out the mob of people from + the centre; (17) and secondly, that in the sham fight (18) which ensues, + the tribal squadrons, swiftly pursuing and retiring, should gallop right + across and through each other, the two hipparchs at their head, each with + five squadrons under him. Consider the effect of such a spectacle: the + grim advance of rival squadrons front to front; the charge; the solemn + pause as, having swept across the hippodrome, they stand once more + confronting one another; and then the trumpet sounds, whereat a second and + yet swifter hostile advance, how fine the effect!—and once again + they are at the halt; and once again the trumpet sounds, and for the third + time, at the swiftest pace of all, they make a final charge across the + field, before dismissal; after which they come to a halt en masse, in + battle order; and, as now customary, (19) ride up to salute the senate, + and disband. These evolutions will at once approve themselves, I think, + not only for their novelty, but for their resemblance to real warfare. The + notion that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, + and to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me below the + dignity of the office. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose. + + (17) Lit. "... it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so + as to fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people + from the central space, beautiful to..." The new feature of the + review would seem to have been the introduction of a sham fight in + three parts, down to the customary advance of the whole corps, + {epi phalaggos}. Cf. Virg. "Aen." v. 545 foll. But see Martin, op. + cit. 197. + + (18) Lit. "the anthippasia." + + (19) "As is your custom." See "Mem." III. iii. 6. +</pre> + <p> + When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard-trodden (20) ground of the + Academy, I have the following advice to give. To avoid being jolted off + his horse at any moment, the trooper should, in charging, lean well back, + (21) and to prevent his charger stumbling, he should while wheeling hold + his head well up, but along a straight stretch he should force the pace. + Thus the spectacle presented to the senate will combine the elements of + beauty and of safety. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (20) Cf. Thuc. vii. 27. + + (21) See "Horsemanship," vii. 17. +</pre> + <p> + IV + </p> + <p> + To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general will need to + exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' backs and the + troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding and of marching. + Wherein consists the golden mean, will not be hard to find; since "every + man a standard to himself," (1) applies, and your sensations are an index + to prevent your fellows being overdone through inadvertence. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 183 B. +</pre> + <p> + But now supposing you are on the march in some direction, and it is + uncertain whether you will stumble on the enemy, your duty is to rest your + squadrons in turn; since it will go hard with you, if the enemy come to + close quarters when the whole force is dismounted. (2) Or, again, suppose + the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile, you will pass, by + word of mouth, the command to diminish the front; (3) or given, again, you + are debouching on broad roads, again the word of command will pass by word + of mouth, to every squadron, "to increase their front"; or lastly, + supposing you have reached flat country, "to form squadron in order of + battle." If only for the sake of practice, it is well to go through + evolutions of the sort; (4) besides which it adds pleasure to the march + thus to diversify the line of route with cavalry maneuvers. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) See "Hell." V. iv. 40 for a case in point. + + (3) Or, "advance by column of route." See "Hell." VII. iv. 23. + + (4) Or, "it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat. + "Laws," i. 625 B. +</pre> + <p> + Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and moving fast over + difficult ground, no matter whether you are in hostile or in friendly + territory, it will be useful if the scouts attached to squadrons (5) rode + on in advance, their duty being, in case of encountering pathless clefts + or gullies, to work round on to practicable ground, and to discover at + what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that whole ranks may not + go blindly roaming. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) {ton upereton} = "ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances, + trabans (Courier). See Rustow and Kochly, p. 140. "Cyrop." II. i. + 21; II. iv. 4; V. iii. 52; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13; "Anab." I. + ix. 27; II. i. 9; where "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be + implied. + + (6) Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. "Anab." + VIII. iii. 18. +</pre> + <p> + Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a prudent general can + hardly show his wisdom better than by sending out advanced patrols in + front of the ordinary exploring parties to reconnoitre every inch of + ground minutely. So to be apprised of the enemy's position in advance, and + at as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be useful, whether + for purposes of attack or defence; just as it is useful also to enforce a + halt at the passage of a river or some other defile, so that the men in + rear may not knock their horses all to bits in endeavouring to overtake + their leader. These are precepts known, I admit, to nearly all the world, + but it is by no means every one who will take pains to apply them + carefully. (7) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) See "Econ." xx. 6. foll. +</pre> + <p> + It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite precautions while it + is still peace, to make himself acquainted with the details, not only of + his own, but of the hostile territory; (8) or if, as may well betide, he + personally should lack the knowledge, he should invite the aid of others + (9)—those best versed in the topography of any district. Since there + is all the difference in the world between a leader acquainted with his + roads and one who is not; and when it comes to actual designs upon the + enemy, the difference between knowing and not knowing the locality can + hardly be exaggerated. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (8) Or, "with hostile and friendly territories alike." + + (9) Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest"; i.e. + his colleagues or other members of the force. +</pre> + <p> + So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war commences + your business is to provide yourself with a supply of people friendly to + both states, or maybe merchants (since states are ready to receive the + importer of goods with open arms); sham deserters may be found + occasionally useful. (10) Not, of course, that the confidence you feel in + your spies must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your state + of preparation should at any moment be precisely what it ought to be, + supposing the approach or the imminent arrival of the enemy were to be + announced. Let a spy be ever so faithful, there is always the risk he may + fail to report his intelligence at the critical moment, since the + obstacles which present themselves in war are not to be counted on the + fingers. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (10) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas, + undertakes to play this role to good effect. +</pre> + <p> + But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely to get wind of + an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march were passed from mouth to + mouth rather than announced by voice of herald, or public notice. (11) + Accordingly, in addition to (12) this method of ordering the march by word + passed along the line, the appointment of file-leaders seems desirable, + who again are to be supplemented by section-leaders, (13) so that the + number of men to whom each petty officer has to transmit an order will be + very few; (14) while the section-leaders will deploy and increase the + front, whatever the formation, without confusion, whenever there is + occasion for the movement. (15) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the + "word-of-mouth command," see above, S. 3; "Hell." VII. v. 9; and + for the "herald," see "Anab." III. iv. 36. + + (12) Reading {pros to dia p.}, or if {pros to}... transl. "with a + view to." + + (13) Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See "Cyrop." II. i. 22 + foll., iii. 21. + + (14) Lit. "so that each officer may pass the word to as few as + possible." + + (15) Cf. "Anab." IV. vi. 6. +</pre> + <p> + When an advanced guard is needed, I say for myself I highly approve of + secret pickets and outposts, if only because in supplying a guard to + protect your friends you are contriving an ambuscade to catch the enemy. + Also the outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack, being + themselves unseen, and yet a source of great alarm to the enemy; since the + bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, though where precisely + no man knows, will prevent the enemy from feeling confident, and oblige + him to mistrust every tenable position. An exposed outpost, on the + contrary, presents to the broad eye of day its dangers and also its + weaknesses. (16) Besides which, the holder of a concealed outpost can + always place a few exposed vedettes beyond his hidden pickets, and so + endeavour to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade. Or he may play the part of + trapper with effect by placing a second exposed outpost in rear of the + other; a device which may serve to take in the unwary foeman quite as well + as that before named. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (16) Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence." +</pre> + <p> + Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general never to run a + risk of his own choosing, except where it is plain to him beforehand, that + he will get the better of his adversary. To play into the enemy's hands + may more fitly be described as treason to one's fellow-combatants than + true manliness. So, too, true generalship consists in attacking where the + enemy is weakest, even if the point be some leagues distant. Severity of + toil weighs nothing in the scale against the danger of engaging a force + superior to your own. (17) Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in + any way to place himself between fortified points that are friendly to + you, let him be never so superior in force, your game is to attack on + whichever flank you can best conceal your advance, or, still better, on + both flanks simultaneously; since, while one detachment is retiring after + delivering its attack, a charge pressed home from the opposite quarter + cannot fail to throw the enemy into confusion and to give safety to your + friends. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of + a small force of cavalry acting on the defensive. +</pre> + <p> + How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an enemy's position + by means of spies and so forth, as in ancient story; yet best of all, in + my opinion, is it for the commander to try to seize some coign of vantage, + from which with his own eyes he may descry the movements of the enemy and + watch for any error on his part. (18) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (18) As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See "Hell." VII. v. 9. +</pre> + <p> + Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion, (19) your business is to + send a competent patrol to seize; or again where capture by coup de main + (20) is practicable, you will despatch a requisite body of troops to + effect a coup de main. Or take the case: the enemy is on the march in some + direction, and a portion of his force becomes detached from his main body + or through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do not let the + opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue a weaker with a + stronger force. (21) These, indeed, are rules of procedure, which it only + requires a simple effort of the mind to appreciate. Creatures far duller + of wit than man have this ability: kites and falcons, when anything is + left unguarded, pounce and carry it off and retire into safety without + being caught; or wolves, again, will hunt down any quarry left widowed of + its guard, or thieve what they can in darksome corners. (22) In case a dog + pursues and overtakes them, should he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks + him, or if stronger, the wolf will slaughter (23) his quarry and make off. + At other times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the + guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as it were, some + to drive off the guard and others to effect the capture, and so by stealth + or fair fight they provide themselves with the necessaries of life. I say, + if dumb beasts are capable of conducting a raid with so much sense and + skill, it is hard if any average man cannot prove himself equally + intelligent with creatures which themselves fall victims to the craft of + man. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (19) e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc. + + (20) e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc. + + (21) "It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer." + + (22) Zeune cf. Ael. "N. A." viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in + hunting. + + (23) For {aposphaxas} Courier suggests {apospasas}, "dragging off what + he can." +</pre> + <p> + V + </p> + <p> + Here is another matter which every horseman ought to know, and that is + within what distance a horse can overhaul a man on foot; or the interval + necessary to enable a slower horse to escape one more fleet. It is the + business rather of the cavalry general to recognise at a glance the sort + of ground on which infantry will be superior to cavalry and where cavalry + will be superior to infantry. He should be a man of invention, ready of + device to turn all circumstances to account, so as to give at one time a + small body of cavalry the appearance of a larger, and again a large the + likeness of a smaller body; he should have the craft to appear absent when + close at hand, and within striking distance when a long way off; he should + know exactly not only how to steal an enemy's position, but by a master + stroke of cunning (1) to spirit his own cavalry away, and, when least + expected, deliver his attack. Another excellent specimen of inventiveness + may be seen in the general's ability, while holding a weak position + himself, to conjure up so lively an apprehension in the enemy that he will + not dream of attacking; or conversely, when, being in a strong position + himself, he can engender a fatal boldness in the adversary to venture an + attack. Thus with the least cost to yourself, you will best be able to + catch your enemy tripping. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Or, "sleight of hand"; and for {kleptein} = escamoter see "Anab." + IV. vi. 11, 15; V. vi. 9. +</pre> + <p> + But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible feats, I will + set down, in so many words, the procedure in certain crucial instances. + </p> + <p> + The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to enforce pursuit or + conduct a retreat lies in a thorough knowledge of your horse's powers. (2) + But how is this experience to be got? Simply by paying attention to their + behaviour in the peaceable manouvres of the sham fight, when there is no + real enemy to intervene—how the animals come off, in fact, and what + stamina they show in the various charges and retreats. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) {empeiria}, "empirical knowledge." +</pre> + <p> + Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear numerous. In the + first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if possible, not to attempt to + delude the enemy at close quarters; distance, as it aids illusion, will + promote security. The next point is to bear in mind that a mob of horses + clustered together (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will give a + suggestion of number, whereas scattered they may easily be counted. + </p> + <p> + Another means by which you may give your troop an appearance of numerical + strength beyond reality consists in posting, in and out between the + troopers, so many lines of grooms (3) who should carry lances if possible, + or staves at any rate to look like lances—a plan which will serve + alike whether you mean to display your cavalry force at the halt or are + deploying to increase front; in either case, obviously the bulk and volume + of the force, whatever your formation, will appear increased. Conversely, + if the problem be to make large numbers appear small, supposing you have + ground at command adapted to concealment, the thing is simple: by leaving + a portion of your men exposed and hiding away a portion in obscurity, you + may effect your object. (4) But if the ground nowhere admits of cover, + your best course is to form your files (5) into ranks one behind the + other, and wheel them round so as to leave intervals between each file; + the troopers nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, + and the rest low enough not to show above. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C. (our + author was probably present); IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly, + 323 B.C. + + (4) Lit. "steal your troopers." See "Cyrop." V. iv. 48. + + (5) Lit. "form your decads (squads of ten; cf. our 'fours') in ranks + and deploy with intervals." +</pre> + <p> + To come to the next topic: you may work on the enemy's fears by the + various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief parties, false + information. Conversely, his confidence will reach an overweening pitch, + if the idea gets abroad that his opponents have troubles of their own and + little leisure for offensive operations. + </p> + <p> + But over and beyond all that can be written on the subject—inventiveness + is a personal matter, beyond all formulas—the true general must be + able to take in, deceive, decoy, delude his adversary at every turn, as + the particular occasion demands. In fact, there is no instrument of war + more cunning than chicanery; (6) which is not surprising when one reflects + that even little boys, when playing, "How many (marbles) have I got in my + hand?" (7) are able to take one another in successfully. Out goes a + clenched fist, but with such cunning that he who holds a few is thought to + hold several; or he may present several and appear to be holding only a + few. Is it likely that a grown man, giving his whole mind to methods of + chicanery, will fail of similar inventiveness? Indeed, when one comes to + consider what is meant by advantages snatched in war, one will find, i + think, that the greater part of them, and those the more important, must + be attributed in some way or other to displays of craft; (8) which things + being so, a man had better either not attempt to exercise command, or, as + part and parcel of his general equipment, let him pray to Heaven to enable + him to exercise this faculty and be at pains himself to cultivate his own + inventiveness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. ii. 26; VII. i. 18. + + (7) {posinda}, lit. "How many?" (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.); cf. + the old game, "Buck! buck! how many horns do I hold up?" Schneid. + cf. Aristot. "Rhet."iii. 5. 4. + + (8) "Have been won in connection with craft." See "Cyrop." I. vi. 32; + "Mem." III. i. 6; IV. ii. 15. +</pre> + <p> + A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the faculty as follows: + he may either, whilst apparently engaged in fitting out his vessels, + strike a blow on land; (9) or with a make-believe of some aggressive + design by land, hazard an adventure by sea. (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 21. + + (10) Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi. + 64. +</pre> + <p> + I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to point out clearly + to the state authority the essential weakness of a force of cavalry + unaided by light infantry, as opposed to cavalry with foot-soldiers + attached. (11) It is duty also, having got his footmen, to turn the force + to good account. It is possible to conceal them effectively, not only + between the lines, but in rear also of the troopers—the mounted + soldier towering high above his follower on foot. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Or, "divorced from infantry." In reference to {amippoi}, cf. + Thuc. v. 57; "Hell." VII. v. 23. +</pre> + <p> + With regard to these devices and to any others which invention may suggest + towards capturing the foeman by force or fraud, I have one common word of + advice to add, which is, to act with God, and then while Heaven propitious + smiles, fortune will scarcely dare to frown. (12) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Or, "and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of + fortune," reading with Courier, etc., {ina kai e tukhe sunepaine}. + Cf. "Cyrop." III. iii. 20. +</pre> + <p> + At times there is no more effective fraud than a make-believe (13) of + over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This itself will put the + enemy off his guard and ten to one will lure him into some egregious + blunder; or conversely, once get a reputation for foolhardiness + established, and then with folded hands sit feigning future action, and + see what a world of trouble you will thereby cause your adversary. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) S. 15 should perhaps stand before S. 13. +</pre> + <p> + VI + </p> + <p> + But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, can hope to mould + and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, unless the stuff on which he + works be first prepared and made ready to obey the craftsman's will. Nor + certainly where the raw material consists of men, will you succeed, + unless, under God's blessing, these same men have been prepared and made + ready to meet their officer in a friendly spirit. They must come to look + upon him as of greater sagacity than themselves in all that concerns + encounter with the enemy. This friendly disposition on the part of his + subordinates, one must suppose, will best be fostered by a corresponding + sympathy on the part of their commander towards the men themselves, and + that not by simple kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their + behalf, at one time to provide them with food, and at another to secure + safety of retreat, or again by help of outposts and the like, to ensure + protection during rest and sleep. + </p> + <p> + When on active service (1) the commander must prove himself conspicuously + careful in the matter of forage, quarters, water-supply, outposts, (2) and + all other requisites; forecasting the future and keeping ever a wakeful + eye in the interest of those under him; and in case of any advantage won, + the truest gain which the head of affairs can reap is to share with his + men the profits of success. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Al. "on garrison outpost duty." + + (2) Reading {phulakon}, or if with Courier {thulakon}, "haversacks," + i.e. "la farine, le contenant pour le contenu." +</pre> + <p> + Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small risk a general + will be regarded with contempt by those he leads, if, whatever he may have + to preach, he shows himself best able to perform. + </p> + <p> + Beginning with the simple art of mounting on horseback, let him so train + himself in all particulars of horsemanship that, to look at him, the men + must see their leader is a horseman who can leap a trench unscathed or + scale a parapet, (3) or gallop down a bank, and hurl a javelin with the + best. These are accomplishments which one and all will pave the way to + make contempt impossible. If, further, the men shall see in their + commander one who, with the knowledge how to act, has force of will and + cunning to make them get the better of the enemy; and if, further, they + have got the notion well into their heads that this same leader may be + trusted not to lead them recklesssly against the foe, without the help of + Heaven, or despite the auspices—I say, you have a list of virtues + which will make those under his command the more obedient to their ruler. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) Or, "stone walls," "dykes." +</pre> + <p> + VII + </p> + <p> + If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality distinctive of true + generalship, there are two respects in which a general of cavalry at + Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not only must he show a dutiful + submission to the gods; but he must possess great fighting qualities, + seeing that he has on his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in + number and backed by a large force of heavy infantry. (1) So that, if he + undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the other forces + of the city (2)—in dealing with two descriptions of forces + single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a desperate adventure; or + to take the converse case, that the enemy invades the soil of Attica, to + begin with, he will not invade at all, unless supported by other cavalry + besides his own and an infantry force sufficient to warrant the + supposition that no force on our side can cope with him. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not + know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in + the field at Leuctra or at Mantinea. + + (2) Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc. +</pre> + <p> + Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city will determine + to sally out en masse to protect her rural districts, the prospect is + fair. Under God, our troopers, if properly cared for, are the finer men; + our infantry of the line are no less numerous, and as regards physique, if + it comes to that, not one whit inferior, while in reference to moral + qualities, they are more susceptible to the spur of a noble ambition, if + only under God's will they be correctly trained. Or again, as touching + pride of ancestry, what have Athenians to fear as against Boeotians on + that score? (3) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See "Mem." III. v. 3, where it is contended that in pride of + ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians. +</pre> + <p> + But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake herself to her navy, as + in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, leagued with the rest of Hellas, + brought invasion; (4) and is content once more simply to protect her walls + through thick and thin. As to protecting what lies outside the city wall + she looks to her cavalry for that; and single-handed her troopers must do + desperate encounter against the united forces of the enemy. I say, under + these circumstances, we shall need in the first place the strong support + of Heaven; and in the second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry + commander prove himself a consummate officer. (5) Indeed, he will have + need of large wisdom to deal with a force so vastly superior in numbers, + and of enterprise to strike when the critical moment comes. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95, + Hippocrates' speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C. + + (5) A "parfait marechal." +</pre> + <p> + He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great physical endurance; + (6) since clearly, if he has to run full tilt against an armament present, + as we picture, in such force that not even our whole state cares to cope + with it, it is plain he must accept whatever fate is due, where might is + right, himself unable to retaliate. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (6) So Jason, "Hell." VI. i. 4. +</pre> + <p> + If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside the walls (7) + with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on the enemy, and to + withdraw into safe quarters from a distance whatever needs protection—a + small number, be it observed, is just as capable of vedette duty, as well + able, say, to scan the distant horizon, as a large; and by the same token + men with no great confidence in themselves or in their horses are not + ill-qualified to guard, or withdraw within shelter (8) the property of + friends; since fear, as the proverb has it, makes a shrewd watchman. The + proposal, therefore, to select from these a corps of observation will most + likely prove true strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for + outpost duty? If any one imagines he has got an armament, he will find it + miserably small, and lacking in every qualification necessary to risk an + open encounter. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Or, "His better plan would be to." + + (8) Reading {anakhorizein}. Cf. "Cyrop." II. ii. 8; "Anab." V. ii. 10; + or if {anakhorein eis}, transl. "or retire into safe quarters." + See "Hell." IV. vi. 44. +</pre> + <p> + But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla war, and he will + find the force quite competent for that, I warrant. His business, so at + least it seems to me, will be to keep his men perpetually in readiness to + strike a blow, and without exposing himself, to play sentinel, waiting for + any false move on the part of the hostile armament. And it is a way with + soldiers, bear in mind, the more numerous they are, the more blunders they + commit. They must needs scatter of set purpose (9) in search of + provisions; or through the disorder incidental to a march, some will + advance and others lag behind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, + then, our hipparch must not let pass unpunished (unless he wishes the + whole of Attica to become a gigantic camp); (10) keeping his single point + steadily in view, that when he strikes a blow he must be expeditious and + retire before the main body has time to rally to the rescue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (9) {epimeleia}. Cf. "Cyrop." V. iii. 47. + + (10) Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As at + the date of the fortification of Decelea (413 B.C.), which + permanently commanded the whole country. See Thuc. vii. 27. Al. + Courier, "autrement vous n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire, + tout le pays devient votre camp." +</pre> + <p> + Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an army will get into + roads where numbers are no advantage. Again, in the passage of rivers, + defiles, and the like, it is possible for a general with a head on his + shoulders to hang on the heels of an enemy in security, and to determine + with precision (11) the exact number of the enemy he will care to deal + with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to attack the foe while + encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men turn out of bed: + seasons at which the soldier is apt to be unharnessed—the hoplite + for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for a longer period. (12) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) See "Anab." II. v. 18; "Cyrop." III. iii. 47; IV. i. 18. + {tamieusasthai}, "with the precision of a controller." + + (12) Cf. "Hell." II. iv. 6; VII. i. 16. +</pre> + <p> + As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never cease planning and + plotting against them. For these in their turn, as a rule, are apt to + consist of small numbers, and are sometimes posted at a great distance + from their own main body. But if after all it turns out that the enemy are + well on their guard against all such attempts, then, God helping, it would + be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country, first making it your + business to ascertain (13) his defences, the number of men at this, that, + and the other point, and how they are distributed throughout the country. + For there is no booty so splendid as an outpost so overmastered; and these + frontier outposts are especially prone to be deceived, with their + propensity to give chase to any small body they set eyes on, regarding + that as their peculiar function. You will have to see, however, in + retiring that your line of retreat is not right into the jaws of the + enemy's reliefs hastening to the scene of action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (13) Or, "having first studied." Cf. "Mem." III. vi. 10. +</pre> + <p> + VIII + </p> + <p> + It stands to reason, however, that in order to be able to inflict real + damage upon a greatly superior force, the weaker combatant must possess + such a moral superiority over the other as shall enable him to appear in + the position of an expert, trained in all the feats of cavalry performance + in the field, and leave his enemy to play the part of raw recruits or + amateurs. (1) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) Cf. "Cyrop." I. v. 11; "Mem." III. vii. 7. +</pre> + <p> + And this end may be secured primarily on this wise: those who are to form + your guerilla bands (2) must be so hardened and inured to the saddle that + they are capable of undergoing all the toils of a campaign. (3) That a + squadron (and I speak of horse and man alike) should enter these lists in + careless, disorderly fashion suggests the idea of a troop of women + stepping into the arena to cope with male antagonists. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (2) Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be." + + (3) Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter." +</pre> + <p> + But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have been taught and + trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to spring up banks, and plunge + from heights without scathe, to gallop headlong at full speed adown a + steep: they will tower over unpractised opponents as the birds of the air + tower over creatures that crawl and walk. (4) Their feet are case-hardened + by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping over rough ground, + must differ from the uninitiated as the sound man from the lame. And so + again, when it comes to charging and retiring, the onward-dashing gallop, + the well-skilled, timely retreat, expert knowledge of the ground and + scenery will assert superiority over inexpertness like that of eyesight + over blindness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) See "Horse." viii. 6; cf. "Hunting," xii. 2; "Cyrop." I. vi. 28 + foll. +</pre> + <p> + Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough efficiency the + horses must not only be well fed and in good condition, but at the same + time so seasoned by toil that they will go through their work without the + risk of becoming broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and saddle-cloths (to + be efficient) (5) need to be attached by straps, a cavalry general should + never be without a good supply, whereby at a trifling expense he may + convert a number of nonplussed troopers into serviceable fighting men. (6) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (5) ({khresima}) L.D. For the {upomnema} itself cf. "Cyrop." VI. ii. + 32. + + (6) Or, "thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many + non-efficients useful." Al. "make the articles as good as new." +</pre> + <p> + But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of trouble it will cost + him, if he is required to devote himself to horsemanship so assiduously, + let him console himself with the reflection that the pains and labours + undergone by any man in training for a gymnastic contest are far larger + and more formidable than any which the severest training of the horseman + will involve; and for this reason, that the greater part of gymnastic + exercises are performed "in the sweat of the brow," while equestrian + exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed, there is no accomplishment + which so nearly realises the aspiration of a man to have the wings of a + bird than this of horsemanship. (7) But further, to a victory obtained in + war attaches a far greater weight of glory than belongs to the noblest + contest of the arena. (8) Of these the state indeed will share her meed of + glory, (9) but in honour of victory in war the very gods are wont to crown + whole states with happiness. (10) So that, for my part, I know not if + there be aught else which has a higher claim to be practised than the arts + of war. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (7) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. iii. 15; Herod. iv. 132; Plat. "Rep." v. 467 D. + + (8) Cf. Eur. "Autolycus," fr. 1, trans. by J. A. Symonds, "Greek + Poets," 2nd series, p. 283. + + (9) Cf. Plut. "Pelop." 34 (Clough, ii. p. 235): "And yet who would + compare all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put + together, with one of these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he + successfully performed so many?" + + (10) "To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal." +</pre> + <p> + And this, too, is worth noting: that the buccaneer by sea, the + privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is able to live at the + expense of far superior powers. Yes, and the life of the freebooter is no + less natural and appropriate to landsmen—I do not say, to those who + can till and gather in the fruit of their fields, but to those who find + themselves deprived of sustenance; since there is no alternative—either + men must till their fields or live on the tillage of others, otherwise how + will they find the means either of living or of obtaining peace? (11) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (11) Cf. "Econ." v. 7. +</pre> + <p> + Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory: in charging a superior + force, never to leave a difficult tract of ground in the rear of your + attack, since there is all the difference in the world between a stumble + in flight and a stumble in pursuit. + </p> + <p> + There is another precaution which I feel called upon to note. Some + generals, (12) in attacking a force which they imagine to be inferior to + their own, will advance with a ridiculously insufficient force, (13) so + that it is the merest accident if they do not experience the injury they + were minded to inflict. Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose + superiority is a well-known fact, they will bring the whole of their force + into action. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (12) Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C. + Cf. "Hell." VI. v. 51. + + (13) Lit. "an absolutely weak force." +</pre> + <p> + Now, my maxim would be precisely converse: if you attack with a prospect + of superiority, do not grudge employing all the power at your command; + excess of victory (14) never yet caused any conqueror one pang of remorse. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (14) Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. "Hiero," ii. 16. +</pre> + <p> + But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full certainty that, do + what you can, you must eventually retire, it is far better, say I, under + these circumstances to bring a fraction only of your whole force into + action, which fraction should be the pick and flower of the troops at your + command, both horses and men. A body of that size and quality will be able + to strike a blow and to fall back with greater security. Whereas, if a + general brings all his troops into action against a superior force, when + he wishes to retire, certain things must happen: those of his men who are + worse mounted will be captured, others through lack of skill in + horsemanship will be thrown, and a third set be cut off owing to mere + difficulties of ground; since it is impossible to find any large tract of + country exactly what you would desire. If for no other reason, through + sheer stress of numbers there will be collisions, and much damage done by + kicks through mutual entanglement; whereas a pick of horse and men will be + able to escape offhand, (15) especially if you have invention to create a + scare in the minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety of troops who are + out of action. (16) For this purpose false ambuscades will be of use. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (15) Or, "by themselves," reading {ex auton}, as L. Dind. suggests. + Cf. Polyb. x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. {ex auton} (sub. {kheiron}, + Weiske), transl. "to slip through their fingers." + + (16) Zeune and other commentators cf Liv. v. 38 (Diod. xiv. 114), but + the part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the + Allia, if indeed "una salus fugientibus," was scarcely happy. + Would not "Hell." VII. v. 26 be more to the point? The detachment + of cavalry and infantry placed by Epaminondas "on certain crests, + to create an apprehension in the minds of the Athenians" in that + quarter of the field at Mantinea was a {mekhanema} of the kind + here contemplated. +</pre> + <p> + Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which side a friendly + force may suddenly appear and without risk to itself put a drag on the + wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self-evident, I think, that, as far as + work and speed are concerned, it is the small body which will assert its + superiority more rapidly over the larger, and not vice versa—not of + course that the mere fact of being a small body will enable them to endure + toil or give them wings; but simply it is easier to find five men than + five hundred, who will take the requisite care and pains with their + horses, and personally practise of their own accord the art of + horsemanship. + </p> + <p> + But suppose the chance should occur of entering the lists against an equal + number of the enemy's cavalry, according to my judgment it were no bad + plan to split the squadron into divisions, (17) the first of which should + be commanded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the ablest officer + to be found. This second-officer will for the time being follow in rear of + the leading division with the squadron leader; and by and by, when the + antagonist is in near proximity, and when the word of command is passed, + form squadron to the front and charge the hostile ranks (18)—a + maneuver calculated, as I conceive, to bring the whole mass down upon the + enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him some trouble to extricate + himself. Ideally speaking, both divisions (19) will be backed by infantry + kept in rear of the cavalry; these will suddenly disclose themselves, and + rushing to close quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory. + (20) So at any rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what is + unexpected—how, in the case of good things, the soul of man is + filled to overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of things terrible, + paralysed with amazement. In proof of what I say, let any one reflect on + the stupor into which a body of men with all the weight of numerical + advantage on their side will be betrayed by falling into an ambuscade; or + again, on the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in belligerents during + the first few days, of finding themselves posted in face of one another. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (17) Or, "troops." + + (18) Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry + tactics. + + (19) Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc. + + (20) Or, "achieve a much more decisive victory." Cf. "Cyrop." III. + iii. 28. +</pre> + <p> + To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty is to discover a + body of men who will dash forward (21) and charge an enemy as above + described intelligently and loyally, with an eager spirit and unfailing + courage. That is a problem for a good cavalry general to solve. I mean an + officer who must be competent to so assert himself in speech or action + (22) that those under him will no longer hesitate. They will recognise of + themselves that it is a good thing and a right to obey, (23) to follow + their leader, to rush to close quarters with the foe. A desire will + consume them to achieve some deed of glory and renown. A capacity will be + given them patiently to abide by the resolution of their souls. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (21) {parelontas}, in reference to S. 18 above, {parelaunoi}, "form + squadron to the front." + + (22) "To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of + action." Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 11. + + (23) Cf. Tennyson's "The Charge of the Light Brigade": + + Their's not to make reply, + Their's not to reason why, + Their's but to do and die. +</pre> + <p> + To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have two armeis + facing one another in battle order, or a pair of fortresses (24) belonging + to rival powers, and in the space between all kinds of cavalry manouvres + are enacted, wheelings and charges and retreats. (25) Under such + circumstances the custom usually is for either party after wheeling to set + off at a slow pace and to gallop full speed only in the middle of the + course. But now suppose that a commander, after making feint (26) in this + style, presently on wheeling quickens for the charge and quickens to + retire—he will be able to hit the enemy far harder, and pull through + absolutely without scathe himself most likely; through charging at full + speed whilst in proximity to his own stronghold (or main body), and + quickening to a gallop as he retires from the stronghold (or main body) of + the enemy. If further, he could secretly contrive to leave behind four or + five troopers, the bravest and best mounted of the squadron, it would give + them an immense advantage in falling upon the enemy whilst wheeling to + return to the charge. (27) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (24) Al. "fields and farmsteads between." + + (25) Or, "retirements," see "Horsemanship," viii. 12; "Cyrop." V. iv. + 8; "Hell." IV. ii. 6; "Ages." ii. 3. + + (26) Or, "having precluded in this fashion." See Theocr. xxii. 102: + + {ton men anax ataraxen etosia khersi prodeiknus Pantothen}, + + "feinting on every side" (A. Lang). Al. "having given due warning + of his intention." Cf. Aristot. "H. A." ix. 37. + + (27) Cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 244 (Demosthenes calls to the + hipparchs (?)): + + {andres eggus. all' amunou, kapanastrephou palin}. +</pre> + <p> + IX + </p> + <p> + To read these observations over a few times will be sufficient, but for + giving them effect the officer will need perpetually to act as + circumstances require. (1) He must take in the situation at a glance, and + carry out unflinchingly whatever is expedient for the moment. To set down + in writing everything that he must do, is not a whit more possible than to + know the future as a whole. (2) But of all hints and suggestions the most + important to my mind is this: whatever you determine to be right, with + diligence endeavour to perform. For be it tillage of the soil, or trading, + or seafaring, or the art of ruling, without pains applied to bring the + matter to perfection, the best theories in the world, the most correct + conclusions, will be fruitless. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (1) {pros to paratugkhanon}, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i. + 122: "For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules; + it strikes out a path for itself when the moment comes" (Jowett). + + (2) Or, "is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in + the womb of futurity." +</pre> + <p> + One thing I am prepared to insist on: it is clear to myself that by + Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much more quickly raised to + the full quota of a thousand troopers, (3) and with far less friction to + the mass of citizens, by the enrolment of two hundred foreign cavalry. + Their acquisition will be doubly helpful, as intensifying the loyalty of + the entire force and as kindling a mutual ambition to excel in manly + virtue. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (3) See Schneid. ad loc.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." pp. 263, 264; Herod. vi. + 112; Thuc. vi. 31; Aristoph. "Knights," 223; Aeschin. "De F. L." + 334-337. See for this reform, Martin, op. cit. 343, 368. +</pre> + <p> + I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian cavalry only began + to be famous (4) with the introduction of foreign troopers; and in the + other states of Hellas everywhere the foreign brigades stand in high + esteem, as I perceive. Need, in fact, contributes greatly to enthusiasm. + Towards the necessary cost of the horses I hold that an ample fund will be + provided, (5) partly out of the pockets of those who are only too glad to + escape cavalry service (in other words, those on whom the service devolves + prefer to pay a sum of money down and be quit of the duty), (6) and from + wealthy men who are physically incompetent; and I do not see why orphans + possessed of large estates should not contribute. (7) Another belief I + hold is that amongst our resident aliens (8) there are some who will show + a laudable ambition if incorporated with the cavalry. I argue from the + fact, apparent to myself, that amongst this class persons are to be found + most zealously disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every + other branch of honourable service which the citizens may choose to share + with them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an energetic infantry + to support your cavalry, you will find it in a corps composed of + individuals whose hatred to the foe is naturally intense. (9) But the + success of the above suggestions will depend doubtless on the consenting + will of Heaven. (10) + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (4) "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after + Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See "Hell." + VI. iv. 10. + + (5) Or, "money will be forthcoming for them." Cf. Lys. "Against + Philon," xxxi. 15; Martin, op. cit. 319. + + (6) Cf. "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Ages." i. 23. Courier brackets this + sentence ({oti... ippeuein}) as a gloss; Martin, p. 323, + emends. + + (7) As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. "Symm." + 182. 15; Lys. "Against Diogeit." 24. + + (8) Lit. "metoecs." See "Revenues," ii. + + (9) Lit. "men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author + thinking of Boeotian emigres? Cf. "Hell." VI. iii. 1, 5; Diod. xv. + 46. 6. + + (10) Lit. "with the consenting will of the gods these things all may + come to pass." +</pre> + <p> + And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this treatise "act with + God," surprises any one, he may take my word for it that with the daily or + hourly occurrence of perils which must betide him, his wonderment will + diminish; as also with the clearer recognition of the fact that in time of + war the antagonists are full of designs against each other, but the + precise issue of these plots and counterplots is rarely known. To what + counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in his extremity save only to + the gods, who know all things and forewarn whomsoever they will by victims + or by omens, by voice or vision? Is it not rational to suppose that they + will prefer to help in their need, not those who only seek them in time of + momentary stress and trouble, but those rather who in the halcyon days of + their prosperity make a practice of rendering to Heaven the service of + heart and soul? + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cavalry General, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAVALRY GENERAL *** + +***** This file should be named 1172-h.htm or 1172-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/7/1172/ + +Produced by John Bickers, and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Cavalry General + +Author: Xenophon + +Translator: H. G. Dakyns + +Posting Date: August 16, 2008 [EBook #1172] +Release Date: January, 1998 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAVALRY GENERAL *** + + + + +Produced by John Bickers + + + + + +THE CAVALRY GENERAL + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + + Xenophon the Athenian was born 431 B.C. He was a + pupil of Socrates. He marched with the Spartans, + and was exiled from Athens. Sparta gave him land + and property in Scillus, where he lived for many + years before having to move once more, to settle + in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + + + The Cavalry General is a discourse on the merits + a cavalry general, or hipparch, in Athens should + have. Xenophon also describes the development of + a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be + applied in the field and in festival exhibition. + + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + + This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a + four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though + there is doubt about some of these) is: + + Work Number of books + + The Anabasis 7 + The Hellenica 7 + The Cyropaedia 8 + The Memorabilia 4 + The Symposium 1 + The Economist 1 + On Horsemanship 1 + The Sportsman 1 + The Cavalry General 1 + The Apology 1 + On Revenues 1 + The Hiero 1 + The Agesilaus 1 + The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + + Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into + English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The + diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +THE CAVALRY GENERAL + + + + +THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH (1) + +or + +Commander of Cavalry at Athens + + + +I + +Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods to grant +you such good gifts (2) as shall enable you in thought, word, and deed +to discharge your office in the manner most acceptable to Heaven, and +with fullest increase to yourself, and friends, and to the state at +large of affection, glory, and wide usefulness. The goodwill of +Heaven (3) so obtained, you shall proceed to mount your troopers, +taking care that the full complement which the law demands is reached, +and that the normal force of cavalry is not diminished. There will +need to be a reserve of remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at +any moment, (4) looking to the fact that some will certainly succumb to +old age, and others, from one reason or another, prove unserviceable. + + (1) For the title, etc., see Schneid. "Praemon. de Xeno." {Ipp}. + Boeckh, "P. E. A." 251. + + (2) Or, "with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and + speech and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most + acceptably to the gods themselves, and with..." Cf. Plat. + "Phaedr." 273 E; "Euthr." 14 B. + + (3) The Greek phrase is warmer, {theon d' ileon onton}, "the gods + being kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. "Laws," 712 B. + + (4) Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See "Les Cavaliers + Atheniens," par Albert Martin, p. 308. + +But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied, (5) the duty will +devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your horses are +well fed and in condition to stand their work, since a horse which +cannot endure fatigue will clearly be unable to overhaul the foeman or +effect escape; (6) and in the second place, you will have to see to it +the animals are tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not +obey is only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, an +animal that kicks when mounted must be cast; since brutes of that sort +may often do more mischief than the foe himself. Lastly, you must pay +attention to the horses' feet, and see that they will stand being +ridden over rough ground. A horse, one knows, is practically useless +where he cannot be galloped without suffering. + + (5) Lit. "in process of being raised." + + (6) Or, "to press home a charge a l'outrance, or retire from the field + unscathed." + +And now, supposing that your horses are all that they ought to be, +like pains must be applied to train the men themselves. The trooper, +in the first place, must be able to spring on horseback easily--a feat +to which many a man has owed his life ere now. And next, he must be +able to ride with freedom over every sort of ground, since any +description of country may become the seat of war. When, presently, +your men have got firm seats, your aim should be to make as many +members of the corps as possible not only skilled to hurl the javelin +from horseback with precision, but to perform all other feats expected +of the expert horseman. Next comes the need to arm both horse and man +in such a manner as to minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to +increase the force of every blow delivered. (7) This attended to, you +must contrive to make your men amenable to discipline, without which +neither good horses, nor a firm seat, nor splendour of equipment will +be of any use at all. + + (7) Lit. "so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they + may most be able to injure the enemy." + +The general of cavalry, (8) as patron of the whole department, is +naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, however, of +the task imposed upon that officer had he to carry out these various +details single-handed, the state has chosen to associate (9) with him +certain coadjutors in the persons of the phylarchs (or tribal +captains), (10) and has besides imposed upon the senate a share in the +superintendence of the cavalry. This being so, two things appear to me +desirable; the first is, so to work upon the phylarch that he shall +share your own enthusiasm for the honour of the corps; (11) and +secondly, to have at your disposal in the senate able orators, (12) +whose language may instil a wholesome fear into the knights +themselves, and thereby make them all the better men, or tend to +pacify the senate on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger. + + (8) See "Mem." III. iii. + + (9) Cf. Theophr. xxix. "The Oligarchic Man": "When the people are + deliberating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint + directors of the procession." (Jebb.) + + (10) Or, "squadron-leaders." + + (11) "Honour and prestige of knighthood." + + (12) "To keep a staff of orators." Cf. "Anab." VII. vi. 41; "Cyrop." + I. vi. 19; "Hell." VI. ii. 39. + +The above may serve as memoranda (13) of the duties which will claim +your chief attention. How the details in each case may best be carried +out is a further matter, which I will now endeavour to explain. + + (13) "A sort of notes and suggestions," "mementoes." Cf. + "Horsemanship," iii. 1, xii. 14. + +As to the men themselves--the class from which you make your pick of +troopers--clearly according to the law you are bound to enrol "the +ablest" you can find "in point of wealth and bodily physique"; and "if +not by persuasion, then by prosecution in a court of law." (14) And for +my part, I think, if legal pressure is to be applied, you should apply +it in those cases where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed +to interested motives; (15) since if you fail to put compulsion on the +greater people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those +of humbler means. But there will be other cases; (16) say, of young men +in whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be kindled by recounting +to them all the brilliant feats of knighthood; while you may disarm +the opposition of their guardians by dwelling on the fact that, if not +you, at any rate some future hipparch will certainly compel them to +breed horses, (17) owing to their wealth; whereas, if they enter the +service (18) during your term of office, you will undertake to deter +their lads from mad extravagance in buying horses, (19) and take pains +to make good horsemen of them without loss of time; and while pleading +in this strain, you must endeavour to make your practice correspond +with what you preach. + + (14) Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by + legal if not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321 + foll. + + (15) i.e. "would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of + gain." + + (16) Reading {esti de kai ous}, or if as vulg. {eti de kai}, "More + than that, it strikes me one may work on the feelings of young + fellows in such a way as to disarm." See Hartmann, "An. Xen. N." + 325. + + (17) Cf. Aesch. "P. V." 474; Herod. vi. 35; Dem. 1046. 14; Thuc. vi. + 12; Isocr. {peri tou zeugous}, 353 C. {ippotrophein d' + epikheiresas, o ton eudaimonestaton ergon esti.} See Prof. Jebb's + note to Theophr. "Ch." vi. p. 197, note 16. + + (18) Lit. "if they mount." + + (19) Like that of Pheidippides in the play; see Aristoph. "Clouds," 23 + foll. And for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas (= L12 + circa) for a common horse, or 12 minas (say L50) for a good saddle + or race-horse, up to the extravagant sum of 13 talents (say 3000 + guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see Boeckh, "P. E. A." (Eng. tr.) + p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22; 88. 17; Lys. "de Maled." 133. 10; Aul. + Gell. "Noct. Att." v. 2. + +To come to the existing body of knights, (20) it would tend, (21) I +think, to better rearing and more careful treatment of their horses if +the senate issued a formal notice that for the future twice the amount +of drill will be required, and that any horse unable to keep up will +be rejected. And so, too, with regard to vicious horses, I should like +to see an edict promulgated to the effect that all such animals will +be rejected. This threat would stimulate the owners of such brutes to +part with them by sale, and, what is more, to exercise discretion at +the time of purchase. So, too, it would be a good thing if the same +threat of rejection were made to include horses that kick on the +exercising-grounds, since it is impossible to keep such animals in the +ranks; and in case of an advance against a hostile force at any +point, (22) they must perforce trail in the rear, so that, thanks to +the vice of the animal which he bestrides, the trooper himself is +rendered useless. + + (20) Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry." + For a plausible emend. of this passage (S. 13) see Courier ("Notes + sur le texte," p. 54); L. Dind. ad loc. + + (21) Lit. "the senate might incite to..." + + (22) Reading {ean}, or if {kan} with the MSS., trans. "even in case of + an advance against the enemy." + +With a view to strengthening the horses' feet: if any one has an +easier or more simple treatment to suggest, by all means let it be +adopted; but for myself, as the result of experience, I maintain that +the proper course is to lay down a loose layer of cobbles from the +road, a pound or so in weight, on which the horse should be put to +stand, when taken from the manger to be groomed. (23) The point is, +that the horse will keep perpetually moving first one foot and then +another on the stones, whilst being rubbed down or simply because he +is fidgeted by flies. Let any one try the experiment, and, I venture +to predict, not only will he come to trust my guidance, but he will +see his horse's hoofs grow just as round and solid as the cobbles. + + (23) See below, "Horse." iv. 4. The Greeks did not "shoe" their + horses. + +Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to be, how is +the trooper to attain a like degree of excellence? To that question I +will now address myself. The art of leaping on to horseback is one +which we would fain persuade the youthful members of the corps to +learn themselves; though, if you choose to give them an +instructor, (24) all the greater credit to yourself. And as to the +older men you cannot do better than accustom them to mount, or rather +to be hoisted up by aid of some one, Persian fashion. (25) + + (24) Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play "The Breeder + of Horses," ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55. + + (25) See "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Horsemanship," vi. 12. + +With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, it may be +perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually marching out, +when there is no war; (26) but all the same, I would have you call your +men together and impress upon them the need to train themselves, when +they ride into the country to their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving +the high road and galloping at a round pace on ground of every +description. (27) This method will be quite as beneficial to them as +the regular march out, and at the same time not produce the same sense +of tedium. You may find it useful also to remind them that the state +on her side is quite willing to expend a sum of nearly forty +talents (28) yearly, so that in the event of war she may not have to +look about for cavalry, but have a thoroughly efficient force to hand +for active service. Let these ideas be once instilled into their +minds, and, mark my words, your trooper will fall with zest to +practising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war burst out he +may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, unskilled to fight +for fame and fatherland or even life itself. + + (26) In the piping days of peace. + + (27) See "Econ." xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. "Ch." viii. "The Late Learner": + {kai eis agron eph' ippou allotriou katakhoumenos ama meletan + ippazesthai, kai peson ten kephalon kateagenai}, "Riding into the + country on another's horse, he will practise his horsemanship by + the way, and falling, will break his head" (Jebb). + + (28) = L10,000 circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251. + +It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers that one +day you will take them out yourself for a long march, and lead them +across country over every kind of ground. Again, whilst practising the +evolutions of the rival cavalry display, (29) it will be well to gallop +out at one time to one district and again to another. Both men and +horses will be benefited. + + (29) Lit. "the anthippasia." See iii. 11, and "Horsemanship," viii. + 10. + +Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best way to secure +as wide a practice of the art as possible, it strikes me, would be to +issue an order to your phylarchs that it will be their duty to put +themselves at the head of the marksmen of several tribes, and to ride +out to the butts for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will +be roused--the several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out +as many marksmen as they can to aid the state. (30) + + (30) On competition cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22, and our author passim. + +And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which the force +requires, (31) the greatest help may once again be looked for from the +phylarchs; let these officers but be persuaded that from the public +point of view the splendid appearance of their squadrons (32) will +confer a title to distinction far higher than that of any personal +equipment. Nor is it reasonable to suppose that they will be deaf to +such an argument, since the very desire to hold the office of phylarch +itself proclaims a soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is +more, they have it in their power, in accordance with the actual +provisions of the law, to equip their men without the outlay of a +single penny, by enforcing that self-equipment out of pay (33) which +the law prescribes. + + (31) Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph. + "Lysistr." 561, and a fragment of "The Knights," of Antiphanes, + ap. Athen. 503 B, {pant' 'Amaltheias keras}. See "Hiero," ix. 6; + "Horse." xi. 10. + + (32) Lit. "tribes," {phulai} (each of the ten tribes contributing + about eighty men, or, as we might say, a squadron). + + (33) i.e. the {katastasis}, "allowance," so technically called. Cf. + Lys. "for Mantitheos"; Jebb, "Att. Or." i. 246; Boeckh, "P. E. A." + II. xxi. p. 263; K. F. Hermann, 152, 19; Martin, op. cit. p. 341. + +But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience in your +subordinates, you have two formidable instruments; (34) as a matter of +plain reason you can show them what a host of blessings the word +discipline implies; and as a matter of hard fact you can, within the +limits of the law, enable the well-disciplined to reap advantage, +while the undisciplined are made to feel the pinch at every turn. + + (34) "The one theoretic, the other practical." + +But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if you would +stir in each a personal ambition to appear at the head of his own +squadron in all ways splendidly appointed, the best incentive will be +your personal example. You must see to it that your own bodyguard (35) +are decked with choice accoutrement and arms; you must enforce on them +the need to practise shooting pertinaciously; you must expound to them +the theory of the javelin, yourself an adept in the art through +constant training. (36) + + (35) Techn. {prodromoi}, possibly = the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200 + mounted archers--Scythians; cf. "Mem." III. iii. 11. Or, probably, + "mounted skirmishers," distinct from the {ippotexotai}. Cf. + Arrian, "An." i. 12. 7. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49. 5. + + (36) Reading as vulg. {eisegoio}, or if with L. D. {egoio} (cf. above, + S. 21), trans. "you must lead them out to the butts yourself." + +Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the several +tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of knighthood known to +custom in the public spectacles of our city, we have here, I think, an +incentive which will appeal to the ambition of every true Athenian. +How small, in the like case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and +yet how great the labour and how vast the sums expended! (37) But we +must discover umpires of such high order that to win their verdict +will be as precious to the victor as victory itself. + + (37) See "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Hiero," ix. 3; "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; + Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f. + + + +II + +Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained in all the +above particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that they should +further be instructed in a type of evolution the effect of which will +show itself not only in the splendour of the great processions (1) in +honour of the gods, but in the manouvres of the exercising-ground; in +the valorous onslaught of real battle when occasion calls; and in the +ease with which whole regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a +river, or thread a defile without the slightest symptom of confusion. +What this formation is--essential, at least in my opinion, to the +noblest execution of their several duties--I will now, without delay, +endeavour to explain. (2) + + (1) e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon. + + (2) Or, "what this best order is, the adoption of which will give + these several features fair accomplishment, I will without further + pause set forth." + +We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division of ten +tribes. (3) Given these, the proper course, I say, is to appoint, with +the concurrence of the several phylarchs, certain decadarchs + (file-leaders) (4) to be selected from the men ripest of age and +strength, most eager to achieve some deed of honour and to be known to +fame. These are to form your front-rank men; (5) and after these, a +corresponding number should be chosen from the oldest and the most +sagacious members of the squadron, to form the rear-rank of the files +or decads; since, to use an illustration, iron best severs iron when +the forefront of the blade (6) is strong and tempered, and the momentum +at the back is sufficient. + + (3) See "Revenues," iv. 30. + + (4) Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally + (or ideally) of ten men. Cf. "Cyrop. II." ii. 30; VIII. i. 14. It + will be borne in mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be + drawn up in battle line at least four deep (see "Hell." III. iv. + 13), and frequently much deeper. (The Persian cavalry in the + engagement just referred to were twelve deep.) + + (5) See "Cyrop." III. iii. 41, 57; VI. iii. 24, 27; VII. i. 15; "Pol. + Lac." xi. 5. These front-rank men would seem to correspond to our + "troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some + extent. + + (6) Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier. + +The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best be filled +supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their own supports, +and those chosen theirs, and so on following suit; since on this +principle we may expect each man to have his trustiest comrade at his +back. + +As to your lieutenant, (7) it is every way important to appoint a good +man to this post, whose bravery will tell; and in case of need at any +time to charge the enemy, the cheering accents of his voice will +infuse strength into those in front; or when the critical moment of +retreat arrives, his sage conduct in retiring will go far, we may well +conclude, towards saving his division. (8) + + (7) {ton aphegoumenon}, lit. "him who leads back" (a function which + would devolve upon the {ouragos} under many circumstances). Cf. + "Cyrop." II. iii. 21; "Hell." IV. viii. 37; Plat. "Laws," 760 D. = + our "officer serre-file," to some extent. So Courier: "Celui qui + commande en serre-file. C'est chez nous le capitaine en second." + + (8) Or, "the rest of the squadron." Lit. "his own tribesmen." + +An even number of file-leaders will admit of a greater number of equal +subdivisions than an odd. + +The above formation pleases me for two good reasons: in the first +place, all the front-rank men are forced to act as officers; (9) and +the same man, mark you, when in command is somehow apt to feel that +deeds of valour are incumbent on him which, as a private, he ignores; +and in the next place, at a crisis when something calls for action on +the instant, the word of command passed not to privates but to +officers takes speedier effect. + + (9) i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is + nothing like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige + which is often lacking in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66; + "Pol. Lac." xi. 5. + +Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this formation: +just as the squadron-leaders have their several positions for the march + (or the attack (10)) assigned them by the commander, so the file-leaders +will depend upon the captain for the order passed along the line in what +formation they are severally to march; and all being prearranged by word +of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than if left to chance--like +people crowding out of a theatre to their mutual annoyance. And when it +comes to actual encounter greater promptitude will be displayed: +supposing the attack is made in front, by the file-leaders who know that +this is their appointed post; or in case of danger suddenly appearing in +rear, then by the rear-rank men, whose main idea is that to desert one's +post is base. A want of orderly arrangement, on the contrary, leads to +confusion worse confounded at every narrow road, at every passage of a +river; and when it comes to fighting, no one of his own free will +assigns himself his proper post in face of an enemy. + + (10) Lit. "where to ride," i.e. in what formation whether on the line + of march or in action. + +The above are fundamental matters not to be performed without the +active help of every trooper who would wish to be a zealous and +unhesitating fellow-worker with his officer. (11) + + (11) Cf. "Hiero," vii. 2; "Cyrop." II. iv. 10. + + + +III + +I come at length to certain duties which devolve upon the general of +cavalry himself in person: and first and foremost, it concerns him to +obtain the favour of the gods by sacrifices in behalf of the state +cavalry; and in the next place to make the great procession at the +festivals a spectacle worth seeing; and further, with regard to all +those public shows demanded by the state, wherever held, (1) whether in +the grounds of the Academy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the +hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights to see that +every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited. + + (1) Cf. Theophr. "Ch." vii. (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25). + +But these, again, are memoranda. (2) To the question how the several +features of the pageant shall receive their due impress of beauty, I +will now address myself. + + (2) Read {tauta men alla upomnemata}, or if with Pantazid. {apla}, + trans. "these are simply memoranda." + +And first to speak of the Processions. (3) These will, I think, be +rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's spectators were the +riders to ride round the Agora and temples, commencing from the +Hermae, and pay honour to the sacred beings, each in turn, whose +shrines and statues are there congregated. (Thus in the great +Dionysia (4) the choruses embrace their gracious service to the other +gods and to the Twelve with circling dance. (5)) When the circuit is +completed, and the riders are back again in front of the Hermae, it +would add, I think, to the beauty of the scene (6) if at this point +they formed in companies of tribes, and giving their horses rein, +swept forward at the gallop to the Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note +the right position of the lance, to lessen as far as possible the risk +of mutual interference. (7) Each trooper should hold his lance straight +between the ears of his charger, which in proportion to the +distinctness given to the weapon will rouse terror, and at the same +time create a vague idea of multitudinousness. (8) + + (3) {tas pompas}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160. + + (4) Celebrated in March (Elaphebolion). + + (5) Or, "by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The + Twelve"; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 235, + "Birds," 95; Plat. "Laws," 654; Paus. i. 3. 3; 40. 3; viii. 25. 3; + Plut. "Nic." 13; Lycurg. 198. + + (6) Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my + opinion, if at this point they formed in squadron column, and + giving rein to their chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the + Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. i. 296. + + (7) Lit. "nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible + overlap one another." + + (8) Lit. "Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight + between the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be + distinct and terror-striking, and at the same time to appear + numerous." + +As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, the pace +should at once be changed; and now, with footing slow, let them +retrace their course back to the temples. In this way every detail +characteristic of knightly pageantry (9) will have been displayed to +the delight of god and man. That our knights are not accustomed to +these actual evolutions, I am well aware; but I also recognise the +fact that the performances are good and beautiful and will give +pleasure to spectators. I do not fail to note, moreover, that novel +feats of horsemanship have before now been performed by our knights, +when their commanders have had the ability to get their wishes readily +complied with. + + (9) Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse." + Possibly, as Cobet suggests, {kala} has dropped out. See + "Horsemanship," xi. 3, 6. + +But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march-past, (10) in +the grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin-throwing. The scene +would gain in beauty if the tribal squadrons were to ride in line of +columns (11) as if for battle, in two divisions, five squadrons in the +one and five in the other, with the hipparch and the phylarchs at +their head, in such formation as to allow the whole breadth of the +racecourse to be filled. Then, as soon as they have gained the top (12) +of the incline, which leads down to the theatre opposite, it would, I +think, be obviously useful here to show the skill with which your +troopers can gallop down a steep incline (13) with as broad a front as +the nature of the ground permits. I am quite clear that your troopers, +if they can trust their own skill in galloping, will take kindly to +such an exhibition; while as certainly, if unpractised, they must look +to it that the enemy does not give them a lesson in the art some day, +perforce. + + (10) {dielaunosin en Lukeio}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196; cf. Arist. + "Peace," 356. + + (11) Or, as we might say, "in regimental order," "with the commanding + officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders"; and for + the Lyceum see "Hell." I. i. 33; II. iv. 27. + + (12) Lit. "the apex of the confronting theatre." + + (13) See "Horsemanship," viii. 6; "Anab." IV. viii. 28. + +To come to the test manouvres. (14) The order in which the men will +ride with showiest effect on these occasions has been already +noted. (15) As far as the leader is himself concerned, and presuming he +is mounted on a powerful horse, I would suggest that he should each +time ride round on the outer flank; in which case he will himself be +kept perpetually moving at a canter, and those with him, as they +become the wheeling flank, will, by turns, fall into the same pace, +with this result: the spectacle presented to the senate will be that +of an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers; and the horses having, +each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, will not be overdone. + + (14) {dokimasiais}, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit. + p. 333. + + (15) Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work (see Courier, p. + 111, n. 1); or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene + of the {dokimasiai} Phaleron? There is no further reference to {ta + Phaleroi}. Cf. S. 1, above. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49 (now the + locus classicus on the subject), and Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene + is represented on a patera from Orvieto, now in the Berlin Museum, + reproduced and fully described in "The Art of Horsemanship by + Xenophon," translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse, + and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76. + +On occasions when the display takes place in the hippodrome, (16) the +best arrangement would be, in the first place, that the troops should +fill the entire space with extended front, so forcing out the mob of +people from the centre; (17) and secondly, that in the sham fight (18) +which ensues, the tribal squadrons, swiftly pursuing and retiring, +should gallop right across and through each other, the two hipparchs +at their head, each with five squadrons under him. Consider the effect +of such a spectacle: the grim advance of rival squadrons front to +front; the charge; the solemn pause as, having swept across the +hippodrome, they stand once more confronting one another; and then the +trumpet sounds, whereat a second and yet swifter hostile advance, how +fine the effect!--and once again they are at the halt; and once again +the trumpet sounds, and for the third time, at the swiftest pace of +all, they make a final charge across the field, before dismissal; +after which they come to a halt en masse, in battle order; and, as now +customary, (19) ride up to salute the senate, and disband. These +evolutions will at once approve themselves, I think, not only for +their novelty, but for their resemblance to real warfare. The notion +that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, and +to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me below the +dignity of the office. + + (16) In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose. + + (17) Lit. "... it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so + as to fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people + from the central space, beautiful to..." The new feature of the + review would seem to have been the introduction of a sham fight in + three parts, down to the customary advance of the whole corps, + {epi phalaggos}. Cf. Virg. "Aen." v. 545 foll. But see Martin, op. + cit. 197. + + (18) Lit. "the anthippasia." + + (19) "As is your custom." See "Mem." III. iii. 6. + +When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard-trodden (20) ground of +the Academy, I have the following advice to give. To avoid being +jolted off his horse at any moment, the trooper should, in charging, +lean well back, (21) and to prevent his charger stumbling, he should +while wheeling hold his head well up, but along a straight stretch he +should force the pace. Thus the spectacle presented to the senate will +combine the elements of beauty and of safety. + + (20) Cf. Thuc. vii. 27. + + (21) See "Horsemanship," vii. 17. + + + +IV + +To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general will need to +exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' backs and the +troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding and of marching. +Wherein consists the golden mean, will not be hard to find; since +"every man a standard to himself," (1) applies, and your sensations are +an index to prevent your fellows being overdone through inadvertence. + + (1) The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 183 B. + +But now supposing you are on the march in some direction, and it is +uncertain whether you will stumble on the enemy, your duty is to rest +your squadrons in turn; since it will go hard with you, if the enemy +come to close quarters when the whole force is dismounted. (2) Or, +again, suppose the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile, +you will pass, by word of mouth, the command to diminish the front; (3) +or given, again, you are debouching on broad roads, again the word of +command will pass by word of mouth, to every squadron, "to increase +their front"; or lastly, supposing you have reached flat country, "to +form squadron in order of battle." If only for the sake of practice, +it is well to go through evolutions of the sort; (4) besides which it +adds pleasure to the march thus to diversify the line of route with +cavalry maneuvers. + + (2) See "Hell." V. iv. 40 for a case in point. + + (3) Or, "advance by column of route." See "Hell." VII. iv. 23. + + (4) Or, "it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat. + "Laws," i. 625 B. + +Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and moving fast over +difficult ground, no matter whether you are in hostile or in friendly +territory, it will be useful if the scouts attached to squadrons (5) +rode on in advance, their duty being, in case of encountering pathless +clefts or gullies, to work round on to practicable ground, and to +discover at what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that +whole ranks may not go blindly roaming. (6) + + (5) {ton upereton} = "ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances, + trabans (Courier). See Rustow and Kochly, p. 140. "Cyrop." II. i. + 21; II. iv. 4; V. iii. 52; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13; "Anab." I. + ix. 27; II. i. 9; where "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be + implied. + + (6) Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. "Anab." + VIII. iii. 18. + +Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a prudent general +can hardly show his wisdom better than by sending out advanced patrols +in front of the ordinary exploring parties to reconnoitre every inch +of ground minutely. So to be apprised of the enemy's position in +advance, and at as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be +useful, whether for purposes of attack or defence; just as it is +useful also to enforce a halt at the passage of a river or some other +defile, so that the men in rear may not knock their horses all to bits +in endeavouring to overtake their leader. These are precepts known, I +admit, to nearly all the world, but it is by no means every one who +will take pains to apply them carefully. (7) + + (7) See "Econ." xx. 6. foll. + +It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite precautions while +it is still peace, to make himself acquainted with the details, not +only of his own, but of the hostile territory; (8) or if, as may well +betide, he personally should lack the knowledge, he should invite the +aid of others (9)--those best versed in the topography of any district. +Since there is all the difference in the world between a leader +acquainted with his roads and one who is not; and when it comes to +actual designs upon the enemy, the difference between knowing and not +knowing the locality can hardly be exaggerated. + + (8) Or, "with hostile and friendly territories alike." + + (9) Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest"; i.e. + his colleagues or other members of the force. + +So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war commences +your business is to provide yourself with a supply of people friendly +to both states, or maybe merchants (since states are ready to receive +the importer of goods with open arms); sham deserters may be found +occasionally useful. (10) Not, of course, that the confidence you feel +in your spies must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your +state of preparation should at any moment be precisely what it ought +to be, supposing the approach or the imminent arrival of the enemy +were to be announced. Let a spy be ever so faithful, there is always +the risk he may fail to report his intelligence at the critical +moment, since the obstacles which present themselves in war are not to +be counted on the fingers. + + (10) Cf. "Cyrop." VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas, + undertakes to play this role to good effect. + +But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely to get wind +of an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march were passed from +mouth to mouth rather than announced by voice of herald, or public +notice. (11) Accordingly, in addition to (12) this method of +ordering the march by word passed along the line, the appointment +of file-leaders seems desirable, who again are to be supplemented by +section-leaders, (13) so that the number of men to whom each petty +officer has to transmit an order will be very few; (14) while the +section-leaders will deploy and increase the front, whatever the +formation, without confusion, whenever there is occasion for the +movement. (15) + + (11) i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the + "word-of-mouth command," see above, S. 3; "Hell." VII. v. 9; and + for the "herald," see "Anab." III. iv. 36. + + (12) Reading {pros to dia p.}, or if {pros to}... transl. "with a + view to." + + (13) Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See "Cyrop." II. i. 22 + foll., iii. 21. + + (14) Lit. "so that each officer may pass the word to as few as + possible." + + (15) Cf. "Anab." IV. vi. 6. + +When an advanced guard is needed, I say for myself I highly approve of +secret pickets and outposts, if only because in supplying a guard to +protect your friends you are contriving an ambuscade to catch the +enemy. Also the outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack, +being themselves unseen, and yet a source of great alarm to the enemy; +since the bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, though +where precisely no man knows, will prevent the enemy from feeling +confident, and oblige him to mistrust every tenable position. An +exposed outpost, on the contrary, presents to the broad eye of day its +dangers and also its weaknesses. (16) Besides which, the holder of a +concealed outpost can always place a few exposed vedettes beyond his +hidden pickets, and so endeavour to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade. +Or he may play the part of trapper with effect by placing a second +exposed outpost in rear of the other; a device which may serve to take +in the unwary foeman quite as well as that before named. + + (16) Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence." + +Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general never to +run a risk of his own choosing, except where it is plain to him +beforehand, that he will get the better of his adversary. To play into +the enemy's hands may more fitly be described as treason to one's +fellow-combatants than true manliness. So, too, true generalship +consists in attacking where the enemy is weakest, even if the point be +some leagues distant. Severity of toil weighs nothing in the scale +against the danger of engaging a force superior to your own. (17) +Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in any way to place +himself between fortified points that are friendly to you, let him be +never so superior in force, your game is to attack on whichever flank +you can best conceal your advance, or, still better, on both flanks +simultaneously; since, while one detachment is retiring after +delivering its attack, a charge pressed home from the opposite quarter +cannot fail to throw the enemy into confusion and to give safety to +your friends. + + (17) N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of + a small force of cavalry acting on the defensive. + +How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an enemy's +position by means of spies and so forth, as in ancient story; yet best +of all, in my opinion, is it for the commander to try to seize some +coign of vantage, from which with his own eyes he may descry the +movements of the enemy and watch for any error on his part. (18) + + (18) As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See "Hell." VII. v. 9. + +Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion, (19) your business is +to send a competent patrol to seize; or again where capture by coup de +main (20) is practicable, you will despatch a requisite body of troops +to effect a coup de main. Or take the case: the enemy is on the march +in some direction, and a portion of his force becomes detached from +his main body or through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do +not let the opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue a +weaker with a stronger force. (21) These, indeed, are rules of +procedure, which it only requires a simple effort of the mind to +appreciate. Creatures far duller of wit than man have this ability: +kites and falcons, when anything is left unguarded, pounce and carry +it off and retire into safety without being caught; or wolves, again, +will hunt down any quarry left widowed of its guard, or thieve what +they can in darksome corners. (22) In case a dog pursues and overtakes +them, should he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks him, or if +stronger, the wolf will slaughter (23) his quarry and make off. At +other times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the +guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as it were, +some to drive off the guard and others to effect the capture, and so +by stealth or fair fight they provide themselves with the necessaries +of life. I say, if dumb beasts are capable of conducting a raid with +so much sense and skill, it is hard if any average man cannot prove +himself equally intelligent with creatures which themselves fall +victims to the craft of man. + + (19) e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc. + + (20) e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc. + + (21) "It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer." + + (22) Zeune cf. Ael. "N. A." viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in + hunting. + + (23) For {aposphaxas} Courier suggests {apospasas}, "dragging off what + he can." + + + +V + +Here is another matter which every horseman ought to know, and that is +within what distance a horse can overhaul a man on foot; or the +interval necessary to enable a slower horse to escape one more fleet. +It is the business rather of the cavalry general to recognise at a +glance the sort of ground on which infantry will be superior to +cavalry and where cavalry will be superior to infantry. He should be a +man of invention, ready of device to turn all circumstances to +account, so as to give at one time a small body of cavalry the +appearance of a larger, and again a large the likeness of a smaller +body; he should have the craft to appear absent when close at hand, +and within striking distance when a long way off; he should know +exactly not only how to steal an enemy's position, but by a master +stroke of cunning (1) to spirit his own cavalry away, and, when least +expected, deliver his attack. Another excellent specimen of +inventiveness may be seen in the general's ability, while holding a +weak position himself, to conjure up so lively an apprehension in the +enemy that he will not dream of attacking; or conversely, when, being +in a strong position himself, he can engender a fatal boldness in the +adversary to venture an attack. Thus with the least cost to yourself, +you will best be able to catch your enemy tripping. + + (1) Or, "sleight of hand"; and for {kleptein} = escamoter see "Anab." + IV. vi. 11, 15; V. vi. 9. + +But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible feats, I +will set down, in so many words, the procedure in certain crucial +instances. + +The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to enforce pursuit +or conduct a retreat lies in a thorough knowledge of your horse's +powers. (2) But how is this experience to be got? Simply by paying +attention to their behaviour in the peaceable manouvres of the sham +fight, when there is no real enemy to intervene--how the animals come +off, in fact, and what stamina they show in the various charges and +retreats. + + (2) {empeiria}, "empirical knowledge." + +Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear numerous. In the +first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if possible, not to attempt +to delude the enemy at close quarters; distance, as it aids illusion, +will promote security. The next point is to bear in mind that a mob of +horses clustered together (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will +give a suggestion of number, whereas scattered they may easily be +counted. + +Another means by which you may give your troop an appearance of +numerical strength beyond reality consists in posting, in and out +between the troopers, so many lines of grooms (3) who should carry +lances if possible, or staves at any rate to look like lances--a plan +which will serve alike whether you mean to display your cavalry force +at the halt or are deploying to increase front; in either case, +obviously the bulk and volume of the force, whatever your formation, +will appear increased. Conversely, if the problem be to make large +numbers appear small, supposing you have ground at command adapted to +concealment, the thing is simple: by leaving a portion of your men +exposed and hiding away a portion in obscurity, you may effect your +object. (4) But if the ground nowhere admits of cover, your best course +is to form your files (5) into ranks one behind the other, and wheel +them round so as to leave intervals between each file; the troopers +nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, and the +rest low enough not to show above. + + (3) Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C. (our + author was probably present); IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly, + 323 B.C. + + (4) Lit. "steal your troopers." See "Cyrop." V. iv. 48. + + (5) Lit. "form your decads (squads of ten; cf. our 'fours') in ranks + and deploy with intervals." + +To come to the next topic: you may work on the enemy's fears by the +various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief parties, false +information. Conversely, his confidence will reach an overweening +pitch, if the idea gets abroad that his opponents have troubles of +their own and little leisure for offensive operations. + +But over and beyond all that can be written on the subject--inventiveness +is a personal matter, beyond all formulas--the true general must be able +to take in, deceive, decoy, delude his adversary at every turn, as the +particular occasion demands. In fact, there is no instrument of war more +cunning than chicanery; (6) which is not surprising when one reflects +that even little boys, when playing, "How many (marbles) have I got in +my hand?" (7) are able to take one another in successfully. Out goes a +clenched fist, but with such cunning that he who holds a few is thought +to hold several; or he may present several and appear to be holding only +a few. Is it likely that a grown man, giving his whole mind to methods +of chicanery, will fail of similar inventiveness? Indeed, when one comes +to consider what is meant by advantages snatched in war, one will find, +i think, that the greater part of them, and those the more important, +must be attributed in some way or other to displays of craft; (8) which +things being so, a man had better either not attempt to exercise +command, or, as part and parcel of his general equipment, let him pray +to Heaven to enable him to exercise this faculty and be at pains himself +to cultivate his own inventiveness. + + (6) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. ii. 26; VII. i. 18. + + (7) {posinda}, lit. "How many?" (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.); cf. + the old game, "Buck! buck! how many horns do I hold up?" Schneid. + cf. Aristot. "Rhet."iii. 5. 4. + + (8) "Have been won in connection with craft." See "Cyrop." I. vi. 32; + "Mem." III. i. 6; IV. ii. 15. + +A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the faculty as +follows: he may either, whilst apparently engaged in fitting out his +vessels, strike a blow on land; (9) or with a make-believe of some +aggressive design by land, hazard an adventure by sea. (10) + + (9) A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 21. + + (10) Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi. + 64. + +I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to point out +clearly to the state authority the essential weakness of a force of +cavalry unaided by light infantry, as opposed to cavalry with +foot-soldiers attached. (11) It is duty also, having got his footmen, to +turn the force to good account. It is possible to conceal them +effectively, not only between the lines, but in rear also of the +troopers--the mounted soldier towering high above his follower on foot. + + (11) Or, "divorced from infantry." In reference to {amippoi}, cf. + Thuc. v. 57; "Hell." VII. v. 23. + +With regard to these devices and to any others which invention may +suggest towards capturing the foeman by force or fraud, I have one +common word of advice to add, which is, to act with God, and then +while Heaven propitious smiles, fortune will scarcely dare to +frown. (12) + + (12) Or, "and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of + fortune," reading with Courier, etc., {ina kai e tukhe sunepaine}. + Cf. "Cyrop." III. iii. 20. + +At times there is no more effective fraud than a make-believe (13) of +over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This itself will put +the enemy off his guard and ten to one will lure him into some +egregious blunder; or conversely, once get a reputation for +foolhardiness established, and then with folded hands sit feigning +future action, and see what a world of trouble you will thereby cause +your adversary. + + (13) S. 15 should perhaps stand before S. 13. + + + +VI + +But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, can hope to +mould and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, unless the stuff on +which he works be first prepared and made ready to obey the +craftsman's will. Nor certainly where the raw material consists of +men, will you succeed, unless, under God's blessing, these same men +have been prepared and made ready to meet their officer in a friendly +spirit. They must come to look upon him as of greater sagacity than +themselves in all that concerns encounter with the enemy. This +friendly disposition on the part of his subordinates, one must +suppose, will best be fostered by a corresponding sympathy on the part +of their commander towards the men themselves, and that not by simple +kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their behalf, at one +time to provide them with food, and at another to secure safety of +retreat, or again by help of outposts and the like, to ensure +protection during rest and sleep. + +When on active service (1) the commander must prove himself +conspicuously careful in the matter of forage, quarters, water-supply, +outposts, (2) and all other requisites; forecasting the future and +keeping ever a wakeful eye in the interest of those under him; and in +case of any advantage won, the truest gain which the head of affairs +can reap is to share with his men the profits of success. + + (1) Al. "on garrison outpost duty." + + (2) Reading {phulakon}, or if with Courier {thulakon}, "haversacks," + i.e. "la farine, le contenant pour le contenu." + +Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small risk a general +will be regarded with contempt by those he leads, if, whatever he may +have to preach, he shows himself best able to perform. + +Beginning with the simple art of mounting on horseback, let him so +train himself in all particulars of horsemanship that, to look at him, +the men must see their leader is a horseman who can leap a trench +unscathed or scale a parapet, (3) or gallop down a bank, and hurl a +javelin with the best. These are accomplishments which one and all +will pave the way to make contempt impossible. If, further, the men +shall see in their commander one who, with the knowledge how to act, +has force of will and cunning to make them get the better of the +enemy; and if, further, they have got the notion well into their heads +that this same leader may be trusted not to lead them recklesssly +against the foe, without the help of Heaven, or despite the auspices--I +say, you have a list of virtues which will make those under his command +the more obedient to their ruler. + + (3) Or, "stone walls," "dykes." + + + +VII + +If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality distinctive of true +generalship, there are two respects in which a general of cavalry at +Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not only must he show a dutiful +submission to the gods; but he must possess great fighting qualities, +seeing that he has on his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in +number and backed by a large force of heavy infantry. (1) So that, if +he undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the other +forces of the city (2)--in dealing with two descriptions of forces +single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a desperate adventure; +or to take the converse case, that the enemy invades the soil of +Attica, to begin with, he will not invade at all, unless supported by +other cavalry besides his own and an infantry force sufficient to +warrant the supposition that no force on our side can cope with him. + + (1) The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not + know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in + the field at Leuctra or at Mantinea. + + (2) Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc. + +Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city will +determine to sally out en masse to protect her rural districts, the +prospect is fair. Under God, our troopers, if properly cared for, are +the finer men; our infantry of the line are no less numerous, and as +regards physique, if it comes to that, not one whit inferior, while in +reference to moral qualities, they are more susceptible to the spur of +a noble ambition, if only under God's will they be correctly trained. +Or again, as touching pride of ancestry, what have Athenians to fear +as against Boeotians on that score? (3) + + (3) See "Mem." III. v. 3, where it is contended that in pride of + ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians. + +But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake herself to her +navy, as in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, leagued with the +rest of Hellas, brought invasion; (4) and is content once more simply +to protect her walls through thick and thin. As to protecting what +lies outside the city wall she looks to her cavalry for that; and +single-handed her troopers must do desperate encounter against the +united forces of the enemy. I say, under these circumstances, we shall +need in the first place the strong support of Heaven; and in the +second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry commander prove +himself a consummate officer. (5) Indeed, he will have need of large +wisdom to deal with a force so vastly superior in numbers, and of +enterprise to strike when the critical moment comes. + + (4) See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95, + Hippocrates' speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C. + + (5) A "parfait marechal." + +He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great physical +endurance; (6) since clearly, if he has to run full tilt against an +armament present, as we picture, in such force that not even our whole +state cares to cope with it, it is plain he must accept whatever fate +is due, where might is right, himself unable to retaliate. + + (6) So Jason, "Hell." VI. i. 4. + +If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside the +walls (7) with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on the +enemy, and to withdraw into safe quarters from a distance whatever +needs protection--a small number, be it observed, is just as capable +of vedette duty, as well able, say, to scan the distant horizon, as a +large; and by the same token men with no great confidence in +themselves or in their horses are not ill-qualified to guard, or +withdraw within shelter (8) the property of friends; since fear, as the +proverb has it, makes a shrewd watchman. The proposal, therefore, to +select from these a corps of observation will most likely prove true +strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for outpost duty? If +any one imagines he has got an armament, he will find it miserably +small, and lacking in every qualification necessary to risk an open +encounter. + + (7) Or, "His better plan would be to." + + (8) Reading {anakhorizein}. Cf. "Cyrop." II. ii. 8; "Anab." V. ii. 10; + or if {anakhorein eis}, transl. "or retire into safe quarters." + See "Hell." IV. vi. 44. + +But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla war, and he will +find the force quite competent for that, I warrant. His business, so +at least it seems to me, will be to keep his men perpetually in +readiness to strike a blow, and without exposing himself, to play +sentinel, waiting for any false move on the part of the hostile +armament. And it is a way with soldiers, bear in mind, the more +numerous they are, the more blunders they commit. They must needs +scatter of set purpose (9) in search of provisions; or through the +disorder incidental to a march, some will advance and others lag +behind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, then, our hipparch +must not let pass unpunished (unless he wishes the whole of Attica to +become a gigantic camp); (10) keeping his single point steadily in +view, that when he strikes a blow he must be expeditious and retire +before the main body has time to rally to the rescue. + + (9) {epimeleia}. Cf. "Cyrop." V. iii. 47. + + (10) Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As at + the date of the fortification of Decelea (413 B.C.), which + permanently commanded the whole country. See Thuc. vii. 27. Al. + Courier, "autrement vous n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire, + tout le pays devient votre camp." + +Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an army will get into +roads where numbers are no advantage. Again, in the passage of rivers, +defiles, and the like, it is possible for a general with a head on his +shoulders to hang on the heels of an enemy in security, and to +determine with precision (11) the exact number of the enemy he will +care to deal with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to attack the +foe while encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men turn out +of bed: seasons at which the soldier is apt to be unharnessed--the +hoplite for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for a longer period. (12) + + (11) See "Anab." II. v. 18; "Cyrop." III. iii. 47; IV. i. 18. + {tamieusasthai}, "with the precision of a controller." + + (12) Cf. "Hell." II. iv. 6; VII. i. 16. + +As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never cease planning +and plotting against them. For these in their turn, as a rule, are apt +to consist of small numbers, and are sometimes posted at a great +distance from their own main body. But if after all it turns out that +the enemy are well on their guard against all such attempts, then, God +helping, it would be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country, +first making it your business to ascertain (13) his defences, the +number of men at this, that, and the other point, and how they are +distributed throughout the country. For there is no booty so splendid +as an outpost so overmastered; and these frontier outposts are +especially prone to be deceived, with their propensity to give chase +to any small body they set eyes on, regarding that as their peculiar +function. You will have to see, however, in retiring that your line of +retreat is not right into the jaws of the enemy's reliefs hastening to +the scene of action. + + (13) Or, "having first studied." Cf. "Mem." III. vi. 10. + + + +VIII + +It stands to reason, however, that in order to be able to inflict real +damage upon a greatly superior force, the weaker combatant must +possess such a moral superiority over the other as shall enable him to +appear in the position of an expert, trained in all the feats of +cavalry performance in the field, and leave his enemy to play the part +of raw recruits or amateurs. (1) + + (1) Cf. "Cyrop." I. v. 11; "Mem." III. vii. 7. + +And this end may be secured primarily on this wise: those who are to +form your guerilla bands (2) must be so hardened and inured to the +saddle that they are capable of undergoing all the toils of a +campaign. (3) That a squadron (and I speak of horse and man alike) +should enter these lists in careless, disorderly fashion suggests the +idea of a troop of women stepping into the arena to cope with male +antagonists. + + (2) Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be." + + (3) Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter." + +But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have been taught +and trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to spring up banks, and +plunge from heights without scathe, to gallop headlong at full speed +adown a steep: they will tower over unpractised opponents as the birds +of the air tower over creatures that crawl and walk. (4) Their feet are +case-hardened by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping +over rough ground, must differ from the uninitiated as the sound man +from the lame. And so again, when it comes to charging and retiring, +the onward-dashing gallop, the well-skilled, timely retreat, expert +knowledge of the ground and scenery will assert superiority over +inexpertness like that of eyesight over blindness. + + (4) See "Horse." viii. 6; cf. "Hunting," xii. 2; "Cyrop." I. vi. 28 + foll. + +Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough efficiency +the horses must not only be well fed and in good condition, but at the +same time so seasoned by toil that they will go through their work +without the risk of becoming broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and +saddle-cloths (to be efficient) (5) need to be attached by straps, a +cavalry general should never be without a good supply, whereby at a +trifling expense he may convert a number of nonplussed troopers into +serviceable fighting men. (6) + + (5) ({khresima}) L.D. For the {upomnema} itself cf. "Cyrop." VI. ii. + 32. + + (6) Or, "thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many + non-efficients useful." Al. "make the articles as good as new." + +But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of trouble it will +cost him, if he is required to devote himself to horsemanship so +assiduously, let him console himself with the reflection that the +pains and labours undergone by any man in training for a gymnastic +contest are far larger and more formidable than any which the severest +training of the horseman will involve; and for this reason, that the +greater part of gymnastic exercises are performed "in the sweat of the +brow," while equestrian exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed, +there is no accomplishment which so nearly realises the aspiration of +a man to have the wings of a bird than this of horsemanship. (7) But +further, to a victory obtained in war attaches a far greater weight of +glory than belongs to the noblest contest of the arena. (8) Of these +the state indeed will share her meed of glory, (9) but in honour of +victory in war the very gods are wont to crown whole states with +happiness. (10) So that, for my part, I know not if there be aught else +which has a higher claim to be practised than the arts of war. + + (7) Cf. "Cyrop." IV. iii. 15; Herod. iv. 132; Plat. "Rep." v. 467 D. + + (8) Cf. Eur. "Autolycus," fr. 1, trans. by J. A. Symonds, "Greek + Poets," 2nd series, p. 283. + + (9) Cf. Plut. "Pelop." 34 (Clough, ii. p. 235): "And yet who would + compare all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put + together, with one of these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he + successfully performed so many?" + + (10) "To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal." + +And this, too, is worth noting: that the buccaneer by sea, the +privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is able to live at +the expense of far superior powers. Yes, and the life of the +freebooter is no less natural and appropriate to landsmen--I do not +say, to those who can till and gather in the fruit of their fields, +but to those who find themselves deprived of sustenance; since there +is no alternative--either men must till their fields or live on the +tillage of others, otherwise how will they find the means either of +living or of obtaining peace? (11) + + (11) Cf. "Econ." v. 7. + +Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory: in charging a +superior force, never to leave a difficult tract of ground in the rear +of your attack, since there is all the difference in the world between +a stumble in flight and a stumble in pursuit. + +There is another precaution which I feel called upon to note. Some +generals, (12) in attacking a force which they imagine to be inferior +to their own, will advance with a ridiculously insufficient force, (13) +so that it is the merest accident if they do not experience the injury +they were minded to inflict. Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose +superiority is a well-known fact, they will bring the whole of their +force into action. + + (12) Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C. + Cf. "Hell." VI. v. 51. + + (13) Lit. "an absolutely weak force." + +Now, my maxim would be precisely converse: if you attack with a +prospect of superiority, do not grudge employing all the power at your +command; excess of victory (14) never yet caused any conqueror one pang +of remorse. + + (14) Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. "Hiero," ii. 16. + +But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full certainty that, +do what you can, you must eventually retire, it is far better, say I, +under these circumstances to bring a fraction only of your whole force +into action, which fraction should be the pick and flower of the +troops at your command, both horses and men. A body of that size and +quality will be able to strike a blow and to fall back with greater +security. Whereas, if a general brings all his troops into action +against a superior force, when he wishes to retire, certain things +must happen: those of his men who are worse mounted will be captured, +others through lack of skill in horsemanship will be thrown, and a +third set be cut off owing to mere difficulties of ground; since it is +impossible to find any large tract of country exactly what you would +desire. If for no other reason, through sheer stress of numbers there +will be collisions, and much damage done by kicks through mutual +entanglement; whereas a pick of horse and men will be able to escape +offhand, (15) especially if you have invention to create a scare in the +minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety of troops who are out of +action. (16) For this purpose false ambuscades will be of use. + + (15) Or, "by themselves," reading {ex auton}, as L. Dind. suggests. + Cf. Polyb. x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. {ex auton} (sub. {kheiron}, + Weiske), transl. "to slip through their fingers." + + (16) Zeune and other commentators cf Liv. v. 38 (Diod. xiv. 114), but + the part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the + Allia, if indeed "una salus fugientibus," was scarcely happy. + Would not "Hell." VII. v. 26 be more to the point? The detachment + of cavalry and infantry placed by Epaminondas "on certain crests, + to create an apprehension in the minds of the Athenians" in that + quarter of the field at Mantinea was a {mekhanema} of the kind + here contemplated. + +Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which side a +friendly force may suddenly appear and without risk to itself put a +drag on the wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self-evident, I think, +that, as far as work and speed are concerned, it is the small body +which will assert its superiority more rapidly over the larger, and +not vice versa--not of course that the mere fact of being a small body +will enable them to endure toil or give them wings; but simply it is +easier to find five men than five hundred, who will take the requisite +care and pains with their horses, and personally practise of their own +accord the art of horsemanship. + +But suppose the chance should occur of entering the lists against an +equal number of the enemy's cavalry, according to my judgment it were +no bad plan to split the squadron into divisions, (17) the first of +which should be commanded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the +ablest officer to be found. This second-officer will for the time +being follow in rear of the leading division with the squadron leader; +and by and by, when the antagonist is in near proximity, and when the +word of command is passed, form squadron to the front and charge the +hostile ranks (18)--a maneuver calculated, as I conceive, to bring the +whole mass down upon the enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him +some trouble to extricate himself. Ideally speaking, both +divisions (19) will be backed by infantry kept in rear of the cavalry; +these will suddenly disclose themselves, and rushing to close +quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory. (20) So at any +rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what is +unexpected--how, in the case of good things, the soul of man is filled +to overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of things terrible, +paralysed with amazement. In proof of what I say, let any one reflect on +the stupor into which a body of men with all the weight of numerical +advantage on their side will be betrayed by falling into an ambuscade; +or again, on the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in belligerents +during the first few days, of finding themselves posted in face of one +another. + + (17) Or, "troops." + + (18) Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry + tactics. + + (19) Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc. + + (20) Or, "achieve a much more decisive victory." Cf. "Cyrop." III. + iii. 28. + +To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty is to discover +a body of men who will dash forward (21) and charge an enemy as above +described intelligently and loyally, with an eager spirit and +unfailing courage. That is a problem for a good cavalry general to +solve. I mean an officer who must be competent to so assert himself in +speech or action (22) that those under him will no longer hesitate. +They will recognise of themselves that it is a good thing and a right +to obey, (23) to follow their leader, to rush to close quarters with +the foe. A desire will consume them to achieve some deed of glory and +renown. A capacity will be given them patiently to abide by the +resolution of their souls. + + (21) {parelontas}, in reference to S. 18 above, {parelaunoi}, "form + squadron to the front." + + (22) "To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of + action." Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 11. + + (23) Cf. Tennyson's "The Charge of the Light Brigade": + + Their's not to make reply, + Their's not to reason why, + Their's but to do and die. + + +To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have two armeis +facing one another in battle order, or a pair of fortresses (24) +belonging to rival powers, and in the space between all kinds of +cavalry manouvres are enacted, wheelings and charges and retreats. (25) +Under such circumstances the custom usually is for either party after +wheeling to set off at a slow pace and to gallop full speed only in +the middle of the course. But now suppose that a commander, after +making feint (26) in this style, presently on wheeling quickens for the +charge and quickens to retire--he will be able to hit the enemy far +harder, and pull through absolutely without scathe himself most +likely; through charging at full speed whilst in proximity to his own +stronghold (or main body), and quickening to a gallop as he retires +from the stronghold (or main body) of the enemy. If further, he could +secretly contrive to leave behind four or five troopers, the bravest +and best mounted of the squadron, it would give them an immense +advantage in falling upon the enemy whilst wheeling to return to the +charge. (27) + + (24) Al. "fields and farmsteads between." + + (25) Or, "retirements," see "Horsemanship," viii. 12; "Cyrop." V. iv. + 8; "Hell." IV. ii. 6; "Ages." ii. 3. + + (26) Or, "having precluded in this fashion." See Theocr. xxii. 102: + + {ton men anax ataraxen etosia khersi prodeiknus Pantothen}, + + "feinting on every side" (A. Lang). Al. "having given due warning + of his intention." Cf. Aristot. "H. A." ix. 37. + + (27) Cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 244 (Demosthenes calls to the + hipparchs (?)): + + {andres eggus. all' amunou, kapanastrephou palin}. + + + +IX + +To read these observations over a few times will be sufficient, but +for giving them effect the officer will need perpetually to act as +circumstances require. (1) He must take in the situation at a glance, +and carry out unflinchingly whatever is expedient for the moment. To +set down in writing everything that he must do, is not a whit more +possible than to know the future as a whole. (2) But of all hints and +suggestions the most important to my mind is this: whatever you +determine to be right, with diligence endeavour to perform. For be it +tillage of the soil, or trading, or seafaring, or the art of ruling, +without pains applied to bring the matter to perfection, the best +theories in the world, the most correct conclusions, will be +fruitless. + + (1) {pros to paratugkhanon}, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i. + 122: "For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules; + it strikes out a path for itself when the moment comes" (Jowett). + + (2) Or, "is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in + the womb of futurity." + +One thing I am prepared to insist on: it is clear to myself that by +Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much more quickly +raised to the full quota of a thousand troopers, (3) and with far less +friction to the mass of citizens, by the enrolment of two hundred +foreign cavalry. Their acquisition will be doubly helpful, as +intensifying the loyalty of the entire force and as kindling a mutual +ambition to excel in manly virtue. + + (3) See Schneid. ad loc.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." pp. 263, 264; Herod. vi. + 112; Thuc. vi. 31; Aristoph. "Knights," 223; Aeschin. "De F. L." + 334-337. See for this reform, Martin, op. cit. 343, 368. + +I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian cavalry only +began to be famous (4) with the introduction of foreign troopers; and +in the other states of Hellas everywhere the foreign brigades stand in +high esteem, as I perceive. Need, in fact, contributes greatly to +enthusiasm. Towards the necessary cost of the horses I hold that an +ample fund will be provided, (5) partly out of the pockets of those who +are only too glad to escape cavalry service (in other words, those on +whom the service devolves prefer to pay a sum of money down and be +quit of the duty), (6) and from wealthy men who are physically +incompetent; and I do not see why orphans possessed of large estates +should not contribute. (7) Another belief I hold is that amongst our +resident aliens (8) there are some who will show a laudable ambition if +incorporated with the cavalry. I argue from the fact, apparent to +myself, that amongst this class persons are to be found most zealously +disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every other branch +of honourable service which the citizens may choose to share with +them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an energetic infantry +to support your cavalry, you will find it in a corps composed of +individuals whose hatred to the foe is naturally intense. (9) But the +success of the above suggestions will depend doubtless on the +consenting will of Heaven. (10) + + (4) "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after + Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See "Hell." + VI. iv. 10. + + (5) Or, "money will be forthcoming for them." Cf. Lys. "Against + Philon," xxxi. 15; Martin, op. cit. 319. + + (6) Cf. "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Ages." i. 23. Courier brackets this + sentence ({oti... ippeuein}) as a gloss; Martin, p. 323, + emends. + + (7) As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. "Symm." + 182. 15; Lys. "Against Diogeit." 24. + + (8) Lit. "metoecs." See "Revenues," ii. + + (9) Lit. "men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author + thinking of Boeotian emigres? Cf. "Hell." VI. iii. 1, 5; Diod. xv. + 46. 6. + + (10) Lit. "with the consenting will of the gods these things all may + come to pass." + +And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this treatise "act +with God," surprises any one, he may take my word for it that with the +daily or hourly occurrence of perils which must betide him, his +wonderment will diminish; as also with the clearer recognition of the +fact that in time of war the antagonists are full of designs against +each other, but the precise issue of these plots and counterplots is +rarely known. To what counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in +his extremity save only to the gods, who know all things and forewarn +whomsoever they will by victims or by omens, by voice or vision? Is it +not rational to suppose that they will prefer to help in their need, +not those who only seek them in time of momentary stress and trouble, +but those rather who in the halcyon days of their prosperity make a +practice of rendering to Heaven the service of heart and soul? + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Cavalry General, by Xenophon + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE CAVALRY GENERAL *** + +***** This file should be named 1172.txt or 1172.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/1/1/7/1172/ + +Produced by John Bickers + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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Sparta gave him land +and property in Scillus, where he lived for many +years before having to move once more, to settle +in Corinth. He died in 354 B.C. + + + +The Cavalry General is a discourse on the merits +a cavalry general, or hipparch, in Athens should +have. Xenophon also describes the development of +a cavalry force, and some tactical details to be +applied in the field and in festival exhibition. + + + +PREPARER'S NOTE + +This was typed from Dakyns' series, "The Works of Xenophon," a +four-volume set. The complete list of Xenophon's works (though +there is doubt about some of these) is: + +Work Number of books + +The Anabasis 7 +The Hellenica 7 +The Cyropaedia 8 +The Memorabilia 4 +The Symposium 1 +The Economist 1 +On Horsemanship 1 +The Sportsman 1 +The Cavalry General 1 +The Apology 1 +On Revenues 1 +The Hiero 1 +The Agesilaus 1 +The Polity of the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians 2 + +Text in brackets "{}" is my transliteration of Greek text into +English using an Oxford English Dictionary alphabet table. The +diacritical marks have been lost. + + + + +The Cavalry General + +By Xenophon + +Translation by H. G. Dakyns + + + + + +THE DUTIES OF A HIPPARCH[1] + +or + +Commander of Cavalry at Athens + + + +I + +Your first duty is to offer sacrifice, petitioning the gods to grant +you such good gifts[2] as shall enable you in thought, word, and deed +to discharge your office in the manner most acceptable to Heaven, and +with fullest increase to yourself, and friends, and to the state at +large of affection, glory, and wide usefulness. The goodwill of +Heaven[3] so obtained, you shall proceed to mount your troopers, +taking care that the full complement which the law demands is reached, +and that the normal force of cavalry is not diminished. There will +need to be a reserve of remounts, or else a deficiency may occur at +any moment,[4] looking to the fact that some will certainly succumb to +old age, and others, from one reason or another, prove unserviceable. + +[1] For the title, etc., see Schneid. "Praemon. de Xeno." {Ipp}. + Boeckh, "P. E. A." 251. + +[2] Or, "with sacrifice to ask of Heaven those gifts of thought and + speech and conduct whereby you will exercise your office most + acceptably to the gods themselves, and with . . ." Cf. Plat. + "Phaedr." 273 E; "Euthr." 14 B. + +[3] The Greek phrase is warmer, {theon d' ileon onton}, "the gods + being kindly and propitious." Cf. Plat. "Laws," 712 B. + +[4] Lit. "at any moment there will be too few." See "Les Cavaliers + Atheniens," par Albert Martin, p. 308. + +But now suppose the complement of cavalry is levied,[5] the duty will +devolve on you of seeing, in the first place, that your horses are +well fed and in condition to stand their work, since a horse which +cannot endure fatigue will clearly be unable to overhaul the foeman or +effect escape;[6] and in the second place, you will have to see to it +the animals are tractable, since, clearly again, a horse that will not +obey is only fighting for the enemy and not his friends. So, again, an +animal that kicks when mounted must be cast; since brutes of that sort +may often do more mischief than the foe himself. Lastly, you must pay +attention to the horses' feet, and see that they will stand being +ridden over rough ground. A horse, one knows, is practically useless +where he cannot be galloped without suffering. + +[5] Lit. "in process of being raised." + +[6] Or, "to press home a charge a l'outrance, or retire from the field + unscathed." + +And now, supposing that your horses are all that they ought to be, +like pains must be applied to train the men themselves. The trooper, +in the first place, must be able to spring on horseback easily--a feat +to which many a man has owed his life ere now. And next, he must be +able to ride with freedom over every sort of ground, since any +description of country may become the seat of war. When, presently, +your men have got firm seats, your aim should be to make as many +members of the corps as possible not only skilled to hurl the javelin +from horseback with precision, but to perform all other feats expected +of the expert horseman. Next comes the need to arm both horse and man +in such a manner as to minimise the risk of wounds, and yet to +increase the force of every blow delivered.[7] This attended to, you +must contrive to make your men amenable to discipline, without which +neither good horses, nor a firm seat, nor splendour of equipment will +be of any use at all. + +[7] Lit. "so that whilst least likely to be wounded themselves, they + may most be able to injure the enemy." + +The general of cavalry,[8] as patron of the whole department, is +naturally responsible for its efficient working. In view, however, of +the task imposed upon that officer had he to carry out these various +details single-handed, the state has chosen to associate[9] with him +certain coadjutors in the persons of the phylarchs (or tribal +captains),[10] and has besides imposed upon the senate a share in the +superintendence of the cavalry. This being so, two things appear to me +desirable; the first is, so to work upon the phylarch that he shall +share your own enthusiasm for the honour of the corps;[11] and +secondly, to have at your disposal in the senate able orators,[12] +whose language may instil a wholesome fear into the knights +themselves, and thereby make them all the better men, or tend to +pacify the senate on occasion and disarm unseasonable anger. + +[8] See "Mem." III. iii. + +[9] Cf. Theophr. xxix. "The Oligarchic Man": "When the people are + deliberating whom they shall associate with the archon as joint + directors of the procession." (Jebb.) + +[10] Or, "squadron-leaders." + +[11] "Honour and prestige of knighthood." + +[12] "To keep a staff of orators." Cf. "Anab." VII. vi. 41; "Cyrop." + I. vi. 19; "Hell." VI. ii. 39. + +The above may serve as memoranda[13] of the duties which will claim +your chief attention. How the details in each case may best be carried +out is a further matter, which I will now endeavour to explain. + +[13] "A sort of notes and suggestions," "mementoes." Cf. + "Horsemanship," iii. 1, xii. 14. + +As to the men themselves--the class from which you make your pick of +troopers--clearly according to the law you are bound to enrol "the +ablest" you can find "in point of wealth and bodily physique"; and "if +not by persuasion, then by prosecution in a court of law."[14] And for +my part, I think, if legal pressure is to be applied, you should apply +it in those cases where neglect to prosecute might fairly be ascribed +to interested motives;[15] since if you fail to put compulsion on the +greater people first, you leave a backdoor of escape at once to those +of humbler means. But there will be other cases;[16] say, of young men +in whom a real enthusiasm for the service may be kindled by recounting +to them all the brilliant feats of knighthood; while you may disarm +the opposition of their guardians by dwelling on the fact that, if not +you, at any rate some future hipparch will certainly compel them to +breed horses,[17] owing to their wealth; whereas, if they enter the +service[18] during your term of office, you will undertake to deter +their lads from mad extravagance in buying horses,[19] and take pains +to make good horsemen of them without loss of time; and while pleading +in this strain, you must endeavour to make your practice correspond +with what you preach. + +[14] Lit. "by bringing them into court, or by persuasion," i.e. by + legal if not by moral pressure. See Martin, op. cit. pp. 316, 321 + foll. + +[15] i.e. "would cause you to be suspected of acting from motives of + gain." + +[16] Reading {esti de kai ous}, or if as vulg. {eti de kai}, "More + than that, it strikes me one may work on the feelings of young + fellows in such a way as to disarm." See Hartmann, "An. Xen. N." + 325. + +[17] Cf. Aesch. "P. V." 474; Herod. vi. 35; Dem. 1046. 14; Thuc. vi. + 12; Isocr. {peri tou zeugous}, 353 C. {ippotrophein d' + epikheiresas, o ton eudaimonestaton ergon esti.} See Prof. Jebb's + note to Theophr. "Ch." vi. p. 197, note 16. + +[18] Lit. "if they mount." + +[19] Like that of Pheidippides in the play; see Aristoph. "Clouds," 23 + foll. And for the price of horses, ranging from 3 minas (= L12 + circa) for a common horse, or 12 minas (say L50) for a good saddle + or race-horse, up to the extravagant sum of 13 talents (say 3000 + guineas) given for "Bucephalus," see Boeckh, "P. E. A." (Eng. tr.) + p. 74. Cf. Isaeus, 55. 22; 88. 17; Lys. "de Maled." 133. 10; Aul. + Gell. "Noct. Att." v. 2. + +To come to the existing body of knights,[20] it would tend,[21] I +think, to better rearing and more careful treatment of their horses if +the senate issued a formal notice that for the future twice the amount +of drill will be required, and that any horse unable to keep up will +be rejected. And so, too, with regard to vicious horses, I should like +to see an edict promulgated to the effect that all such animals will +be rejected. This threat would stimulate the owners of such brutes to +part with them by sale, and, what is more, to exercise discretion at +the time of purchase. So, too, it would be a good thing if the same +threat of rejection were made to include horses that kick on the +exercising-grounds, since it is impossible to keep such animals in the +ranks; and in case of an advance against a hostile force at any +point,[22] they must perforce trail in the rear, so that, thanks to +the vice of the animal which he bestrides, the trooper himself is +rendered useless. + +[20] Or, "As regards those who are actually serving in the cavalry." + For a plausible emend. of this passage (S. 13) see Courier ("Notes + sur le texte," p. 54); L. Dind. ad loc. + +[21] Lit. "the senate might incite to . . ." + +[22] Reading {ean}, or if {kan} with the MSS., trans. "even in case of + an advance against the enemy." + +With a view to strengthening the horses' feet: if any one has an +easier or more simple treatment to suggest, by all means let it be +adopted; but for myself, as the result of experience, I maintain that +the proper course is to lay down a loose layer of cobbles from the +road, a pound or so in weight, on which the horse should be put to +stand, when taken from the manger to be groomed.[23] The point is, +that the horse will keep perpetually moving first one foot and then +another on the stones, whilst being rubbed down or simply because he +is fidgeted by flies. Let any one try the experiment, and, I venture +to predict, not only will he come to trust my guidance, but he will +see his horse's hoofs grow just as round and solid as the cobbles. + +[23] See below, "Horse." iv. 4. The Greeks did not "shoe" their + horses. + +Assuming, then, your horses are all that horses ought to be, how is +the trooper to attain a like degree of excellence? To that question I +will now address myself. The art of leaping on to horseback is one +which we would fain persuade the youthful members of the corps to +learn themselves; though, if you choose to give them an +instructor,[24] all the greater credit to yourself. And as to the +older men you cannot do better than accustom them to mount, or rather +to be hoisted up by aid of some one, Persian fashion.[25] + +[24] Like Pheidon, in the fragment of Mnesimachus's play "The Breeder + of Horses," ap. Athen. See Courier, ib. p. 55. + +[25] See "Anab." IV. iv. 4; "Horsemanship," vi. 12. + +With a view to keeping a firm seat on every sort of ground, it may be +perhaps be thought a little irksome to be perpetually marching out, +when there is no war;[26] but all the same, I would have you call your +men together and impress upon them the need to train themselves, when +they ride into the country to their farms, or elsewhere, by leaving +the high road and galloping at a round pace on ground of every +description.[27] This method will be quite as beneficial to them as +the regular march out, and at the same time not produce the same sense +of tedium. You may find it useful also to remind them that the state +on her side is quite willing to expend a sum of nearly forty +talents[28] yearly, so that in the event of war she may not have to +look about for cavalry, but have a thoroughly efficient force to hand +for active service. Let these ideas be once instilled into their +minds, and, mark my words, your trooper will fall with zest to +practising horsemanship, so that if ever the flame of war burst out he +may not be forced to enter the lists a raw recruit, unskilled to fight +for fame and fatherland or even life itself. + +[26] In the piping days of peace. + +[27] See "Econ." xi. 17. Cf. Theophr. "Ch." viii. "The Late Learner": + {kai eis agron eph' ippou allotriou katakhoumenos ama meletan + ippazesthai, kai peson ten kephalon kateagenai}, "Riding into the + country on another's horse, he will practise his horsemanship by + the way, and falling, will break his head" (Jebb). + +[28] = L10,000 circa. See Boeckh, op. cit. p. 251. + +It would be no bad thing either, to forewarn your troopers that one +day you will take them out yourself for a long march, and lead them +across country over every kind of ground. Again, whilst practising the +evolutions of the rival cavalry display,[29] it will be well to gallop +out at one time to one district and again to another. Both men and +horses will be benefited. + +[29] Lit. "the anthippasia." See iii. 11, and "Horsemanship," viii. + 10. + +Next, as to hurling the javelin from horseback, the best way to secure +as wide a practice of the art as possible, it strikes me, would be to +issue an order to your phylarchs that it will be their duty to put +themselves at the head of the marksmen of several tribes, and to ride +out to the butts for practice. In this way a spirit of emulation will +be roused--the several officers will, no doubt, be eager to turn out +as many marksmen as they can to aid the state.[30] + +[30] On competition cf. "Cyrop." II. i. 22, and our author passim. + +And so too, to ensure that splendour of accoutrement which the force +requires,[31] the greatest help may once again be looked for from the +phylarchs; let these officers but be persuaded that from the public +point of view the splendid appearance of their squadrons[32] will +confer a title to distinction far higher than that of any personal +equipment. Nor is it reasonable to suppose that they will be deaf to +such an argument, since the very desire to hold the office of phylarch +itself proclaims a soul alive to honour and ambition. And what is +more, they have it in their power, in accordance with the actual +provisions of the law, to equip their men without the outlay of a +single penny, by enforcing that self-equipment out of pay[33] which +the law prescribes. + +[31] Or, "a beauty of equipment, worthy of our knights." Cf. Aristoph. + "Lysistr." 561, and a fragment of "The Knights," of Antiphanes, + ap. Athen. 503 B, {pant' 'Amaltheias keras}. See "Hiero," ix. 6; + "Horse." xi. 10. + +[32] Lit. "tribes," {phulai} (each of the ten tribes contributing + about eighty men, or, as we might say, a squadron). + +[33] i.e. the {katastasis}, "allowance," so technically called. Cf. + Lys. "for Mantitheos"; Jebb, "Att. Or." i. 246; Boeckh, "P. E. A." + II. xxi. p. 263; K. F. Hermann, 152, 19; Martin, op. cit. p. 341. + +But to proceed. In order to create a spirit of obedience in your +subordinates, you have two formidable instruments;[34] as a matter of +plain reason you can show them what a host of blessings the word +discipline implies; and as a matter of hard fact you can, within the +limits of the law, enable the well-disciplined to reap advantage, +while the undisciplined are made to feel the pinch at every turn. + +[34] "The one theoretic, the other practical." + +But if you would rouse the emulation of your phylarchs, if you would +stir in each a personal ambition to appear at the head of his own +squadron in all ways splendidly appointed, the best incentive will be +your personal example. You must see to it that your own bodyguard[35] +are decked with choice accoutrement and arms; you must enforce on them +the need to practise shooting pertinaciously; you must expound to them +the theory of the javelin, yourself an adept in the art through +constant training.[36] + +[35] Techn. {prodromoi}, possibly = the Hippotoxotai, or corps of 200 + mounted archers--Scythians; cf. "Mem." III. iii. 11. Or, probably, + "mounted skirmishers," distinct from the {ippotexotai}. Cf. + Arrian, "An." i. 12. 7. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49. 5. + +[36] Reading as vulg. {eisegoio}, or if with L. D. {egoio} (cf. above, + S. 21), trans. "you must lead them out to the butts yourself." + +Lastly, were it possible to institute and offer prizes to the several +tribal squadrons in reward for every excellence of knighthood known to +custom in the public spectacles of our city, we have here, I think, an +incentive which will appeal to the ambition of every true Athenian. +How small, in the like case of our choruses, the prizes offered, and +yet how great the labour and how vast the sums expended![37] But we +must discover umpires of such high order that to win their verdict +will be as precious to the victor as victory itself. + +[37] See "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Hiero," ix. 3; "Cyrop." I. vi. 18; + Martin, op. cit. p. 260 f. + + + +II + +Given, then, that your troopers are thoroughly trained in all the +above particulars, it is necessary, I presume, that they should +further be instructed in a type of evolution the effect of which will +show itself not only in the splendour of the great processions[1] in +honour of the gods, but in the manouvres of the exercising-ground; in +the valorous onslaught of real battle when occasion calls; and in the +ease with which whole regiments will prosecute their march, or cross a +river, or thread a defile without the slightest symptom of confusion. +What this formation is--essential, at least in my opinion, to the +noblest execution of their several duties--I will now, without delay, +endeavour to explain.[2] + +[1] e.g. the Panathenaic, as depicted on the frieze of the Parthenon. + +[2] Or, "what this best order is, the adoption of which will give + these several features fair accomplishment, I will without further + pause set forth." + +We take as our basis, then, the constitutional division of ten +tribes.[3] Given these, the proper course, I say, is to appoint, with +the concurrence of the several phylarchs, certain decadarchs +(file-leaders)[4] to be selected from the men ripest of age and +strength, most eager to achieve some deed of honour and to be known to +fame. These are to form your front-rank men;[5] and after these, a +corresponding number should be chosen from the oldest and the most +sagacious members of the squadron, to form the rear-rank of the files +or decads; since, to use an illustration, iron best severs iron when +the forefront of the blade[6] is strong and tempered, and the momentum +at the back is sufficient. + +[3] See "Revenues," iv. 30. + +[4] Decadarchs, lit. commanders of ten, a "file" consisting normally + (or ideally) of ten men. Cf. "Cyrop. II. ii. 30; VIII. i. 14. It + will be borne in mind that a body of cavalry would, as a rule, be + drawn up in battle line at least four deep (see "Hell." III. iv. + 13), and frequently much deeper. (The Persian cavalry in the + engagement just referred to were twelve deep.) + +[5] See "Cyrop." III. iii. 41, 57; VI. iii. 24, 27; VII. i. 15; "Pol. + Lac." xi. 5. These front-rank men would seem to correspond to our + "troop guides," and the rear-rank men to our serre-files to some + extent. + +[6] Cf. Aelian Tact. 26, ap. Courier. + +The interval between the front and rear-rank men will best be filled +supposing that the decadarchs are free to choose their own supports, +and those chosen theirs, and so on following suit; since on this +principle we may expect each man to have his trustiest comrade at his +back. + +As to your lieutenant,[7] it is every way important to appoint a good +man to this post, whose bravery will tell; and in case of need at any +time to charge the enemy, the cheering accents of his voice will +infuse strength into those in front; or when the critical moment of +retreat arrives, his sage conduct in retiring will go far, we may well +conclude, towards saving his division.[8] + +[7] {ton aphegoumenon}, lit. "him who leads back" (a function which + would devolve upon the {ouragos} under many circumstances). Cf. + "Cyrop." II. iii. 21; "Hell." IV. viii. 37; Plat. "Laws," 760 D. = + our "officer serre-file," to some extent. So Courier: "Celui qui + commande en serre-file. C'est chez nous le capitaine en second." + +[8] Or, "the rest of the squadron." Lit. "his own tribesmen." + +An even number of file-leaders will admit of a greater number of equal +subdivisions than an odd. + +The above formation pleases me for two good reasons: in the first +place, all the front-rank men are forced to act as officers;[9] and +the same man, mark you, when in command is somehow apt to feel that +deeds of valour are incumbent on him which, as a private, he ignores; +and in the next place, at a crisis when something calls for action on +the instant, the word of command passed not to privates but to +officers takes speedier effect. + +[9] i.e. all find themselves in a position of command, and there is + nothing like command to inspire that feeling of noblesse oblige + which is often lacking in the private soldier. See Thuc. v. 66; + "Pol. Lac." xi. 5. + +Supposing, then, a regiment of cavalry drawn up in this formation: +just as the squadron-leaders have their several positions for the +march (or the attack[10]) assigned them by the commander, so the file- +leaders will depend upon the captain for the order passed along the +line in what formation they are severally to march; and all being +prearranged by word of mouth, the whole will work more smoothly than +if left to chance--like people crowding out of a theatre to their +mutual annoyance. And when it comes to actual encounter greater +promptitude will be displayed: supposing the attack is made in front, +by the file-leaders who know that this is their appointed post; or in +case of danger suddenly appearing in rear, then by the rear-rank men, +whose main idea is that to desert one's post is base. A want of +orderly arrangement, on the contrary, leads to confusion worse +confounded at every narrow road, at every passage of a river; and when +it comes to fighting, no one of his own free will assigns himself his +proper post in face of an enemey. + +[10] Lit. "where to ride," i.e. in what formation whether on the line + of march or in action. + +The above are fundamental matters not to be performed without the +active help of every trooper who would wish to be a zealous and +unhesitating fellow-worker with his officer.[11] + +[11] Cf. "Hiero," vii. 2; "Cyrop." II. iv. 10. + + + +III + +I come at length to certain duties which devolve upon the general of +cavalry himself in person: and first and foremost, it concerns him to +obtain the favour of the gods by sacrifices in behalf of the state +cavalry; and in the next place to make the great procession at the +festivals a spectacle worth seeing; and further, with regard to all +those public shows demanded by the state, wherever held,[1] whether in +the grounds of the Acadamy or the Lyceum, at Phaleron or within the +hippodrome, it is his business as commander of the knights to see that +every pageant of the sort is splendidly exhibited. + +[1] Cf. Theophr. "Ch." vii. (Jebb ad loc. p. 204, n. 25). + +But these, again, are memoranda.[2] To the question how the several +features of the pageant shall receive their due impress of beauty, I +will now address myself. + +[2] Read {tauta men alla upomnemata}, or if with Pantazid. {apla}, + trans. "these are simply memoranda." + +And first to speak of the Processions.[3] These will, I think, be +rendered most acceptable to Heaven and to earth's spectators were the +riders to ride round the Agora and temples, commencing from the +Hermae, and pay honour to the sacred beings, each in turn, whose +shrines and statues are there congregated. (Thus in the great +Dionysia[4] the choruses embrace their gracious service to the other +gods and to the Twelve with circling dance.[5]) When the circuit is +completed, and the riders are back again in front of the Hermae, it +would add, I think, to the beauty of the scene[6] if at this point +they formed in companies of tribes, and giving their horses rein, +swept forward at the gallop to the Eleusinion. Nor must I omit to note +the right position of the lance, to lessen as far as possible the risk +of mutual interference.[7] Each trooper should hold his lance straight +between the ears of his charger, which in proportion to the +distinctness given to the weapon will rouse terror, and at the same +time create a vague idea of multitudinousness.[8] + +[3] {tas pompas}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 147, 160. + +[4] Celebrated in March (Elaphebolion). + +[5] Or, "by dancing roundelays in honour of the gods, especially The + Twelve"; and as to the Twelve cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 235, + "Birds," 95; Plat. "Laws," 654; Paus. i. 3. 3; 40. 3; viii. 25. 3; + Plut. "Nic." 13; Lycurg. 198. + +[6] Or, "it would be a beautiful sequel to the proceedings, in my + opinion, if at this point they formed in squadron column, and + giving rein to their chargers, swept forward at full gallop to the + Eleusinion." See Leake, op. cit. i. 296. + +[7] Lit. "nor will I omit how the lances shall as little as possible + overlap one another." + +[8] Lit. "Every trooper should be at pains to keep his lance straight + between the ears of his charger, if these weapons are to be + distinct and terror-striking, and at the same time to appear + numerous." + +As soon as they have ceased from the charge at full gallop, the pace +should at once be changed; and now, with footing slow, let them +retrace their course back to the temples. In this way every detail +characteristic of knightly pageantry[9] will have been displayed to +the delight of god and man. That our knights are not accustomed to +these actual evolutions, I am well aware; but I also recognise the +fact that the performances are good and beautiful and will give +pleasure to spectators. I do not fail to note, moreover, that novel +feats of horsemanship have before now been performed by our knights, +when their commanders have had the ability to get their wishes readily +complied with. + +[9] Lit. "everything that may be performed on a mounted horse." + Possibly, as Cobet suggests, {kala} has dropped out. See + "Horsemanship," xi. 3, 6. + +But now, let us suppose it is the occasion of the march-past,[10] in +the grounds of the Lyceum, before the javelin-throwing. The scene +would gain in beauty if the tribal squadrons were to ride in line of +columns[11] as if for battle, in two divisions, five squadrons in the +one and five in the other, with the hipparch and the phylarchs at +their head, in such formation as to allow the whole breadth of the +racecourse to be filled. Then, as soon as they have gained the top[12] +of the incline, which leads down to the theatre opposite, it would, I +think, be obviously useful here to show the skill with which your +troopers can gallop down a steep incline[13] with as broad a front as +the nature of the ground permits. I am quite clear that your troopers, +if they can trust their own skill in galloping, will take kindly to +such an exhibition; while as certainly, if unpractised, they must look +to it that the enemy does not give them a lesson in the art some day, +perforce. + +[10] {dielaunosin en Lukeio}. See A. Martin, op. cit. 196; cf. Arist. + "Peace," 356. + +[11] Or, as we might say, "in regimental order," "with the commanding + officer in front and their respective squadron-leaders"; and for + the Lyceum see "Hell." I. i. 33; II. iv. 27. + +[12] Lit. "the apex of the confronting theatre." + +[13] See "Horsemanship," viii. 6; "Anab." IV. viii. 28. + +To come to the test manouvres.[14] The order in which the men will +ride with showiest effect on these occasions has been already +noted.[15] As far as the leader is himself concerned, and presuming he +is mounted on a powerful horse, I would suggest that he should each +time ride round on the outer flank; in which case he will himself be +kept perpetually moving at a canter, and those with him, as they +become the wheeling flank, will, by turns, fall into the same pace, +with this result: the spectacle presented to the senate will be that +of an ever rapidly moving stream of cavaliers; and the horses having, +each in turn, the opportunity to recover breath, will not be overdone. + +[14] {dokimasiais}, reviews and inspections. See A. Martin, op. cit. + p. 333. + +[15] Where? Some think in a lost passage of the work (see Courier, p. + 111, n. 1); or is the reference to ch. ii. above? and is the scene + of the {dokimasiai} Phaleron? There is no further refernece to {ta + Phaleroi}. Cf. S. 1, above. See Aristot. "Ath. Pol." 49 (now the + locus classicus on the subject), and Dr. Sandys ad loc. The scene + is represented on a patera from Orvieto, now in the Berlin Museum, + reproduced and fully described in "The Art of Horsemanship by + Xenophon," translated, with chapters on the Greek Riding-Horse, + and with notes, by Morris H. Morgan, p. 76. + +On occasions when the display takes place in the hippodrome,[16] the +best arrangement would be, in the first place, that the troops should +fill the entire space with extended front, so forcing out the mob of +people from the centre;[17] and secondly, that in the sham fight[18] +which ensues, the tribal squadrons, swiftly pursuing and retiring, +should gallop right across and through each other, the two hipparchs +at their head, each with five squadrons under him. Consider the effect +of such a spectacle: the grim advance of rival squadrons front to +front; the charge; the solemn pause as, having swept across the +hippodrome, they stand once more confronting one another; and then the +trumpet sounds, whereat a second and yet swifter hostile advance, how +fine the effect!--and once again they are at the halt; and once again +the trumpet sounds, and for the third time, at the swiftest pace of +all, they make a final charge across the field, before dismissal; +after which they come to a halt en masse, in battle order; and, as now +customary,[19] ride up to salute the senate, and disband. These +evolutions will at once approve themselves, I think, not only for +their novelty, but for their resemblacne to real warfare. The notion +that the hipparch is to ride at a slower pace than his phylarchs, and +to handle his horse precisely in their style, seems to me below the +dignity of the office. + +[16] In the hippodrome near Munychia, I suppose. + +[17] Lit. ". . . it would be beautiful to form with extended front, so + as to fill the hippodrome with horses and drive out the people + from the central space, beautiful to . . ." The new feature of the + review would seem to have been the introduction of a sham fight in + three parts, down to the customary advance of the whole corps, + {epi phalaggos}. Cf. Virg. "Aen." v. 545 foll. But see Martin, op. + cit. 197. + +[18] Lit. "the anthippasia." + +[19] "As is your custom." See "Mem." III. iii. 6. + +When the cavalry parade takes place on the hard-trodden[20] ground of +the Academy, I have the following advice to give. To avoid being +jolted off his horse at any moment, the trooper should, in charging, +lean well back,[21] and to prevent his charger stumbling, he should +while wheeling hold his head well up, but along a straight stretch he +should force the pace. Thus the spectacle presented to the senate will +combine the elements of beauty and of safety. + +[20] Cf. Thuc. vii. 27. + +[21] See "Horsemanship," vii. 17. + + + +IV + +To pass to a different topic: on the march, the general will need to +exercise a constant forethought to relieve the horses' backs and the +troopers' legs, by a judicious interchange of riding and of marching. +Wherein consists the golden mean, will not be hard to find; since +"every man a standard to himself,"[1] applies, and your sensations are +an index to prevent your fellows being overdone through inadvertence. + +[1] The phrase is proverbial. Cf. Plat. "Theaet." 183 B. + +But now supposing you are on the march in some direction, and it is +uncertain whether you will stumble on the enemy, your duty is to rest +your squadrons in turn; since it will go hard with you, if the enemy +come to close quarters when the whole force is dismounted.[2] Or, +again, suppose the roads are narrow, or you have to cross a defile, +you will pass, by word of mouth, the command to diminish the front;[3] +or given, again, you are debouching on broad roads, again the word of +command will pass by word of mouth, to every squadron, "to increase +their front"; or lastly, supposing you have reached flat country, "to +form squadron in order of battle." If only for the sake of practice, +it is well to go through evolutions of the sort;[4] besides which it +adds pleasure to the march thus to diversify the line of route with +cavalry mavouvres. + +[2] See "Hell." V. iv. 40 for a case in point. + +[3] Or, "advance by column of route." See "Hell." VII. iv. 23. + +[4] Or, "it is a pleasant method of beguiling the road." Cf. Plat. + "Laws," i. 625 B. + +Supposing, however, you are off roads altogether and moving fast over +difficult ground, no matter whether you are in hostile or in friendly +territory, it will be useful if the scouts attached to squadrons[5] +rode on in advance, their duty being, in case of encountering pathless +clefts or gullies, to work round on to practicable ground, and to +discover at what point the troopers may effect a passage, so that +whole ranks may not go blindly roaming.[6] + +[5] {ton upereton} = "ground scouts," al. "orderlies." Ordonnances, + trabans (Courier). See Rustow and Kochly, p. 140. "Cyrop." II. i. + 21; II. iv. 4; V. iii. 52; VII. v. 18, and VI. ii. 13; "Anab." I. + ix. 27; II. i. 9; where "adjutants," "orderlies" would seem to be + implied. + +[6] Al. "to prevent whole divisions losing their way." Cf. "Anab." + VIII. iii. 18. + +Again, if there is prospect of danger on the march, a prudent general +can hardly show his wisdom better than by sending out advanced patrols +in front of the ordinary exploring parties to reconnoitre every inch +of ground minutely. So to be apprised of the enemy's position in +advance, and at as great a distance off as possible, cannot fail to be +useful, whether for purposes of attack or defence; just as it is +useful also to enforce a halt at the passage of a river or some other +defile, so that the men in rear may not knock their horses all to bits +in endeavouring to overtake their leader. These are precepts known, I +admit, to nearly all the world, but it is by no means every one who +will take pains to apply them carefully.[7] + +[7] See "Econ." xx. 6. foll. + +It is the business of the hipparch to take infinite precautions while +it is still peace, to make himself acquainted with the details, not +only of his own, but of the hostile territory;[8] or if, as may well +betide, he personally should lack the knowledge, he should invite the +aid of others[9]--those best versed in the topography of any district. +Since there is all the difference in the world between a leader +acquainted with his roads and one who is not; and when it comes to +actual designs upon the enemy, the difference between knowing and not +knowing the locality can hardly be exaggerated. + +[8] Or, "with hostile and friendly territories alike." + +[9] Lit. "he should associate with himself those of the rest"; i.e. + his colleagues or other members of the force. + +So, too, with regard to spies and intelligencers. Before war commences +your business is to provide yourself with a supply of people friendly +to both states, or maybe merchants (since states are ready to receive +the importer of goods with open arms); sham deserters may be found +occasionally useful.[10] Not, of course, that the confidence you feel +in your spies must ever cause you to neglect outpost duty; indeed your +state of preparation should at any moment be precisely what it ought +to be, supposing the approach or the imminent arrival of the enemy +were to be announced. Let a spy be ever so faithful, there is always +the risk he may fail to report his intelligence at the critical +moment, since the obstacles which present themselves in war are not to +be counted on the fingers. + +[10] Cf. "Cyrop." VI. i. 39, where one of the Persians, Araspas, + undertakes to play this role to good effect. + +But to proceed to another topic. The enemy is less likely to get wind +of an advance of cavalry, if the orders for march were passed from +mouth to mouth rather than announced by voice of herald, or public +notice.[11] Accordingly, in addition to[12] this method of ordering +the march by word passed along the line, the appointment of file- +leaders seems desirable, who again are to be supplemented by section- +leaders,[13] so that the number of men to whom each petty officer has +to transmit an order will be very few;[14] while the section-leaders +will deploy and increase the front, whatever the formation, without +confusion, whenever there is occasion for the movement.[15] + +[11] i.e. "given by general word of command, or in writing." As to the + "word-of-mouth command," see above, S. 3; "Hell." VII. v. 9; and + for the "herald," see "Anab." III. iv. 36. + +[12] Reading {pros to dia p.}, or if {pros to} . . . transl. "with a + view to." + +[13] Lit. pempadarchs, i.e. No. 6 in the file. See "Cyrop." II. i. 22 + foll., iii. 21. + +[14] Lit. "so that each officer may pass the word to as few as + possible." + +[15] Cf. "Anab." IV. vi. 6. + +When an advanced guard is needed, I say for myself I highly approve of +secret pickets and outposts, if only because in supplying a guard to +protect your friends you are contriving an ambuscade to catch the +enemy. Also the outposts will be less exposed to a secret attack, +being themselves unseen, and yet a source of great alarm to the enemy; +since the bare knowledge that there are outposts somewhere, though +where precisely no man knows, will prevent the enemy from feeling +confident, and oblige him to mistrust every tenable position. An +exposed outpost, on the contrary, presents to the broad eye of day its +dangers and also its weaknesses.[16] Besides which, the holder of a +concealed outpost can always place a few exposed vedettes beyond his +hidden pickets, and so endeavour to decoy the enemy into an ambuscade. +Or he may play the part of trapper with effect by placing a second +exposed outpost in rear of the other; a device which may serve to take +in the unwary foeman quite as well as that before named. + +[16] Lit. "makes plain its grounds of terror as of confidence." + +Indeed I take it to be the mark of a really prudent general never to +run a risk of his own choosing, except where it is plain to him +beforehand, that he will get the better of his adversary. To play into +the enemy's hands may more fitly be described as treason to one's +fellow-combatants than true manliness. So, too, true generalship +consists in attacking where the enemy is weakest, even if the point be +some leagues distant. Severity of toil weighs nothing in the scale +against the danger of engaging a force superior to your own.[17] +Still, if on any occasion the enemy advance in any way to place +himself between fortified points that are friendly to you, let him be +never so superior in force, your game is to attack on whichever flank +you can best conceal your advance, or, still better, on both flanks +simultaneously; since, while one detachment is retiring after +delivering its attack, a charge pressed home from the opposite quarter +cannot fail to throw the enemy into confusion and to give safety to +your friends. + +[17] N.B. Throughout this treatise the author has to meet the case of + a small force of cavalry acting on the defensive. + +How excellent a thing it is to endeavour to ascertain an enemy's +position by means of spies and so forth, as in ancient story; yet best +of all, in my opinion, is it for the commander to try to seize some +coign of vantage, from which with his own eyes he may descry the +movements of the enemy and watch for any error on his part.[18] + +[18] As, e.g. Epaminondas at Tegea. See "Hell." VII. v. 9. + +Whatever may be snatched by ruse, thief fashion,[19] your business is +to send a competent patrol to seize; or again where capture by coup de +main[20] is practicable, you will despatch a requisite body of troops +to effect a coup de main. Or take the case: the enemy is on the march +in some direction, and a portion of his force becomes detached from +his main body or through excess of confidence is caught straggling; do +not let the opportunity escape, but make it a rule always to pursue a +weaker with a stronger force.[21] These, indeed, are rules of +procedure, which it only requires a simple effort of the mind to +appreciate. Creatures far duller of wit than man have this ability: +kites and falcons, when anything is left unguarded, pounce and carry +it off and retire into safety without being caught; or wolves, again, +will hunt down any quarry left widowed of its guard, or thieve what +they can in darksome corners.[22] In case a dog pursues and overtakes +them, should he chance to be weaker the wolf attacks him, or if +stronger, the wolf will slaughter[23] his quarry and make off. At +other times, if the pack be strong enough to make light of the +guardians of a flock, they will marshal their battalions, as it were, +some to drive off the guard and others to effect the capture, and so +by stealth or fair fight they provide themselves with the necessaries +of life. I say, if dumb beasts are capable of conducting a raid with +so much sense and skill, it is hard if any average man cannot prove +himself equally intelligent with creatures which themselves fall +victims to the craft of man. + +[19] e.g. defiles, bridges, outposts, stores, etc. + +[20] e.g. a line of outposts, troops in billets or bivouac, etc. + +[21] "It is a maxim, the quarry should be weaker than the pursuer." + +[22] Zeune cf. Ael. "N. A." viii. 14, on the skill of wolves in + hunting. + +[23] For {aposphaxas} Courier suggests {apospasas}, "dragging off what + he can." + + + +V + +Here is another matter which every horseman ought to know, and that is +within what distance a horse can overhaul a man on foot; or the +interval necessary to enable a slower horse to escape one more fleet. +It is the business rather of the cavalry general to recognise at a +glance the sort of ground on which infantry will be superior to +cavalry and where cavalry will be superior to infantry. He should be a +man of invention, ready of device to turn all circumstances to +account, so as to give at one time a small body of cavalry the +appearance of a larger, and again a large the likeness of a smaller +body; he should have the craft to appear absent when close at hand, +and within striking distance when a long way off; he should know +exactly not only how to steal an enemy's position, but by a master +stroke of cunning[1] to spirit his own cavalry away, and, when least +expected, deliver his attack. Another excellent specimen of +inventiveness may be seen in the general's ability, while holding a +weak position himself, to conjure up so lively an apprehension in the +enemy that he will not dream of attacking; or conversely, when, being +in a strong position himself, he can engender a fatal boldness in the +adversary to venture an attack. Thus with the least cost to yourself, +you will best be able to catch your enemy tripping. + +[1] Or, "sleight of hand"; and for {kleptein} = escamoter see "Anab." + IV. vi. 11, 15; V. vi. 9. + +But to avoid suspicion of seeming to prescribe impossible feats, I +will set down, in so many words, the procedure in certain crucial +instances. + +The best safeguard against failure in any attempt to enforce pursuit +or conduct a retreat lies in a thorough knowledge of your horse's +powers.[2] But how is this experience to be got? Simply by paying +attention to their behaviour in the peaceable manouvres of the sham +fight, when there is no real enemy to intervene--how the animals come +off, in fact, and what stamina they show in the various charges and +retreats. + +[2] {empeiria}, "empirical knowledge." + +Or suppose the problem is to make your cavalry appear numerous. In the +first place, let it be a fundamental rule, if possible, not to attempt +to delude the enemy at close quarters; distance, as it aids illusion, +will promote security. The next point is to bear in mind that a mob of +horses clustered together (owing perhaps to the creatures' size) will +give a suggestion of number, whereas scattered they may easily be +counted. + +Another means by which you may give your troop an appearance of +numerical strength beyond reality consists in posting, in and out +between the troopers, so many lines of grooms[3] who should carry +lances if possible, or staves at any rate to look like lances--a plan +which will serve alike whether you mean to display your cavalry force +at the halt or are deploying to increase front; in either case, +obviously the bulk and volume of the force, whatever your formation, +will appear increased. Conversely, if the problem be to make large +numbers appear small, supposing you have ground at command adapted to +concealment, the thing is simple: by leaving a portion of your men +exposed and hiding away a portion in obscurity, you may effect your +object.[4] But if the ground nowhere admits of cover, your best course +is to form your files[5] into ranks one behind the other, and wheel +them round so as to leave intervals between each file; the troopers +nearest the enemy in each file will keep their lances erect, and the +rest low enough not to show above. + +[3] Cf. Polyaen. II. i. 17, of Agesilaus in Macedonia, 394 B.C. (our + author was probably present); IV. iv. 3, of Antipater in Thessaly, + 323 B.C. + +[4] Lit. "steal your troopers." See "Cyrop." V. iv. 48. + +[5] Lit. "form your decads (squads of ten; cf. our 'fours') in ranks + and deploy with intervals." + +To come to the next topic: you may work on the enemy's fears by the +various devices of mock ambuscades, sham relief parties, false +information. Conversely, his confidence will reach an overweening +pitch, if the idea gets abroad that his opponents have troubles of +their own and little leisure for offensive operations. + +But over and beyond all that can be written on the subject-- +inventiveness is a personal matter, beyond all formulas--the true +general must be able to take in, deceive, decoy, delude his adversary +at every turn, as the particular occasion demands. In fact, there is +no instrument of war more cunning than chicanery;[6] which is not +surprising when one reflects that even little boys, when playing, "How +many (marbles) have I got in my hand?"[7] are able to take one another +in successfully. Out goes a clenched fist, but with such cunning that +he who holds a few is thought to hold several; or he may present +several and appear to be holding only a few. Is it likely that a grown +man, giving his whole mind to methods of chicanery, will fail of +similar inventiveness? Indeed, when one comes to consider what is +meant by advantages snatched in war, one will find, i think, that the +greater part of them, and those the more important, must be attributed +in some way or other to displays of craft;[8] which things being so, a +man had better either not attempt to exercise command, or, as part and +parcel of his general equipment, let him pray to Heaven to enable him +to exercise this faculty and be at pains himself to cultivate his own +inventiveness. + +[6] Cf. "Cyrop." IV. ii. 26; VII. i. 18. + +[7] {posinda}, lit. "How many?" (i.e. dice, nuts, marbles, etc.); cf. + the old game, "Buck! buck! how many horns do I hold up?" Schneid. + cf. Aristot. "Rhet."iii. 5. 4. + +[8] "Have been won in connection with craft." See "Cyrop." I. vi. 32; + "Mem." III. i. 6; IV. ii. 15. + +A general, who has access to the sea, may exercise the faculty as +follows: he may either, whilst apparently engaged in fitting out his +vessels, strike a blow on land;[9] or with a make-believe of some +aggressive design by land, hazard an adventure by sea.[10] + +[9] A ruse adopted by Jason, 371 B.C. Cf. "Hell." VI. iv. 21. + +[10] Cf. the tactics of the Athenians at Catana, 415 B.C. Thuc. vi. + 64. + +I consider it to be the duty of the cavalry commander to point out +clearly to the state authority the essential weakness of a force of +cavalry unaided by light infantry, as opposed to cavalry with foot- +soldiers attached.[11] It is duty also, having got his footmen, to +turn the force to good account. It is possible to conceal them +effectively, not only between the lines, but in rear also of the +troopers--the mounted soldier towering high above his follower on +foot. + +[11] Or, "divorced from infantry." In reference to {amippoi}, cf. + Thuc. v. 57; "Hell." VII. v. 23. + +With regard to these devices and to any others which invention may +suggest towards capturing the foeman by force or fraud, I have one +common word of advice to add, which is, to act with God, and then +while Heaven propitious smiles, fortune will scarcely dare to +frown.[12] + +[12] Or, "and then by the grace of Heaven you may win the smiles of + fortune," reading with Courier, etc., {ina kai e tukhe sunepaine}. + Cf. "Cyrop." III. iii. 20. + +At times there is no more effective fraud than a make-believe[13] of +over-caution alien to the spirit of adventure. This itself will put +the enemy off his guard and ten to one will lure him into some +egregious blunder; or conversely, once get a reputation for +foolhardiness established, and then with folded hands sit feigning +future action, and see what a world of trouble you will thereby cause +your adversary. + +[13] S. 15 should perhaps stand before S. 13. + + + +VI + +But, after all, no man, however great his plastic skill, can hope to +mould and shape a work of art to suit his fancy, unless the stuff on +which he works be first prepared and made ready to obey the +craftsman's will. Nor certainly where the raw material consists of +men, will you succeed, unless, under God's blessing, these same men +have been prepared and made ready to meet their officer in a friendly +spirit. They must come to look upon him as of greater sagacity than +themselves in all that concerns encounter with the enemy. This +friendly disposition on the part of his subordinates, one must +suppose, will best be fostered by a corresponding sympathy on the part +of their commander towards the men themselves, and that not by simple +kindness but by the obvious pains he takes on their behalf, at one +time to provide them with food, and at another to secure safety of +retreat, or again by help of outposts and the like, to ensure +protection during rest and sleep. + +When on active service[1] the commander must prove himself +conspicuously careful in the matter of forage, quarters, water-supply, +outposts,[2] and all other requisites; forecasting the future and +keeping ever a wakeful eye in the interest of those under him; and in +case of any advantage won, the truest gain which the head of affairs +can reap is to share with his men the profits of success. + +[1] Al. "on garrison outpost duty." + +[2] Reading {phulakon}, or if with Courier {thulakon}, "haversacks," + i.e. "la farine, le contenant pour le contenu." + +Indeed, to put the matter in a nutshell, there is small risk a general +will be regarded with contempt by those he leads, if, whatever he may +have to preach, he shows himself best able to perform. + +Beginning with the simple art of mounting on horseback, let him so +train himself in all particulars of horsemanship that, to look at him, +the men must see their leader is a horseman who can leap a trench +unscathed or scale a parapet,[3] or gallop down a bank, and hurl a +javelin with the best. These are accomplishments which one and all +will pave the way to make contempt impossible. If, further, the men +shall see in their commander one who, with the knowledge how to act, +has force of will and cunning to make them get the better of the +enemy; and if, further, they have got the notion well into their heads +that this same leader may be trusted not to lead them recklesssly +against the foe, without the help of Heaven, or despite the auspices-- +I say, you have a list of virtues which will make those under his +command the more obedient to their ruler. + +[3] Or, "stone walls," "dykes." + + + +VII + +If prudence may be spoken of as the one quality distinctive of true +generalship, there are two respects in which a general of cavalry at +Athens should pre-eminently excel. Not only must he show a dutiful +submission to the gods; but he must possess great fighting qualities, +seeing that he has on his borders a rival cavalry equal to his own in +number and backed by a large force of heavy infantry.[1] So that, if +he undertake to invade the enemy's territory unsupported by the other +forces of the city[2]--in dealing with two descriptions of forces +single-handed, he and his cavalry must look for a desperate adventure; +or to take the converse case, that the enemy invades the soil of +Attica, to begin with, he will not invade at all, unless supported by +other cavalry besides his own and an infantry force sufficient to +warrant the supposition that no force on our side can cope with him. + +[1] The reference is doubtless to the Thebans. Unfortunately we do not + know, on good authority, how many troops of either arm they had in + the field at Leuctra or at Mantinea. + +[2] Lit. "without the rest of the city," i.e. the hoplites, etc. + +Now, to deal with this vast hostile array, if only the city will +determine to sally out en masse to protect her rural districts, the +prospect is fair. Under God, our troopers, if properly cared for, are +the finer men; our infantry of the line are no less numerous, and as +regards physique, if it comes to that, not one whit inferior, while in +reference to moral qualities, they are more susceptible to the spur of +a noble ambition, if only under God's will they be correctly trained. +Or again, as touching pride of ancestry, what have Athenians to fear +as against Boeotians on that score?[3] + +[3] See "Mem." III. v. 3, where it is contended that in pride of + ancestry Athenians can hold their own against Boeotians. + +But suppose the city of Athens determine to betake herself to her +navy, as in the old days when the Lacedaemonians, leagued with the +rest of Hellas, brought invasion;[4] and is content once more simply +to protect her walls through thick and thin. As to protecting what +lies outside the city wall she looks to her cavalry for that; and +single-handed her troopers must do desperate encounter against the +united forces of the enemy. I say, under these circumstances, we shall +need in the first place the strong support of Heaven; and in the +second place, well will it be for us if our cavalry commander prove +himself a consummate officer.[5] Indeed, he will have need of large +wisdom to deal with a force so vastly superior in numbers, and of +enterprise to strike when the critical moment comes. + +[4] See Thuc. ii. 13, 14, 22, etc., and in particular iv. 95, + Hippocrates' speech before the battle of Delium, 424 B.C. + +[5] A "parfait marechal." + +He must also, as it appears to me, be capable of great physical +endurance;[6] since clearly, if he has to run full tilt against an +armament present, as we picture, in such force that not even our whole +state cares to cope with it, it is plain he must accept whatever fate +is due, where might is right, himself unable to retaliate. + +[6] So Jason, "Hell." VI. i. 4. + +If, on the contrary, he elect to guard the territory outside the +walls[7] with a number just sufficient to keep a look-out on the +enemy, and to withdraw into safe quarters from a distance whatever +needs protection--a small number, be it observed, is just as capable +of vedette duty, as well able, say, to scan the distant horizon, as a +large; and by the same token men with no great confidence in +themselves or in their horses are not ill-qualified to guard, or +withdraw within shelter[8] the property of friends; since fear, as the +proverb has it, makes a shrewd watchman. The proposal, therefore, to +select from these a corps of observation will most likely prove true +strategy. But what then of the residue not needed for outpost duty? If +any one imagines he has got an armament, he will find it miserably +small, and lacking in every qualification necessary to risk an open +encounter. + +[7] Or, "His better plan would be to." + +[8] Reading {anakhorizein}. Cf. "Cyrop." II. ii. 8; "Anab." V. ii. 10; + or if {anakhorein eis}, transl. "or retire into safe quarters." + See "Hell." IV. vi. 44. + +But let him make up his mind to employ it in guerilla war, and he will +find the force quite competent for that, I warrant. His business, so +at least it seems to me, will be to keep his men perpetually in +readiness to strike a blow, and without exposing himself, to play +sentinel, waiting for any false move on the part of the hostile +armament. And it is a way with soldiers, bear in mind, the more +numerous they are, the more blunders they commit. They must needs +scatter of set purpose[9] in search of provisions; or through the +disorder incidental to a march, some will advance and others lag +behind, beyond a proper limit. Blunders like these, then, our hipparch +must not let pass unpunished (unless he wishes the whole of Attica to +become a gigantic camp);[10] keeping his single point steadily in +view, that when he strikes a blow he must be expeditious and retire +before the main body has time to rally to the rescue. + +[9] {epimeleia}. Cf. "Cyrop." V. iii. 47. + +[10] Lit. "or else the whole of Attica will be one encampment." As at + the date of the fortification of Decelea (413 B.C.), which + permanently commanded the whole country. See Thuc. vii. 27. Al. + Courier, "autrement vous n'avez plus de camp, ou pour mieux dire, + tout le pays devient votre camp." + +Again, it frequently happens on the march, that an army will get into +roads where numbers are no advantage. Again, in the passage of rivers, +defiles, and the like, it is possible for a general with a head on his +shoulders to hang on the heels of an enemy in security, and to +determine with precision[11] the exact number of the enemy he will +care to deal with. Occasionally the fine chance occurs to atack the +foe while encamping or breakfasting or supping, or as the men turn out +of bed: seasons at which the soldier is apt to be unharnessed--the +hoplite for a shorter, the cavalry trooper for a longer period.[12] + +[11] See "Anab." II. v. 18; "Cyrop." III. iii. 47; IV. i. 18. + {tamieusasthai}, "with the precision of a controller." + +[12] Cf. "Hell." II. iv. 6; VII. i. 16. + +As to vedettes and advanced outposts, you should never cease planning +and plotting against them. For these in their turn, as a rule, are apt +to consist of small numbers, and are sometimes posted at a great +distance from their own main body. But if after all it turns out that +the enemy are well on their guard against all such attempts, then, God +helping, it would be a feat of arms to steal into the enemy's country, +first making it your business to ascertain[13] his defences, the +number of men at this, that, and the other point, and how they are +distributed throughout the country. For there is no booty so splendid +as an outpost so overmastered; and these frontier outposts are +especially prone to be deceived, with their propensity to give chase +to any small body they set eyes on, regarding that as their peculiar +function. You will have to see, however, in retiring that your line of +retreat is not right into the jaws of the enemy's reliefs hastening to +the scene of action. + +[13] Or, "having first studied." Cf. "Mem." III. vi. 10. + + + +VIII + +It stands to reason, however, that in order to be able to inflict real +damage upon a greatly superior force, the weaker combatant must +possess such a moral superiority over the other as shall enable him to +appear in the position of an expert, trained in all the feats of +cavalry performance in the field, and leave his enemy to play the part +of raw recruits or amateurs.[1] + +[1] Cf. "Cyrop." I. v. 11; "Mem." III. vii. 7. + +And this end may be secured primarily on this wise: those who are to +form your guerilla bands[2] must be so hardened and inured to the +saddle that they are capable of undergoing all the toils of a +campaign.[3] That a squadron (and I speak of horse and man alike) +should enter these lists in careless, disorderly fashion suggests the +idea of a troop of women stepping into the arena to cope with male +antagonists. + +[2] Or, add, "for buccaneers and free-lances you must be." + +[3] Lit. "every toil a soldier can encounter." + +But reverse the picture. Suppose men and horses to have been taught +and trained to leap trenches and scale dykes, to spring up banks, and +plunge from heights without scathe, to gallop headlong at full speed +adown a steep: they will tower over unpractised opponents as the birds +of the air tower over creatures that crawl and walk.[4] Their feet are +case-hardened by constant training, and, when it comes to tramping +over rough ground, must differ from the uninitiated as the sound man +from the lame. And so again, when it comes to charging and retiring, +the onward-dashing gallop, the well-skilled, timely retreat, expert +knowledge of the ground and scenery will assert superiority over +inexpertness like that of eyesight over blindness. + +[4] See "Horse." viii. 6; cf. "Hunting," xii. 2; "Cyrop." I. vi. 28 + foll. + +Nor should it be forgotten, that in order to be in thorough efficiency +the horses must not only be well fed and in good condition, but at the +same time so seasoned by toil that they will go through their work +without the risk of becoming broken-winded. And lastly, as bits and +saddle-cloths (to be efficient)[5] need to be attached by straps, a +cavalry general should never be without a good supply, whereby at a +trifling expense he may convert a number of nonplussed troopers into +serviceable fighting men.[6] + +[5] [{khresima}] L.D. For the {upomnema} itself cf. "Cyrop." VI. ii. + 32. + +[6] Or, "thus at a trifling outlay he will be able to render so many + non-efficients useful." Al. "make the articles as good as new." + +But if any one is disposed to dwell on the amount of trouble it will +cost him, if he is required to devote himself to horsemanship so +assiduously, let him console himself with the reflection that the +pains and labours undergone by any man in training for a gymnastic +contest are far larger and more formidable than any which the severest +training of the horseman will involve; and for this reason, that the +greater part of gymnastic exercises are performed "in the sweat of the +brow," while equestrian exercise is performed with pleasure. Indeed, +there is no accomplishment which so nearly realises the aspiration of +a man to have the wings of a bird than this of horsemanship.[7] But +further, to a victory obtained in war attaches a far greater weight of +glory than belongs to the noblest contest of the arena.[8] Of these +the state indeed will share her meed of glory,[9] but in honour of +victory in war the very gods are wont to crown whole states with +happiness.[10] So that, for my part, I know not if there be aught else +which has a higher claim to be practised than the arts of war. + +[7] Cf. "Cyrop." IV. iii. 15; Herod. iv. 132; Plat. "Rep." v. 467 D. + +[8] Cf. Eur. "Autolycus," fr. 1, trans. by J. A. Symonds, "Greek + Poets," 2nd series, p. 283. + +[9] Cf. Plut. "Pelop." 34 (Clough, ii. p. 235): "And yet who would + compare all the victories in the Pythian and Olympian games put + together, with one of these enterprises of Pelopidas, of which he + successfully performed so many?" + +[10] "To bind about the brows of states happiness as a coronal." + +And this, too, is worth noting: that the buccaneer by sea, the +privateersman, through long practice in endurance, is able to live at +the expense of far superior powers. Yes, and the life of the +freebooter is no less natural and appropriate to landsmen--I do not +say, to those who can till and gather in the fruit of their fields, +but to those who find themselves deprived of sustenance; since there +is no alternative--either men must till their fields or live on the +tillage of others, otherwise how will they find the means either of +living or of obtaining peace?[11] + +[11] Cf. "Econ." v. 7. + +Here, too, is a maxim to engrave upon the memory: in charging a +superior force, never to leave a difficult tract of ground in the rear +of your attack, since there is all the difference in the world between +a stumble in flight and a stumble in pursuit. + +There is another precaution which I feel called upon to note. Some +generals,[12] in attacking a force which they imagine to be inferior +to their own, will advance with a ridiculously insufficient force,[13] +so that it is the merest accident if they do not experience the injury +they were minded to inflict. Conversely, in attacking any enemy whose +superiority is a well-known fact, they will bring the whole of their +force into action. + +[12] Or, "one knows of generals," e.g. Iphicrates at Oneion, 369 B.C. + Cf. "Hell." VI. v. 51. + +[13] Lit. "an absolutely weak force." + +Now, my maxim would be precisely converse: if you attack with a +prospect of superiority, do not grudge employing all the power at your +command; excess of victory[14] never yet caused any conqueror one pang +of remorse. + +[14] Or, "a great and decided victory." Cf. "Hiero," ii. 16. + +But in any attempt to attack superior forces, in full certainty that, +do what you can, you must eventually retire, it is far better, say I, +under these circumstances to bring a fraction only of your whole force +into action, which fraction should be the pick and flower of the +troops at your command, both horses and men. A body of that size and +quality will be able to strike a blow and to fall back with greater +security. Whereas, if a general brings all his troops into action +against a superior force, when he wishes to retire, certain things +must happen: those of his men who are worse mounted will be captured, +others through lack of skill in horsemanship will be thrown, and a +third set be cut off owing to mere difficulties of ground; since it is +impossible to find any large tract of country exactly what you would +desire. If for no other reason, through sheer stress of numbers there +will be collisions, and much damage done by kicks through mutual +entanglement; whereas a pick of horse and men will be able to escape +offhand,[15] especially if you have invention to create a scare in the +minds of the pursuers by help of the moiety of troops who are out of +action.[16] For this purpose false ambuscades will be of use. + +[15] Or, "by themselves," reading {ex auton}, as L. Dind. suggests. + Cf. Polyb. x. 40. 6, or if as vulg. {ex auton} (sub. {kheiron}, + Weiske), transl. "to slip through their fingers." + +[16] Zeune and other commentators cf Liv. v. 38 (Diod. xiv. 114), but + the part played by the Roman subsidiarii at the battle of the + Allia, if indeed "una salus fugientibus," was scarcely happy. + Would not "Hell." VII. v. 26 be more to the point? The detachment + of cavalry and infantry placed by Epaminondas "on certain crests, + to create an apprehension in the minds of the Athenians" in that + quarter of the field at Mantinea was a {mekhanema} of the kind + here contemplated. + +Another serviceable expedient will be to discover on which side a +friendly force may suddenly appear and without risk to itself put a +drag on the wheels of the pursuer. Nay, it is self-evident, I think, +that, as far as work and speed are concerned, it is the small body +which will assert its superiority more rapidly over the larger, and +not vice versa--not of course that the mere fact of being a small body +will enable them to endure toil or give them wings; but simply it is +easier to find five men than five hundred, who will take the requisite +care and pains with their horses, and personally practise of their own +accord the art of horsemanship. + +But suppose the chance should occur of entering the lists against an +equal number of the enemy's cavalry, according to my judgment it were +no bad plan to split the squadron into divisions,[17] the first of +which should be commanded by the squadron-leader, and the other by the +ablest officer to be found. This second-officer will for the time +being follow in rear of the leading division with the squadron leader; +and by and by, when the antagonist is in near proximity, and when the +word of command is passed, form squadron to the front and charge the +hostile ranks[18]--a manouvre calculated, as I conceive, to bring the +whole mass down upon the enemy with paralysing force, and to cause him +some trouble to extricate himself. Ideally speaking, both +divisions[19] will be backed by infantry kept in rear of the cavalry; +these will suddenly disclose themselves, and rushing to close +quarters, in all probability clench the nail of victory.[20] So at any +rate it strikes me, seeing as I do the effects of what is unexpected-- +how, in the case of good things, the soul of man is filled to +overflowing with joy, and again, in the case of things terrible, +paralysed with amazement. In proof of what I say, let any one reflect +on the stupor into which a body of men with all the weight of +numerical advantage on their side will be betrayed by falling into an +ambuscade; or again, on the exaggerated terror mutually inspired in +belligerents during the first few days, of finding themselves posted +in face of one another. + +[17] Or, "troops." + +[18] Possibly on flank. See Courier, p. 35, on Spanish cavalry + tactics. + +[19] Lit. "supposing both divisions to be backed by footmen," etc. + +[20] Or, "achieve a much more decisive victory." Cf. "Cyrop." III. + iii. 28. + +To make these dispositions is not hard; the difficulty is to discover +a body of men who will dash forward[21] and charge an enemy as above +described intelligently and loyally, with an eager spirit and +unfailing courage. That is a problem for a good cavalry general to +solve. I mean an officer who must be competent to so assert himself in +speech or action[22] that those under him will no longer hesitate. +They will recognise of themselves that it is a good thing and a right +to obey,[23] to follow their leader, to rush to close quarters with +the foe. A desire will consume them to achieve some deed of glory and +renown. A capacity will be given them patiently to abide by the +resolution of their souls. + +[21] {parelontas}, in reference to S. 18 above, {parelaunoi}, "form + squadron to the front." + +[22] "To be this, he must be able as an orator as well as a man of + action." Cf. "Mem." II. ii. 11. + +[23] Cf. Tennyson's "The Charge of the Light Brigade": + +Their's not to make reply, +Their's not to reason why, +Their's but to do and die. + + +To turn to another matter, take the case in which you have two armeis +facing one another in battle order, or a pair of fortresses[24] +belonging to rival powers, and in the space between all kinds of +cavalry manouvres are enacted, wheelings and charges and retreats.[25] +Under such circumstances the custom usually is for either party after +wheeling to set off at a slow pace and to gallop full speed only in +the middle of the course. But now suppose that a commander, after +making feint[26] in this style, presently on wheeling quickens for the +charge and quickens to retire--he will be able to hit the enemy far +harder, and pull through absolutely without scathe himself most +likely; through charging at full speed whilst in proximity to his own +stronghold (or main body), and quickening to a gallop as he retires +from the stronghold (or main body) of the enemy. If further, he could +secretly contrive to leave behind four or five troopers, the bravest +and best mounted of the squadron, it would give them an immense +advantage in falling upon the enemy whilst wheeling to return to the +charge.[27] + +[24] Al. "fields and farmsteads between." + +[25] Or, "retirements," see "Horsemanship," viii. 12; "Cyrop." V. iv. + 8; "Hell." IV. ii. 6; "Ages." ii. 3. + +[26] Or, "having precluded in this fashion. See Theocr. xxii. 102: + + {ton men anax ataraxen etosia khersi prodeiknus Pantothen}, + + "feinting on every side" (A. Lang). Al. "having given due warning + of his intention." Cf. Aristot. "H. A." ix. 37. + +[27] Cf. Aristoph. "Knights," 244 (Demosthenes calls to the + hipparchs[?]): + + {andres eggus . all' amunou, kapanastrephou palin}. + + + +IX + +To read these observations over a few times will be sufficient, but +for giving them effect the officer will need perpetually to act as +circumstances require.[1] He must take in the situation at a glance, +and carry out unflinchingly whatever is expedient for the moment. To +set down in writing everything that he must do, is not a whit more +possible than to know the future as a whole.[2] But of all hints and +suggestions the most important to my mind is this: whatever you +determine to be right, with diligence endeavour to perform. For be it +tillage of the soil, or trading, or seafaring, or the art of ruling, +without pains applied to bring the matter to perfection, the best +theories in the world, the most correct conclusions, will be +fruitless. + +[1] {pros to paratugkhanon}, lit. "to meet emergencies." Cf. Thuc. i. + 122: "For war, least of all things, conforms to prescribed rules; + it strikes out a path for itself when the moment comes" (Jowett). + +[2] Or, "is about as feasible as to foretell each contingency hid in + the womb of futurity." + +One thing I am prepared to insist on: it is clear to myself that by +Heaven's help our total cavalry force might be much more quickly +raised to the full quota of a thousand troopers,[3] and with far less +friction to the mass of citizens, by the enrolment of two hundred +foreign cavalry. Their acquisition will be doubly helpful, as +intensifying the loyalty of the entire force and as kindling a mutual +ambition to excel in manly virtue. + +[3] See Schneid. ad loc.; Boeckh, "P. E. A." pp. 263, 264; Herod. vi. + 112; Thuc. vi. 31; Aristoph. "Knights," 223; Aeschin. "De F. L." + 334-337. See for this reform, Martin, op. cit. 343, 368. + +I can state on my own knowledge that the Lacedaemonian cavalry only +began to be famous[4] with the introduction of foreign troopers; and +in the other states of Hellas everywhere the foreign brigades stand in +high esteem, as I perceive. Need, in fact, contributes greatly to +enthusiasm. Towards the necessary cost of the horses I hold that an +ample fund will be provided,[5] partly out of the pockets of those who +are only too glad to escape cavalry service (in other words, those on +whom the service devolves prefer to pay a sum of money down and be +quit of the duty),[6] and from wealthy men who are physically +incompetent; and I do not see why orphans possessed of large estates +should not contribute.[7] Another belief I hold is that amongst our +resident aliens[8] there are some who will show a laudable ambition if +incorporated with the cavalry. I argue from the fact, apparent to +myself, that amongst this class persons are to be found most zealously +disposed to carry out the part assigned to them, in every other branch +of honourable service which the citizens may choose to share with +them. Again, it strikes me that if you seek for an energetic infantry +to support your cavalry, you will find it in a corps composed of +individuals whose hatred to the foe is naturally intense.[9] But the +success of the above suggestions will depend doubtless on the +consenting will of Heaven.[10] + +[4] "Entered on an era of prestige with the incorporation of," after + Leuctra, 371 B.C., when the force was at its worst. See "Hell." + VI. iv. 10. + +[5] Or, "money will be forthcoming for them." Cf. Lys. "Against + Philon," xxxi. 15; Martin, op. cit. 319. + +[6] Cf. "Hell." III. iv. 15; "Ages." i. 23. Courier brackets this + sentence [{oti . . . ippeuein}] as a gloss; Martin, p. 323, + emends. + +[7] As to the legal exemption of orphans Schneid. cf. Dem. "Symm." + 182. 15; Lys. "Against Diogeit." 24. + +[8] Lit. "metoecs." See "Revenues," ii. + +[9] Lit. "men the most antagonistic to the enemy." Is the author + thinking of Boeotian emigres? Cf. "Hell." VI. iii. 1, 5; Diod. xv. + 46. 6. + +[10] Lit. "with the consenting will of the gods these things all may + come to pass." + +And now if the repetition of the phrase throughout this treatise "act +with God," surprises any one, he may take my word for it that with the +daily or hourly occurrence of perils which must betide him, his +wonderment will diminish; as also with the clearer recognition of the +fact that in time of war the antagonists are full of designs against +each other, but the precise issue of these plots and counterplots is +rarely known. To what counsellor, then, can a man apply for advice in +his extremity save only to the gods, who know all things and forewarn +whomsoever they will by victims or by omens, by voice or vision? Is it +not rational to suppose that they will prefer to help in their need, +not those who only seek them in time of momentary stress and trouble, +but those rather who in the halcyon days of their prosperity make a +practice of rendering to Heaven the service of heart and soul? + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Cavalry General by Xenophon + diff --git a/old/old/cvlry10.zip b/old/old/cvlry10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..5153851 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/old/cvlry10.zip |