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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:42 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:42 -0700 |
| commit | 540f405861654061fc4e27644489e20046a87ac6 (patch) | |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/11344-0.txt b/11344-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4caedfc --- /dev/null +++ b/11344-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3771 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11344 *** + +[Illustration] + + + + +Scientific American Supplement No. 415 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in Steel. + + Heat developed in Forging. + + Recent Studies on the Constitution of Alkaloids.--Extract from + a lecture delivered before the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. + --By SAML.P. SADTLER. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for Extracting + Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving. + + A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By Prof. E.J. + HALLOCK. 1 figure. + + A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description and numerous + engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD. + + The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With engraving. + + A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic Reaction--Figures showing + plan and side views of the steamer. + + A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. W.C. + UNWIN. 4 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and Opals.--By + A. GOODALL. + + The Manufacture and Characteristics of Photographic Lenses. + + Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. EDER. + + The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By Prof. REDWOOD. + + Anti-Corrosion Paint. + + Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different kilns used. + +IV. ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHÆOLOGY.--The German + National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of + Peace and War. + + The Art Aspects of Modern Dress. + + Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With engraving. + + Discovery of Ancient Church In Jerusalem. + +V. ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With engraving. + + Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 engravings showing + Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. Electrolyzing + Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens Machine. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and around New + York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's Gardens, London.--With + full page engravings showing the new Reptile House, and the + Babiroussa family. + +VIII. HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra Australis.-- + With engraving. + + How to Successfully Transplant Trees. + +IX. MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of Congestive + Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING. + + The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of Pulmonary + Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN. + + Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon the Bile. + + Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of engravings. + + Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful as well as + inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By Dr. A. BAER, + Berlin. + + Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD. + + Danger from Flies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE. + + +In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," lately +unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now present, as +beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two statues, War and +Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental facade. These figures +are about twenty feet high. The statue of War represents an allegorical +character, partly Mercury, partly mediæval knight, with trumpet in one +hand, sword in the other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and +modest maiden, holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn +of peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." Here +the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, surrounded by a +noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, commanders, and +statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped to found the +empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German nation. + +[Illustration: WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.] + + * * * * * + +A writer in the London _Lancet_ ridicules a habit of being in great +haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of +commercial men, and argues that in most cases there is not the least +cause for it, and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous +volume of business which almost overwhelms the house. The writer further +says that, when developed into a confirmed habit, it is fertile in +provoking nervous maladies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS. + + +At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic Society, +Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having expressed his belief +that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion, the +lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who +were open to conviction could have all the variety Fashion promised, +together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow, while +health received the fullest attention. Two excellent societies, worthy +of encouragement up to a certain point, had been showing us the folly +and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, +crippled the feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the +limbs, and even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been +more successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might +not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the zero of +artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. We were +inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without rules to guide +us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris fashions and those of +Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, choose the former. Let it be +shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful, capable of an +infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never +violated art principle, and in which the wearer, and not some Paris +liner, could exercise her taste, and the day would have been gained. +This was the task he had set himself to formulate, and so doing he +should divide his subject in two--Color and Form. + +In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning +of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured nation like the +English should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony. We +were nicely critical of music, yet in color were constantly committing +the gravest solecisms. He did not think there were seventeen interiors +in London that the educated eye could wander over without pain. Yet what +knowledge was so useful? We were not competent to buy a picture, choose +a dress, or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say +nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on +porcelain, art needlework, and a hundred occupations. + +An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect +they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be worn in dark +shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was commonly called, olive +green, went well together; but a dress of full red or yellow would be +painful to behold. The rule for full primaries was, employ them +sparingly, and contrast them only with black or gray. He might notice in +passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was +usually of the one color unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that +would lend beauty to any color placed upon it. + +Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in +hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden +changes, and a species of color discord was the consequence. But if the +colors, even though primaries, were of some very dark or very light +shade, they become harmonious. All very dark shades of color went well +with black and with each other, and all very light shades went well with +white and each other. + +A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my complexion?" +The generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink, either +light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, working dire +confusion. But no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted +one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade were pink, and their pink dresses +were in harmony. No natural complexion whatever was improved by pink; +but gray would go with any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence +to the dominant hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce +flesh color he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The +skin of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green, +tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color always +subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it. +Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside pink altered it +to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy +complexion, the worst color they could wear would be their own +complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color, for it would +clear their complexion. + +Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer urged +that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without +disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of Miss Mary Anderson, +attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was exhibited, and the lecturer +observed that while the dress once worn by Greek women was unequaled for +elegance, Greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in +knots round the knees, and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more +habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings. + +An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as illustrating +the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted +the waist to be the normal size, and allowed the drapery to fall in +natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays +and "improvers"--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of +womanly grace and modesty. + +A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from _Myra's Journal_, dated +June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference of the waist was but 12¾ +in., involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the +organization, and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the _ne +plus ultra_ of formal ugliness. + +Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected from a +recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, Why did women +think small waists beautiful? Was it because big-waisted women were so +frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A young girl had no waist, and +did not need stays. As the figure matured the hips developed, and it was +this development which formed the waist. The slightest artificial +compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the +grown woman should never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken +the muscles of the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A +waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress +was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner garment +should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress should be as +thin as possible, that it might drape itself into natural folds. Velvet, +from its texture, was ill adapted for this. When worn, it should be in +close fitting garments, and in dark colors only. It was most effective +when black. + +Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the lecturer +suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the +too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could be artistic +without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in +fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive color their tailor +pleased. He would suggest that any reformation should begin with color. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY. + + +The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in +the progress of building in the metropolis, and speculative builders who +work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact. The +Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings Company (Limited) has been +conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for +artisans, clerks, and others whose means necessitates the renting of a +convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it. We +give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the +above company, who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal +manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at Shaftesbury +and Queen's Parks they have already built about three thousand houses, +employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling, +while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred +acres, which will contain, when completed, no less than two thousand six +hundred houses, to be let at weekly rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. +6d., rates and taxes all included. The object has been to provide +separate cottages, each in itself complete, and in so doing they have +not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace +plan, but adopting this as most favorable to economy, have added many +improvements, including sanitary appliances of the latest and most +approved type. + +The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, a road +60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of the estate. On +either side of this road the houses are set back 15 ft., in front of +which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a suitable growth are +being planted, as also on all other roads on the estate. About the +center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for +a church, and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has +been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground, should the +development of the estate warrant such an outlay. The remaining streets +are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in width, clear of the garden space in front +of the houses. Shops will be erected as may be required. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.] + +The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, the +surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. Nowhere have +these drains been carried through the houses, but they are taken +directly into drains at the back, having specially ventilated manholes +and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers; +the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet +ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals, discharging +above the houses. This system of ventilation was adopted on the +recommendation of Mr. W.A. De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the +Tottenham Local Board. + +All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole +area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every room is +specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent +the passage of sound. A constant water supply is laid on, there being no +cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets. All water +pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside. + +The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta sills, the +roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the purpose of forming +an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some cases the central +houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over porches being similarly +treated. The houses are simply but effectively designed, and the general +appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. +All end houses of terraces have been specially treated, and in some +cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately +adjoining, a slightly increased rental is required. There are five +different classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate +this week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, kitchen, +scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and water-closet on +ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The water-closet is entered from +the outside, but in many first-class houses another water-closet has +been provided on the first floor, and one room on this floor is provided +with a small range, so that if two families live in the one house they +will be entirely separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to +11s. 6d. per week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, +W., is the architect.--_Building and Engineering Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS. + +By A. GOODALL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland Photographic +Association.] + + +The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements +on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now, +and cannot be called new; but still it is neither so well known nor +understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be, and I may +just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of +it I believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving +better results than can be got by this process when properly understood +and wrought, as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to +those obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of +any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino bromide +enlargement on opal. + +[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 opal, +using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for two and +a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant opal was the +result.] + +We now come to the paper process, and most effective enlargements can be +made by it also; indeed, as a basis for coloring, nothing could well be +better. Artists all over the country have told me that after a few +trials they prefer it to anything else, while excellent and effective +plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled. A +very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just +done, with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have the +appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture adhering +to the glass, however, and at the same time to give greater brilliancy, +it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 grain solution of clear +gelatine before squeezing it down. The one fault or shortcoming of the +plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry, and this +certainly makes it unsuitable for small work, such as the rapid +production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry; the +tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being +objectionable; but my impression is, that it is not so much the tone as +the want of brilliancy that is the fault there, and if once the public +were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper, they might possibly +like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are +familiar, provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and +some time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +_Photographic News_, I set about trying to produce this result by +enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with +the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were successful, and we +now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with +brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper. I here show you +specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from +C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic. + +[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and +portrait negatives, which it would have been difficult to distinguish +from prints on double albumenized paper.] + +I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an +argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer, +for instance; but there is another and more important point to be +considered between the two, and that is, their durability and +permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, unless most +particular care be taken in the washing of it (and those who have made +them will well know what a delicate, not to say difficult, job it is to +get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, and at the same time preserve +the film intact), there is no permanence in a collodion transfer, and +that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of +decay in them from the first day of their existence. I know, at least in +Glasgow, where an enormous business has been done within the last few +years by certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being +a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has +been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the +present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the picture in +disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a collodion +transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, unless an amount +of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor +consistent with the popular price and extensive output. How now stands +the case with an argentic enlargement? Of course it may be said that +there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic +enlargements are still only on their trial. + +I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset that seven +or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and failed, but got one +or two results which I retained as curiosities till only a month or two +ago; but up to that time I cannot say they had faded in the least, and I +have here a specimen made three years ago, which I have purposely +subjected to very severe treatment. It has been exposed without any +protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of +a Glasgow atmosphere, and although certainly tarnished, I think you will +find that it has not faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have +lost nothing of their original strength. I here show you the picture +referred to, a 12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here +state, in short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads +me to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. Chromotypes +and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, but their +permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed, and +associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced, most +of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, being unable to +withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks. +Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in +which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the +decolorizing action of light. But there is no pigment in an argentic +print, nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action +of light; and that has been shown by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a +very stable and not easily decomposed nature; while if the pictures are +passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine +also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to +the action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon +pictures without carbon. + +I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with +in working this process; and first in regard to the yellowing of the +whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites, +especially in vignetted enlargements, and I believe that this almost +always arises from one or other of the two following causes: + +First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer; +and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is more in +suspension than solution, and in the course of development it is +deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the gelatinous film. + +The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution +of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has been +recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the +subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of potassic oxalate to 1 part +of ferrous sulphate. + +Now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a +negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best for +gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that potassic +oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate +solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for +any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed. + +The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and vignetted +enlargements especially, should always be fresh and pretty strong, so +that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take +place, as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron +developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to +take place, so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing +prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small +quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in +black and white. The proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of +water. Almost the only other complaints I now hear are traceable to +over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the +paper. The operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, +or pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up by +blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and +smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements, +but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently developed, and +cleanly and carefully handled. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. + + +At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced his +lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by describing the +method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a +definite focal length. The varieties of optical glass were next +discussed, and specimens (both in the rough and partly shaped state) +were handed round for examination. The defects frequently met with in +glass, such as striæ and tears, were then treated upon; specimens of +lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection, and the +mode of searching for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and +polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a +collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & +Co., and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were gone +into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes +was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which he placed upon +the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of photographic +lenses, and explained the influence of particular constructions in +producing certain results; positive and negative spherical aberration, +and the manner in which they are made to balance each other, was also +described by the aid of diagrams, as was also chromatic aberration. He +next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses, and said that +that was not, as had been hitherto generally supposed, the true place +from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination. This place was +a point very near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" +point, from the name of the eminent German mathematician who had +investigated and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was +of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For this +drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo Schroeder, now +with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer congratulated the +newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John Stuart, for his +enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound +acquirements. The subject of distortion was next treated of, and the +manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved +from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses +with a central diaphragm was shown. The influence of density of glass +was illustrated by a description of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent +of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names. The +effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious +method of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by +pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of +the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by requesting a careful +examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table, kindly lent for the +occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES. + +By Dr. Eder. + + +We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved formulas given +below as translated by him for the _Photographic Times_. + +Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the +soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer certain +advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage becomes +particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, which +frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, or a fog of +clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by transmitted light. +Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind; so do soda +and potassa developers. + +For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, without +the addition of any bromide. + +More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. No. 1: +Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; sodium +sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 1½ gr.; sodium sulphite, +25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is for its better keeping +qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's solution.[A] The solutions when in +well stoppered bottles keep well for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. +of water with 40 min. of No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears +quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable +to decrease the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. +The negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a +deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which excludes +all possible necessities of an after intensification. + +[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; 1 gr. +salicylic acid.] + +The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when +iron developer is used, frequently even greater. + +The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. Bromides +in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce the +sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing power +almost entirely. + +Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution of +potassium bromide is quite sufficient. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY. + +[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of +Great Britain, November 7, 1883.] + +By Professor REDWOOD. + + +I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at its +recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more particularly +attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard. Reference +is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared in different ways, and it +appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to +the process of the British Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from +rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been +otherwise prepared. The general tendency of the discussion, as far as +related to this part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same +direction; but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the +question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so +specially referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be. + +When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, +suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which consisted in +removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, by first +thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the +tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat, +this method of operating seemed to be generally approved. It was adopted +by men largely engaged in "rendering" fatty substances for use in +pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as +free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid. It +became the process of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it +formed the basis of a process, which was patented in Paris and this +country by Hippolite Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste +and odor, and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. +Mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." This +process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance +called oleomargarine. + +But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I have +been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that +the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than +beneficial. I have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining +ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of +the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested +for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity. + +I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many +experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, and at the +same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of +oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of which experience has +been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of the Pharmacopeia process. +I have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers +of oleomargarine, which is produced in immense quantities, the use of +water, for washing the fat before melting it, is not only omitted but +specially avoided. The parts of the process to which most importance is +attached are: First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural +fat, which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly +slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and adhering +portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; after which it +is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to +completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is +inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated +by warm water, and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding +130°F. + +If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be easily +melted away from the membraneous matter at 120°F., or even below that, +and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is +necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the +membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete separation of all +suspended matter is obviously important, and therefore nitration seems +desirable, where practicable; which however is not on the large scale. + +My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that +best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy. There is, +however, a point connected with this or any other method of preparing +lard which is deserving of more attention than it has, I believe, +usually received, and that is, the source from which the flare has been +derived. Everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon +the manner in which the pig has been fed, and this applies to the fat as +well as other parts of the animal. Some time ago I had some pork +submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it, which had a +decided fishy flavor, both in taste and smell. This flavor was present +in every part, fat and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from +that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been +prescribed a fish diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a +better variety of lard. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTI-CORROSION PAINT. + + +The _Neueste Erfinderung_ describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron. It +states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even baryta, or +strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil paint, and then +enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, the free acid of the +paint will be neutralized, while the iron will be protected by the +permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in damp earth +may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin (colophony), 25 +parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which 20 parts of +magnesia and some mineral oil have been added. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBON IN STEEL. + + +At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was read +entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in Steel," by +Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering. + +Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks of steel +2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. They were all +cut from the same strip of metal, but some were "cold-rolled," some +"annealed," and some "hardened." The total carbon was found to be: +"cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, 1.128 per cent.; and annealed, +0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of the disks were submitted to the action +of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of +potassium bichromate with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated +sulphuric acid. In all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left +undissolved. These residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks +employed, had the following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 +per cent.; iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by treatment +with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains +undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, but only about +one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the +hardened disk. The authors then give a _resume_ of previous work on the +subject. In the second part they have investigated the action of +bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about +0.098 inch thick, which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per +cent.; silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four +solutions were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of +bichromate and 9 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4} by weight; the second was +eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the fourth about +one and a half times as strong. In all cases the amount of solution +employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve +the steel used. A residue was obtained as before. With solution 1, the +residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. 2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the +atomic ratio of iron to carbon was Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), +2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 per 100 of steel. The authors conclude +that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused +mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron +carbide, Fe_{3}C, a definite product, capable of resisting the action of +an oxidizing solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a +rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES. + + +In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed cuts +(Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the washer, C, +slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which reduces them to a fine +pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the +pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir, B, from whence a +pump, P, forces it through the pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is +suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion. By means +of a rose, c, water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve +and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged +with fine particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through +the tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. This +latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not +been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through the tube, h, +into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is completely separated +from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix, i, to +a revolving perforated drum at e. From this, the milky starch flows into +the jacket, N, while the pulp (ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the +apparatus through the aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o. + +[Illustration: ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.] + +The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, which, +like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward motion, and +which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very +finest impurities from the milky starch. The refined liquid then flows +into the reservoir, m, and the impure mass of sediment runs into the +pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, forces the milky liquid from the +reservoir, m, to the settling back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, +u, from the receptacle, o, into a large pulp-reservoir. + +The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, a, into +the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, r, into the +different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion by two +shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per +minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty +revolutions.--_Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de l'Indust_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES. + +By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. + + +A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about ¼ inch wide by 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches +long. Beginning ½ inch from the end, bore a row of small holes only +large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch +apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the third 1, the fifth 2, and so on +to 12, so that the numbers represent the distance from O in inches. A +small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, +but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side. + +[Illustration: ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.] + +Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long; pass +it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it until it forms a +single cord. Pass the needle _upward_ through the hole marked 0, and tie +a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through. The +apparatus is now ready for immediate use. It only remains to set it to +the size of the oval desired. + +Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of +which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 inches. Insert a +pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 and 7, which is distant +6-½ inches from O. Pass the needle through hole 5, allowing the thread +to pass around the tack or pin; draw it tightly and fasten it in the +slit or clip at the end. Lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, +place the point of a pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it +around and describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two +ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to +metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On drawings +it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins. + +As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the +string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a crochet +needle. + +As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width +and length, but does not know what the distance between the foci must be +to produce this effect, a few directions on this point may be useful: + +It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between +the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a +right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter. +Hence in order to find the distance between the foci, when the length +and width of the ellipse are known, these two are squared and the lesser +square subtracted from the greater, when the square root of the +difference will be the quantity sought. For example, if it be required +to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of 5 inches and a width +of 3 inches, the distance between the foci will be found as follows: + + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. + +In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot +rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure +marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then bringing the figure +on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the +square; the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought. +Unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers. We present herewith a +table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different +ovals when the length and distance between foci are given. + + + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. + + 2 1 1¾ + 2 1½ 1¼ + + 2½ 1 2¼ + 2½ 1½ 2 + 2½ 2 1½ + + 3 1 1½ + 3 1½ 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 2½ 2¼ + + 3½ 1 3-3/8 + 3½ 1½ 3-1/8 + 3½ 2 2-7/8 + 3½ 2½ 2½ + 3½ 3 1¾ + + 4 2 3½ + 4 2½ 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 3½ 2 + + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 + +For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus for 7 and +4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to 3½ and 2, which +is twice 2-7/8, or 5¾. It will be noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are +interchangeable. + +To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the length of +the desired oval in the first column of the table, and the width most +nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column. The +corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle +must be passed through. The tack D, _around_ which the string must pass, +is so placed that the total length of the string AD + DC, or its equal +AE + EC, shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse. In the figure +it is placed 6½ inches from A, and 1½ inches from C, making the total +length of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 6¼ inches wide. + +The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by +fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all +the text books on the subject. On the other hand, the instrument may be +set "by guess" when no particular accuracy is required. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS. + + +The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago, after +a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces, to be +unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the +remark, that in order to use the method economically the products of +distillation, both liquid and gaseous, must be collected. T. Egleston, +Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New York, has read a paper on the subject +before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, from which we extract +as follows: As there are many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke +cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used, and where +the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a +reverberatory furnace, the most economical method of making charcoal is +an important question. + +Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and +size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the +necessities of the shape of the ground selected. They do not differ from +each other in any principle of manufacture, nor does there seem to be +any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce, when +the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties; but +there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the +process in favor of small over large kilns. The different varieties have +come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of +construction and of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the +cover of a meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the +meiler and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has all +the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar to +itself. + +The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, the round, +and the conical, but the first two seem to be disappearing before the +last, which is as readily built and much more easily managed. + + +ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS + +Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone together. +Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not necessary. The +foundations are usually made of stone. There are several precautions +necessary in constructing the walls. The brick should be sufficiently +hard to resist the fire, and should therefore be tested before using. It +is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality +fire-brick. As the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation +of the wood attacks lime mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with +fire-clay mortar, to which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam +mixed with coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As +the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is especially +necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled, as any small +open spaces would admit air, and would materially decrease the yield of +the kiln. The floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick +set edgewise and carefully laid, but latterly it is found to be best +made of clay. Any material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It +must be well beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six +inches higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted on +the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered with a +coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does not require +to be renewed for several years. + +[Illustration: RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL.] + +The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the +masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found to +result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued. + +The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The diameter is +not considered of much importance, except in so far as it is desirable +to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most of the wood is +small, and only a small part of it is large, the large pieces are +usually split, to make it pack well. It has been found most satisfactory +to have three rows of vents around the kiln, which should be provided +with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace. The vents +near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two +bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed +by inserting one or two bricks in them. They are usually the size of one +brick, and larger on the outside than on the inside. These holes are +usually from 0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to +0.90 m. apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of +the brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with the +floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is sometimes an +additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the +smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then closed, and kept +closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies mostly to the best +types of conical kilns. In the circular and conical ones the top +charging door is sometimes used for this purpose. Hard and soft woods +are burned indifferently in the kilns. Hard-wood coal weighs more than +soft, and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast +furnaces, and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 +per cent. or even more in using hard woods. For the direct process in +the bloomaries, soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is +not usually advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters +in capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got from +kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft wood. The +average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, two and a half +to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, or 30 to 40 bushels +to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, so that the loss in fine +coal is very much diminished. The pieces usually come out the whole +size, and sometimes the whole length of the wood. + +The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use. +They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of wood. The +usual sizes are given in the table below: + + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 + +1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. 4. Kiln +at Lauton, Mich. + +The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of No. 4, as +constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a good burn, will +yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal. + +The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet high, and +1-½ brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks to the cubic foot of +wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and +contraction due to the heating and cooling, they should be provided with +buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 wide, as at Wassaic, New York; +but many of them are built without them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as +shown in the engraving. In both cases they are supported with strong +braces, from 3 to 4 feet apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast +iron, which are buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below +with iron rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath +the floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, which are +securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners, as shown. +When a number of kilns are built together, as at the Michigan Central +Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the plan view, only the end +kilns are braced in this way. The intermediate ones are supported below +by wooden braces, securely fastened at the bottom. The roof is always +arched, is one brick, or eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, +fourteen being used in each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in +the center a round hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, +which is closed by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. +brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. + + * * * * * + +The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is so far +from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it is increasing +more rapidly than the population of the United Kingdom. The statistics +of population show an increase of 16 per cent. on the last decennial +period, while the increase in the United Kingdom in the ten years +preceding the last census was under 11 per cent. This increase appears +to be general, and is only slightly influenced by immigration. "The +population of the West Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater +than that of any of the larger Australian colonies, and three times that +of New Zealand." + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING. + + +M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some very +interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat +produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging. The +method used was as follows: The bar was carefully polished on both +sides, and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax. It was +then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight, P, +falling from a height, H. The faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly +alike, and care was taken that the whole work, T = PH, should be +expended upon the bar. A single blow was enough to melt the wax over a +certain zone; and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces +had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax. The form +of this melted part could be made to differ considerably, but +approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of +this zone, b the width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, +and t-t0 the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature +of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the base of a horizontal +prism, which is everywhere heated to the temperature, t, the heating +effect produced will be expressed by + +Ab x d x C(t-t0) + +Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical system, +the energy developed in heat is given by + +T1 = 425 AbdC(t-t0). + +Dividing T1 by T, we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat +bears to the total energy of the blow. + +With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found always to +extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow. We +are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and +anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a +sort of cross with curved arms, the arms being thinner or thicker +according to the greater or less energy of the shock. These forms are +shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will be seen that these zones correspond to +the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a +sharp edged hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done +in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat. + +[Illustration] + +With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat developed +and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than had been +expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration. +In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a table given the limits +vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. with an energy of 40 +kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an energy of 90 +kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly constant at 70 per +cent. It will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is +less, and it also diminishes with the section of the bar. This is no +doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly. +On the whole, the results are summed up by M. Tresca as follows: + +(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the +energy of the blow. + +(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described allows +this heat to be clearly indicated. + +(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the +material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the mechanical cause +which produces the heating effect. + +(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size, about +80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat. + +(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, showing +the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the +bar. + +(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not +reliable. + +So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have +sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat +different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in the case of bars +struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. It will be seen that, +instead of commencing at the edges of the indent, the fusion begins near +the middle, and appears in small triangular figures, which gradually +increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex, as in +Fig. 12. The explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression +at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner +remaining comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are moderate in +intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes +punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when examined, was found +to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch. With +regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat, it was about the +same as in the previous experiments, reaching in one case, with an iron +bar and with an energy of 110 kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high +figure of 91 per cent. With copper, the same figure varied between 50 +and 60 per cent.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE. + +By Prof. C.W. MacCord. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller +engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder and valve gear +were recently designed by the writer, and are in process of construction +by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of Charleston, S.C. + +In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as will be +perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, following +nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed by a shifting +link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; and the expansion +valves are of the well known Meyer type, consisting of two plates on the +back of the main valve, driven by a third eccentric, and connected by a +right and left handed screw, the turning of which alters the distance +between the plates and the point of cutting off. + +The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel features, +of which the following description will be understood by reference to +the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general +plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-2 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left +handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it is rotated. + +Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut upon +the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with the +eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases the valve +stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so that it must both +slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes, necessarily +of comparatively large size. + +All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more +compact, in the following manner: + +Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their lower ends +by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, and at their +upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling snugly between two +collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, imparts a longitudinal +motion to the latter, while at the same time leaving it free to rotate. + +This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through the +upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by means of a +bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is communicated to +the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter +and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal +grooves in the spindle. + +Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is +running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel +pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the index, which points +out upon the dial the distance followed. These details are shown in +Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of which it may be added that +Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve chest and its contents, the cover, +and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the +main valve (in the arrangement of which there is nothing new), being +removed in order to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and +spindle above described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is +a transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a +plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side being a +section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the +manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest; the latter +having no pipes for this service, the steam enters below the valve, at +each end of the chest, just as it escapes in the center. + +The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of this +kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular position in +relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed; two +strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the eccentric in one +direction, the other in the opposite, by acting against the reverse +faces of a projection from the side of The eccentric pulley. + +The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection +with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine +when driving a single slide valve. Its use in connection with the Meyer +cut-off valves, however, is believed to be new; and the reason for its +employment will be understood by the aid of Fig. 6. + +For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering them +both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; let L O M +represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is shown the port +leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of the main valve, at the +beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will then be apparent that the +center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point, C, if the +engine turn to the left, as shown by the arrow, and at G, if the +rotation be in the opposite direction; C and G then may be taken as the +centers of the "go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, +which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link. + +Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in effect +revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric. +Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, represent the face of +the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, the back of the main valve, +in which the port, C N, corresponds to one of those shown in Fig. 4; and +the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely, the +same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around +the center, C. + +In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon the +assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement +that when cutting off at the earliest point required, the cut-off valve +shall, at the instant of closing the port, be moving over it at its +highest speed. And this requires that the center of the eccentric shall +at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through C. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3-12 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the angle +through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that +distance is readily found; then, drawing an indefinite line C T, making +with the vertical line, G O, an angle, G C T. equal to the one thus +determined, any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of +the required center of the cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the +stroke. + +But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when +backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be symmetrically +situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O M bisects and is +perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed +on the shaft, its center must be located at H, the intersection of C T +with L M. This would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given +instant to be at Q, perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main +valve would be equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the +eccentric, the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the +real eccentricity. + +This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if the +lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of the +cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close the port. +CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, AB. + +The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter decreases; +therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity, and the +openings of the two ports will be the same; and the question is, Will +this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam? + +This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under +consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of +5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it is found that +the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of +that allowed when following full stroke, whereas the speed of the piston +at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its +greatest speed. + +This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, no +longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is reversed it +ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the angle, KOL. By +leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, by the means above +described, through the angle, KOP, the desired object is accomplished. +The real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of OK to OH, +while the lengths of the cut-off valves, and what is equally important, +their travel over the back of the main valve, are reduced in the +proportion of CK to CH, in this instance nearly one-half; a gain quite +sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient. + +The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the manner of +suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, this link is +used only for reversing, and is therefore always in "full gear" in one +direction or the other; and the striking feature of the arrangement here +used is that, whether going ahead or backing, there is _no slipping of +the link upon the link block_. + +The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved flat bar, +L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the link is hung +upon the pins, which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at +their upper ends. + +This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next to the +eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which projects the +journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical section by the +plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever, M, +which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve, through the +rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected with the lever, M, by the +bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a slotted arm, G, as shown in the end +view, Fig. 10. The center line of this slot lies in the plane which +contains the axes of the journal, J, and of the shaft, O. + +A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in this block +is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the pin, A, of one +of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as shown in Fig. 8; +and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, with the upper end of +the reversing lever, T, which is operated by the worm and sector. The +distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other words the length of the lever, M, +is precisely equal to the distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right +line; and the rods, R and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also +each of precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, as in +Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end is exactly +in line with the rock-shaft, O. + +When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the arm, G, +and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions will be +identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the +rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely to the +pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the journal, J, so +that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected +directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being also in line with B and J, +and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it will be seen that the +bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as though the two were +rigidly fastened together. + +When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in Fig. 12, +the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm, G, and is +thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The suspension-rod, S, +will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, will have been drawn, by +the bridle-rod, R, into line with the journal, J, and the bridle-rod +itself will now vibrate with the lever, M, whose sole motion will be +derived from the pin, A. + +There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and +operated is run in "full gear," either forward or backward. + +If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an +expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip while +running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be observed +that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker arm is one of +vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion relatively to the +sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the center, P, whose motion +relatively to E is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the +slot, due to the fact that the rocker arm itself, which virtually +carries the block, E, vibrates about O, while the suspension-rod, S, +vibrates about another fixed center. It will thus be seen that, finally, +the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs +_which curve in the same direction_, whether the engine be running +forward or backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block +slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions. + +Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to +reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, while in +the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI. + + +The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of Mr. +Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called the Poti, +which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly differs from all +others of her class, at least as regards her model. Her extremities, +which are strongly depressed in the upperworks, and the excessive +inclination of her sides, give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance +to the rams of our navy, such as the Taureau and Tigre. + +[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".] + +A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. Her +water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in no wise +cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is entirely of +steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 meters; extreme +breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, 1.9 meters; +displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound one, is of 600 +H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or 33-34 meters, per hour, +and it will probably reach 40 kilometers. + +The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., and 2 +Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be sufficient for a +voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION. + + +The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means +of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a +motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. The sail +constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not figure in our +enumeration, considering the essentially variable character of the force +utilized. + +In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a rude +one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks, +and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction +that which imitates these the best. + +Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in effecting a +movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at +the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists cite whole families of +mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity. It is probable +that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating. +However this may be, as long ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in +England, on this principle, by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the +patents of Allen (1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli +presented to the Académic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century. + +Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. This +ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, and was +constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of this was +incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could +be got from the idea. Another boat, the Albert, was built at Stettin, +after the same type and at about the same epoch; and the question was +considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the Great Eastern. + +About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of Cokerill de +Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did service as an excursion +boat between Liége and Seraing. The propeller of this consisted of a +strong centrifugal pump, with vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure +engine. This pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom +of the boat, and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling +tubes. These latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the +sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such +a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, as in +the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected the +propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the propelling +tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when they were turned +toward the front, she was thrust backward. When one was turned toward +the front and the other toward the stern, the boat swung around. +Finally, when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained +immovable. All the evolutions were easy, even without the help of the +rudder, and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were +capable of being varied _ad infinitum_ by a system of levers. + +The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, and +took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and forward, of +85 kilometers, with four stoppages. + +The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most satisfactory. +It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of effective duty it +would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its +exit from the propellers. + +Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system +employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. Seraing's +experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and the theoretic +effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar system of +construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in practice, falls to 40 +or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases. + +It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary pumps where +effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., we might obtain +much better results, and it is this that justifies the new researches +that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot & Pinette, whose first +experiments we are about to make known. + +In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and the +draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the +hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be +directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be had of a +sensibly constant speed, and without change in its running; the +production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be +avoided; the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge +pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the boat will be able to run at +any speed under good conditions, while the helix works well only when +the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch; it will be possible to +put the propelling apparatus under water; and, finally, it will be +possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, +without intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles +and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines. + +[Illustration: NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.] + +We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the description of +which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this +article. The inventors have employed a boat 14 meters in length by 1.8 +m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught behind and 32 in front. The +section of the midship beam is 70 square decimeters, and that of the +exhaust port is 4. At a speed of 2.2 meters per second the tractive +stress, K, is from 10 to 11 kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers +per hour, or 3.75 meters per second, the engine develops a power of 12 +horses. The piston is 19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 +centimeters. The shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 +revolutions per minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction +occurs at the lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced +out at B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for +putting the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small dimensions +and is only used for _directing_ the boat. The vessel may be turned +about _in situ_ by opening one of the receiving tubes, according to the +side toward which it is desired to turn. + +This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first trials +of her that have recently been made upon the Saône have shown the +necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work +upon.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER. + +[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.] + +By Professor W.C. UNWIN. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes carrying +segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor, the +power of which is to be measured. If the pulley turns with left-handed +rotation, the friction would carry the strap toward the left, unless the +weight, Q, were greater than P. If the belt does not slip in either +direction when the pulley rotates under it, then Q-P exactly measures +the friction on the surface of the pulley; and V being the surface +velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, is exactly the work consumed by the +dynamometer. But the work consumed in friction can be expressed in +another way. Putting [theta] for the arc embraced by the belt, and [mu] +for the coefficient of friction, + + Q/P = [epsilon]^{[mu]^{[theta]}}, + +or for a given arc of contact Q = [kappa]P, where [kappa] depends only +on the coefficient of friction, increasing as [mu] increases, and _vice +versa_. Hence, for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights, Q +and P, it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be +exactly constant. But this constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient +of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of +the pulley, which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in a +dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the +weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled without +impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors Ayrton and Perry +have recently used a modification of this dynamometer, in which the part +of the cord nearest to P is larger and rougher than the part nearest to +Q. The effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction +increase, Q rises a little, and diminishes the amount of the rougher +cord in contact, and _vice versa_. Thus reducing the friction, +notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, +and the only objection to it, if it is an objection, is that only a +purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that +the range of the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of +the weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction. + +[Illustration: FIG.2 FIG.3] + +For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 lengthens, Q +increases, and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley +increases, both in consequence of the increase of Q, which increases the +pressure on the pulley, and of the increase of the coefficient of +friction. Similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction, the +spring in Fig. 3 shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface +of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction on +the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, and +the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less. Fig. +3, therefore, is the better form. + +A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break set to a +given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence of any cause +the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., the difference of +tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would +increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from 1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. +3. That is, the vibration of the spring, and the possible error of +measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in Fig. 2 +than in Fig. 3. It has recently occurred to the author that a further +change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still +more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction, and +consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. +Suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by +the motor and round a fixed pulley, C. + +For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, but they +are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the spring balance +be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs. Then it +will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. in the friction produces +a somewhat greater variation of P than in Fig. 3. But P is now so much +smaller than before that Q-P is much less affected by any error in the +estimate of P. An alteration of 20 per cent. in the friction will only +alter the quantity Q-P from 5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less +than 6 per cent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer are due +to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are caused by +variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer. By making +P very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer, any +errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of +the work absorbed. We may go further. The cord may be taken over four +pulleys; in that case a variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional +coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys 1¼ percent. P +is now so insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it +is of comparatively little consequence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form +Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the author thinks +that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V grooves in the +pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the greatest resistance with +the least variation of the coefficient of friction; the heat developed +being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley. It would +be quite possible with a pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at +50 feet of surface velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible +wire, capable of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable value +of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a brake in +the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and with a brake in +the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. But since it would +be easy to have two, three, or more wires side by side, each carrying +its load of 100 lb., large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently +absorbed and measured. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEE'S GAS STOVE. + + +This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with +radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or +lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products of combustion are +discharged through a pipe of small diameter, which may be readily +inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the +wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by +radiation from the radiator rings that the gases, on making their exit, +have no longer a temperature of more than from 35 to 40 degrees. + +[Illustration: SEE'S GAS STOVE.] + +The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is surrounded on all +sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being entirely of cast iron, +it will last for a long time. The joints, being of asbestos, are +absolutely tight, so as to prevent the escape of bad odors. The water +due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of +doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to +change the hygrometric state of the air. The consumption of gas is very +small, it taking but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic +meters to a temperature of 18° C.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + +The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India last +year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of cattle, +46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, 2,606 were killed +by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the deaths occasioned by the +attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 +by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 by alligators; 18,591 wild animals +and 322,421 snakes were destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards +amounting to 141,653 rupees. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] devised a +method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to +impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic hydrogen, the +apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, and afterward +electrolyzers with platinum plates. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, 1882, p. +5472.] + +His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In the +zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to employ +zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state presents +grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower part, under the +influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an obstacle to the free +circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, the cleaning presents +insurmountable difficulties. This is why he substituted for the +clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily +found in commerce. The management and cleaning of the pile thus became +very simple. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS.] + +The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form +shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, or, what is +better, rectangular, because of the square form under which the sheets +of zinc are found in commerce. + +In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc plates, b, +b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating with a flat +one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been scoured, first with a +weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty +matter derived from rolling, and then with very dilute hydrochloric +acid, and finally are washed with common water. In order to facilitate +the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction, care must be taken to +form apertures in the zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row +with respect to the bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 +hectoliters contains 105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, +whose total weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing +surface of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50° to 60° Gay-Lussac. The raw impure spirits enter +the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a sufficient stay +therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, into a reservoir, R, +from whence, by means of a pump, they are forced to the rectifier. + +The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an +aperture in the cover of the pile. + +As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors +may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. The liquefied alcohol +returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of 15°, the quantity of +alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant. In order to secure +a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits, during the period +devoted to the operation, the liquid is made to circulate from top to +bottom by means of a pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the +liquid in the vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation +consists in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the +pile, by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it. + +The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working +of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the following +conditions: + +1. Impure spirits of 40° Gay-Lussac, and not water, should be used as a +menstruum for the salt of copper. + +2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of +½ per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per 100 +square meters of zinc exposed, or a total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate +for a pile of 150 hectoliters capacity. + +3. A temperature of 25° should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization. + +The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the +alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each charging +with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days to form the +pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown +and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence becomes much greater after +a fortnight's operation. + +Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of +the reaction. Below +5° the couple no longer works, and above +35° the +reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to +such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The +battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of +hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 +kilos. of acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this +acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the +copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of operating +from 18 months to two years without being renewed or cleaned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.] + +Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize +the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a rectifier. But, +in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile +with another one by electrolysis. The voltameters in which this second +operation is performed have likewise been modified. They consist now +(Fig. 2) of cylindrical glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in +height, with polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite +cover through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the +liquid, E+E-E'+E', to circulate. + +The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, R, +which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per hour. +In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, there is +placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a +second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock. + +In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters of +impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished to the +voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors in +derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires +interposed in the circuit of the inductors. + +The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a +commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez galvanometer. The +voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted in derivation in +groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse them in two parallel +currents. The Siemens machine is of the type SD2, and revolves at the +rate of 1,200 times per minute, absorbing a motive power of four horses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.] + +The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected by the +metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages this process +presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple +distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. Naudin: + +In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol must +undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the +mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated and sold according +to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield in the first +distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss experienced in +distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 per cent.; (4) the +quantity of essential oils (mixture of the homologues of ethylic +alcohol) collected at the end of the first distillation equals, on an +average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of a rectification may be estimated +at, on an average, 4 francs per hectoliter. + +All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the electric +method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an average, 0.40 +franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is therefore +considerable. For an establishment in which 150 hectoliters of 100° +alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident, amounting, as +it does, to 373 francs. + +We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits +which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the ordinary +processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for example, that +artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the old processes, +give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from Indian +corn.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES. + + +Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in _Neueste Erfindung_.: +Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed +into moulds made of iron and brass. After drying for a few days in a +closed place, it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the +direct flames and burned, feebly at first, then strongly, the fire being +gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The +fire is then permitted to slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the +carbon is taken out of the furnace. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS. + +By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D. + +[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia College +of Pharmacy.] + + +The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very different +aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or +sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass of observations in most +of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval. +Were that all, the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed +benefit, because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this +additional matter. Many would be the contradictions in the observations +and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. +The advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways. + +Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The chemistry of +the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive +science, such as the natural history branches, zoology, and botany are +still in great part. Reasonably exact mineral analyses were made, it is +true, but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental +conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally +established. Now, this want of comprehensive views of chemical +reactions, their why and wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the +study of inorganic and metallic compounds, but what must have been the +conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely +spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous +that, in the absence of any established relationships, not much more +than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists have +attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic +chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range most carbon +compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or as benzol +derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. To do this, +methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry +had to be applied. The mere finding out of percentage composition tells +us little or nothing about an organic compound. What the elements are +that compose the compound is not to be found out. That can be told +beforehand with almost absolute certainty. What is wanted is to know how +the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, +for, strange to say, these differences of groupings, which may be found +to exist between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification. + +The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required very +different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a compound +in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we submit it to a +course of treatment with reagents, which take it apart very gradually, +or modify it in the production of some related substance. In this way, +we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and +to put it in its proper place. Of equal importance with the analytical +method of study, however, is the synthetical. This method of research, +as applied to organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of +modern chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds. +Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts +attest its practical value. It may, therefore, seem anomalous when I say +that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds +has not shared in this advance. The alkaloids, that most important class +from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite +recently been defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, +containing nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives +was not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown. +Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their constitution was +very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of any of the more +important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to +effect from every point of view. Within the last five years, however, +quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer +understanding of these most important compounds, and I shall offer to +your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and +what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future. + +It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or +ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic character of +these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential element, and, +above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united +with acids to form salts, not by replacement of the hydrogen of the +acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, pointed unmistakably to +this constitution. But with this granted, the simplest alkaloid +formulas, those of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, and nicotine, +C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, still showed that the amine molecule contained quite +complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of +the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the +three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the +difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those +alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other +organic compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until +analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon +the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of the +decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance +to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field. + +It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like +bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or amido-toluol, and xylidine +or amido-xylol, which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the +so-called aniline dye-colors. It is perhaps not so well known that there +are other series of bases found there too. The first of these is the +pyridine series, including _pyridine_, C_{5}H_{5}N, _picoline_ +(methyl-pyridine), C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), _lutidine_ (dimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{5}N(CH_{3})_{2}, and _collidine_ (trimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{2}N(CH_{3})_{3}. This series is also found in relatively larger +proportion in what is known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry +distillation of bones. + +The second series is the quinoline series, including _quinoline_, +C_{9}H_{7}N, _lepidine_ (methyl-quinoline), C_{10}H_{9}N, and +_cryptidine_ (dimethyl-quinoline), C_{11}H_{11}N. The two compounds +which give name to these series, pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N, and quinoline, +C_{9}H_{7}N, respectively, bear to each other a relation analogous to +that existing between benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, and naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8}; +and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been +occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that +pyridine is simply benzol, in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the +triad group, CH, and quinoline, the naphthalene molecule with a similar +change. Indeed, Ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as +an alteration product from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, +from methyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), would be derived an acid know +as pyridine-carboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, C_{6}H_{5}CH_{3}, and +from dimethyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{3}N(CH_{3})_{2}, an acid known as +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}, just as phthalic +acid, C_{6}H_{4}(COOH)_{2}, is derived from dimethyl-benzol, +C_{6}H_{4}(CH_{3})_{2}. The same thing applies to quinoline as compared +to naphthalene. + +We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents +upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most efficacious in +decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents, +of bromine, of organic iodides, of concentrated acids and alkalies, and +of heat. + +Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to _conine_, +first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary +amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the +original ammonia molecule. Its formula is therefore C_{8}H_{16}NH. From +conine can be prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C_{8}H_{14}, conylene, homologous with acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}. Conine, on +oxidation, yields chiefly butyric acid, but among the products of +oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred +to. The formula of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, shows it to be homologous with +piperidine, C_{5}H_{11}N, a derivative of piperine, the alkaloid of +pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just as piperidine is derived from +pyridine by the action of reducing agents, so conine is probably derived +from a propyl-pyridine. The artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric +with the natural conine, will be referred to later. + +_Nicotine_, C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, the next simplest in formula of the +alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that is, contains no replaceable hydrogen +atoms in its molecule. It shows very close relations to pyridine. When +nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially +collidine, and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases +such as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120°C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and +pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of +potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, C_{10}H_{10}N_{2}. Potassium +permanganate, chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), and which, distilled over quick-lime, yields +pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. + +Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up first +the opium alkaloids. _Morphine_, C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}, is a tertiary +amine, and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction with +ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from it, is +_codeine_, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. Besides the +methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and several have been +recently prepared, giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known +as _codeines_. Morphine, rapidly distilled over zinc dust, yields +phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other +bases. The action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it +into apomorphine, C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}, by the withdrawal of a molecule of +water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change +morphine into oxidimorphine, C_{34}H_{36}N_{2}O_{6}. When heated with +strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine. + +_Narcotine_, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated with manganese +dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits apart into opianic +acid, C_{10}H_{10}O_{5}, and cotarnine, C_{12}H_{13}NO_{3}. This latter, +by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, C_{8}H_{7}NO_{4}, and +this, on heating with hydrochloric acid to 240° C., yields +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{9}N(COOH)_{2}. The base cotarnine +also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone. +In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction product meconine, +C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}, is produced. + +_Meconic acid_, C_{7}H_{4}O_{7}, which is found in opium in combination +with the different bases, has also been investigated. By acting upon +meconic acid with ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, +when heated with zinc dust, yields pyridine. + +If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. _Quinine_, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, when carefully +oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, yields a series of +products. First is formed quitenine, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O_{4}, a weak +base, then quininic acid, C_{11}H_{9}NO_{3}, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C_{8}H_{5}N0_{6}, and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C_{7}H_{6}NO_{4}. Now the two acids last mentioned are simple +substitution products of pyridine, oxycinchomeronic acid being a +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{2}N(COOH)_{3}, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its +homologues. The alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base. + +_Quinidine_ yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as +quinine. + +_Cinchonine_, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O, the second most important alkaloid of +these barks, when oxidized with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic +acid, which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid, C_{9}H_{6}N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When cinchonine is +treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into quinoline and a +solid body, which on further treatment yields a liquid base, +C_{7}H_{9}N, which is probably lutidine. It has been found, moreover, +that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled with +solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine +and quinoline series. + +_Cinchonidine_, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields quinoline +also, and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine. + +_Strychnine_ has been found to be a tertiary amine. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed. + +_Brucine_ is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by substitution in a +double ammonia molecule. When distilled with potassium hydrate it yields +quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric collidines. + +The alkaloid _atropine_ has been quite thoroughly studied with results +of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid, +it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine, +C_{8}H_{15}NO, and tropic acid, C_{9}H_{10}O_{3}. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180°C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C_{8}H_{13}N, a liquid base, with an odor resembling +conine. When this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine, it +yields dibrompyridine. + +_Piperine_, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well studied. When +boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a molecule of water +and splits apart into piperic acid, C_{12}H_{10}O_{4}, and piperidine, +C_{5}H_{11}N. This latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine hydrochlorate, +also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180° C., yields +dibrompyridine. + +_Sinapine_, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard +seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and +piperine, quite different results. When boiled with baryta water, +sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, C_{11}H_{12}O_{5}, and choline, +C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2}, the latter a well-known constituent of the bile, and +produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk +of egg. + +_Cocaine_, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by heating with +hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystalline +base, ecgonine, C_{9}H_{15}NO_{3}. + +_Caffeine_ and _theobromine_ have also quite different relations. +Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of theobromine, and +can be prepared from it. When caffeine is carefully oxidized with +chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea. Both theobromine +and caffeine are decomposed by heating to 240° C. in sealed tubes with +hydrochloric acid, identical products being obtained. These products are +carbon dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their relations. + +If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of +decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, we +review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned, +except the last four, a more or less immediate connection with the +pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated. The conviction +accordingly forces itself upon us that, if we want to attack the problem +of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially, we must +turn to these bases as our starting point. + +As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series +also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and +collidine, the first four members of the pyridine series, have, +moreover, all been formed synthetically, although the processes are not +such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from +Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the first member of the higher series, had been +made synthetically by several chemists, but by expensive and involved +methods, when Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol +and glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with +glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if +desirable. Shortly after, by an application of the same principle, +Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of lepidine, the second member +of the quinoline series. + +At the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as +the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the +natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was thought well +to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate +derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own. + +Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have shown +may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by Dr. +Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was found to +have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine. +Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large number of these +pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, moreover, that the +hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite +analogous to that of conine. + +The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite +extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that several of its +salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very like quinine, and +capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it. In general, the +hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple +base, an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by +Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the result of the study of the +decomposition products of the alkaloids, viz., the alkaloids are in +general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline, or of the +two bases combined. Thus Prof. Filehne found that hydrochlorate of +tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than +quinoline, but could not be used on account of a too powerful local +effect. The hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was +distinguished by its strong bitter taste, much resembling that of +quinine, had an effect like that of curare poison. The most decided +febrifuge action, however was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the +hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice +by Prof. O. Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate +of tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of "Kairolin." +These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, without any +unpleasant after effects or local disturbances. + +The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the +alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in 1880--Königs and +Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. The study of the +decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite +distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, in combination with a methyl-quinoline group. The +many experiments that are now being made to test this and other +questions that suggest themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. +Whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is +another matter, but it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps +even of probability. + +It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is +formed _paraconine_, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine, but +differing in physiological action. By the action of sodium upon pyridine +is produced a compound C_{10}H_{8}N_{2}, known as dipyridyl, and this, +under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms and becomes +_isonicotine_ C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, a physiologically active alkaloid, +isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a series of alkaloids +under the name of _codeines_, by the substitution of other organic +radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction, has already been +alluded to. _Atropine_ can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, +the two decomposition products already noted. The latter of these +products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and +the other will no doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial +atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also +formed a series of artificial alkaloids, called _tropeines_, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of the +compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as _homatropine_, an +alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but possessing some decided +advantages in its use. _Piperine_ has also been made by the uniting of +piperidine and piperic acid, and, as piperidine has already been formed +from pyridine, we have here a true synthesis also. Both _theobromine_ +and _caffeine_, its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, +which itself can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano. + +We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last +few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the +alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, keen-sighted +chemists will effect their artificial formation. When these most +valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a state of entire +purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of +them from relatively rare plants, organic chemistry will have placed all +of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science, +no matter how practical we call it.--_Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York. + + +If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by the +apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. Everywhere +attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. We are compelled +to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits +of various therapeutic measures, that those who were foremost to +disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the +fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were +considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar +conditions described by others. Hence a commensurate modification in +therapy might not only be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is +more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate +the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache +has been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick Headache," +which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular +form of headache. The work, however, is conspicuously lacking in those +philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding +of the questions involved. Dr. E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a +most interesting paper on "Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views +therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly +scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles +involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of +instances of cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by +this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, among +the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more puzzling or +more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the +doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine." + +[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. Sieveking, +M.D., _Medical Times and Gazette_ London, August 12, 1854.] + +What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, indeed, +the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the +positive results of more recent experimental physiology. Conspicuous in +this connection are the inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and +Hammond, touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during +sleep and wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively +proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep +and increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have published +the results of those researches in various papers and articles.[1] "What +Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, "that it results either +from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more modern terms, from hyperæmia +or anæmia, applies equally to headache; but, to embrace all the causes +of this affection we must add a third element, which, though most +commonly complicating one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily +included in them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." +While I agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be +ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hyperæmia and anæmia, in the +production of the group of symptoms known as "headache,"--I fail to +perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition +mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I am quite unable to imagine how the +periodical, and more especially the intermittent form, of headache is to +be explained by what Dr. Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a +"change in the constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, +admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of +cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that +the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly willing +to admit that other factors besides cerebral hyperæmia and anæmia may +produce the functional variety of headache. There would seem to be ample +ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation +of the brain plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, +being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of +mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the +multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time permit. As +regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content myself by referring +to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred Diseases of the Nervous +System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in which will be found many +interesting facts bearing on the question. Accepting the propositions, +then, that the more adjacent causes of headache are (1) cerebral +hyperæmia, (2) cerebral anæmia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral +plasma itself, let us now consider how these morbid factors are most +scientifically and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more +particularly, those distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so +baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are +best overcome. + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by J.L. Corning, +M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.] + +Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs, +which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common +carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these experiments the +thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a +salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so +prolific a source of headache and vertigo. Accordingly I made a +protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those +suffering from congestive headache, and I can only say that I have been +so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained, that I have +felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure +which, for obvious reasons, possesses all the advantages of local +depletion by leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of +either of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the +carotids have already been described in former communications. It is +only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds; +one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, which being held +in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure +upon both carotids for any desired length of time. The other instrument, +which I have designated as the "carotid truss," for lack of a better +name, is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each +extremity. The spring is placed about the neck of the patient, and by +suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly +above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries. By turning the +screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can +be applied to the arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length +of time by the patient. + +With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting the most +obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time (on +one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, the headache is of +manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory +derangements, I have never been able to achieve notable results with +this method. Indeed, pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method +of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous +varieties of head pains. + +Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most valuable +methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under +consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller +arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the +brain itself. + +A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or less +extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and +spinal symptoms, is cold. + +A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head, +at the same time, is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode, +designed by myself for this purpose. The apparatus in question consists +of a concave sponge electrode, the concavity of which corresponds to the +convexity of the external aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is +a chamber of metal or India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole +is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and +connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is applied +over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be taken not to +employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant +symptoms may be produced. An application of from five to ten minutes is +usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. As an additional security it +is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath, and to remain +as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment. In +hyperæmic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended; but +as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively +inadmissible, as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by +compression upon the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of +the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost always +be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms. Among the +internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain +cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and Indian hemp. The inhalation +of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in +some instances. Chlorodyne, which is nothing more than a mixture of +sedatives, often works well, and indeed frequently excels other +remedies. The regulation of the heart's action is also of very great +importance in these cases, and the physician should have no hesitancy in +resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose +of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a +matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--_Med. Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. + +[Footnote: From a paper published in the _British Medical Journal_.] + +By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin. + + +From time immemorial, the _Verbascum thapsus_, or great mullein, has +been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the treatment of the +above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most persons would call it +a weed--found in many parts of the United Kingdom; and, according to +Sowerby's _British Botany_, vol. vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly +distributed over England and the south of Scotland." In most parts of +Ireland, however, in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated +in gardens, and occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is +done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the +herb by phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far as I +know, has its use received the official sanction of the medical +profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter at the +Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, suggested that it +would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of +this drug, and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise. +Having partially accomplished this, I am anxious to very briefly set +forth what has been done, in order that others may be induced to +co-operate in the work. + +"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of the +Scrophulariaceæ; but the old Irish remedy is the great mullein, or +_Verbascum thapsus_, a faithful delineation of which will be found in +Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a hardy biennial, with a thick +stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, and with very peculiar +large woolly and mucilaginous leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly +yellow and nearly sessile flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late +summer or autumn, shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it +appears to have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy +for diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it. + +"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden +near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced operations. +As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured from our +drug-contractor. + +"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce +of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a +pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to strain. This strained +fluid is given warm to the patient, with or without a little sugar. It +is administered twice a day; and the taste of the mixture is bland, +mucilaginous, comforting to the praecordia, and not disagreeable. I +resolved to try this method, and also the watery infusion; and, +moreover, the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin. This +latter preparation was carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, +by Dr. John Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales. + +"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too many, were +now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's Hospital. They were +admitted in all stages, from an early one to the most advanced. On each +admission the case was carefully examined; the history, symptoms, and +physical signs were exactly noted; and the patient was weighed on a +stage balance with great accuracy. The patient was put as much as +possible on the mullein treatment only. For obvious reasons, no +cod-liver oil, koumiss, or other weight producer was given; the patients +got the diet suitable to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms +became troublesome, received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, +however, they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, they +were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that this should +be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, with the same +clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the same conditions. In +securing this the patients anxiously co-operated; and it was frequently +amusing, but sometimes painful, to watch the satisfaction or chagrin +with which the weekly result was received. I must here tender my +acknowledgments to our zealous, attentive, and accurate house surgeon, +Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom this important, but tedious, duty was +discharged." + +Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein plant has +been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that these cases, +although too few to justify any general conclusion, appear to establish +some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the +patients; in watery infusion it is disagreeable, and the succus is still +more so. The hot milk decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic +neighbors call _pectorale_) sensation, and when once patients take it +they experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the patients +scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical +sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of checking phthisical +looseness of the bowels was very marked, and experiment proved that this +was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled +milk. It also gave great relief to the dyspnoea. For phthisical night +sweats it is utterly useless; but these can be completely checked by the +hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the +atropia sulphate; the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, +as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of weight, +nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. Carrick, in +his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of Southern Russia (page +213), says: "I have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight, +while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs, and the +evening temperature rarely fell below 101° Fahr. Until then I considered +that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the +arrest of the malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does +not; but unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive invalid +must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In pretubercular and +early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein appears to have a distinct +weight-increasing power; and I have observed this in several private +cases also. Having no weighings of these latter, however, makes this +statement merely an expression of opinion. In early cases, mullein milk +appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when +we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth +a trial. I will continue the research by careful weighings of early +cases; and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of +mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the +phthisical bacillus. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE. + + +Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude that the +use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of +bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This increased flow is +beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder. A +subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of +bile into the gall-bladder, and this also is of service in emptying out +any stagnant bile, and restoring the normal condition when this is +disturbed. Artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a +similar action to the natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the +action varies according to the concentration of the solution. +Bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting +effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and +weak solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much +like that of the mineral waters. + + * * * * * + + + + +VIVISECTION. + + +Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is as +old as science itself. + +Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century of the +Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is regarded as +having merited his name (_Galenus_, "gentle") from the mildness of his +character. Five centuries before him, under the Ptolemies, Egyptian +experimenters had operated upon condemned persons. So, then, vivisection +is not, as usually thought, a diabolical invention of modern science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals +that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the hog, and the +dog, and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a +little of everything. Claude Bernard, however, had another way of +looking at things. It is true that he especially made researches into +the general laws of physiology, the secret of the vital functions, and +the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living +matter, but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art +of curing. He left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing +conclusions from his great work in biology, and of acting experimentally +upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of +therapeutics. So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the +animal scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him +greater service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded +animals offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present more +accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so much account +of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary in many cases to +choose subjects that possess endurance. The unfortunate frog, so aptly +named "the Job of physiology," becomes resigned to living under most +dreadful conditions, and when, through sheer exhaustion, he has +succumbed, his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of +experimentation for twenty-four hours. Thanks are due to nature for +giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest +batrachian! We owe to it the famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta +to the discovery of the pile and what followed it, the astonishing +conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are +now in their dawn. Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the +homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been +imposed upon this brave animal! + +[Illustration: Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for +the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it. No one, +however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it, but it is +only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed. +Does the abuse exist? That is the question, and it may be answered in +the affirmative. Yes, we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon +animals. It is a culpable folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat +barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known +physical fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it +would only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be +confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask that it be +confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the exclusion of visitors, +and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and +giving a programme of researches to be made. It is useless to seek in +the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a series +of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of +vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by Claude Bernard. Fig. +1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an +iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in +which hares or cats are placed in order to anæsthetize them. Fig. 4 +shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of +fixing him on his back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting +table, and Fig. 7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the +general arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anæsthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) the +extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the muzzle is +applied for anæsthetizing, and gives the details of construction of the +chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used +for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting +table.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL. + +[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association for the +Protection of the Insane and translated for the American Psychological +Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.] + +By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany. + + +The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and which +require different means in order to attain lasting success. Since the +number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years, in +all civilized countries, so that the responsibility of the proper charge +of them occupies continually not only the community, but also the State; +and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost +before they are finished, it becomes necessary to rid the institutions, +as soon as possible, of those patients which have been cured, as well as +of those which are improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as +possible, returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the +expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial +influence, besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found that +the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of +sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests. +Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns +to the institution, after a short lapse of time, because the "rudder" +(steuer) of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life. +How can, for instance, the indigent and poor patient, after his +discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the +proper care, stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of +his family? Is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those +who have been discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand +the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul? + +Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of benevolent +people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and +humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish social evils, whose object +is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the +institution, at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance. +Switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant +example, and there these societies found the greatest encouragement. It +should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times, that +the seed of true humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far +and wide, for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all +European countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch +of a truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by aiding +them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct donations of money, +etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a relapse of the disease. +May this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain +of joy and satisfaction to your members! + +Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, namely, +_the prevention of insanity_. It is nevertheless true, and cannot be +doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner +which is out of proportion to the increase of the population. Much +thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon, and physicians +as well as moralists, national economists as well as philosophers and +philanthropists, have endeavored to fathom the connection between this +fact and the conditions of modern social life. According to all +observations, it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a +single etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in +the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which give +rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in +which modern civilization influences mankind, in its development and +culture, in the family and in the school-room, in its views of life and +habits; also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a +heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions, power and +knowledge, and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance. + +More than even civilization itself, are at fault those pernicious +abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted from generation +to generation, or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to +our civilization. If we want to prevent the increase of insanity, we +must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities +from our social life which remove mankind more and more, in a pernicious +manner, from its natural development and from the normal conditions of +moral and physical life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous +offshoots of pseudo civilization, which are the enemies of the normal +existence of man. It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as +the entire society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which +spurs man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile decay of +both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which causes the +modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over +excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is necessary to strengthen more +than has been done heretofore the young, by means of their education, in +their physical development, and at the same time to diminish, in proper +proportion, the amount of mental over-exertion; and finally it is +necessary to fight against, to do away with, those habits of modern +society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well +as the mental and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there +is none so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as +well as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors. + +Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase +of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only on account of +its existing relation, but particularly because intemperance, among all +the factors which aid in the increase of insanity, can best be +diminished, and its influence weakened, through the will of the single +individual, as well as of society as a whole. The relation between +intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear, that it is not +necessary to adduce proofs of this fact. I will not refer to the +writings of the older authors, such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, +Macnish, Carpenter, and others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; +Ramaer, in Holland; Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and +others, in France; Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in +Germany. I could name a much larger number of the greatest modern +authorities on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding increase +of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those countries in +which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and particularly in the +form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn, has only in later +years become general. Thus Lunier has shown the number of alcoholic +insane increased by ten per cent. in those departments in which more +whisky and less wine is consumed. + +In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and in that +country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, Castiglione, Ferri, +and others) the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol +stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in +certain provinces of Italy. + +In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members was, +that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of +insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, and +alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease. +Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that intemperance, +without hereditary predisposition, was one of the most powerful agencies +in the production of aberration of the mind. Even Beckwith, who could +not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as +an etiological element, says distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, +the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease. + +In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces +of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public +institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report +of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that everywhere, where the +number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, was +greatest, the number of insane was also largest. Without doubt, to my +mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most +potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases. + +As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve +centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity. In +consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an +acute intoxication takes place, which may range from a slight excitation +to a complete loss of consciousness. After habitual abuse of alcohol, +the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant +and disappear the less, as in the central organs degenerative processes +are more and more developed, processes which lead to congestions and +hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself, to +softening or hardening, and finally to disappearance of the brain +substance. These degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a +progressive decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the +ethical functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and motor +disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy. + +The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol +intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if we assert that +from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand in a direct or +indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of +intoxicating liquors. This is the opinion of a large number of +authorities on mental diseases in all countries. Habitual intemperance +leads to severe (psychical?) lesions (of the nervous system) which may +show themselves in the different forms of insanity, but express +themselves chiefly as mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous +system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in +those whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention. + +An investigation among the patients in the insane department of the +Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was lately +carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des Alcoholismus zur +Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed that among 607 patients +who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 +per cent. had been addicted to drink; 133 before, and 17 after the +disease had shown itself; further, that of 1572 patients with delirium +tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per +cent., were epileptic; and that in 221 intemperance was present before +the outbreak of epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which +entered the department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., +were inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per cent. +were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of intemperate +parents. + +If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, does +directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, the +baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the intemperance of +parents, upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as +great and disastrous. The children of intemperate parents frequently +become drunkards themselves; they have inherited a degeneration of the +vitiated constitution, and carry the stamp of this degeneration within +themselves. The offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, +and die early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born idiotic, or +show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of alcohol, the +individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved, +and, according to the law of inheritance, is transmitted through the +progeny to the race. + +Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease (Stuttgart, +1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names alcoholism among the +transient abnormal conditions which, during conception, exert their +influence, so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological, +and especially neuro-pathological, dispositions. Intemperance, says this +author, in its acute, as well as in its chronic form, causes frequently +pathological changes in the nervous system, and thus may the +pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially +explained. On account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological +constitution, the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from +an abnormal psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, +epileptics, suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of +drunkards, do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, also of +depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime. + +Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated facts, +nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as +inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity; and +that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity, toward +the prevention of mental diseases, must be directed against this +widespread evil, intemperance. + +May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a +narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot +be too much contended with. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC. + +[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.] + +By J.W. COLCORD. + + +Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic properties of +plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my attention, I +determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered. Having a +shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article, +I was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments. +Believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than +from dried, I expressed the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" +mill, obtaining about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. +The juice was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the press +into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol, +evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, mixing with the +12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of alcohol. This +preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents virtually equal +parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a dark brown color with a +marked odor of the recent plant, and so far, after standing three months +undisturbed on my shelves, shows no sign of precipitation. + +My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed +juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing three months, +the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of precipitation. This, I +think, promises to be the most efficient preparation, and will prove +valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, +and similar disorders. + +Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and +alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of +alcohol. + +In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about +equal proportions, and was removed about one month after making by +filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of precipitation +since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown liquids. + +Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had sufficient trial +to form an opinion, although, as far as I can judge, they have proved +satisfactory. While writing this article, a cook from a neighboring +restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer, exposing the +bone, came in for treatment. Having bandaged I applied the glycerate, +which soon stopped the profuse bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it +to apply subsequently. I asked her to report to me in two or three days, +and, on reporting, I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic +properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have +been able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds. + +The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the +purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our +list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more +extended experiment.--_New Remedies_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DANGER FROM FLIES. + + +Dr. Grassi is said (_British Medical Journal_) to have made an +important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to flies. It +was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of +infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known that they are +capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various +worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in their fæces. This +point has now been established, and several striking experiments +illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a +great number of the eggs of a human parasite, the _Tricocephalus +dispar_. Some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen, which +stands about ten meters from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual +little spots produced by the fæces of flies were found on the paper. +These spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were then +caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova. Similar +experiments with the ova of the _Oxyuris vermicularis_ and of the +_Toenia solium_ afforded corresponding results. Shortly after the flies +had some mouldy cream, the _Oidium lactis_ was found in their fæces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every +one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, and +afterward examine the fæces and intestines of the flies; numerous spores +will be found. As flies are by no means particular in choosing either a +place to feed or a place to defecate, often selecting meat or food for +the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is +raised. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. + + +The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents, +alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our illustration, must +be commended as a valuable improvement of the Zoological Society's +establishment in Regent's Park. This building, which has a rather +stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, constructed of brick and +terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, stands close to the south +gate of the Gardens, entered from the Broad Walk of the Park. The +visitor, on entering by that gate, should turn immediately to the left +hand, along the narrow path beside the aviary of the Chinese golden +pheasants, and will presently come to the Reptile House, which is too +much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious +interior, represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places +in the whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, +very nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and in +baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with substantial +margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over +them, while one basin is further protected by an iron grating, contain +water in which the alligators, the infant crocodiles, and a number of +tortoises, but none of the larger species, make themselves quite at +home. One side of the house, with its windows looking into a pleasant +airy vestibule, is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller +lizards, with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, +which present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large wall +cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, rising about +14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are confined--the huge +pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the poisonous cobras and +rattlesnakes, and others well known to the visitors at these gardens. +Each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind, to which the +keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall, and +there are doors also from one compartment to another. The floor is of +smooth slate, and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or +to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its +exercise and amusement. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY.] + + +THE BABIROUSSA. + +We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, a male +and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the society by +Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, in the Malay +Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the +ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The babiroussa is a +species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of Eastern Asia, and +remarkable, in the male animal, for the extraordinary growth and +direction of the canine teeth. The upper pair of canine teeth, growing +out through the upper jaw, curve backward and upward on the forehead, +having somewhat the aspect of horns; while the lower canine teeth form a +pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for +defensive fighting, as a guard to the head, but could not serve for +attack. The skull of a babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in +the possession of Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the +Zoological Society's collection.--_Illustrated London News_. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE.] + + * * * * * + +Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797. + + + + +ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY. + +PART IV. + +By NELSON H. DARTON. + + +Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old one, and +well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits prescribed in +introducing this series of paper, but by only a few miles, and being +such an interesting locality, I have included it in the granular +limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a +space of ten acres, about two miles north of the railroad station of +Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and +Western Railroad, and is reached by a road running north from about a +mile east of the railroad station. This road branches into two at the +limestone kilns, about a mile from the railroad track, and the left hand +branch is taken, which leads more directly to the quarry, which is on +the right hand, about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the +loose rock lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. +John J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for agricultural +purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles. +Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so +characteristic of the locality, and for which it has become +famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite pyrites, biotite, +aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly others in lesser quantity. + +_Serpentine_.--All the varieties of this species, and of every color +from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed through the +limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets. It is +generally soft, translucent, and to be found in masses from a pea to a +cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure oil green color, rich and +translucent, making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen. +No difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this +mineral, as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of +the quarry, as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as +being useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as marmolite, +which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together +similar to mica, but of the green color of the serpentine picolite, or +fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs of a light grass green color, +and is a very interesting variety. + +In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to procure +that which is the most translucent, and that holding miniature veins of +asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine +alone, but occur in the southern end of the main quarry. The width of +these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch, but those of even much +less are highly prized as specimens. These veins of asbestos are, in +places, several inches in length, but are generally much broken in +removing them, as their fibrous structure, at right angles to their +length, makes them very fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can +seldom be found. However, they make much finer specimens when with the +serpentine. Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this assortment +is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which they were +formed, which was by a process termed segregation. + +This gurhofite, called bone +by the quarrymen, occurs in white, dense looking masses, intermingled +with the serpentine, especially in the upper end of the quarry, where +veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant, and from which +specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the +gurhofite and the association with the serpentine, to which it is found +attached; it is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and +need not be mistaken for it. + +_Phlozopite_.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, near the +asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, which is a +variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery +white color, and from one by three inches in area to less. It is easily +separable in folia, and cannot be confounded with any of the other +minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral +is exposed, whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals. + +_Pyrites_.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic +rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very fine, perfect crystals +may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock. There is no particular +portion of the quarries in which they abound. + +_Biotite_.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of a dark brown +color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of +limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; on the north +wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, and there even in +large number, in a locality, generally a pocket in the gneiss. + +_Tremolite_ is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the +extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the main one, +over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white crystals, about a +quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length. The +crystals are opaque, but very smooth and glistening, lining cavities in +this mass of limestone. It is a variety of hornblende, composed of +silica, lime, and magnesia, with a little alumina. It probably occurs in +places in the vicinity of this block, and in finer specimens, as these +are frequently, when near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is +a characteristic granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. +We will again meet it when examining the New York city localities. + +_Aragonite_ occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow color and +fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When they are separated +by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the fibers are very large, +coarse, and brittle, and thus do not resemble asbestos, although in some +instances they might be mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from +it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate +of lime, and also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it may +occur in greater profusion. + +Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being in the +form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with aragonite of +a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. As before noticed, +Staten Island is the best locality for this species. + +_Calcite_.--In places the limestone is perfectly crystallized, and of a +pure white or other color, when it forms an attractive mineral, and +often worth removing. The limestone of the main quarry, carefully +averaged, was found to have the following chemical composition. + + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 + +In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from its rough +state resembles "_verde antique_," and at that of a beautiful color; +samples of this should be obtained. + +_Feldspar_.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between +the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh red color and +often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an inch and a half in +length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily distinguished from +calcite, which it much resembles, but which has only a hardness of 3, +and dissolves with effervescence in acids. + +A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a +holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many interesting +and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip as well. In +reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and if one has an +early start these may all be visited. I will describe a few of these, +which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing +geological features and not far from the main line of travel. + +Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the first stop +may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey City. Here a visit +to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken; and as I have +written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these +articles,[1] I will not reiterate it here, but refer to that paper. The +mine, I might add, is only a mile north of the railroad station, and on +Schuyler Avenue, a short distance north from its junction with the +Jersey City and Paterson turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and +walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep +cut, the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so +large a portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. At a +point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of +shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity +in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, and is a point at which +the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically, the western side +remaining in its original position. This fault has a thrust of only +three feet, but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a +tremendous scale in some of the other formations. It will be noticed +that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of +a talcky substance, which has been derived from infiltrating waters. +Fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled +in a similar manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further +west a short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its +banks for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington pumps +and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The Passaic +River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and Paterson road may +be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence it is two miles east +to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the bank of the Passaic may be +followed and the quarries reached in an hour from Belleville. Here again +are met the sandstones and shales, besides another and larger fault, and +many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be +examined. The railroad station having been regained, Paterson is the +next point of interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the +city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these +may be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of the +station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above +and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales and +conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track (the +Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed for some +distance west, when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the +railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap; this is noticed +as a depression in the face of the cliff, and it may be seen by the +superposition of the layers of trap and basalt. Where the fault occurs a +short distance further west, there is another smaller fault. A visit to +the Great Falls of the Passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this +point, and these are about a half mile north of this locality. Here the +arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, +and the mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one +of these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to the +Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein the +contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous +additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is the best point +in which to find these exposures, and from the viaduct crossing the +river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained. +Regaining the train, Montville is soon reached and visited, and after +this, if time sufficient Boonville, two miles west, may be taken in, or +it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train, as but few stop +at Montville. At Boonton there are many interesting features--iron works +furnaces, localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor to +give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + +[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + + * * * * * + + + + +DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM. + + +An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus Gate, +Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine +Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The ruin has proved +to be one of great extent, and of special interest. The way in which it +was brought to light is worth recording. In an uneven field, which rose +considerably above the land about it, parts of which appearing, indeed, +like little hillocks, the owner of the soil tried to maintain a +vegetable garden, but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor +vegetables would flourish, and even irrigation did little or no good; +besides, here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could +not be accounted for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what +there was below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very +soon came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. The +amount of _débris_ which had accumulated above the floor of these +buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this mass of earth has +required much time and labor, and the work is not yet completed. The +piece of ground in question has about 60 yards of frontage on the main +road, and extends, so far as the excavations go, about the same distance +back from the road, that is, to the east. + +The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, and is +very near the street. The ground in front of the church is paved with +fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was entered were 5 +feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat wider. From the entrance +to the altar step, or platform, the distance is 55 feet, and from that +point to the back of the apse 15 feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is +16 feet 6 inches. The width of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet +in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a +manner similar to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This +wall, also those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally painted, and +some of the figures and designs can still be traced. At the southeast +corner of the church, leading from the apse, there is a narrow but well +built passageway to the buildings in the rear. The character of these +buildings is not very evident; certainly they did not stand on a line +with the church, but at an angle of 25° with that line. Between the +church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear, +there was a passage not over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear +of the church is 47 feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 +feet more of a special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and +which had a beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic floor +is 140 feet. + +On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall of the +main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 feet 6 inches +long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This is considerably +wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even the entrance of the +church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have been found, but in one +place two or three square yards have been preserved, enough to show that +the work was extremely beautiful. The colored tracings resemble those in +the church on the Mount of Olives, and on one side are the large Greek +letters [Theta][epsilon][omicron][nu]. North of this mosaic floor, and +of the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has been +leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced in an +east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 inches +deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From about the +middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs 20 +feet or more to the north; it is possible that it led _from_ the north, +and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west. +Piles of stones and _debris_ prevent us at present from deciding as to +the length of the channel or where it comes from. In the bank of +_debris_, which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height +of 20 feet, there is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed +of cement, running north and south at right angles to the line of the +church and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic +pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of +_debris_ which is yet to be removed. + +In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is found, +very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut channel, there +is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of the floor. The tomb +is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered by a doorway 26 inches +wide, which is well built, and in the sides of which are grooves for a +door to slide up and down. On the wall of the tomb at the east end there +is a raised Greek cross, 22 inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot +stand erect in its highest part, but it is to be considered that the +loculi are two-thirds full of _debris_, composed chiefly of decayed +bones and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The loculi are +2 feet in depth. + +What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," turn out +to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 feet long by +28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided (one or two of +them at least) into apartments by means of arches. The lower courses of +the walls, to the height of several feet, are of squared stones, while +the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work, which was covered +with a heavy coating of plaster. The threshold of one has been exposed, +which is 6 feet in the clear, and the sides of the doorway show +excellent work. + +Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each 33 inches +in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of which were +nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were closed, were many +feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began, hence +no one knows how old the water in them may be. Some of the slabs with +which the church was paved were 6 feet long by 2½ feet wide. In the +church two pieces of cornice were found, each 8 feet in length. One is +entire and quite plain, while the other is broken in the middle. It is +upon this that the figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were +painted. They can still be traced, although exposure has nearly +obliterated the colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken +glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great +value. The top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a +basin, and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water +to run off. + +South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there +is a large underground chamber with seven openings (each the size of a +man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 feet wide and nearly 20 +feet long, but the depth is not yet ascertained, owing to the +accumulation of _debris_ on the bottom. On the west and north sides a +wall of solid rock appears to a depth of 6 feet, showing that the +chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock. The use of +this chamber does not appear evident, unless it may have been a store +room. The place within the city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a +similar chamber (not dug in the solid rock, however), with similar +openings in the ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some +distance to the east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to +purchase the land in that direction, in order to allow of the +excavations being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of +ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move with +aggravating slowness. + +Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that the west +wall of what he called the "main building," toward the apse of the +church, has been removed and the floor cleared, exposing a fine +pavement. This pavement, the threshold before mentioned, and the mosaic +floor all belong to one period, and to a structure very much older than +the date of the "main building." It puzzled the doctor, because the +threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of +the "main buildings," but the reason is now clear. Captain Conder says +of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he +was there, that "the whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As +regards the church itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor +especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At +the south side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the +largest cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick +stone 5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against +the wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two +halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest to state +that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since, and for +a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last it was sold for 40 +Napoleons. During the present year it has passed into the hands of the +French for 2,000 Napoleons. + + * * * * * + + + + +DAMMARA AUSTRALIS + + +One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of +such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, is the subject of +the present note. Some months since cones were observed to be forming on +this tree, and a representation of which we are now enabled, through the +courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay before our readers. We are not aware +whether the tree has previously produced cones at Kew, though we have +the impression that such is the case; at any rate it has done so +elsewhere, as recorded in the _Flore des Serres_, 1856, p. 75, but +fertile seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen. + +In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and +richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive tiers of +branches, which render it specially suitable for the decoration of +winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, where no great +amount of heat is required. In the northern island of New Zealand, +however, it is quite another matter, for there, where it is known as the +Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable of timbers, as may be judged +from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from 50 to +100 feet clear of the branches; moreover, it yields a gum resin like +copal, which exudes from the trunk, and which is sometimes found below +ground in the vicinity of the trees, thus giving the clew to the real +nature of amber and other similar substances. + +[Illustration: THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.] + +The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the construction +of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and elasticity rendering it +particularly suitable for this purpose, and Laslett speaks of it as one +of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand, and +recommends its use for the decks of yachts, for cabin panels, for +joiner's work generally, or for ornamental purposes. Owing to the +difficulty and expense of working the forests, and the great distance, +comparatively little of it comes to this country.--_The London +Gardeners' Chronicle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES. + + +Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods, +and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, than to buy +nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail because proper +precautions have not been taken. In digging up a tree, all the roots +outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off, and the tree is +reset with its full head of branches. Whoever has seen trees in the +forest that were upturned by a tornado, must have been struck by the +manner in which the roots run very near to the surface, and to a great +distance. When the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet +from the trunk, few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the +mass of tops is left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not +be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must +follow. If such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a +bare pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to meet +the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and growth above +and below ground is well balanced. + +We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or more +high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees treated +in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago. +They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show no signs of +former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the edge of the woods, +are better furnished with roots. These should be prepared for +transplanting by digging down to the roots, and cutting off all that +extended beyond the desired distance. This will cause the formation of +fibrous roots near the tree. It will be safer to take two years for the +operation, cutting half of the roots each year. Such trees may be +removed in safety, especially if a good share of the top is removed at +transplanting--_American Agriculturist_. + + * * * * * + +A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + +261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N. Y. + + * * * * * + + + + +PATENTS. + + +In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 38 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents +are obtained on the best terms. + +A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all Inventions +patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the +Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is +directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction +often easily effected. + +Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free +of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN +& Co. + +We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats. +Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address + +MUNN & CO., 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + +Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C. + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +415, December 15, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11344 *** diff --git a/11344-8.txt b/11344-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7432a98 --- /dev/null +++ b/11344-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4194 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, +December 15, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 *** + + + + +Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +Scientific American Supplement No. 415 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in Steel. + + Heat developed in Forging. + + Recent Studies on the Constitution of Alkaloids.--Extract from + a lecture delivered before the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. + --By SAML.P. SADTLER. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for Extracting + Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving. + + A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By Prof. E.J. + HALLOCK. 1 figure. + + A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description and numerous + engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD. + + The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With engraving. + + A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic Reaction--Figures showing + plan and side views of the steamer. + + A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. W.C. + UNWIN. 4 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and Opals.--By + A. GOODALL. + + The Manufacture and Characteristics of Photographic Lenses. + + Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. EDER. + + The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By Prof. REDWOOD. + + Anti-Corrosion Paint. + + Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different kilns used. + +IV. ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHÆOLOGY.--The German + National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of + Peace and War. + + The Art Aspects of Modern Dress. + + Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With engraving. + + Discovery of Ancient Church In Jerusalem. + +V. ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With engraving. + + Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 engravings showing + Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. Electrolyzing + Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens Machine. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and around New + York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's Gardens, London.--With + full page engravings showing the new Reptile House, and the + Babiroussa family. + +VIII. HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra Australis.-- + With engraving. + + How to Successfully Transplant Trees. + +IX. MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of Congestive + Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING. + + The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of Pulmonary + Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN. + + Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon the Bile. + + Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of engravings. + + Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful as well as + inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By Dr. A. BAER, + Berlin. + + Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD. + + Danger from Flies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE. + + +In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," lately +unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now present, as +beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two statues, War and +Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental facade. These figures +are about twenty feet high. The statue of War represents an allegorical +character, partly Mercury, partly mediæval knight, with trumpet in one +hand, sword in the other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and +modest maiden, holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn +of peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." Here +the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, surrounded by a +noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, commanders, and +statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped to found the +empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German nation. + +[Illustration: WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.] + + * * * * * + +A writer in the London _Lancet_ ridicules a habit of being in great +haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of +commercial men, and argues that in most cases there is not the least +cause for it, and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous +volume of business which almost overwhelms the house. The writer further +says that, when developed into a confirmed habit, it is fertile in +provoking nervous maladies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS. + + +At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic Society, +Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having expressed his belief +that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion, the +lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who +were open to conviction could have all the variety Fashion promised, +together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow, while +health received the fullest attention. Two excellent societies, worthy +of encouragement up to a certain point, had been showing us the folly +and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, +crippled the feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the +limbs, and even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been +more successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might +not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the zero of +artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. We were +inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without rules to guide +us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris fashions and those of +Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, choose the former. Let it be +shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful, capable of an +infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never +violated art principle, and in which the wearer, and not some Paris +liner, could exercise her taste, and the day would have been gained. +This was the task he had set himself to formulate, and so doing he +should divide his subject in two--Color and Form. + +In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning +of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured nation like the +English should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony. We +were nicely critical of music, yet in color were constantly committing +the gravest solecisms. He did not think there were seventeen interiors +in London that the educated eye could wander over without pain. Yet what +knowledge was so useful? We were not competent to buy a picture, choose +a dress, or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say +nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on +porcelain, art needlework, and a hundred occupations. + +An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect +they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be worn in dark +shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was commonly called, olive +green, went well together; but a dress of full red or yellow would be +painful to behold. The rule for full primaries was, employ them +sparingly, and contrast them only with black or gray. He might notice in +passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was +usually of the one color unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that +would lend beauty to any color placed upon it. + +Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in +hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden +changes, and a species of color discord was the consequence. But if the +colors, even though primaries, were of some very dark or very light +shade, they become harmonious. All very dark shades of color went well +with black and with each other, and all very light shades went well with +white and each other. + +A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my complexion?" +The generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink, either +light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, working dire +confusion. But no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted +one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade were pink, and their pink dresses +were in harmony. No natural complexion whatever was improved by pink; +but gray would go with any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence +to the dominant hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce +flesh color he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The +skin of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green, +tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color always +subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it. +Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside pink altered it +to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy +complexion, the worst color they could wear would be their own +complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color, for it would +clear their complexion. + +Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer urged +that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without +disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of Miss Mary Anderson, +attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was exhibited, and the lecturer +observed that while the dress once worn by Greek women was unequaled for +elegance, Greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in +knots round the knees, and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more +habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings. + +An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as illustrating +the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted +the waist to be the normal size, and allowed the drapery to fall in +natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays +and "improvers"--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of +womanly grace and modesty. + +A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from _Myra's Journal_, dated +June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference of the waist was but 12¾ +in., involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the +organization, and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the _ne +plus ultra_ of formal ugliness. + +Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected from a +recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, Why did women +think small waists beautiful? Was it because big-waisted women were so +frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A young girl had no waist, and +did not need stays. As the figure matured the hips developed, and it was +this development which formed the waist. The slightest artificial +compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the +grown woman should never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken +the muscles of the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A +waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress +was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner garment +should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress should be as +thin as possible, that it might drape itself into natural folds. Velvet, +from its texture, was ill adapted for this. When worn, it should be in +close fitting garments, and in dark colors only. It was most effective +when black. + +Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the lecturer +suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the +too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could be artistic +without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in +fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive color their tailor +pleased. He would suggest that any reformation should begin with color. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY. + + +The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in +the progress of building in the metropolis, and speculative builders who +work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact. The +Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings Company (Limited) has been +conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for +artisans, clerks, and others whose means necessitates the renting of a +convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it. We +give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the +above company, who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal +manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at Shaftesbury +and Queen's Parks they have already built about three thousand houses, +employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling, +while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred +acres, which will contain, when completed, no less than two thousand six +hundred houses, to be let at weekly rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. +6d., rates and taxes all included. The object has been to provide +separate cottages, each in itself complete, and in so doing they have +not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace +plan, but adopting this as most favorable to economy, have added many +improvements, including sanitary appliances of the latest and most +approved type. + +The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, a road +60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of the estate. On +either side of this road the houses are set back 15 ft., in front of +which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a suitable growth are +being planted, as also on all other roads on the estate. About the +center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for +a church, and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has +been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground, should the +development of the estate warrant such an outlay. The remaining streets +are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in width, clear of the garden space in front +of the houses. Shops will be erected as may be required. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.] + +The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, the +surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. Nowhere have +these drains been carried through the houses, but they are taken +directly into drains at the back, having specially ventilated manholes +and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers; +the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet +ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals, discharging +above the houses. This system of ventilation was adopted on the +recommendation of Mr. W.A. De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the +Tottenham Local Board. + +All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole +area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every room is +specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent +the passage of sound. A constant water supply is laid on, there being no +cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets. All water +pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside. + +The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta sills, the +roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the purpose of forming +an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some cases the central +houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over porches being similarly +treated. The houses are simply but effectively designed, and the general +appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. +All end houses of terraces have been specially treated, and in some +cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately +adjoining, a slightly increased rental is required. There are five +different classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate +this week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, kitchen, +scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and water-closet on +ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The water-closet is entered from +the outside, but in many first-class houses another water-closet has +been provided on the first floor, and one room on this floor is provided +with a small range, so that if two families live in the one house they +will be entirely separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to +11s. 6d. per week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, +W., is the architect.--_Building and Engineering Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS. + +By A. GOODALL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland Photographic +Association.] + + +The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements +on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now, +and cannot be called new; but still it is neither so well known nor +understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be, and I may +just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of +it I believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving +better results than can be got by this process when properly understood +and wrought, as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to +those obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of +any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino bromide +enlargement on opal. + +[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 opal, +using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for two and +a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant opal was the +result.] + +We now come to the paper process, and most effective enlargements can be +made by it also; indeed, as a basis for coloring, nothing could well be +better. Artists all over the country have told me that after a few +trials they prefer it to anything else, while excellent and effective +plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled. A +very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just +done, with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have the +appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture adhering +to the glass, however, and at the same time to give greater brilliancy, +it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 grain solution of clear +gelatine before squeezing it down. The one fault or shortcoming of the +plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry, and this +certainly makes it unsuitable for small work, such as the rapid +production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry; the +tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being +objectionable; but my impression is, that it is not so much the tone as +the want of brilliancy that is the fault there, and if once the public +were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper, they might possibly +like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are +familiar, provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and +some time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +_Photographic News_, I set about trying to produce this result by +enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with +the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were successful, and we +now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with +brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper. I here show you +specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from +C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic. + +[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and +portrait negatives, which it would have been difficult to distinguish +from prints on double albumenized paper.] + +I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an +argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer, +for instance; but there is another and more important point to be +considered between the two, and that is, their durability and +permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, unless most +particular care be taken in the washing of it (and those who have made +them will well know what a delicate, not to say difficult, job it is to +get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, and at the same time preserve +the film intact), there is no permanence in a collodion transfer, and +that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of +decay in them from the first day of their existence. I know, at least in +Glasgow, where an enormous business has been done within the last few +years by certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being +a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has +been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the +present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the picture in +disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a collodion +transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, unless an amount +of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor +consistent with the popular price and extensive output. How now stands +the case with an argentic enlargement? Of course it may be said that +there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic +enlargements are still only on their trial. + +I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset that seven +or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and failed, but got one +or two results which I retained as curiosities till only a month or two +ago; but up to that time I cannot say they had faded in the least, and I +have here a specimen made three years ago, which I have purposely +subjected to very severe treatment. It has been exposed without any +protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of +a Glasgow atmosphere, and although certainly tarnished, I think you will +find that it has not faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have +lost nothing of their original strength. I here show you the picture +referred to, a 12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here +state, in short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads +me to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. Chromotypes +and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, but their +permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed, and +associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced, most +of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, being unable to +withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks. +Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in +which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the +decolorizing action of light. But there is no pigment in an argentic +print, nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action +of light; and that has been shown by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a +very stable and not easily decomposed nature; while if the pictures are +passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine +also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to +the action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon +pictures without carbon. + +I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with +in working this process; and first in regard to the yellowing of the +whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites, +especially in vignetted enlargements, and I believe that this almost +always arises from one or other of the two following causes: + +First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer; +and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is more in +suspension than solution, and in the course of development it is +deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the gelatinous film. + +The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution +of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has been +recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the +subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of potassic oxalate to 1 part +of ferrous sulphate. + +Now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a +negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best for +gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that potassic +oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate +solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for +any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed. + +The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and vignetted +enlargements especially, should always be fresh and pretty strong, so +that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take +place, as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron +developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to +take place, so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing +prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small +quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in +black and white. The proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of +water. Almost the only other complaints I now hear are traceable to +over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the +paper. The operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, +or pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up by +blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and +smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements, +but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently developed, and +cleanly and carefully handled. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. + + +At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced his +lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by describing the +method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a +definite focal length. The varieties of optical glass were next +discussed, and specimens (both in the rough and partly shaped state) +were handed round for examination. The defects frequently met with in +glass, such as striæ and tears, were then treated upon; specimens of +lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection, and the +mode of searching for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and +polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a +collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & +Co., and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were gone +into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes +was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which he placed upon +the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of photographic +lenses, and explained the influence of particular constructions in +producing certain results; positive and negative spherical aberration, +and the manner in which they are made to balance each other, was also +described by the aid of diagrams, as was also chromatic aberration. He +next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses, and said that +that was not, as had been hitherto generally supposed, the true place +from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination. This place was +a point very near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" +point, from the name of the eminent German mathematician who had +investigated and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was +of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For this +drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo Schroeder, now +with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer congratulated the +newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John Stuart, for his +enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound +acquirements. The subject of distortion was next treated of, and the +manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved +from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses +with a central diaphragm was shown. The influence of density of glass +was illustrated by a description of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent +of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names. The +effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious +method of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by +pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of +the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by requesting a careful +examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table, kindly lent for the +occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES. + +By Dr. Eder. + + +We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved formulas given +below as translated by him for the _Photographic Times_. + +Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the +soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer certain +advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage becomes +particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, which +frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, or a fog of +clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by transmitted light. +Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind; so do soda +and potassa developers. + +For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, without +the addition of any bromide. + +More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. No. 1: +Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; sodium +sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 1½ gr.; sodium sulphite, +25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is for its better keeping +qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's solution.[A] The solutions when in +well stoppered bottles keep well for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. +of water with 40 min. of No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears +quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable +to decrease the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. +The negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a +deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which excludes +all possible necessities of an after intensification. + +[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; 1 gr. +salicylic acid.] + +The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when +iron developer is used, frequently even greater. + +The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. Bromides +in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce the +sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing power +almost entirely. + +Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution of +potassium bromide is quite sufficient. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY. + +[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of +Great Britain, November 7, 1883.] + +By Professor REDWOOD. + + +I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at its +recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more particularly +attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard. Reference +is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared in different ways, and it +appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to +the process of the British Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from +rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been +otherwise prepared. The general tendency of the discussion, as far as +related to this part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same +direction; but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the +question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so +specially referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be. + +When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, +suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which consisted in +removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, by first +thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the +tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat, +this method of operating seemed to be generally approved. It was adopted +by men largely engaged in "rendering" fatty substances for use in +pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as +free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid. It +became the process of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it +formed the basis of a process, which was patented in Paris and this +country by Hippolite Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste +and odor, and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. +Mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." This +process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance +called oleomargarine. + +But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I have +been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that +the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than +beneficial. I have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining +ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of +the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested +for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity. + +I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many +experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, and at the +same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of +oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of which experience has +been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of the Pharmacopeia process. +I have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers +of oleomargarine, which is produced in immense quantities, the use of +water, for washing the fat before melting it, is not only omitted but +specially avoided. The parts of the process to which most importance is +attached are: First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural +fat, which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly +slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and adhering +portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; after which it +is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to +completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is +inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated +by warm water, and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding +130°F. + +If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be easily +melted away from the membraneous matter at 120°F., or even below that, +and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is +necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the +membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete separation of all +suspended matter is obviously important, and therefore nitration seems +desirable, where practicable; which however is not on the large scale. + +My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that +best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy. There is, +however, a point connected with this or any other method of preparing +lard which is deserving of more attention than it has, I believe, +usually received, and that is, the source from which the flare has been +derived. Everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon +the manner in which the pig has been fed, and this applies to the fat as +well as other parts of the animal. Some time ago I had some pork +submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it, which had a +decided fishy flavor, both in taste and smell. This flavor was present +in every part, fat and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from +that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been +prescribed a fish diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a +better variety of lard. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTI-CORROSION PAINT. + + +The _Neueste Erfinderung_ describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron. It +states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even baryta, or +strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil paint, and then +enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, the free acid of the +paint will be neutralized, while the iron will be protected by the +permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in damp earth +may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin (colophony), 25 +parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which 20 parts of +magnesia and some mineral oil have been added. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBON IN STEEL. + + +At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was read +entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in Steel," by +Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering. + +Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks of steel +2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. They were all +cut from the same strip of metal, but some were "cold-rolled," some +"annealed," and some "hardened." The total carbon was found to be: +"cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, 1.128 per cent.; and annealed, +0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of the disks were submitted to the action +of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of +potassium bichromate with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated +sulphuric acid. In all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left +undissolved. These residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks +employed, had the following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 +per cent.; iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by treatment +with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains +undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, but only about +one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the +hardened disk. The authors then give a _resume_ of previous work on the +subject. In the second part they have investigated the action of +bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about +0.098 inch thick, which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per +cent.; silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four +solutions were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of +bichromate and 9 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4} by weight; the second was +eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the fourth about +one and a half times as strong. In all cases the amount of solution +employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve +the steel used. A residue was obtained as before. With solution 1, the +residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. 2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the +atomic ratio of iron to carbon was Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), +2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 per 100 of steel. The authors conclude +that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused +mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron +carbide, Fe_{3}C, a definite product, capable of resisting the action of +an oxidizing solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a +rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES. + + +In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed cuts +(Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the washer, C, +slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which reduces them to a fine +pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the +pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir, B, from whence a +pump, P, forces it through the pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is +suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion. By means +of a rose, c, water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve +and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged +with fine particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through +the tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. This +latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not +been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through the tube, h, +into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is completely separated +from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix, i, to +a revolving perforated drum at e. From this, the milky starch flows into +the jacket, N, while the pulp (ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the +apparatus through the aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o. + +[Illustration: ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.] + +The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, which, +like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward motion, and +which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very +finest impurities from the milky starch. The refined liquid then flows +into the reservoir, m, and the impure mass of sediment runs into the +pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, forces the milky liquid from the +reservoir, m, to the settling back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, +u, from the receptacle, o, into a large pulp-reservoir. + +The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, a, into +the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, r, into the +different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion by two +shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per +minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty +revolutions.--_Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de l'Indust_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES. + +By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. + + +A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about ¼ inch wide by 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches +long. Beginning ½ inch from the end, bore a row of small holes only +large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch +apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the third 1, the fifth 2, and so on +to 12, so that the numbers represent the distance from O in inches. A +small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, +but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side. + +[Illustration: ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.] + +Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long; pass +it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it until it forms a +single cord. Pass the needle _upward_ through the hole marked 0, and tie +a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through. The +apparatus is now ready for immediate use. It only remains to set it to +the size of the oval desired. + +Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of +which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 inches. Insert a +pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 and 7, which is distant +6-½ inches from O. Pass the needle through hole 5, allowing the thread +to pass around the tack or pin; draw it tightly and fasten it in the +slit or clip at the end. Lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, +place the point of a pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it +around and describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two +ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to +metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On drawings +it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins. + +As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the +string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a crochet +needle. + +As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width +and length, but does not know what the distance between the foci must be +to produce this effect, a few directions on this point may be useful: + +It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between +the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a +right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter. +Hence in order to find the distance between the foci, when the length +and width of the ellipse are known, these two are squared and the lesser +square subtracted from the greater, when the square root of the +difference will be the quantity sought. For example, if it be required +to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of 5 inches and a width +of 3 inches, the distance between the foci will be found as follows: + + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. + +In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot +rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure +marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then bringing the figure +on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the +square; the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought. +Unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers. We present herewith a +table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different +ovals when the length and distance between foci are given. + + + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. + + 2 1 1¾ + 2 1½ 1¼ + + 2½ 1 2¼ + 2½ 1½ 2 + 2½ 2 1½ + + 3 1 1½ + 3 1½ 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 2½ 2¼ + + 3½ 1 3-3/8 + 3½ 1½ 3-1/8 + 3½ 2 2-7/8 + 3½ 2½ 2½ + 3½ 3 1¾ + + 4 2 3½ + 4 2½ 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 3½ 2 + + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 + +For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus for 7 and +4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to 3½ and 2, which +is twice 2-7/8, or 5¾. It will be noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are +interchangeable. + +To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the length of +the desired oval in the first column of the table, and the width most +nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column. The +corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle +must be passed through. The tack D, _around_ which the string must pass, +is so placed that the total length of the string AD + DC, or its equal +AE + EC, shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse. In the figure +it is placed 6½ inches from A, and 1½ inches from C, making the total +length of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 6¼ inches wide. + +The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by +fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all +the text books on the subject. On the other hand, the instrument may be +set "by guess" when no particular accuracy is required. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS. + + +The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago, after +a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces, to be +unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the +remark, that in order to use the method economically the products of +distillation, both liquid and gaseous, must be collected. T. Egleston, +Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New York, has read a paper on the subject +before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, from which we extract +as follows: As there are many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke +cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used, and where +the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a +reverberatory furnace, the most economical method of making charcoal is +an important question. + +Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and +size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the +necessities of the shape of the ground selected. They do not differ from +each other in any principle of manufacture, nor does there seem to be +any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce, when +the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties; but +there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the +process in favor of small over large kilns. The different varieties have +come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of +construction and of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the +cover of a meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the +meiler and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has all +the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar to +itself. + +The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, the round, +and the conical, but the first two seem to be disappearing before the +last, which is as readily built and much more easily managed. + + +ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS + +Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone together. +Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not necessary. The +foundations are usually made of stone. There are several precautions +necessary in constructing the walls. The brick should be sufficiently +hard to resist the fire, and should therefore be tested before using. It +is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality +fire-brick. As the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation +of the wood attacks lime mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with +fire-clay mortar, to which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam +mixed with coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As +the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is especially +necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled, as any small +open spaces would admit air, and would materially decrease the yield of +the kiln. The floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick +set edgewise and carefully laid, but latterly it is found to be best +made of clay. Any material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It +must be well beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six +inches higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted on +the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered with a +coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does not require +to be renewed for several years. + +[Illustration: RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL.] + +The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the +masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found to +result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued. + +The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The diameter is +not considered of much importance, except in so far as it is desirable +to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most of the wood is +small, and only a small part of it is large, the large pieces are +usually split, to make it pack well. It has been found most satisfactory +to have three rows of vents around the kiln, which should be provided +with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace. The vents +near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two +bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed +by inserting one or two bricks in them. They are usually the size of one +brick, and larger on the outside than on the inside. These holes are +usually from 0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to +0.90 m. apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of +the brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with the +floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is sometimes an +additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the +smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then closed, and kept +closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies mostly to the best +types of conical kilns. In the circular and conical ones the top +charging door is sometimes used for this purpose. Hard and soft woods +are burned indifferently in the kilns. Hard-wood coal weighs more than +soft, and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast +furnaces, and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 +per cent. or even more in using hard woods. For the direct process in +the bloomaries, soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is +not usually advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters +in capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got from +kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft wood. The +average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, two and a half +to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, or 30 to 40 bushels +to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, so that the loss in fine +coal is very much diminished. The pieces usually come out the whole +size, and sometimes the whole length of the wood. + +The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use. +They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of wood. The +usual sizes are given in the table below: + + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 + +1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. 4. Kiln +at Lauton, Mich. + +The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of No. 4, as +constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a good burn, will +yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal. + +The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet high, and +1-½ brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks to the cubic foot of +wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and +contraction due to the heating and cooling, they should be provided with +buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 wide, as at Wassaic, New York; +but many of them are built without them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as +shown in the engraving. In both cases they are supported with strong +braces, from 3 to 4 feet apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast +iron, which are buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below +with iron rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath +the floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, which are +securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners, as shown. +When a number of kilns are built together, as at the Michigan Central +Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the plan view, only the end +kilns are braced in this way. The intermediate ones are supported below +by wooden braces, securely fastened at the bottom. The roof is always +arched, is one brick, or eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, +fourteen being used in each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in +the center a round hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, +which is closed by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. +brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. + + * * * * * + +The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is so far +from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it is increasing +more rapidly than the population of the United Kingdom. The statistics +of population show an increase of 16 per cent. on the last decennial +period, while the increase in the United Kingdom in the ten years +preceding the last census was under 11 per cent. This increase appears +to be general, and is only slightly influenced by immigration. "The +population of the West Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater +than that of any of the larger Australian colonies, and three times that +of New Zealand." + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING. + + +M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some very +interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat +produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging. The +method used was as follows: The bar was carefully polished on both +sides, and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax. It was +then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight, P, +falling from a height, H. The faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly +alike, and care was taken that the whole work, T = PH, should be +expended upon the bar. A single blow was enough to melt the wax over a +certain zone; and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces +had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax. The form +of this melted part could be made to differ considerably, but +approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of +this zone, b the width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, +and t-t0 the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature +of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the base of a horizontal +prism, which is everywhere heated to the temperature, t, the heating +effect produced will be expressed by + +Ab x d x C(t-t0) + +Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical system, +the energy developed in heat is given by + +T1 = 425 AbdC(t-t0). + +Dividing T1 by T, we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat +bears to the total energy of the blow. + +With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found always to +extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow. We +are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and +anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a +sort of cross with curved arms, the arms being thinner or thicker +according to the greater or less energy of the shock. These forms are +shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will be seen that these zones correspond to +the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a +sharp edged hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done +in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat. + +[Illustration] + +With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat developed +and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than had been +expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration. +In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a table given the limits +vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. with an energy of 40 +kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an energy of 90 +kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly constant at 70 per +cent. It will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is +less, and it also diminishes with the section of the bar. This is no +doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly. +On the whole, the results are summed up by M. Tresca as follows: + +(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the +energy of the blow. + +(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described allows +this heat to be clearly indicated. + +(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the +material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the mechanical cause +which produces the heating effect. + +(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size, about +80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat. + +(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, showing +the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the +bar. + +(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not +reliable. + +So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have +sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat +different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in the case of bars +struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. It will be seen that, +instead of commencing at the edges of the indent, the fusion begins near +the middle, and appears in small triangular figures, which gradually +increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex, as in +Fig. 12. The explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression +at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner +remaining comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are moderate in +intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes +punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when examined, was found +to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch. With +regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat, it was about the +same as in the previous experiments, reaching in one case, with an iron +bar and with an energy of 110 kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high +figure of 91 per cent. With copper, the same figure varied between 50 +and 60 per cent.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE. + +By Prof. C.W. MacCord. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller +engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder and valve gear +were recently designed by the writer, and are in process of construction +by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of Charleston, S.C. + +In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as will be +perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, following +nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed by a shifting +link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; and the expansion +valves are of the well known Meyer type, consisting of two plates on the +back of the main valve, driven by a third eccentric, and connected by a +right and left handed screw, the turning of which alters the distance +between the plates and the point of cutting off. + +The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel features, +of which the following description will be understood by reference to +the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general +plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-2 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left +handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it is rotated. + +Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut upon +the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with the +eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases the valve +stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so that it must both +slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes, necessarily +of comparatively large size. + +All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more +compact, in the following manner: + +Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their lower ends +by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, and at their +upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling snugly between two +collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, imparts a longitudinal +motion to the latter, while at the same time leaving it free to rotate. + +This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through the +upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by means of a +bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is communicated to +the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter +and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal +grooves in the spindle. + +Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is +running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel +pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the index, which points +out upon the dial the distance followed. These details are shown in +Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of which it may be added that +Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve chest and its contents, the cover, +and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the +main valve (in the arrangement of which there is nothing new), being +removed in order to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and +spindle above described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is +a transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a +plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side being a +section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the +manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest; the latter +having no pipes for this service, the steam enters below the valve, at +each end of the chest, just as it escapes in the center. + +The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of this +kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular position in +relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed; two +strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the eccentric in one +direction, the other in the opposite, by acting against the reverse +faces of a projection from the side of The eccentric pulley. + +The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection +with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine +when driving a single slide valve. Its use in connection with the Meyer +cut-off valves, however, is believed to be new; and the reason for its +employment will be understood by the aid of Fig. 6. + +For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering them +both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; let L O M +represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is shown the port +leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of the main valve, at the +beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will then be apparent that the +center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point, C, if the +engine turn to the left, as shown by the arrow, and at G, if the +rotation be in the opposite direction; C and G then may be taken as the +centers of the "go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, +which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link. + +Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in effect +revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric. +Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, represent the face of +the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, the back of the main valve, +in which the port, C N, corresponds to one of those shown in Fig. 4; and +the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely, the +same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around +the center, C. + +In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon the +assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement +that when cutting off at the earliest point required, the cut-off valve +shall, at the instant of closing the port, be moving over it at its +highest speed. And this requires that the center of the eccentric shall +at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through C. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3-12 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the angle +through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that +distance is readily found; then, drawing an indefinite line C T, making +with the vertical line, G O, an angle, G C T. equal to the one thus +determined, any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of +the required center of the cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the +stroke. + +But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when +backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be symmetrically +situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O M bisects and is +perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed +on the shaft, its center must be located at H, the intersection of C T +with L M. This would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given +instant to be at Q, perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main +valve would be equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the +eccentric, the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the +real eccentricity. + +This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if the +lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of the +cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close the port. +CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, AB. + +The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter decreases; +therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity, and the +openings of the two ports will be the same; and the question is, Will +this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam? + +This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under +consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of +5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it is found that +the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of +that allowed when following full stroke, whereas the speed of the piston +at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its +greatest speed. + +This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, no +longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is reversed it +ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the angle, KOL. By +leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, by the means above +described, through the angle, KOP, the desired object is accomplished. +The real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of OK to OH, +while the lengths of the cut-off valves, and what is equally important, +their travel over the back of the main valve, are reduced in the +proportion of CK to CH, in this instance nearly one-half; a gain quite +sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient. + +The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the manner of +suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, this link is +used only for reversing, and is therefore always in "full gear" in one +direction or the other; and the striking feature of the arrangement here +used is that, whether going ahead or backing, there is _no slipping of +the link upon the link block_. + +The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved flat bar, +L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the link is hung +upon the pins, which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at +their upper ends. + +This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next to the +eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which projects the +journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical section by the +plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever, M, +which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve, through the +rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected with the lever, M, by the +bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a slotted arm, G, as shown in the end +view, Fig. 10. The center line of this slot lies in the plane which +contains the axes of the journal, J, and of the shaft, O. + +A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in this block +is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the pin, A, of one +of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as shown in Fig. 8; +and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, with the upper end of +the reversing lever, T, which is operated by the worm and sector. The +distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other words the length of the lever, M, +is precisely equal to the distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right +line; and the rods, R and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also +each of precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, as in +Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end is exactly +in line with the rock-shaft, O. + +When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the arm, G, +and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions will be +identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the +rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely to the +pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the journal, J, so +that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected +directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being also in line with B and J, +and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it will be seen that the +bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as though the two were +rigidly fastened together. + +When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in Fig. 12, +the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm, G, and is +thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The suspension-rod, S, +will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, will have been drawn, by +the bridle-rod, R, into line with the journal, J, and the bridle-rod +itself will now vibrate with the lever, M, whose sole motion will be +derived from the pin, A. + +There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and +operated is run in "full gear," either forward or backward. + +If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an +expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip while +running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be observed +that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker arm is one of +vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion relatively to the +sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the center, P, whose motion +relatively to E is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the +slot, due to the fact that the rocker arm itself, which virtually +carries the block, E, vibrates about O, while the suspension-rod, S, +vibrates about another fixed center. It will thus be seen that, finally, +the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs +_which curve in the same direction_, whether the engine be running +forward or backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block +slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions. + +Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to +reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, while in +the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI. + + +The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of Mr. +Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called the Poti, +which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly differs from all +others of her class, at least as regards her model. Her extremities, +which are strongly depressed in the upperworks, and the excessive +inclination of her sides, give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance +to the rams of our navy, such as the Taureau and Tigre. + +[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".] + +A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. Her +water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in no wise +cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is entirely of +steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 meters; extreme +breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, 1.9 meters; +displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound one, is of 600 +H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or 33-34 meters, per hour, +and it will probably reach 40 kilometers. + +The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., and 2 +Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be sufficient for a +voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION. + + +The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means +of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a +motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. The sail +constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not figure in our +enumeration, considering the essentially variable character of the force +utilized. + +In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a rude +one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks, +and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction +that which imitates these the best. + +Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in effecting a +movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at +the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists cite whole families of +mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity. It is probable +that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating. +However this may be, as long ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in +England, on this principle, by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the +patents of Allen (1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli +presented to the Académic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century. + +Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. This +ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, and was +constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of this was +incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could +be got from the idea. Another boat, the Albert, was built at Stettin, +after the same type and at about the same epoch; and the question was +considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the Great Eastern. + +About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of Cokerill de +Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did service as an excursion +boat between Liége and Seraing. The propeller of this consisted of a +strong centrifugal pump, with vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure +engine. This pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom +of the boat, and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling +tubes. These latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the +sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such +a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, as in +the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected the +propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the propelling +tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when they were turned +toward the front, she was thrust backward. When one was turned toward +the front and the other toward the stern, the boat swung around. +Finally, when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained +immovable. All the evolutions were easy, even without the help of the +rudder, and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were +capable of being varied _ad infinitum_ by a system of levers. + +The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, and +took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and forward, of +85 kilometers, with four stoppages. + +The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most satisfactory. +It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of effective duty it +would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its +exit from the propellers. + +Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system +employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. Seraing's +experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and the theoretic +effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar system of +construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in practice, falls to 40 +or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases. + +It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary pumps where +effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., we might obtain +much better results, and it is this that justifies the new researches +that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot & Pinette, whose first +experiments we are about to make known. + +In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and the +draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the +hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be +directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be had of a +sensibly constant speed, and without change in its running; the +production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be +avoided; the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge +pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the boat will be able to run at +any speed under good conditions, while the helix works well only when +the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch; it will be possible to +put the propelling apparatus under water; and, finally, it will be +possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, +without intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles +and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines. + +[Illustration: NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.] + +We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the description of +which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this +article. The inventors have employed a boat 14 meters in length by 1.8 +m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught behind and 32 in front. The +section of the midship beam is 70 square decimeters, and that of the +exhaust port is 4. At a speed of 2.2 meters per second the tractive +stress, K, is from 10 to 11 kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers +per hour, or 3.75 meters per second, the engine develops a power of 12 +horses. The piston is 19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 +centimeters. The shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 +revolutions per minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction +occurs at the lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced +out at B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for +putting the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small dimensions +and is only used for _directing_ the boat. The vessel may be turned +about _in situ_ by opening one of the receiving tubes, according to the +side toward which it is desired to turn. + +This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first trials +of her that have recently been made upon the Saône have shown the +necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work +upon.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER. + +[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.] + +By Professor W.C. UNWIN. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes carrying +segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor, the +power of which is to be measured. If the pulley turns with left-handed +rotation, the friction would carry the strap toward the left, unless the +weight, Q, were greater than P. If the belt does not slip in either +direction when the pulley rotates under it, then Q-P exactly measures +the friction on the surface of the pulley; and V being the surface +velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, is exactly the work consumed by the +dynamometer. But the work consumed in friction can be expressed in +another way. Putting [theta] for the arc embraced by the belt, and [mu] +for the coefficient of friction, + + Q/P = [epsilon]^{[mu]^{[theta]}}, + +or for a given arc of contact Q = [kappa]P, where [kappa] depends only +on the coefficient of friction, increasing as [mu] increases, and _vice +versa_. Hence, for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights, Q +and P, it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be +exactly constant. But this constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient +of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of +the pulley, which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in a +dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the +weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled without +impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors Ayrton and Perry +have recently used a modification of this dynamometer, in which the part +of the cord nearest to P is larger and rougher than the part nearest to +Q. The effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction +increase, Q rises a little, and diminishes the amount of the rougher +cord in contact, and _vice versa_. Thus reducing the friction, +notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, +and the only objection to it, if it is an objection, is that only a +purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that +the range of the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of +the weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction. + +[Illustration: FIG.2 FIG.3] + +For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 lengthens, Q +increases, and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley +increases, both in consequence of the increase of Q, which increases the +pressure on the pulley, and of the increase of the coefficient of +friction. Similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction, the +spring in Fig. 3 shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface +of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction on +the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, and +the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less. Fig. +3, therefore, is the better form. + +A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break set to a +given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence of any cause +the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., the difference of +tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would +increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from 1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. +3. That is, the vibration of the spring, and the possible error of +measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in Fig. 2 +than in Fig. 3. It has recently occurred to the author that a further +change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still +more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction, and +consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. +Suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by +the motor and round a fixed pulley, C. + +For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, but they +are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the spring balance +be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs. Then it +will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. in the friction produces +a somewhat greater variation of P than in Fig. 3. But P is now so much +smaller than before that Q-P is much less affected by any error in the +estimate of P. An alteration of 20 per cent. in the friction will only +alter the quantity Q-P from 5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less +than 6 per cent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer are due +to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are caused by +variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer. By making +P very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer, any +errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of +the work absorbed. We may go further. The cord may be taken over four +pulleys; in that case a variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional +coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys 1¼ percent. P +is now so insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it +is of comparatively little consequence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form +Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the author thinks +that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V grooves in the +pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the greatest resistance with +the least variation of the coefficient of friction; the heat developed +being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley. It would +be quite possible with a pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at +50 feet of surface velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible +wire, capable of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable value +of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a brake in +the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and with a brake in +the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. But since it would +be easy to have two, three, or more wires side by side, each carrying +its load of 100 lb., large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently +absorbed and measured. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEE'S GAS STOVE. + + +This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with +radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or +lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products of combustion are +discharged through a pipe of small diameter, which may be readily +inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the +wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by +radiation from the radiator rings that the gases, on making their exit, +have no longer a temperature of more than from 35 to 40 degrees. + +[Illustration: SEE'S GAS STOVE.] + +The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is surrounded on all +sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being entirely of cast iron, +it will last for a long time. The joints, being of asbestos, are +absolutely tight, so as to prevent the escape of bad odors. The water +due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of +doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to +change the hygrometric state of the air. The consumption of gas is very +small, it taking but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic +meters to a temperature of 18° C.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + +The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India last +year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of cattle, +46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, 2,606 were killed +by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the deaths occasioned by the +attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 +by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 by alligators; 18,591 wild animals +and 322,421 snakes were destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards +amounting to 141,653 rupees. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] devised a +method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to +impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic hydrogen, the +apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, and afterward +electrolyzers with platinum plates. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, 1882, p. +5472.] + +His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In the +zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to employ +zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state presents +grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower part, under the +influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an obstacle to the free +circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, the cleaning presents +insurmountable difficulties. This is why he substituted for the +clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily +found in commerce. The management and cleaning of the pile thus became +very simple. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS.] + +The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form +shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, or, what is +better, rectangular, because of the square form under which the sheets +of zinc are found in commerce. + +In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc plates, b, +b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating with a flat +one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been scoured, first with a +weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty +matter derived from rolling, and then with very dilute hydrochloric +acid, and finally are washed with common water. In order to facilitate +the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction, care must be taken to +form apertures in the zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row +with respect to the bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 +hectoliters contains 105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, +whose total weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing +surface of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50° to 60° Gay-Lussac. The raw impure spirits enter +the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a sufficient stay +therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, into a reservoir, R, +from whence, by means of a pump, they are forced to the rectifier. + +The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an +aperture in the cover of the pile. + +As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors +may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. The liquefied alcohol +returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of 15°, the quantity of +alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant. In order to secure +a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits, during the period +devoted to the operation, the liquid is made to circulate from top to +bottom by means of a pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the +liquid in the vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation +consists in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the +pile, by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it. + +The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working +of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the following +conditions: + +1. Impure spirits of 40° Gay-Lussac, and not water, should be used as a +menstruum for the salt of copper. + +2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of +½ per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per 100 +square meters of zinc exposed, or a total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate +for a pile of 150 hectoliters capacity. + +3. A temperature of 25° should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization. + +The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the +alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each charging +with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days to form the +pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown +and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence becomes much greater after +a fortnight's operation. + +Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of +the reaction. Below +5° the couple no longer works, and above +35° the +reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to +such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The +battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of +hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 +kilos. of acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this +acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the +copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of operating +from 18 months to two years without being renewed or cleaned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.] + +Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize +the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a rectifier. But, +in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile +with another one by electrolysis. The voltameters in which this second +operation is performed have likewise been modified. They consist now +(Fig. 2) of cylindrical glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in +height, with polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite +cover through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the +liquid, E+E-E'+E', to circulate. + +The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, R, +which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per hour. +In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, there is +placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a +second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock. + +In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters of +impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished to the +voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors in +derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires +interposed in the circuit of the inductors. + +The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a +commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez galvanometer. The +voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted in derivation in +groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse them in two parallel +currents. The Siemens machine is of the type SD2, and revolves at the +rate of 1,200 times per minute, absorbing a motive power of four horses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.] + +The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected by the +metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages this process +presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple +distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. Naudin: + +In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol must +undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the +mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated and sold according +to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield in the first +distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss experienced in +distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 per cent.; (4) the +quantity of essential oils (mixture of the homologues of ethylic +alcohol) collected at the end of the first distillation equals, on an +average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of a rectification may be estimated +at, on an average, 4 francs per hectoliter. + +All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the electric +method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an average, 0.40 +franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is therefore +considerable. For an establishment in which 150 hectoliters of 100° +alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident, amounting, as +it does, to 373 francs. + +We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits +which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the ordinary +processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for example, that +artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the old processes, +give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from Indian +corn.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES. + + +Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in _Neueste Erfindung_.: +Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed +into moulds made of iron and brass. After drying for a few days in a +closed place, it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the +direct flames and burned, feebly at first, then strongly, the fire being +gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The +fire is then permitted to slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the +carbon is taken out of the furnace. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS. + +By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D. + +[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia College +of Pharmacy.] + + +The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very different +aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or +sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass of observations in most +of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval. +Were that all, the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed +benefit, because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this +additional matter. Many would be the contradictions in the observations +and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. +The advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways. + +Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The chemistry of +the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive +science, such as the natural history branches, zoology, and botany are +still in great part. Reasonably exact mineral analyses were made, it is +true, but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental +conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally +established. Now, this want of comprehensive views of chemical +reactions, their why and wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the +study of inorganic and metallic compounds, but what must have been the +conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely +spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous +that, in the absence of any established relationships, not much more +than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists have +attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic +chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range most carbon +compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or as benzol +derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. To do this, +methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry +had to be applied. The mere finding out of percentage composition tells +us little or nothing about an organic compound. What the elements are +that compose the compound is not to be found out. That can be told +beforehand with almost absolute certainty. What is wanted is to know how +the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, +for, strange to say, these differences of groupings, which may be found +to exist between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification. + +The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required very +different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a compound +in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we submit it to a +course of treatment with reagents, which take it apart very gradually, +or modify it in the production of some related substance. In this way, +we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and +to put it in its proper place. Of equal importance with the analytical +method of study, however, is the synthetical. This method of research, +as applied to organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of +modern chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds. +Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts +attest its practical value. It may, therefore, seem anomalous when I say +that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds +has not shared in this advance. The alkaloids, that most important class +from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite +recently been defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, +containing nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives +was not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown. +Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their constitution was +very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of any of the more +important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to +effect from every point of view. Within the last five years, however, +quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer +understanding of these most important compounds, and I shall offer to +your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and +what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future. + +It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or +ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic character of +these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential element, and, +above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united +with acids to form salts, not by replacement of the hydrogen of the +acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, pointed unmistakably to +this constitution. But with this granted, the simplest alkaloid +formulas, those of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, and nicotine, +C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, still showed that the amine molecule contained quite +complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of +the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the +three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the +difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those +alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other +organic compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until +analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon +the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of the +decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance +to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field. + +It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like +bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or amido-toluol, and xylidine +or amido-xylol, which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the +so-called aniline dye-colors. It is perhaps not so well known that there +are other series of bases found there too. The first of these is the +pyridine series, including _pyridine_, C_{5}H_{5}N, _picoline_ +(methyl-pyridine), C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), _lutidine_ (dimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{5}N(CH_{3})_{2}, and _collidine_ (trimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{2}N(CH_{3})_{3}. This series is also found in relatively larger +proportion in what is known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry +distillation of bones. + +The second series is the quinoline series, including _quinoline_, +C_{9}H_{7}N, _lepidine_ (methyl-quinoline), C_{10}H_{9}N, and +_cryptidine_ (dimethyl-quinoline), C_{11}H_{11}N. The two compounds +which give name to these series, pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N, and quinoline, +C_{9}H_{7}N, respectively, bear to each other a relation analogous to +that existing between benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, and naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8}; +and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been +occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that +pyridine is simply benzol, in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the +triad group, CH, and quinoline, the naphthalene molecule with a similar +change. Indeed, Ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as +an alteration product from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, +from methyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), would be derived an acid know +as pyridine-carboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, C_{6}H_{5}CH_{3}, and +from dimethyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{3}N(CH_{3})_{2}, an acid known as +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}, just as phthalic +acid, C_{6}H_{4}(COOH)_{2}, is derived from dimethyl-benzol, +C_{6}H_{4}(CH_{3})_{2}. The same thing applies to quinoline as compared +to naphthalene. + +We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents +upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most efficacious in +decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents, +of bromine, of organic iodides, of concentrated acids and alkalies, and +of heat. + +Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to _conine_, +first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary +amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the +original ammonia molecule. Its formula is therefore C_{8}H_{16}NH. From +conine can be prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C_{8}H_{14}, conylene, homologous with acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}. Conine, on +oxidation, yields chiefly butyric acid, but among the products of +oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred +to. The formula of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, shows it to be homologous with +piperidine, C_{5}H_{11}N, a derivative of piperine, the alkaloid of +pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just as piperidine is derived from +pyridine by the action of reducing agents, so conine is probably derived +from a propyl-pyridine. The artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric +with the natural conine, will be referred to later. + +_Nicotine_, C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, the next simplest in formula of the +alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that is, contains no replaceable hydrogen +atoms in its molecule. It shows very close relations to pyridine. When +nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially +collidine, and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases +such as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120°C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and +pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of +potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, C_{10}H_{10}N_{2}. Potassium +permanganate, chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), and which, distilled over quick-lime, yields +pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. + +Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up first +the opium alkaloids. _Morphine_, C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}, is a tertiary +amine, and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction with +ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from it, is +_codeine_, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. Besides the +methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and several have been +recently prepared, giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known +as _codeines_. Morphine, rapidly distilled over zinc dust, yields +phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other +bases. The action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it +into apomorphine, C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}, by the withdrawal of a molecule of +water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change +morphine into oxidimorphine, C_{34}H_{36}N_{2}O_{6}. When heated with +strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine. + +_Narcotine_, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated with manganese +dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits apart into opianic +acid, C_{10}H_{10}O_{5}, and cotarnine, C_{12}H_{13}NO_{3}. This latter, +by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, C_{8}H_{7}NO_{4}, and +this, on heating with hydrochloric acid to 240° C., yields +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{9}N(COOH)_{2}. The base cotarnine +also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone. +In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction product meconine, +C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}, is produced. + +_Meconic acid_, C_{7}H_{4}O_{7}, which is found in opium in combination +with the different bases, has also been investigated. By acting upon +meconic acid with ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, +when heated with zinc dust, yields pyridine. + +If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. _Quinine_, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, when carefully +oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, yields a series of +products. First is formed quitenine, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O_{4}, a weak +base, then quininic acid, C_{11}H_{9}NO_{3}, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C_{8}H_{5}N0_{6}, and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C_{7}H_{6}NO_{4}. Now the two acids last mentioned are simple +substitution products of pyridine, oxycinchomeronic acid being a +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{2}N(COOH)_{3}, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its +homologues. The alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base. + +_Quinidine_ yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as +quinine. + +_Cinchonine_, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O, the second most important alkaloid of +these barks, when oxidized with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic +acid, which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid, C_{9}H_{6}N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When cinchonine is +treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into quinoline and a +solid body, which on further treatment yields a liquid base, +C_{7}H_{9}N, which is probably lutidine. It has been found, moreover, +that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled with +solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine +and quinoline series. + +_Cinchonidine_, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields quinoline +also, and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine. + +_Strychnine_ has been found to be a tertiary amine. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed. + +_Brucine_ is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by substitution in a +double ammonia molecule. When distilled with potassium hydrate it yields +quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric collidines. + +The alkaloid _atropine_ has been quite thoroughly studied with results +of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid, +it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine, +C_{8}H_{15}NO, and tropic acid, C_{9}H_{10}O_{3}. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180°C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C_{8}H_{13}N, a liquid base, with an odor resembling +conine. When this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine, it +yields dibrompyridine. + +_Piperine_, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well studied. When +boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a molecule of water +and splits apart into piperic acid, C_{12}H_{10}O_{4}, and piperidine, +C_{5}H_{11}N. This latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine hydrochlorate, +also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180° C., yields +dibrompyridine. + +_Sinapine_, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard +seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and +piperine, quite different results. When boiled with baryta water, +sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, C_{11}H_{12}O_{5}, and choline, +C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2}, the latter a well-known constituent of the bile, and +produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk +of egg. + +_Cocaine_, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by heating with +hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystalline +base, ecgonine, C_{9}H_{15}NO_{3}. + +_Caffeine_ and _theobromine_ have also quite different relations. +Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of theobromine, and +can be prepared from it. When caffeine is carefully oxidized with +chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea. Both theobromine +and caffeine are decomposed by heating to 240° C. in sealed tubes with +hydrochloric acid, identical products being obtained. These products are +carbon dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their relations. + +If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of +decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, we +review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned, +except the last four, a more or less immediate connection with the +pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated. The conviction +accordingly forces itself upon us that, if we want to attack the problem +of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially, we must +turn to these bases as our starting point. + +As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series +also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and +collidine, the first four members of the pyridine series, have, +moreover, all been formed synthetically, although the processes are not +such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from +Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the first member of the higher series, had been +made synthetically by several chemists, but by expensive and involved +methods, when Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol +and glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with +glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if +desirable. Shortly after, by an application of the same principle, +Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of lepidine, the second member +of the quinoline series. + +At the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as +the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the +natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was thought well +to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate +derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own. + +Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have shown +may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by Dr. +Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was found to +have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine. +Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large number of these +pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, moreover, that the +hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite +analogous to that of conine. + +The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite +extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that several of its +salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very like quinine, and +capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it. In general, the +hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple +base, an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by +Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the result of the study of the +decomposition products of the alkaloids, viz., the alkaloids are in +general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline, or of the +two bases combined. Thus Prof. Filehne found that hydrochlorate of +tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than +quinoline, but could not be used on account of a too powerful local +effect. The hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was +distinguished by its strong bitter taste, much resembling that of +quinine, had an effect like that of curare poison. The most decided +febrifuge action, however was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the +hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice +by Prof. O. Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate +of tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of "Kairolin." +These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, without any +unpleasant after effects or local disturbances. + +The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the +alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in 1880--Königs and +Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. The study of the +decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite +distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, in combination with a methyl-quinoline group. The +many experiments that are now being made to test this and other +questions that suggest themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. +Whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is +another matter, but it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps +even of probability. + +It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is +formed _paraconine_, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine, but +differing in physiological action. By the action of sodium upon pyridine +is produced a compound C_{10}H_{8}N_{2}, known as dipyridyl, and this, +under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms and becomes +_isonicotine_ C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, a physiologically active alkaloid, +isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a series of alkaloids +under the name of _codeines_, by the substitution of other organic +radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction, has already been +alluded to. _Atropine_ can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, +the two decomposition products already noted. The latter of these +products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and +the other will no doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial +atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also +formed a series of artificial alkaloids, called _tropeines_, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of the +compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as _homatropine_, an +alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but possessing some decided +advantages in its use. _Piperine_ has also been made by the uniting of +piperidine and piperic acid, and, as piperidine has already been formed +from pyridine, we have here a true synthesis also. Both _theobromine_ +and _caffeine_, its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, +which itself can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano. + +We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last +few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the +alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, keen-sighted +chemists will effect their artificial formation. When these most +valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a state of entire +purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of +them from relatively rare plants, organic chemistry will have placed all +of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science, +no matter how practical we call it.--_Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York. + + +If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by the +apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. Everywhere +attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. We are compelled +to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits +of various therapeutic measures, that those who were foremost to +disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the +fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were +considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar +conditions described by others. Hence a commensurate modification in +therapy might not only be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is +more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate +the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache +has been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick Headache," +which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular +form of headache. The work, however, is conspicuously lacking in those +philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding +of the questions involved. Dr. E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a +most interesting paper on "Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views +therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly +scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles +involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of +instances of cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by +this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, among +the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more puzzling or +more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the +doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine." + +[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. Sieveking, +M.D., _Medical Times and Gazette_ London, August 12, 1854.] + +What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, indeed, +the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the +positive results of more recent experimental physiology. Conspicuous in +this connection are the inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and +Hammond, touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during +sleep and wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively +proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep +and increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have published +the results of those researches in various papers and articles.[1] "What +Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, "that it results either +from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more modern terms, from hyperæmia +or anæmia, applies equally to headache; but, to embrace all the causes +of this affection we must add a third element, which, though most +commonly complicating one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily +included in them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." +While I agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be +ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hyperæmia and anæmia, in the +production of the group of symptoms known as "headache,"--I fail to +perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition +mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I am quite unable to imagine how the +periodical, and more especially the intermittent form, of headache is to +be explained by what Dr. Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a +"change in the constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, +admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of +cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that +the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly willing +to admit that other factors besides cerebral hyperæmia and anæmia may +produce the functional variety of headache. There would seem to be ample +ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation +of the brain plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, +being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of +mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the +multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time permit. As +regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content myself by referring +to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred Diseases of the Nervous +System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in which will be found many +interesting facts bearing on the question. Accepting the propositions, +then, that the more adjacent causes of headache are (1) cerebral +hyperæmia, (2) cerebral anæmia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral +plasma itself, let us now consider how these morbid factors are most +scientifically and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more +particularly, those distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so +baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are +best overcome. + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by J.L. Corning, +M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.] + +Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs, +which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common +carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these experiments the +thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a +salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so +prolific a source of headache and vertigo. Accordingly I made a +protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those +suffering from congestive headache, and I can only say that I have been +so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained, that I have +felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure +which, for obvious reasons, possesses all the advantages of local +depletion by leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of +either of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the +carotids have already been described in former communications. It is +only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds; +one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, which being held +in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure +upon both carotids for any desired length of time. The other instrument, +which I have designated as the "carotid truss," for lack of a better +name, is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each +extremity. The spring is placed about the neck of the patient, and by +suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly +above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries. By turning the +screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can +be applied to the arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length +of time by the patient. + +With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting the most +obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time (on +one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, the headache is of +manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory +derangements, I have never been able to achieve notable results with +this method. Indeed, pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method +of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous +varieties of head pains. + +Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most valuable +methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under +consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller +arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the +brain itself. + +A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or less +extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and +spinal symptoms, is cold. + +A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head, +at the same time, is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode, +designed by myself for this purpose. The apparatus in question consists +of a concave sponge electrode, the concavity of which corresponds to the +convexity of the external aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is +a chamber of metal or India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole +is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and +connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is applied +over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be taken not to +employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant +symptoms may be produced. An application of from five to ten minutes is +usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. As an additional security it +is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath, and to remain +as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment. In +hyperæmic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended; but +as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively +inadmissible, as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by +compression upon the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of +the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost always +be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms. Among the +internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain +cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and Indian hemp. The inhalation +of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in +some instances. Chlorodyne, which is nothing more than a mixture of +sedatives, often works well, and indeed frequently excels other +remedies. The regulation of the heart's action is also of very great +importance in these cases, and the physician should have no hesitancy in +resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose +of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a +matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--_Med. Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. + +[Footnote: From a paper published in the _British Medical Journal_.] + +By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin. + + +From time immemorial, the _Verbascum thapsus_, or great mullein, has +been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the treatment of the +above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most persons would call it +a weed--found in many parts of the United Kingdom; and, according to +Sowerby's _British Botany_, vol. vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly +distributed over England and the south of Scotland." In most parts of +Ireland, however, in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated +in gardens, and occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is +done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the +herb by phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far as I +know, has its use received the official sanction of the medical +profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter at the +Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, suggested that it +would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of +this drug, and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise. +Having partially accomplished this, I am anxious to very briefly set +forth what has been done, in order that others may be induced to +co-operate in the work. + +"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of the +Scrophulariaceæ; but the old Irish remedy is the great mullein, or +_Verbascum thapsus_, a faithful delineation of which will be found in +Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a hardy biennial, with a thick +stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, and with very peculiar +large woolly and mucilaginous leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly +yellow and nearly sessile flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late +summer or autumn, shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it +appears to have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy +for diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it. + +"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden +near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced operations. +As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured from our +drug-contractor. + +"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce +of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a +pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to strain. This strained +fluid is given warm to the patient, with or without a little sugar. It +is administered twice a day; and the taste of the mixture is bland, +mucilaginous, comforting to the praecordia, and not disagreeable. I +resolved to try this method, and also the watery infusion; and, +moreover, the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin. This +latter preparation was carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, +by Dr. John Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales. + +"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too many, were +now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's Hospital. They were +admitted in all stages, from an early one to the most advanced. On each +admission the case was carefully examined; the history, symptoms, and +physical signs were exactly noted; and the patient was weighed on a +stage balance with great accuracy. The patient was put as much as +possible on the mullein treatment only. For obvious reasons, no +cod-liver oil, koumiss, or other weight producer was given; the patients +got the diet suitable to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms +became troublesome, received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, +however, they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, they +were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that this should +be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, with the same +clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the same conditions. In +securing this the patients anxiously co-operated; and it was frequently +amusing, but sometimes painful, to watch the satisfaction or chagrin +with which the weekly result was received. I must here tender my +acknowledgments to our zealous, attentive, and accurate house surgeon, +Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom this important, but tedious, duty was +discharged." + +Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein plant has +been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that these cases, +although too few to justify any general conclusion, appear to establish +some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the +patients; in watery infusion it is disagreeable, and the succus is still +more so. The hot milk decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic +neighbors call _pectorale_) sensation, and when once patients take it +they experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the patients +scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical +sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of checking phthisical +looseness of the bowels was very marked, and experiment proved that this +was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled +milk. It also gave great relief to the dyspnoea. For phthisical night +sweats it is utterly useless; but these can be completely checked by the +hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the +atropia sulphate; the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, +as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of weight, +nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. Carrick, in +his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of Southern Russia (page +213), says: "I have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight, +while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs, and the +evening temperature rarely fell below 101° Fahr. Until then I considered +that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the +arrest of the malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does +not; but unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive invalid +must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In pretubercular and +early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein appears to have a distinct +weight-increasing power; and I have observed this in several private +cases also. Having no weighings of these latter, however, makes this +statement merely an expression of opinion. In early cases, mullein milk +appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when +we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth +a trial. I will continue the research by careful weighings of early +cases; and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of +mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the +phthisical bacillus. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE. + + +Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude that the +use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of +bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This increased flow is +beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder. A +subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of +bile into the gall-bladder, and this also is of service in emptying out +any stagnant bile, and restoring the normal condition when this is +disturbed. Artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a +similar action to the natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the +action varies according to the concentration of the solution. +Bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting +effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and +weak solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much +like that of the mineral waters. + + * * * * * + + + + +VIVISECTION. + + +Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is as +old as science itself. + +Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century of the +Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is regarded as +having merited his name (_Galenus_, "gentle") from the mildness of his +character. Five centuries before him, under the Ptolemies, Egyptian +experimenters had operated upon condemned persons. So, then, vivisection +is not, as usually thought, a diabolical invention of modern science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals +that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the hog, and the +dog, and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a +little of everything. Claude Bernard, however, had another way of +looking at things. It is true that he especially made researches into +the general laws of physiology, the secret of the vital functions, and +the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living +matter, but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art +of curing. He left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing +conclusions from his great work in biology, and of acting experimentally +upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of +therapeutics. So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the +animal scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him +greater service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded +animals offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present more +accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so much account +of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary in many cases to +choose subjects that possess endurance. The unfortunate frog, so aptly +named "the Job of physiology," becomes resigned to living under most +dreadful conditions, and when, through sheer exhaustion, he has +succumbed, his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of +experimentation for twenty-four hours. Thanks are due to nature for +giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest +batrachian! We owe to it the famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta +to the discovery of the pile and what followed it, the astonishing +conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are +now in their dawn. Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the +homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been +imposed upon this brave animal! + +[Illustration: Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for +the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it. No one, +however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it, but it is +only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed. +Does the abuse exist? That is the question, and it may be answered in +the affirmative. Yes, we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon +animals. It is a culpable folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat +barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known +physical fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it +would only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be +confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask that it be +confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the exclusion of visitors, +and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and +giving a programme of researches to be made. It is useless to seek in +the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a series +of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of +vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by Claude Bernard. Fig. +1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an +iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in +which hares or cats are placed in order to anæsthetize them. Fig. 4 +shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of +fixing him on his back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting +table, and Fig. 7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the +general arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anæsthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) the +extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the muzzle is +applied for anæsthetizing, and gives the details of construction of the +chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used +for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting +table.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL. + +[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association for the +Protection of the Insane and translated for the American Psychological +Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.] + +By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany. + + +The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and which +require different means in order to attain lasting success. Since the +number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years, in +all civilized countries, so that the responsibility of the proper charge +of them occupies continually not only the community, but also the State; +and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost +before they are finished, it becomes necessary to rid the institutions, +as soon as possible, of those patients which have been cured, as well as +of those which are improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as +possible, returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the +expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial +influence, besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found that +the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of +sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests. +Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns +to the institution, after a short lapse of time, because the "rudder" +(steuer) of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life. +How can, for instance, the indigent and poor patient, after his +discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the +proper care, stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of +his family? Is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those +who have been discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand +the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul? + +Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of benevolent +people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and +humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish social evils, whose object +is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the +institution, at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance. +Switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant +example, and there these societies found the greatest encouragement. It +should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times, that +the seed of true humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far +and wide, for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all +European countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch +of a truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by aiding +them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct donations of money, +etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a relapse of the disease. +May this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain +of joy and satisfaction to your members! + +Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, namely, +_the prevention of insanity_. It is nevertheless true, and cannot be +doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner +which is out of proportion to the increase of the population. Much +thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon, and physicians +as well as moralists, national economists as well as philosophers and +philanthropists, have endeavored to fathom the connection between this +fact and the conditions of modern social life. According to all +observations, it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a +single etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in +the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which give +rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in +which modern civilization influences mankind, in its development and +culture, in the family and in the school-room, in its views of life and +habits; also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a +heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions, power and +knowledge, and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance. + +More than even civilization itself, are at fault those pernicious +abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted from generation +to generation, or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to +our civilization. If we want to prevent the increase of insanity, we +must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities +from our social life which remove mankind more and more, in a pernicious +manner, from its natural development and from the normal conditions of +moral and physical life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous +offshoots of pseudo civilization, which are the enemies of the normal +existence of man. It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as +the entire society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which +spurs man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile decay of +both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which causes the +modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over +excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is necessary to strengthen more +than has been done heretofore the young, by means of their education, in +their physical development, and at the same time to diminish, in proper +proportion, the amount of mental over-exertion; and finally it is +necessary to fight against, to do away with, those habits of modern +society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well +as the mental and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there +is none so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as +well as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors. + +Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase +of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only on account of +its existing relation, but particularly because intemperance, among all +the factors which aid in the increase of insanity, can best be +diminished, and its influence weakened, through the will of the single +individual, as well as of society as a whole. The relation between +intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear, that it is not +necessary to adduce proofs of this fact. I will not refer to the +writings of the older authors, such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, +Macnish, Carpenter, and others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; +Ramaer, in Holland; Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and +others, in France; Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in +Germany. I could name a much larger number of the greatest modern +authorities on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding increase +of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those countries in +which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and particularly in the +form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn, has only in later +years become general. Thus Lunier has shown the number of alcoholic +insane increased by ten per cent. in those departments in which more +whisky and less wine is consumed. + +In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and in that +country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, Castiglione, Ferri, +and others) the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol +stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in +certain provinces of Italy. + +In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members was, +that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of +insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, and +alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease. +Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that intemperance, +without hereditary predisposition, was one of the most powerful agencies +in the production of aberration of the mind. Even Beckwith, who could +not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as +an etiological element, says distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, +the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease. + +In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces +of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public +institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report +of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that everywhere, where the +number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, was +greatest, the number of insane was also largest. Without doubt, to my +mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most +potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases. + +As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve +centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity. In +consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an +acute intoxication takes place, which may range from a slight excitation +to a complete loss of consciousness. After habitual abuse of alcohol, +the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant +and disappear the less, as in the central organs degenerative processes +are more and more developed, processes which lead to congestions and +hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself, to +softening or hardening, and finally to disappearance of the brain +substance. These degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a +progressive decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the +ethical functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and motor +disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy. + +The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol +intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if we assert that +from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand in a direct or +indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of +intoxicating liquors. This is the opinion of a large number of +authorities on mental diseases in all countries. Habitual intemperance +leads to severe (psychical?) lesions (of the nervous system) which may +show themselves in the different forms of insanity, but express +themselves chiefly as mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous +system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in +those whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention. + +An investigation among the patients in the insane department of the +Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was lately +carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des Alcoholismus zur +Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed that among 607 patients +who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 +per cent. had been addicted to drink; 133 before, and 17 after the +disease had shown itself; further, that of 1572 patients with delirium +tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per +cent., were epileptic; and that in 221 intemperance was present before +the outbreak of epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which +entered the department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., +were inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per cent. +were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of intemperate +parents. + +If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, does +directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, the +baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the intemperance of +parents, upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as +great and disastrous. The children of intemperate parents frequently +become drunkards themselves; they have inherited a degeneration of the +vitiated constitution, and carry the stamp of this degeneration within +themselves. The offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, +and die early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born idiotic, or +show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of alcohol, the +individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved, +and, according to the law of inheritance, is transmitted through the +progeny to the race. + +Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease (Stuttgart, +1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names alcoholism among the +transient abnormal conditions which, during conception, exert their +influence, so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological, +and especially neuro-pathological, dispositions. Intemperance, says this +author, in its acute, as well as in its chronic form, causes frequently +pathological changes in the nervous system, and thus may the +pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially +explained. On account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological +constitution, the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from +an abnormal psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, +epileptics, suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of +drunkards, do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, also of +depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime. + +Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated facts, +nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as +inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity; and +that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity, toward +the prevention of mental diseases, must be directed against this +widespread evil, intemperance. + +May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a +narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot +be too much contended with. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC. + +[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.] + +By J.W. COLCORD. + + +Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic properties of +plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my attention, I +determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered. Having a +shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article, +I was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments. +Believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than +from dried, I expressed the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" +mill, obtaining about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. +The juice was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the press +into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol, +evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, mixing with the +12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of alcohol. This +preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents virtually equal +parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a dark brown color with a +marked odor of the recent plant, and so far, after standing three months +undisturbed on my shelves, shows no sign of precipitation. + +My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed +juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing three months, +the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of precipitation. This, I +think, promises to be the most efficient preparation, and will prove +valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, +and similar disorders. + +Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and +alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of +alcohol. + +In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about +equal proportions, and was removed about one month after making by +filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of precipitation +since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown liquids. + +Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had sufficient trial +to form an opinion, although, as far as I can judge, they have proved +satisfactory. While writing this article, a cook from a neighboring +restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer, exposing the +bone, came in for treatment. Having bandaged I applied the glycerate, +which soon stopped the profuse bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it +to apply subsequently. I asked her to report to me in two or three days, +and, on reporting, I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic +properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have +been able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds. + +The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the +purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our +list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more +extended experiment.--_New Remedies_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DANGER FROM FLIES. + + +Dr. Grassi is said (_British Medical Journal_) to have made an +important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to flies. It +was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of +infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known that they are +capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various +worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in their fæces. This +point has now been established, and several striking experiments +illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a +great number of the eggs of a human parasite, the _Tricocephalus +dispar_. Some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen, which +stands about ten meters from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual +little spots produced by the fæces of flies were found on the paper. +These spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were then +caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova. Similar +experiments with the ova of the _Oxyuris vermicularis_ and of the +_Toenia solium_ afforded corresponding results. Shortly after the flies +had some mouldy cream, the _Oidium lactis_ was found in their fæces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every +one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, and +afterward examine the fæces and intestines of the flies; numerous spores +will be found. As flies are by no means particular in choosing either a +place to feed or a place to defecate, often selecting meat or food for +the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is +raised. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. + + +The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents, +alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our illustration, must +be commended as a valuable improvement of the Zoological Society's +establishment in Regent's Park. This building, which has a rather +stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, constructed of brick and +terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, stands close to the south +gate of the Gardens, entered from the Broad Walk of the Park. The +visitor, on entering by that gate, should turn immediately to the left +hand, along the narrow path beside the aviary of the Chinese golden +pheasants, and will presently come to the Reptile House, which is too +much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious +interior, represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places +in the whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, +very nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and in +baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with substantial +margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over +them, while one basin is further protected by an iron grating, contain +water in which the alligators, the infant crocodiles, and a number of +tortoises, but none of the larger species, make themselves quite at +home. One side of the house, with its windows looking into a pleasant +airy vestibule, is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller +lizards, with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, +which present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large wall +cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, rising about +14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are confined--the huge +pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the poisonous cobras and +rattlesnakes, and others well known to the visitors at these gardens. +Each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind, to which the +keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall, and +there are doors also from one compartment to another. The floor is of +smooth slate, and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or +to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its +exercise and amusement. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY.] + + +THE BABIROUSSA. + +We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, a male +and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the society by +Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, in the Malay +Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the +ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The babiroussa is a +species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of Eastern Asia, and +remarkable, in the male animal, for the extraordinary growth and +direction of the canine teeth. The upper pair of canine teeth, growing +out through the upper jaw, curve backward and upward on the forehead, +having somewhat the aspect of horns; while the lower canine teeth form a +pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for +defensive fighting, as a guard to the head, but could not serve for +attack. The skull of a babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in +the possession of Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the +Zoological Society's collection.--_Illustrated London News_. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE.] + + * * * * * + +Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797. + + + + +ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY. + +PART IV. + +By NELSON H. DARTON. + + +Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old one, and +well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits prescribed in +introducing this series of paper, but by only a few miles, and being +such an interesting locality, I have included it in the granular +limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a +space of ten acres, about two miles north of the railroad station of +Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and +Western Railroad, and is reached by a road running north from about a +mile east of the railroad station. This road branches into two at the +limestone kilns, about a mile from the railroad track, and the left hand +branch is taken, which leads more directly to the quarry, which is on +the right hand, about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the +loose rock lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. +John J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for agricultural +purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles. +Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so +characteristic of the locality, and for which it has become +famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite pyrites, biotite, +aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly others in lesser quantity. + +_Serpentine_.--All the varieties of this species, and of every color +from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed through the +limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets. It is +generally soft, translucent, and to be found in masses from a pea to a +cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure oil green color, rich and +translucent, making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen. +No difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this +mineral, as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of +the quarry, as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as +being useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as marmolite, +which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together +similar to mica, but of the green color of the serpentine picolite, or +fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs of a light grass green color, +and is a very interesting variety. + +In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to procure +that which is the most translucent, and that holding miniature veins of +asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine +alone, but occur in the southern end of the main quarry. The width of +these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch, but those of even much +less are highly prized as specimens. These veins of asbestos are, in +places, several inches in length, but are generally much broken in +removing them, as their fibrous structure, at right angles to their +length, makes them very fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can +seldom be found. However, they make much finer specimens when with the +serpentine. Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this assortment +is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which they were +formed, which was by a process termed segregation. + +This gurhofite, called bone +by the quarrymen, occurs in white, dense looking masses, intermingled +with the serpentine, especially in the upper end of the quarry, where +veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant, and from which +specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the +gurhofite and the association with the serpentine, to which it is found +attached; it is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and +need not be mistaken for it. + +_Phlozopite_.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, near the +asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, which is a +variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery +white color, and from one by three inches in area to less. It is easily +separable in folia, and cannot be confounded with any of the other +minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral +is exposed, whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals. + +_Pyrites_.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic +rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very fine, perfect crystals +may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock. There is no particular +portion of the quarries in which they abound. + +_Biotite_.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of a dark brown +color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of +limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; on the north +wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, and there even in +large number, in a locality, generally a pocket in the gneiss. + +_Tremolite_ is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the +extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the main one, +over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white crystals, about a +quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length. The +crystals are opaque, but very smooth and glistening, lining cavities in +this mass of limestone. It is a variety of hornblende, composed of +silica, lime, and magnesia, with a little alumina. It probably occurs in +places in the vicinity of this block, and in finer specimens, as these +are frequently, when near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is +a characteristic granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. +We will again meet it when examining the New York city localities. + +_Aragonite_ occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow color and +fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When they are separated +by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the fibers are very large, +coarse, and brittle, and thus do not resemble asbestos, although in some +instances they might be mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from +it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate +of lime, and also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it may +occur in greater profusion. + +Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being in the +form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with aragonite of +a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. As before noticed, +Staten Island is the best locality for this species. + +_Calcite_.--In places the limestone is perfectly crystallized, and of a +pure white or other color, when it forms an attractive mineral, and +often worth removing. The limestone of the main quarry, carefully +averaged, was found to have the following chemical composition. + + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 + +In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from its rough +state resembles "_verde antique_," and at that of a beautiful color; +samples of this should be obtained. + +_Feldspar_.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between +the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh red color and +often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an inch and a half in +length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily distinguished from +calcite, which it much resembles, but which has only a hardness of 3, +and dissolves with effervescence in acids. + +A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a +holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many interesting +and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip as well. In +reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and if one has an +early start these may all be visited. I will describe a few of these, +which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing +geological features and not far from the main line of travel. + +Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the first stop +may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey City. Here a visit +to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken; and as I have +written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these +articles,[1] I will not reiterate it here, but refer to that paper. The +mine, I might add, is only a mile north of the railroad station, and on +Schuyler Avenue, a short distance north from its junction with the +Jersey City and Paterson turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and +walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep +cut, the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so +large a portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. At a +point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of +shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity +in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, and is a point at which +the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically, the western side +remaining in its original position. This fault has a thrust of only +three feet, but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a +tremendous scale in some of the other formations. It will be noticed +that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of +a talcky substance, which has been derived from infiltrating waters. +Fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled +in a similar manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further +west a short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its +banks for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington pumps +and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The Passaic +River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and Paterson road may +be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence it is two miles east +to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the bank of the Passaic may be +followed and the quarries reached in an hour from Belleville. Here again +are met the sandstones and shales, besides another and larger fault, and +many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be +examined. The railroad station having been regained, Paterson is the +next point of interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the +city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these +may be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of the +station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above +and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales and +conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track (the +Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed for some +distance west, when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the +railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap; this is noticed +as a depression in the face of the cliff, and it may be seen by the +superposition of the layers of trap and basalt. Where the fault occurs a +short distance further west, there is another smaller fault. A visit to +the Great Falls of the Passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this +point, and these are about a half mile north of this locality. Here the +arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, +and the mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one +of these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to the +Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein the +contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous +additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is the best point +in which to find these exposures, and from the viaduct crossing the +river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained. +Regaining the train, Montville is soon reached and visited, and after +this, if time sufficient Boonville, two miles west, may be taken in, or +it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train, as but few stop +at Montville. At Boonton there are many interesting features--iron works +furnaces, localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor to +give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + +[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + + * * * * * + + + + +DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM. + + +An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus Gate, +Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine +Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The ruin has proved +to be one of great extent, and of special interest. The way in which it +was brought to light is worth recording. In an uneven field, which rose +considerably above the land about it, parts of which appearing, indeed, +like little hillocks, the owner of the soil tried to maintain a +vegetable garden, but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor +vegetables would flourish, and even irrigation did little or no good; +besides, here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could +not be accounted for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what +there was below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very +soon came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. The +amount of _débris_ which had accumulated above the floor of these +buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this mass of earth has +required much time and labor, and the work is not yet completed. The +piece of ground in question has about 60 yards of frontage on the main +road, and extends, so far as the excavations go, about the same distance +back from the road, that is, to the east. + +The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, and is +very near the street. The ground in front of the church is paved with +fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was entered were 5 +feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat wider. From the entrance +to the altar step, or platform, the distance is 55 feet, and from that +point to the back of the apse 15 feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is +16 feet 6 inches. The width of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet +in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a +manner similar to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This +wall, also those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally painted, and +some of the figures and designs can still be traced. At the southeast +corner of the church, leading from the apse, there is a narrow but well +built passageway to the buildings in the rear. The character of these +buildings is not very evident; certainly they did not stand on a line +with the church, but at an angle of 25° with that line. Between the +church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear, +there was a passage not over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear +of the church is 47 feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 +feet more of a special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and +which had a beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic floor +is 140 feet. + +On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall of the +main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 feet 6 inches +long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This is considerably +wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even the entrance of the +church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have been found, but in one +place two or three square yards have been preserved, enough to show that +the work was extremely beautiful. The colored tracings resemble those in +the church on the Mount of Olives, and on one side are the large Greek +letters [Theta][epsilon][omicron][nu]. North of this mosaic floor, and +of the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has been +leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced in an +east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 inches +deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From about the +middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs 20 +feet or more to the north; it is possible that it led _from_ the north, +and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west. +Piles of stones and _debris_ prevent us at present from deciding as to +the length of the channel or where it comes from. In the bank of +_debris_, which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height +of 20 feet, there is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed +of cement, running north and south at right angles to the line of the +church and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic +pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of +_debris_ which is yet to be removed. + +In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is found, +very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut channel, there +is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of the floor. The tomb +is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered by a doorway 26 inches +wide, which is well built, and in the sides of which are grooves for a +door to slide up and down. On the wall of the tomb at the east end there +is a raised Greek cross, 22 inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot +stand erect in its highest part, but it is to be considered that the +loculi are two-thirds full of _debris_, composed chiefly of decayed +bones and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The loculi are +2 feet in depth. + +What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," turn out +to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 feet long by +28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided (one or two of +them at least) into apartments by means of arches. The lower courses of +the walls, to the height of several feet, are of squared stones, while +the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work, which was covered +with a heavy coating of plaster. The threshold of one has been exposed, +which is 6 feet in the clear, and the sides of the doorway show +excellent work. + +Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each 33 inches +in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of which were +nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were closed, were many +feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began, hence +no one knows how old the water in them may be. Some of the slabs with +which the church was paved were 6 feet long by 2½ feet wide. In the +church two pieces of cornice were found, each 8 feet in length. One is +entire and quite plain, while the other is broken in the middle. It is +upon this that the figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were +painted. They can still be traced, although exposure has nearly +obliterated the colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken +glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great +value. The top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a +basin, and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water +to run off. + +South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there +is a large underground chamber with seven openings (each the size of a +man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 feet wide and nearly 20 +feet long, but the depth is not yet ascertained, owing to the +accumulation of _debris_ on the bottom. On the west and north sides a +wall of solid rock appears to a depth of 6 feet, showing that the +chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock. The use of +this chamber does not appear evident, unless it may have been a store +room. The place within the city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a +similar chamber (not dug in the solid rock, however), with similar +openings in the ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some +distance to the east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to +purchase the land in that direction, in order to allow of the +excavations being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of +ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move with +aggravating slowness. + +Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that the west +wall of what he called the "main building," toward the apse of the +church, has been removed and the floor cleared, exposing a fine +pavement. This pavement, the threshold before mentioned, and the mosaic +floor all belong to one period, and to a structure very much older than +the date of the "main building." It puzzled the doctor, because the +threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of +the "main buildings," but the reason is now clear. Captain Conder says +of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he +was there, that "the whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As +regards the church itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor +especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At +the south side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the +largest cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick +stone 5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against +the wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two +halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest to state +that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since, and for +a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last it was sold for 40 +Napoleons. During the present year it has passed into the hands of the +French for 2,000 Napoleons. + + * * * * * + + + + +DAMMARA AUSTRALIS + + +One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of +such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, is the subject of +the present note. Some months since cones were observed to be forming on +this tree, and a representation of which we are now enabled, through the +courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay before our readers. We are not aware +whether the tree has previously produced cones at Kew, though we have +the impression that such is the case; at any rate it has done so +elsewhere, as recorded in the _Flore des Serres_, 1856, p. 75, but +fertile seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen. + +In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and +richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive tiers of +branches, which render it specially suitable for the decoration of +winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, where no great +amount of heat is required. In the northern island of New Zealand, +however, it is quite another matter, for there, where it is known as the +Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable of timbers, as may be judged +from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from 50 to +100 feet clear of the branches; moreover, it yields a gum resin like +copal, which exudes from the trunk, and which is sometimes found below +ground in the vicinity of the trees, thus giving the clew to the real +nature of amber and other similar substances. + +[Illustration: THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.] + +The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the construction +of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and elasticity rendering it +particularly suitable for this purpose, and Laslett speaks of it as one +of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand, and +recommends its use for the decks of yachts, for cabin panels, for +joiner's work generally, or for ornamental purposes. Owing to the +difficulty and expense of working the forests, and the great distance, +comparatively little of it comes to this country.--_The London +Gardeners' Chronicle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES. + + +Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods, +and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, than to buy +nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail because proper +precautions have not been taken. In digging up a tree, all the roots +outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off, and the tree is +reset with its full head of branches. Whoever has seen trees in the +forest that were upturned by a tornado, must have been struck by the +manner in which the roots run very near to the surface, and to a great +distance. When the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet +from the trunk, few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the +mass of tops is left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not +be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must +follow. If such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a +bare pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to meet +the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and growth above +and below ground is well balanced. + +We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or more +high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees treated +in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago. +They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show no signs of +former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the edge of the woods, +are better furnished with roots. These should be prepared for +transplanting by digging down to the roots, and cutting off all that +extended beyond the desired distance. This will cause the formation of +fibrous roots near the tree. It will be safer to take two years for the +operation, cutting half of the roots each year. Such trees may be +removed in safety, especially if a good share of the top is removed at +transplanting--_American Agriculturist_. + + * * * * * + +A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 *** + + + + +Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>Scientific American Supplement No. 415</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in +Steel.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Heat developed in Forging.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Recent Studies on the Constitution of +Alkaloids.--Extract from a lecture delivered before the +Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. --By SAML.P. SADTLER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#4">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for +Extracting Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By +Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description +and numerous engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic +Reaction--Figures showing plan and side views of the +steamer.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. +W.C. UNWIN. 4 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#10">TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and +Opals.--By A. GOODALL.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">The Manufacture and Characteristics of +Photographic Lenses.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. +EDER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By +Prof. REDWOOD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Anti-Corrosion Paint.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different +kilns used.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#16">ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHÆOLOGY.--The +German National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of +Peace and War.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">The Art Aspects of Modern Dress.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">Discovery of Ancient Church In +Jerusalem.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#20">ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 +engravings showing Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. +Electrolyzing Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens +Machine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#22">GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and +around New York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#23">NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's +Gardens, London.--With full page engravings showing the new Reptile +House, and the Babiroussa family.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#24">HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra +Australis.-- With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">How to Successfully Transplant Trees.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#26">MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of +Congestive Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of +Pulmonary Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon +the Bile.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of +engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#30">Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful +as well as inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By +Dr. A. BAER, Berlin.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#31">Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">Danger from Flies.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE.</h2> + +<p>In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," +lately unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now +present, as beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two +statues, War and Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental +facade. These figures are about twenty feet high. The statue of War +represents an allegorical character, partly Mercury, partly +mediæval knight, with trumpet in one hand, sword in the +other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and modest maiden, +holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn of +peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." +Here the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, +surrounded by a noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, +commanders, and statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped +to found the empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German +nation.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +"WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A writer in the London <i>Lancet</i> ridicules a habit of being +in great haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among +all classes of commercial men, and argues that in most cases there +is not the least cause for it, and that it is done to convey a +notion of the tremendous volume of business which almost overwhelms +the house. The writer further says that, when developed into a +confirmed habit, it is fertile in provoking nervous maladies.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS.</h2> + +<p>At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic +Society, Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having +expressed his belief that mere considerations of health would never +dethrone fashion, the lecturer said he should endeavor to show on +art principles how those who were open to conviction could have all +the variety Fashion promised, together with far greater elegance +than that goddess could bestow, while health received the fullest +attention. Two excellent societies, worthy of encouragement up to a +certain point, had been showing us the folly and wickedness of +fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, crippled the +feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the limbs, and +even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been more +successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or +might not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the +zero of artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. +We were inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without +rules to guide us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris +fashions and those of Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, +choose the former. Let it be shown that the substitute was both +sanitary and beautiful, capable of an infinite variety in color and +in form--in colors and forms which never violated art principle, +and in which the wearer, and not some Paris liner, could exercise +her taste, and the day would have been gained. This was the task he +had set himself to formulate, and so doing he should divide his +subject in two--Color and Form.</p> + +<p>In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the +meaning of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured +nation like the English should be so generally ignorant of the laws +of color harmony. We were nicely critical of music, yet in color +were constantly committing the gravest solecisms. He did not think +there were seventeen interiors in London that the educated eye +could wander over without pain. Yet what knowledge was so useful? +We were not competent to buy a picture, choose a dress, or furnish +a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say nothing of the +facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on porcelain, +art needlework, and a hundred occupations.</p> + +<p>An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the +effect they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be +worn in dark shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was +commonly called, olive green, went well together; but a dress of +full red or yellow would be painful to behold. The rule for full +primaries was, employ them sparingly, and contrast them only with +black or gray. He might notice in passing that when people dressed +in gray or black the entire dress was usually of the one color +unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that would lend beauty +to any color placed upon it.</p> + +<p>Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing +widely in hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating +itself to sudden changes, and a species of color discord was the +consequence. But if the colors, even though primaries, were of some +very dark or very light shade, they become harmonious. All very +dark shades of color went well with black and with each other, and +all very light shades went well with white and each other.</p> + +<p>A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my +complexion?" The generally received opinion was that the complexion +was pink, either light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, +working dire confusion. But no one living ever had a pink +complexion unless a painted one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade +were pink, and their pink dresses were in harmony. No natural +complexion whatever was improved by pink; but gray would go with +any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence to the dominant +hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce flesh color +he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The skin +of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea +green, tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color +always subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination +near it. Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside +pink altered it to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as +to have a muddy complexion, the worst color they could wear would +be their own complexion's complementary--the best would be mud +color, for it would clear their complexion.</p> + +<p>Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer +urged that the proper function of dress was to drape the human +figure without disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of +Miss Mary Anderson, attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was +exhibited, and the lecturer observed that while the dress once worn +by Greek women was unequaled for elegance, Greek women were not in +the habit of tying their skirts in knots round the knees, and the +nervous pose of the toes suggested a more habitual acquaintance +with shoes and stockings.</p> + +<p>An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as +illustrating the principles of artistic and natural +costume--costume which permitted the waist to be the normal size, +and allowed the drapery to fall in natural folds--costume which +knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays and "improvers"--costume +which was very symbolization and embodiment of womanly grace and +modesty.</p> + +<p>A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from <i>Myra's +Journal</i>, dated June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference +of the waist was but 12¾ in., involving an utter exclusion +of the liver from that part of the organization, and the attitude +was worthy of a costume which was the <i>ne plus ultra</i> of +formal ugliness.</p> + +<p>Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected +from a recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, +Why did women think small waists beautiful? Was it because +big-waisted women were so frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A +young girl had no waist, and did not need stays. As the figure +matured the hips developed, and it was this development which +formed the waist. The slightest artificial compression of the waist +destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the grown woman should +never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken the muscles of +the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A waist really +too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress was +designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner +garment should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress +should be as thin as possible, that it might drape itself into +natural folds. Velvet, from its texture, was ill adapted for this. +When worn, it should be in close fitting garments, and in dark +colors only. It was most effective when black.</p> + +<p>Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the +lecturer suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto +had been the too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could +be artistic without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without +clothes fairly in fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive +color their tailor pleased. He would suggest that any reformation +should begin with color.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY.</h2> + +<p>The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent +feature in the progress of building in the metropolis, and +speculative builders who work on a smaller scale would do well not +to ignore the fact. The Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings +Company (Limited) has been conspicuously successful in rearing +large blocks of dwellings for artisans, clerks, and others whose +means necessitates the renting of a convenient house at as low a +rental as it is possible to find it. We give an illustration of a +terrace of first-class houses built by the above company, who +deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal manner in which +they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at +Shaftesbury and Queen's Parks they have already built about three +thousand houses, employing therein a capital of considerably over a +million sterling, while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an +estate of one hundred acres, which will contain, when completed, no +less than two thousand six hundred houses, to be let at weekly +rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. 6d., rates and taxes all included. +The object has been to provide separate cottages, each in itself +complete, and in so doing they have not made any marked departure +from the ordinary type of suburban terrace plan, but adopting this +as most favorable to economy, have added many improvements, +including sanitary appliances of the latest and most approved +type.</p> + +<p>The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, +a road 60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of +the estate. On either side of this road the houses are set back 15 +ft., in front of which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a +suitable growth are being planted, as also on all other roads on +the estate. About the center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has +been reserved as a site for a church, and a space of five acres in +another portion of the estate has been set apart to be laid out as +a recreation ground, should the development of the estate warrant +such an outlay. The remaining streets are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in +width, clear of the garden space in front of the houses. Shops will +be erected as may be required.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt= +"SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE DWELLINGS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.</p> + +<p>The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, +the surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. +Nowhere have these drains been carried through the houses, but they +are taken directly into drains at the back, having specially +ventilated manholes and being brought through at the ends of +terraces into the road sewers; the ventilating openings in the +roads have been converted into inlet ventilators by placing upcast +shafts at short intervals, discharging above the houses. This +system of ventilation was adopted on the recommendation of Mr. W.A. +De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the Tottenham Local +Board.</p> + +<p>All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the +whole area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every +room is specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in +order to prevent the passage of sound. A constant water supply is +laid on, there being no cisterns but those to the water-waste +preventers to closets. All water pipes discharge over open trapped +gullies outside.</p> + +<p>The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta +sills, the roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the +purpose of forming an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some +cases the central houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over +porches being similarly treated. The houses are simply but +effectively designed, and the general appearance of the finished +portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. All end houses of +terraces have been specially treated, and in some cases having +rather more accommodation than houses immediately adjoining, a +slightly increased rental is required. There are five different +classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate this +week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, +kitchen, scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and +water-closet on ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The +water-closet is entered from the outside, but in many first-class +houses another water-closet has been provided on the first floor, +and one room on this floor is provided with a small range, so that +if two families live in the one house they will be entirely +separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to 11s. 6d. per +week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, W., is +the architect.--<i>Building and Engineering Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS.</h2> + +<h3>By A. GOODALL.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland +Photographic Association.]</p> + +<p>The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or +enlargements on paper or opal has been before the public for two or +three years now, and cannot be called new; but still it is neither +so well known nor understood as such a facile and easy process +deserves to be, and I may just say here that after a pretty +extensive experience in the working of it I believe there is no +other enlarging process capable of giving better results than can +be got by this process when properly understood and wrought, as the +results that can be got by it are certainly equal to those +obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead +of any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino +bromide enlargement on opal.</p> + +<p>[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 +opal, using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for +two and a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant +opal was the result.]</p> + +<p>We now come to the paper process, and most effective +enlargements can be made by it also; indeed, as a basis for +coloring, nothing could well be better. Artists all over the +country have told me that after a few trials they prefer it to +anything else, while excellent and effective plain enlargements are +easily made by it if only carefully handled. A very good +enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just done, +with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have +the appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture +adhering to the glass, however, and at the same time to give +greater brilliancy, it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 +grain solution of clear gelatine before squeezing it down. The one +fault or shortcoming of the plain argentic paper is the dullness of +the surface when dry, and this certainly makes it unsuitable for +small work, such as the rapid production of cartes or proofs from +negatives wanted in a hurry; the tone of an argentic print is also +spoken of sometimes as being objectionable; but my impression is, +that it is not so much the tone as the want of brilliancy that is +the fault there, and if once the public were accustomed to the +tones of argentine paper, they might possibly like them twice as +well as the purples and browns with which they are familiar, +provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and some +time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +<i>Photographic News</i>, I set about trying to produce this result +by enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating +it with the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were +successful, and we now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which +the prints stand out with brilliancy equal to those on albumenized +paper. I here show you specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures +enlarged from C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic.</p> + +<p>[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from +landscape and portrait negatives, which it would have been +difficult to distinguish from prints on double albumenized +paper.]</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which +an argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion +transfer, for instance; but there is another and more important +point to be considered between the two, and that is, their +durability and permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, +unless most particular care be taken in the washing of it (and +those who have made them will well know what a delicate, not to say +difficult, job it is to get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, +and at the same time preserve the film intact), there is no +permanence in a collodion transfer, and that practically in nine +cases out of ten they have the elements of decay in them from the +first day of their existence. I know, at least in Glasgow, where an +enormous business has been done within the last few years by +certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being a +collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more +has been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at +the present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the +picture in disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a +collodion transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, +unless an amount of care be taken in the making of it which is +neither compatible nor consistent with the popular price and +extensive output. How now stands the case with an argentic +enlargement? Of course it may be said that there is scarcely time +yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic enlargements are +still only on their trial.</p> + +<p>I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset +that seven or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and +failed, but got one or two results which I retained as curiosities +till only a month or two ago; but up to that time I cannot say they +had faded in the least, and I have here a specimen made three years +ago, which I have purposely subjected to very severe treatment. It +has been exposed without any protection to the light and damp and +all the other noxious influences of a Glasgow atmosphere, and +although certainly tarnished, I think you will find that it has not +faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have lost nothing of +their original strength. I here show you the picture referred to, a +12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here state, in +short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads me +to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. +Chromotypes and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, +but their permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment +employed, and associated with the chromated gelatine in which they +are produced, most of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, +being unable to withstand the bleaching action of the light for +more than a few weeks. Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent +according to the degree in which the coloring matter employed is +capable of resisting the decolorizing action of light. But there is +no pigment in an argentic print, nothing but the silver reduced by +the developer after the action of light; and that has been shown +by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a very stable and not easily +decomposed nature; while if the pictures are passed through a +solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine also is so +acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to the +action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to +carbon pictures without carbon.</p> + +<p>I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes +met with in working this process; and first in regard to the +yellowing of the whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of +purity in the whites, especially in vignetted enlargements, and I +believe that this almost always arises from one or other of the two +following causes:</p> + +<p>First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate +developer; and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is +more in suspension than solution, and in the course of development +it is deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the +gelatinous film.</p> + +<p>The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated +solution of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has +been recommended by the highest and almost only scientific +authority on the subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of +potassic oxalate to 1 part of ferrous sulphate.</p> + +<p>Now while these proportions may be the best for the development +of a negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best +for gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that +potassic oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the +ferrous sulphate solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold +in proper solution for any length of time the compound salt formed +when the two are mixed.</p> + +<p>The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and +vignetted enlargements especially, should always be fresh and +pretty strong, so that the picture will clear rapidly before any +deposit has time to take place, as it will be observed that very +shortly after even one iron developed print has been fixed in it a +deposit of some kind begins to take place, so that although it may +be used a number of times for fixing prints that are meant to be +colored afterward it is best to take a small quantity of fresh hypo +for every enlargement meant to be finished in black and white. The +proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of water. Almost the +only other complaints I now hear are traceable to over-exposure or +lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the paper. The +operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, or +pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up +by blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black +stains and smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent +enlargements, but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently +developed, and cleanly and carefully handled.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC +LENSES.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced +his lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by +describing the method by which the necessary curves were computed +in order to obtain a definite focal length. The varieties of +optical glass were next discussed, and specimens (both in the rough +and partly shaped state) were handed round for examination. The +defects frequently met with in glass, such as striæ and +tears, were then treated upon; specimens of lenses defective from +this cause were submitted to inspection, and the mode of searching +for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and polishing lenses +of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a collection of +glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & Co., +and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were +gone into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the +processes was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which +he placed upon the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of +photographic lenses, and explained the influence of particular +constructions in producing certain results; positive and negative +spherical aberration, and the manner in which they are made to +balance each other, was also described by the aid of diagrams, as +was also chromatic aberration. He next spoke of the question of +optical center of lenses, and said that that was not, as had been +hitherto generally supposed, the true place from which to measure +the focus of a lens or combination. This place was a point very +near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" point, from +the name of the eminent German mathematician who had investigated +and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was of the +greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For +this drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo +Schroeder, now with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer +congratulated the newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John +Stuart, for his enterprise in securing for this country a man of +such profound acquirements. The subject of distortion was next +treated of, and the manner in which the idea of a non distorting +doublet could be evolved from a single bi-convex lens by division +into two plano-convex lenses with a central diaphragm was shown. +The influence of density of glass was illustrated by a description +of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent of the large family of +rapid doublets now known under various names. The effect of +thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious method +of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large +angle by pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in +the manner of the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by +requesting a careful examination of the valuable exhibits upon the +table, kindly lent for the occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES.</h2> + +<h3>By Dr. Eder.</h3> + +<p>We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved +formulas given below as translated by him for the <i>Photographic +Times</i>.</p> + +<p>Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention +to the soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer +certain advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage +becomes particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, +which frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, +or a fog of clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by +transmitted light. Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of +that kind; so do soda and potassa developers.</p> + +<p>For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, +without the addition of any bromide.</p> + +<p>More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. +No. 1: Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; +sodium sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 1½ +gr.; sodium sulphite, 25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is +for its better keeping qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's +solution.[A] The solutions when in well stoppered bottles keep well +for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. of water with 40 min. of +No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears quickly and more +vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable to decrease +the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. The +negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative +a deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which +excludes all possible necessities of an after intensification.</p> + +<p>[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; +1 gr. salicylic acid.]</p> + +<p>The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that +when iron developer is used, frequently even greater.</p> + +<p>The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. +Bromides in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce +the sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing +power almost entirely.</p> + +<p>Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution +of potassium bromide is quite sufficient.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical +Society of Great Britain, November 7, 1883.]</p> + +<h3>By Professor REDWOOD.</h3> + +<p>I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at +its recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more +particularly attracted my attention is that which relates to +prepared lard. Reference is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared +in different ways, and it appears from the results of his +experiments that when made according to the process of the British +Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from rancidity for so long a +time as some of the samples do which have been otherwise prepared. +The general tendency of the discussion, as far as related to this +part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same direction; +but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the question of +the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so specially +referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be.</p> + +<p>When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical +Society, suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which +consisted in removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, +by first thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after +breaking up the tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat +at a moderate heat, this method of operating seemed to be generally +approved. It was adopted by men largely engaged in "rendering" +fatty substances for use in pharmacy and for other purposes for +which the fat was required to be as free as possible from flavor +and not unduly subject to become rancid. It became the process of +the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it formed the basis of a +process, which was patented in Paris and this country by Hippolite +Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste and odor, and +suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. Mege's +process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." +This process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty +substance called oleomargarine.</p> + +<p>But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I +have been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the +effect that the washing of the flare before melting the fat was +rather hurtful than beneficial. I have reason to believe that this +opinion has been gaining ground among those who have carefully +inquired into the properties of the products obtained by the +various methods which have been suggested for obtaining animal fat +in its greatest state of purity.</p> + +<p>I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make +many experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, +and at the same time have been brought into communication with +manufacturers of oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of +which experience has been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of +the Pharmacopeia process. I have found that in the method now +generally adopted by manufacturers of oleomargarine, which is +produced in immense quantities, the use of water, for washing the +fat before melting it, is not only omitted but specially avoided. +The parts of the process to which most importance is attached are: +First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural fat, +which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the +freshly slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and +adhering portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; +after which it is cut up and passed through a machine in which it +is mashed so as to completely break up the membraneous vesicles in +which the fat is inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a +deep jacketed pan heated by warm water, and the fat is melted at a +temperature not exceeding 130°F.</p> + +<p>If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be +easily melted away from the membraneous matter at 120°F., or +even below that, and no further continuance of the heat is required +beyond what is necessary for effecting a separation of the melted +fat from the membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete +separation of all suspended matter is obviously important, and +therefore nitration seems desirable, where practicable; which +however is not on the large scale.</p> + +<p>My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described +is that best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in +pharmacy. There is, however, a point connected with this or any +other method of preparing lard which is deserving of more attention +than it has, I believe, usually received, and that is, the source +from which the flare has been derived. Everybody knows how greatly +the quality of pork depends upon the manner in which the pig has +been fed, and this applies to the fat as well as other parts of the +animal. Some time ago I had some pork submitted to me for the +expression of opinion upon it, which had a decided fishy flavor, +both in taste and smell. This flavor was present in every part, fat +and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from that fat would +not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been prescribed a fish +diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a better variety +of lard.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>ANTI-CORROSION PAINT.</h2> + +<p>The <i>Neueste Erfinderung</i> describes an anti-corrosion paint +for iron. It states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even +baryta, or strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil +paint, and then enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, +the free acid of the paint will be neutralized, while the iron will +be protected by the permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to +be buried in damp earth may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts +of resin (colophony), 25 parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of +paraffin, to which 20 parts of magnesia and some mineral oil have +been added.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>CARBON IN STEEL.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was +read entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in +Steel," by Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering.</p> + +<p>Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks +of steel 2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. +They were all cut from the same strip of metal, but some were +"cold-rolled," some "annealed," and some "hardened." The total +carbon was found to be: "cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, +1.128 per cent.; and annealed, 0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of +the disks were submitted to the action of an oxidizing solution +consisting of a cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate +with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. In +all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left undissolved. These +residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks employed, had the +following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 per cent.; +iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by +treatment with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the +carbon remains undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, +but only about one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in +the case of the hardened disk. The authors then give a +<i>resume</i> of previous work on the subject. In the second part +they have investigated the action of bichromate solutions of +various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about 0.098 inch thick, +which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per cent.; +silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four solutions +were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of bichromate and +9 per cent. of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> by weight; the second +was eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the +fourth about one and a half times as strong. In all cases the +amount of solution employed was considerably in excess of the +amount required to dissolve the steel used. A residue was obtained +as before. With solution 1, the residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. +2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the atomic ratio of iron to carbon was +Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), 2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 +per 100 of steel. The authors conclude that the carbon in cold +rolled steel exists not simply diffused mechanically through the +mass of steel but in the form of an iron carbide, Fe<sub>3</sub>C, +a definite product, capable of resisting the action of an oxidizing +solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a rapid +solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES.</h2> + +<p>In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed +cuts (Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the +washer, C, slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which +reduces them to a fine pulp under the action of a continuous +current of water led in by the pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into +the iron reservoir, B, from whence a pump, P, forces it through the +pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is suspended by four bars and has a +backward and forward motion. By means of a rose, c, water is +sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve and separates the +fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged with fine +particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through the +tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. +This latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that +have not been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through +the tube, h, into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is +completely separated from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried +by means of a helix, i, to a revolving perforated drum at e. From +this, the milky starch flows into the jacket, N, while the pulp +(ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the apparatus through the +aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4a_th.jpg" alt= +"ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, +which, like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward +motion, and which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to +separate the very finest impurities from the milky starch. The +refined liquid then flows into the reservoir, m, and the impure +mass of sediment runs into the pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, +forces the milky liquid from the reservoir, m, to the settling +back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, u, from the receptacle, +o, into a large pulp-reservoir.</p> + +<p>The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, +a, into the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, +r, into the different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion +by two shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred +revolutions per minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is +but fifty revolutions.--<i>Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de +l'Indust</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK.</h3> + +<p>A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about ¼ inch wide by 1/8 inch thick +and 13 inches long. Beginning ½ inch from the end, bore a +row of small holes only large enough for a darning needle to pass +through and half an inch apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the +third 1, the fifth 2, and so on to 12, so that the numbers +represent the distance from O in inches. A small slit may be made +in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, but a better plan +is to attach a small clip on one side.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/4b.png" alt= +"ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT."></p> + +<p class="ctr">ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.</p> + +<p>Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet +long; pass it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it +until it forms a single cord. Pass the needle <i>upward</i> through +the hole marked 0, and tie a knot in the end of the thread to +prevent its slipping through. The apparatus is now ready for +immediate use. It only remains to set it to the size of the oval +desired.</p> + +<p>Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer +diameter of which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 +inches. Insert a pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 +and 7, which is distant 6-½ inches from O. Pass the needle +through hole 5, allowing the thread to pass around the tack or pin; +draw it tightly and fasten it in the slit or clip at the end. Lay +the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, place the point of a +pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it around and +describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two ends of +the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied +to metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On +drawings it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with +pins.</p> + +<p>As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by +the string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a +crochet needle.</p> + +<p>As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given +width and length, but does not know what the distance between the +foci must be to produce this effect, a few directions on this point +may be useful:</p> + +<p>It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance +between the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the +sides of a right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the +greater diameter. Hence in order to find the distance between the +foci, when the length and width of the ellipse are known, these two +are squared and the lesser square subtracted from the greater, when +the square root of the difference will be the quantity sought. For +example, if it be required to describe an ellipse that shall have a +length of 5 inches and a width of 3 inches, the distance between +the foci will be found as follows:</p> + +<pre> + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. +</pre> + +<p>In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying +a foot rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch +the figure marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then +bringing the figure on the rule that represents the greater +diameter to the edge of the square; the figure on the square at +this point is the distance sought. Unfortunately they rarely +represent whole numbers. We present herewith a table giving the +width to the eighth of an inch for several different ovals when the +length and distance between foci are given.</p> + +<pre> +<br> + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. +<br> + 2 1 1¾ + 2 1½ 1¼ +<br> + 2½ 1 2¼ + 2½ 1½ 2 + 2½ 2 1½ +<br> + 3 1 1½ + 3 1½ 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 2½ 2¼ +<br> + 3½ 1 3-3/8 + 3½ 1½ 3-1/8 + 3½ 2 2-7/8 + 3½ 2½ 2½ + 3½ 3 1¾ +<br> + 4 2 3½ + 4 2½ 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 3½ 2 +<br> + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 +</pre> + +<p>For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus +for 7 and 4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to +3½ and 2, which is twice 2-7/8, or 5¾. It will be +noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are interchangeable.</p> + +<p>To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the +length of the desired oval in the first column of the table, and +the width most nearly corresponding to that desired in the third +column. The corresponding number in the middle column tells which +hole the needle must be passed through. The tack D, <i>around</i> +which the string must pass, is so placed that the total length of +the string AD + DC, or its equal AE + EC, shall equal the greater +diameter of the ellipse. In the figure it is placed 6½ +inches from A, and 1½ inches from C, making the total length +of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 6¼ inches wide.</p> + +<p>The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals +by fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is +recommended in all the text books on the subject. On the other +hand, the instrument may be set "by guess" when no particular +accuracy is required.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS.</h2> + +<p>The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years +ago, after a series of experiments made in poorly constructed +furnaces, to be unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most +writers with the remark, that in order to use the method +economically the products of distillation, both liquid and gaseous, +must be collected. T. Egleston, Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New +York, has read a paper on the subject before the American Institute +of Mining Engineers, from which we extract as follows: As there are +many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke cannot be had at such +a price as will allow of its being used, and where the ores are of +such a nature that wood cannot be used in a reverberatory furnace, +the most economical method of making charcoal is an important +question.</p> + +<p>Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any +shape and size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the +builder or by the necessities of the shape of the ground selected. +They do not differ from each other in any principle of manufacture, +nor does there seem to be any appreciable difference in the quality +of the fuel they produce, when the process is conducted with equal +care in the different varieties; but there is a considerable +difference in the yield and in the cost of the process in favor of +small over large kilns. The different varieties have come into and +gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of construction and +of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the cover of a +meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the meiler +and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has +all the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar +to itself.</p> + +<p>The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, +the round, and the conical, but the first two seem to be +disappearing before the last, which is as readily built and much +more easily managed.</p> + +<h3>ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS</h3> + +<p>Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone +together. Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not +necessary. The foundations are usually made of stone. There are +several precautions necessary in constructing the walls. The brick +should be sufficiently hard to resist the fire, and should +therefore be tested before using. It is an unnecessary expense to +use either second or third quality fire-brick. As the pyroligneous +acid which results from the distillation of the wood attacks lime +mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with fire-clay mortar, to +which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam mixed with +coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As the +principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is +especially necessary that all the joints should be carefully +filled, as any small open spaces would admit air, and would +materially decrease the yield of the kiln. The floor of the kiln +was formerly made of two rows of brick set edgewise and carefully +laid, but latterly it is found to be best made of clay. Any +material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It must be well +beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six inches +higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted +on the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered +with a coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does +not require to be renewed for several years.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF +CHARCOAL.</p> + +<p>The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect +the masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found +to result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued.</p> + +<p>The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The +diameter is not considered of much importance, except in so far as +it is desirable to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most +of the wood is small, and only a small part of it is large, the +large pieces are usually split, to make it pack well. It has been +found most satisfactory to have three rows of vents around the +kiln, which should be provided with a cast-iron frame reaching to +the inside of the furnace. The vents near the ground are generally +five inches high--the size of two bricks--and four inches wide--the +width of one--and the holes are closed by inserting one or two +bricks in them. They are usually the size of one brick, and larger +on the outside than on the inside. These holes are usually from +0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to 0.90 m. +apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of the +brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with +the floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is +sometimes an additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid +escape of the smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then +closed, and kept closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies +mostly to the best types of conical kilns. In the circular and +conical ones the top charging door is sometimes used for this +purpose. Hard and soft woods are burned indifferently in the kilns. +Hard-wood coal weighs more than soft, and the hard variety of +charcoal is usually preferred for blast furnaces, and for such +purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 per cent. or even +more in using hard woods. For the direct process in the bloomaries, +soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is not usually +advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters in +capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got +from kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft +wood. The average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, +two and a half to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, +or 30 to 40 bushels to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, +so that the loss in fine coal is very much diminished. The pieces +usually come out the whole size, and sometimes the whole length of +the wood.</p> + +<p>The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively +in use. They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of +wood. The usual sizes are given in the table below:</p> + +<pre> + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 +</pre> + +<p>1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. +4. Kiln at Lauton, Mich.</p> + +<p>The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of +No. 4, as constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a +good burn, will yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal.</p> + +<p>The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet +high, and 1-½ brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks +to the cubic foot of wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist +the expansion and contraction due to the heating and cooling, they +should be provided with buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 +wide, as at Wassaic, New York; but many of them are built without +them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as shown in the engraving. In both +cases they are supported with strong braces, from 3 to 4 feet +apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast iron, which are +buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below with iron +rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath the +floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, +which are securely fastened by iron rods running through the +corners, as shown. When a number of kilns are built together, as at +the Michigan Central Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the +plan view, only the end kilns are braced in this way. The +intermediate ones are supported below by wooden braces, securely +fastened at the bottom. The roof is always arched, is one brick, or +eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, fourteen being used in +each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in the center a round +hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, which is closed +by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. brick for a +kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is +so far from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it +is increasing more rapidly than the population of the United +Kingdom. The statistics of population show an increase of 16 per +cent. on the last decennial period, while the increase in the +United Kingdom in the ten years preceding the last census was under +11 per cent. This increase appears to be general, and is only +slightly influenced by immigration. "The population of the West +Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater than that of any of +the larger Australian colonies, and three times that of New +Zealand."</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING.</h2> + +<p>M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some +very interesting experiments on the development and distribution of +heat produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of +forging. The method used was as follows: The bar was carefully +polished on both sides, and this polished part covered with a thin +layer of wax. It was then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey +of known weight, P, falling from a height, H. The faces of the +monkey and anvil were exactly alike, and care was taken that the +whole work, T = PH, should be expended upon the bar. A single blow +was enough to melt the wax over a certain zone; and this indicated +clearly how much of the lateral faces had been raised by the shock +to the temperature of melting wax. The form of this melted part +could be made to differ considerably, but approximated to that of +an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of this zone, b the +width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, and +t-t<sub>0</sub> the excess of temperature of melting wax over the +temperature of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the +base of a horizontal prism, which is everywhere heated to the +temperature, t, the heating effect produced will be expressed +by</p> + +<p>Ab x d x C(t-t<sub>0</sub>)</p> + +<p>Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical +system, the energy developed in heat is given by</p> + +<p>T<sub>1</sub> = 425 AbdC(t-t<sub>0</sub>).</p> + +<p>Dividing T<sub>1</sub> by T, we obtain the ratio which the +energy developed in heat bears to the total energy of the blow.</p> + +<p>With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found +always to extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar +by the blow. We are speaking for the present of cases where the +faces of the monkey and anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar +the zone took the form of a sort of cross with curved arms, the +arms being thinner or thicker according to the greater or less +energy of the shock. These forms are shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will +be seen that these zones correspond to the zones of greatest +sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a sharp edged +hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done in this +sliding which is afterward transformed into heat.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/5b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat +developed and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than +had been expected when the other sources of loss were taken into +consideration. In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a +table given the limits vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. +with an energy of 40 kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an +energy of 90 kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly +constant at 70 per cent. It will be seen that the proportion is +less when the energy is less, and it also diminishes with the +section of the bar. This is no doubt due to the fact that the heat +is then conducted away more rapidly. On the whole, the results are +summed up by M. Tresca as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and +the energy of the blow.</p> + +<p>(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described +allows this heat to be clearly indicated.</p> + +<p>(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of +the material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the +mechanical cause which produces the heating effect.</p> + +<p>(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient +size, about 80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat.</p> + +<p>(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, +showing the distribution of the heat and the character of the +deformation in the bar.</p> + +<p>(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage +is not reliable.</p> + +<p>So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey +have sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are +somewhat different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in +the case of bars struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. +It will be seen that, instead of commencing at the edges of the +indent, the fusion begins near the middle, and appears in small +triangular figures, which gradually increase in width and depth +until at last they meet at the apex, as in Fig. 12. The explanation +is that with the rounded edges the compression at first takes place +only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner remaining +comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are +moderate in intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in +cases of holes punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when +examined, was found to have suffered the greatest compression just +below the punch. With regard to the percentage of energy developed +as heat, it was about the same as in the previous experiments, +reaching in one case, with an iron bar and with an energy of 110 +kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high figure of 91 per cent. With +copper, the same figure varied between 50 and 60 per +cent.--<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. C.W. MacCord.</h3> + +<p>The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a +propeller engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder +and valve gear were recently designed by the writer, and are in +process of construction by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of +Charleston, S.C.</p> + +<p>In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as +will be perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, +following nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed +by a shifting link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; +and the expansion valves are of the well known Meyer type, +consisting of two plates on the back of the main valve, driven by a +third eccentric, and connected by a right and left handed screw, +the turning of which alters the distance between the plates and the +point of cutting off.</p> + +<p>The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel +features, of which the following description will be understood by +reference to the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale +than the general plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Figs. 1-2<br> +IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.</p> + +<p>The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and +left handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it +is rotated.</p> + +<p>Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut +upon the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with +the eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases +the valve stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so +that it must both slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two +stuffing boxes, necessarily of comparatively large size.</p> + +<p>All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and +more compact, in the following manner:</p> + +<p>Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their +lower ends by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, +and at their upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling +snugly between two collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, +imparts a longitudinal motion to the latter, while at the same time +leaving it free to rotate.</p> + +<p>This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through +the upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by +means of a bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is +communicated to the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the +body of the latter and projecting inwardly so as to slide in +corresponding longitudinal grooves in the spindle.</p> + +<p>Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine +is running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of +the bevel pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the +index, which points out upon the dial the distance followed. These +details are shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of +which it may be added that Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve +chest and its contents, the cover, and also the balance plate for +relieving the pressure on the back of the main valve (in the +arrangement of which there is nothing new), being removed in order +to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and spindle above +described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is a +transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by +a plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side +being a section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting +more clearly the manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve +chest; the latter having no pipes for this service, the steam +enters below the valve, at each end of the chest, just as it +escapes in the center.</p> + +<p>The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of +this kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular +position in relation to the crank being changed when the engine is +reversed; two strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the +eccentric in one direction, the other in the opposite, by acting +against the reverse faces of a projection from the side of The +eccentric pulley.</p> + +<p>The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in +connection with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of +reversing an engine when driving a single slide valve. Its use in +connection with the Meyer cut-off valves, however, is believed to +be new; and the reason for its employment will be understood by the +aid of Fig. 6.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering +them both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; +let L O M represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is +shown the port leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of +the main valve, at the beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will +then be apparent that the center of the eccentric must at that +instant be at the point, C, if the engine turn to the left, as +shown by the arrow, and at G, if the rotation be in the opposite +direction; C and G then may be taken as the centers of the +"go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, which operate +the main valve through the intervention of the link.</p> + +<p>Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in +effect revolves in the same direction about the center of the main +eccentric. Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, +represent the face of the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, +the back of the main valve, in which the port, C N, corresponds to +one of those shown in Fig. 4; and the motion of the cut-off valve +over this seat will be precisely, the same as though it were driven +directly by an eccentric revolving around the center, C.</p> + +<p>In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon +the assumption that the best results will be effected by such an +arrangement that when cutting off at the earliest point required, +the cut-off valve shall, at the instant of closing the port, be +moving over it at its highest speed. And this requires that the +center of the eccentric shall at the instant in question lie in the +vertical line through C.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Figs. 3-12<br> +IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.</p> + +<p>Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the +angle through which the crank will turn while the piston is +traveling that distance is readily found; then, drawing an +indefinite line C T, making with the vertical line, G O, an angle, +G C T. equal to the one thus determined, any point upon that line +may be assumed as the position of the required center of the +cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the stroke.</p> + +<p>But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same +manner when backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be +symmetrically situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O +M bisects and is perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the +cut-off eccentric be fixed on the shaft, its center must be located +at H, the intersection of C T with L M. This would require the edge +of the cut-off valve at the given instant to be at Q, +perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main valve would be +equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the eccentric, the +actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the real +eccentricity.</p> + +<p>This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if +the lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of +the cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close +the port. CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, +AB.</p> + +<p>The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter +decreases; therefore at some point they will become equal in +velocity, and the openings of the two ports will be the same; and +the question is, Will this maximum effective port area give a +sufficient supply of steam?</p> + +<p>This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine +under consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum +distance of 5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it +is found that the actual port opening for that point of cutting off +is three-fifths of that allowed when following full stroke, whereas +the speed of the piston at the time when this maximum opening +occurs is less than half its greatest speed.</p> + +<p>This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, +no longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is +reversed it ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the +angle, KOL. By leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, +by the means above described, through the angle, KOP, the desired +object is accomplished. The real eccentricity is now reduced in the +proportion of OK to OH, while the lengths of the cut-off valves, +and what is equally important, their travel over the back of the +main valve, are reduced in the proportion of CK to CH, in this +instance nearly one-half; a gain quite sufficient to warrant the +adoption of the expedient.</p> + +<p>The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the +manner of suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, +this link is used only for reversing, and is therefore always in +"full gear" in one direction or the other; and the striking feature +of the arrangement here used is that, whether going ahead or +backing, there is <i>no slipping of the link upon the link +block</i>.</p> + +<p>The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved +flat bar, L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the +link is hung upon the pins, which project from the sides of the +eccentric rods at their upper ends.</p> + +<p>This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next +to the eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which +projects the journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical +section by the plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer +end of a lever, M, which transmits the reciprocating motion to the +valve, through the rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected +with the lever, M, by the bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a +slotted arm, G, as shown in the end view, Fig. 10. The center line +of this slot lies in the plane which contains the axes of the +journal, J, and of the shaft, O.</p> + +<p>A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in +this block is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the +pin, A, of one of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as +shown in Fig. 8; and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, +with the upper end of the reversing lever, T, which is operated by +the worm and sector. The distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other +words the length of the lever, M, is precisely equal to the +distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right line; and the rods, R +and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also each of +precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, +as in Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end +is exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O.</p> + +<p>When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the +arm, G, and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions +will be identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of +the rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely +to the pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the +journal, J, so that the result is the same as though this eccentric +rod were connected directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being +also in line with B and J, and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it +will be seen that the bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as +though the two were rigidly fastened together.</p> + +<p>When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in +Fig. 12, the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the +arm, G, and is thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The +suspension-rod, S, will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, +will have been drawn, by the bridle-rod, R, into line with the +journal, J, and the bridle-rod itself will now vibrate with the +lever, M, whose sole motion will be derived from the pin, A.</p> + +<p>There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus +suspended and operated is run in "full gear," either forward or +backward.</p> + +<p>If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as +an expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip +while running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be +observed that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker +arm is one of vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion +relatively to the sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the +center, P, whose motion relatively to E is a small amount of +sliding in the direction of the slot, due to the fact that the +rocker arm itself, which virtually carries the block, E, vibrates +about O, while the suspension-rod, S, vibrates about another fixed +center. It will thus be seen that, finally, the block slip will be +determined by the difference in curvature of arcs <i>which curve in +the same direction</i>, whether the engine be running forward or +backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block slip +in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions.</p> + +<p>Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect +to reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, +while in the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable +feature.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI.</h2> + +<p>The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of +Mr. Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called +the Poti, which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly +differs from all others of her class, at least as regards her +model. Her extremities, which are strongly depressed in the +upperworks, and the excessive inclination of her sides, give the +boat as a whole a certain resemblance to the rams of our navy, such +as the Taureau and Tigre.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".</p> + +<p>A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. +Her water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in +no wise cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is +entirely of steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 +meters; extreme breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, +1.9 meters; displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound +one, is of 600 H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or +33-34 meters, per hour, and it will probably reach 40 +kilometers.</p> + +<p>The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., +and 2 Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be +sufficient for a voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 +knots.--<i>L'Illustration</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.</h2> + +<p>The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present +the means of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has +recourse to a motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. +The sail constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not +figure in our enumeration, considering the essentially variable +character of the force utilized.</p> + +<p>In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a +rude one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and +mollusks, and the mode that we now wish to make known is without +contradiction that which imitates these the best.</p> + +<p>Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in +effecting a movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and +forcing it out at the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists +cite whole families of mollusks that move about in this way with +great rapidity. It is probable that such was the origin of the +first idea of this mode of operating. However this may be, as long +ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in England, on this principle, +by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the patents of Allen +(1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli presented to +the Académic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century.</p> + +<p>Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. +This ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, +and was constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of +this was incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the +advantage that could be got from the idea. Another boat, the +Albert, was built at Stettin, after the same type and at about the +same epoch; and the question was considered of placing a reaction +propeller upon the Great Eastern.</p> + +<p>About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of +Cokerill de Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did +service as an excursion boat between Liége and Seraing. The +propeller of this consisted of a strong centrifugal pump, with +vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure engine. This pump sucked +water into a perforated channel at the bottom of the boat, and +forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling tubes. These +latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the sides of the +vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such a way +as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, +as in the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected +the propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the +propelling tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when +they were turned toward the front, she was thrust backward. When +one was turned toward the front and the other toward the stern, the +boat swung around. Finally, when the two mouths were placed +vertically the boat remained immovable. All the evolutions were +easy, even without the help of the rudder, and the ways in which +the propelling tubes could be placed were capable of being varied +<i>ad infinitum</i> by a system of levers.</p> + +<p>The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, +and took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and +forward, of 85 kilometers, with four stoppages.</p> + +<p>The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most +satisfactory. It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of +effective duty it would have been desirable to reduce the velocity +of the water at its exit from the propellers.</p> + +<p>Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the +system employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. +Seraing's experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and +the theoretic effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar +system of construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in +practice, falls to 40 or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases.</p> + +<p>It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary +pumps where effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., +we might obtain much better results, and it is this that justifies +the new researches that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot +& Pinette, whose first experiments we are about to make +known.</p> + +<p>In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and +the draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that +of the hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine +might be directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be +had of a sensibly constant speed, and without change in its +running; the production of waves capable of injuring the banks of +canals will be avoided; the propeller will be capable of being +utilized as a bilge pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the +boat will be able to run at any speed under good conditions, while +the helix works well only when the speed of the vessel corresponds +to its pitch; it will be possible to put the propelling apparatus +under water; and, finally, it will be possible to run the pump +directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, without +intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by +piles and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt= +"NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.</p> + +<p>We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the +description of which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram +that accompanies this article. The inventors have employed a boat +14 meters in length by 1.8 m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught +behind and 32 in front. The section of the midship beam is 70 +square decimeters, and that of the exhaust port is 4. At a speed of +2.2 meters per second the tractive stress, K, is from 10 to 11 +kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers per hour, or 3.75 meters +per second, the engine develops a power of 12 horses. The piston is +19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 centimeters. The +shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 revolutions per +minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction occurs at the +lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced out at +B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for putting +the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small +dimensions and is only used for <i>directing</i> the boat. The +vessel may be turned about <i>in situ</i> by opening one of the +receiving tubes, according to the side toward which it is desired +to turn.</p> + +<p>This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first +trials of her that have recently been made upon the Saône +have shown the necessity of certain modifications that the +inventors are now at work upon.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.]</p> + +<h3>By Professor W.C. UNWIN.</h3> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8b.png" alt="Fig. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes +carrying segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by +the motor, the power of which is to be measured. If the pulley +turns with left-handed rotation, the friction would carry the strap +toward the left, unless the weight, Q, were greater than P. If the +belt does not slip in either direction when the pulley rotates +under it, then Q-P exactly measures the friction on the surface of +the pulley; and V being the surface velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, +is exactly the work consumed by the dynamometer. But the work +consumed in friction can be expressed in another way. Putting +θ for the arc embraced by the belt, and μ for the +coefficient of friction,</p> + +<pre> + Q/P = ε^{μ^{θ}}, +</pre> + +<p>or for a given arc of contact Q = κP, where κ +depends only on the coefficient of friction, increasing as μ +increases, and <i>vice versa</i>. Hence, for the belt to remain at +rest with two fixed weights, Q and P, it is necessary that the +coefficient of friction should be exactly constant. But this +constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient of friction varies +with the condition of lubrication of the surface of the pulley, +which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in +a dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations +of the weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled +without impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors +Ayrton and Perry have recently used a modification of this +dynamometer, in which the part of the cord nearest to P is larger +and rougher than the part nearest to Q. The effect of this is that +when the coefficients of friction increase, Q rises a little, and +diminishes the amount of the rougher cord in contact, and <i>vice +versa</i>. Thus reducing the friction, notwithstanding the increase +of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, and the only objection +to it, if it is an objection, is that only a purely empirical +adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that the range of +the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of the +weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8c.png" alt= +"FIG.2 FIG.3"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG.2 FIG.3</p> + +<p>For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 +lengthens, Q increases, and the frictional resistance on the +surface of the pulley increases, both in consequence of the +increase of Q, which increases the pressure on the pulley, and of +the increase of the coefficient of friction. Similarly for any +increase of the coefficient of friction, the spring in Fig. 3 +shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface of the +pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction +on the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, +and the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is +less. Fig. 3, therefore, is the better form.</p> + +<p>A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break +set to a given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence +of any cause the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., +the difference of tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient +of friction would increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from +1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. 3. That is, the vibration of the spring, +and the possible error of measurement of the difference of tension +would be much greater in Fig. 2 than in Fig. 3. It has recently +occurred to the author that a further change in the dynamometer +would make the friction on the pulley still more independent of +changes in the coefficient of friction, and consequently the +measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. Suppose the +cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by the +motor and round a fixed pulley, C.</p> + +<p>For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, +but they are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the +spring balance be at the free end of the cord toward which the +pulley runs. Then it will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. +in the friction produces a somewhat greater variation of P than in +Fig. 3. But P is now so much smaller than before that Q-P is much +less affected by any error in the estimate of P. An alteration of +20 per cent. in the friction will only alter the quantity Q-P from +5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less than 6 per cent.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8d.png" alt="FIG. 4"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer +are due to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are +caused by variations of the coefficient of friction of the +dynamometer. By making P very much smaller than in the usual form +of the dynamometer, any errors in determining it have much less +influence on the measurement of the work absorbed. We may go +further. The cord may be taken over four pulleys; in that case a +variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional coefficient only alters +the total friction on the pulleys 1¼ percent. P is now so +insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it is of +comparatively little consequence.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8e.png" alt="FIG. 5"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5</p> + +<p>The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in +the form Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the +author thinks that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V +grooves in the pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the +greatest resistance with the least variation of the coefficient of +friction; the heat developed being in that case neutralized by a +jet of water on the pulley. It would be quite possible with a +pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at 50 feet of surface +velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible wire, capable +of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable +value of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a +brake in the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and +with a brake in the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. +But since it would be easy to have two, three, or more wires side +by side, each carrying its load of 100 lb., large amounts of +horsepower could be conveniently absorbed and measured.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>SEE'S GAS STOVE.</h2> + +<p>This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided +with radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either +the upper or lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products +of combustion are discharged through a pipe of small diameter, +which may be readily inserted into an already existing chimney or +be hidden behind the wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas +flame is so well absorbed by radiation from the radiator rings that +the gases, on making their exit, have no longer a temperature of +more than from 35 to 40 degrees.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8f_th.jpg" alt="SEE'S GAS STOVE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SEE'S GAS STOVE.</p> + +<p>The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is +surrounded on all sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being +entirely of cast iron, it will last for a long time. The joints, +being of asbestos, are absolutely tight, so as to prevent the +escape of bad odors. The water due to the condensation of the gases +is led through a small pipe out of doors or into a vessel from +whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to change the hygrometric +state of the air. The consumption of gas is very small, it taking +but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic meters to a +temperature of 18° C.--<i>Revue Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India +last year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of +cattle, 46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, +2,606 were killed by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the +deaths occasioned by the attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused +by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 +by alligators; 18,591 wild animals and 322,421 snakes were +destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards amounting to +141,653 rupees.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY.</h2> + +<p>Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] +devised a method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste +and odor to impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic +hydrogen, the apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, +and afterward electrolyzers with platinum plates.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, +1882, p. 5472.]</p> + +<p>His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In +the zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to +employ zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state +presents grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower +part, under the influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an +obstacle to the free circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, +the cleaning presents insurmountable difficulties. This is why he +substituted for the clippings zinc in straight and corrugated +plates such as may be easily found in commerce. The management and +cleaning of the pile thus became very simple.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9a_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE +SPIRITS.</p> + +<p>The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the +form shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, +or, what is better, rectangular, because of the square form under +which the sheets of zinc are found in commerce.</p> + +<p>In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc +plates, b, b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating +with a flat one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been +scoured, first with a weak solution of caustic soda in order to +remove every trace of fatty matter derived from rolling, and then +with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and finally are washed with +common water. In order to facilitate the disengagement of hydrogen +during the reaction, care must be taken to form apertures in the +zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row with respect to the +bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 hectoliters contains +105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, whose total +weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing surface +of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50° to 60° Gay-Lussac. The raw impure +spirits enter the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a +sufficient stay therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, +into a reservoir, R, from whence, by means of a pump, they are +forced to the rectifier.</p> + +<p>The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged +through an aperture in the cover of the pile.</p> + +<p>As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with +alcoholic vapors may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. +The liquefied alcohol returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of +15°, the quantity of alcohol carried along mechanically is +insignificant. In order to secure a uniformity of action in all +parts of the spirits, during the period devoted to the operation, +the liquid is made to circulate from top to bottom by means of a +pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the liquid in the +vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation consists +in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the pile, +by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it.</p> + +<p>The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper +working of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the +following conditions:</p> + +<p>1. Impure spirits of 40° Gay-Lussac, and not water, should +be used as a menstruum for the salt of copper.</p> + +<p>2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive +solutions of ½ per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of +sulphate of copper per 100 square meters of zinc exposed, or a +total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate for a pile of 150 hectoliters +capacity.</p> + +<p>3. A temperature of 25° should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization.</p> + +<p>The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of +the alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each +charging with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days +to form the pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of +a chocolate-brown and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence +becomes much greater after a fortnight's operation.</p> + +<p>Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and +continuity of the reaction. Below +5° the couple no longer +works, and above +35° the reaction becomes vigorous and +destroys the adherence of the copper to such a degree that it +becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The battery is kept +up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of hydrochloric +acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 kilos. of +acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this acid +is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of +the copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of +operating from 18 months to two years without being renewed or +cleaned.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to +deodorize the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a +rectifier. But, in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the +treatment by the pile with another one by electrolysis. The +voltameters in which this second operation is performed have +likewise been modified. They consist now (Fig. 2) of cylindrical +glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in height, with +polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite cover +through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the liquid, +E+E-E'+E', to circulate.</p> + +<p>The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, +R, which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per +hour. In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, +there is placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that +supplies them a second and constant level reservoir regulated by an +automatic cock.</p> + +<p>In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters +of impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished +to the voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors +in derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of +resistance wires interposed in the circuit of the inductors.</p> + +<p>The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by +means of a commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez +galvanometer. The voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted +in derivation in groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse +them in two parallel currents. The Siemens machine is of the type +SD<sub>2</sub>, and revolves at the rate of 1,200 times per minute, +absorbing a motive power of four horses.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/9c.png" alt= +"FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.</p> + +<p>The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected +by the metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages +this process presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and +simple distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. +Naudin:</p> + +<p>In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol +must undergo five rectifications in order that the products +composing the mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated +and sold according to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield +in the first distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss +experienced in distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 +per cent.; (4) the quantity of essential oils (mixture of the +homologues of ethylic alcohol) collected at the end of the first +distillation equals, on an average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of +a rectification may be estimated at, on an average, 4 francs per +hectoliter.</p> + +<p>All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the +electric method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an +average, 0.40 franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is +therefore considerable. For an establishment in which 150 +hectoliters of 100° alcohol are treated per day this saving +becomes evident, amounting, as it does, to 373 francs.</p> + +<p>We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying +spirits which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the +ordinary processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for +example, that artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the +old processes, give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that +derived from Indian corn.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES.</h2> + +<p>Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in <i>Neueste +Erfindung</i>.: Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a +stiff dough and pressed into moulds made of iron and brass. After +drying for a few days in a closed place, it is heated in a furnace +where it is protected from the direct flames and burned, feebly at +first, then strongly, the fire being gradually raised to white heat +which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The fire is then permitted to +slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the carbon is taken out of +the furnace.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS.</h2> + +<h3>By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia +College of Pharmacy.]</p> + +<p>The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very +different aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they +appeared fifty or sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass +of observations in most of these lines of study has enormously +increased during this interval. Were that all, the change could +hardly be considered as an unmixed benefit, because of the +increased difficulty of assimilation of this additional matter. +Many would be the contradictions in the observations and hopeless +would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. The +advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways.</p> + +<p>Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The +chemistry of the last century and the early decades of this was +largely a descriptive science, such as the natural history +branches, zoology, and botany are still in great part. Reasonably +exact mineral analyses were made, it is true, but the laws of +chemical combination and the fundamental conceptions of atoms and +molecules had not been as yet generally established. Now, this want +of comprehensive views of chemical reactions, their why and +wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the study of inorganic and +metallic compounds, but what must have been the conditions for +studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely spread in the +vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous that, in +the absence of any established relationships, not much more than a +mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists +have attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of +organic chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range +most carbon compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or +as benzol derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. +To do this, methods of analysis very different from those used in +mineral chemistry had to be applied. The mere finding out of +percentage composition tells us little or nothing about an organic +compound. What the elements are that compose the compound is not to +be found out. That can be told beforehand with almost absolute +certainty. What is wanted is to know how the atoms of carbon, +hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, for, strange to +say, these differences of groupings, which may be found to exist +between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification.</p> + +<p>The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required +very different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a +compound in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we +submit it to a course of treatment with reagents, which take it +apart very gradually, or modify it in the production of some +related substance. In this way, we are enabled to establish its +relations with well defined classes and to put it in its proper +place. Of equal importance with the analytical method of study, +however, is the synthetical. This method of research, as applied to +organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of modern +chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler +compounds. Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds +used in the arts attest its practical value. It may, therefore, +seem anomalous when I say that one of the most important of all the +classes of organic compounds has not shared in this advance. The +alkaloids, that most important class from a medical and +pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite recently been +defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, containing +nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives was +not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing +unknown. Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their +constitution was very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of +any of the more important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently +desirable thing to effect from every point of view. Within the last +five years, however, quite considerable progress has been made in +arriving at a clearer understanding of these most important +compounds, and I shall offer to your attention this evening a brief +statement of what has been done and what seems likely to be +accomplished in the near future.</p> + +<p>It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines +or ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic +character of these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential +element, and, above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way +these bases united with acids to form salts, not by replacement of +the hydrogen of the acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, +pointed unmistakably to this constitution. But with this granted, +the simplest alkaloid formulas, those of conine, +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>17</sub>N, and nicotine, +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>14</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, still showed that the +amine molecule contained quite complex groups of carbon and +hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of the alkaloids--the +non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the three elements, +carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the difficulty in +acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those alkaloids +at all comparable with that attained in the case of other organic +compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until analysis +had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried +upon the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of +the decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of +assistance to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this +field.</p> + +<p>It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of +ammonia-like bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or +amido-toluol, and xylidine or amido-xylol, which are utilized +practically in the manufacture of the so-called aniline dye-colors. +It is perhaps not so well known that there are other series of +bases found there too. The first of these is the pyridine series, +including <i>pyridine</i>, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N, +<i>picoline</i> (methyl-pyridine), +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>), <i>lutidine</i> +(dimethyl-pyridine), +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, and +<i>collidine</i> (trimethyl-pyridine), +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>2</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>. This +series is also found in relatively larger proportion in what is +known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry distillation of +bones.</p> + +<p>The second series is the quinoline series, including +<i>quinoline</i>, C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>7</sub>N, <i>lepidine</i> +(methyl-quinoline), C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>9</sub>N, and +<i>cryptidine</i> (dimethyl-quinoline), +C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>11</sub>N. The two compounds which give name to +these series, pyridine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N, and quinoline, +C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>7</sub>N, respectively, bear to each other a +relation analogous to that existing between benzol, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>, and naphthalene, +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>; and the theory generally accepted by +those chemists who have been occupying themselves with these bases +and their derivatives is that pyridine is simply benzol, in which +an atom of nitrogen replaces the triad group, CH, and quinoline, +the naphthalene molecule with a similar change. Indeed, Ladenberg +has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as an alteration product +from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, from +methyl-pyridine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>), would +be derived an acid know as pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>, and from +dimethyl-pyridine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, an acid +known as pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N(COOH)<sub>2</sub>, just as phthalic +acid, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(COOH)<sub>2</sub>, is derived from +dimethyl-benzol, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>. The same +thing applies to quinoline as compared to naphthalene.</p> + +<p>We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of +reagents upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most +efficacious in decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing +and reducing agents, of bromine, of organic iodides, of +concentrated acids and alkalies, and of heat.</p> + +<p>Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to +<i>conine</i>, first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to +be a secondary amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable +hydrogen atom of the original ammonia molecule. Its formula is +therefore C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>16</sub>NH. From conine can be +prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>14</sub>, conylene, homologous with acetylene, +C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>. Conine, on oxidation, yields chiefly +butyric acid, but among the products of oxidation has been found +the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred to. The formula of +conine, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>17</sub>N, shows it to be homologous +with piperidine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>N, a derivative of +piperine, the alkaloid of pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just +as piperidine is derived from pyridine by the action of reducing +agents, so conine is probably derived from a propyl-pyridine. The +artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric with the natural conine, +will be referred to later.</p> + +<p><i>Nicotine</i>, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>14</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, the +next simplest in formula of the alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that +is, contains no replaceable hydrogen atoms in its molecule. It +shows very close relations to pyridine. When nicotine vapor is +passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially collidine, +and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases such +as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120°C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, +and pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with +ferricyanide of potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>N<sub>2</sub>. Potassium permanganate, +chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>, which is simply +pyridine-carboxylic acid, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(COOH), and +which, distilled over quick-lime, yields pyridine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N.</p> + +<p>Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up +first the opium alkaloids. <i>Morphine</i>, +C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>19</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>, is a tertiary amine, +and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction +with ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from +it, is <i>codeine</i>, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. +Besides the methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and +several have been recently prepared, giving rise to a class of +artificial alkaloids known as <i>codeines</i>. Morphine, rapidly +distilled over zinc dust, yields phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, +pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other bases. The action of strong +hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it into apomorphine, +C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>17</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>, by the withdrawal of a +molecule of water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda +solution change morphine into oxidimorphine, +C<sub>34</sub>H<sub>36</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. When heated +with strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine.</p> + +<p><i>Narcotine</i>, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated +with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits +apart into opianic acid, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, +and cotarnine, C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>13</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>. This +latter, by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>7</sub>NO<sub>4</sub>, and this, on heating with +hydrochloric acid to 240° C., yields pyridine-dicarboxylic +acid, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>9</sub>N(COOH)<sub>2</sub>. The base +cotarnine also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with +water alone. In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction +product meconine, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, is +produced.</p> + +<p><i>Meconic acid</i>, C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub>, +which is found in opium in combination with the different bases, +has also been investigated. By acting upon meconic acid with +ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, when heated +with zinc dust, yields pyridine.</p> + +<p>If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. <i>Quinine</i>, +C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>24</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, when +carefully oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, +yields a series of products. First is formed quitenine, +C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>22</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, a weak +base, then quininic acid, +C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>9</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N0<sub>6</sub>, +and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>6</sub>NO<sub>4</sub>. Now the two acids last +mentioned are simple substitution products of pyridine, +oxycinchomeronic acid being a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>2</sub>N(COOH)<sub>3</sub>, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N(COOH)<sub>2</sub>. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its homologues. The +alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base.</p> + +<p><i>Quinidine</i> yields with chromic acid the same decomposition +products as quinine.</p> + +<p><i>Cinchonine</i>, C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>22</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O, +the second most important alkaloid of these barks, when oxidized +with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic acid, which is a +quinoline-carboxylic acid, C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>6</sub>N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When +cinchonine is treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into +quinoline and a solid body, which on further treatment yields a +liquid base, C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>9</sub>N, which is probably +lutidine. It has been found, moreover, that both +tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled +with solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both +the pyridine and quinoline series.</p> + +<p><i>Cinchonidine</i>, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields +quinoline also, and with nitric acid the same products as +cinchonine.</p> + +<p><i>Strychnine</i> has been found to be a tertiary amine. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed.</p> + +<p><i>Brucine</i> is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by +substitution in a double ammonia molecule. When distilled with +potassium hydrate it yields quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric +collidines.</p> + +<p>The alkaloid <i>atropine</i> has been quite thoroughly studied +with results of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or +hydrochloric acid, it takes up a molecule of water and is split +into tropine, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO, and tropic acid, +C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180°C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>13</sub>N, a liquid base, with +an odor resembling conine. When this tropidine is heated with an +excess of bromine, it yields dibrompyridine.</p> + +<p><i>Piperine</i>, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well +studied. When boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a +molecule of water and splits apart into piperic acid, +C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, and piperidine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>N. This latter base has been shown to be +a hydrogen addition product of pyridine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine +hydrochlorate, also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180° +C., yields dibrompyridine.</p> + +<p><i>Sinapine</i>, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in +white mustard seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied +to atropine and piperine, quite different results. When boiled with +baryta water, sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, +C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, and choline, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>, the latter a well-known +constituent of the bile, and produced also in the decomposition of +the lecithin of the brain and yolk of egg.</p> + +<p><i>Cocaine</i>, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by +heating with hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, +and a crystalline base, ecgonine, +C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>.</p> + +<p><i>Caffeine</i> and <i>theobromine</i> have also quite different +relations. Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of +theobromine, and can be prepared from it. When caffeine is +carefully oxidized with chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and +methyl-urea. Both theobromine and caffeine are decomposed by +heating to 240° C. in sealed tubes with hydrochloric acid, +identical products being obtained. These products are carbon +dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their +relations.</p> + +<p>If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way +of decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, +we review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids +mentioned, except the last four, a more or less immediate +connection with the pyridine and quinoline bases has been +indicated. The conviction accordingly forces itself upon us that, +if we want to attack the problem of building up any of these +important alkaloids artificially, we must turn to these bases as +our starting point.</p> + +<p>As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the +pyridine series also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, +picoline, lutidine, and collidine, the first four members of the +pyridine series, have, moreover, all been formed synthetically, +although the processes are not such as would yield the products as +cheaply as they can be gotten from Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the +first member of the higher series, had been made synthetically by +several chemists, but by expensive and involved methods, when +Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol and +glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline +with glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a +commercial scale if desirable. Shortly after, by an application of +the same principle, Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of +lepidine, the second member of the quinoline series.</p> + +<p>At the same time that this general agreement to consider these +bases as the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis +of the natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was +thought well to look into the question whether these bases and +their immediate derivatives had any therapeutic value of their +own.</p> + +<p>Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have +shown may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by +Dr. Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was +found to have an action upon animals in many respects resembling +that of conine. Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large +number of these pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, +moreover, that the hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a +physiological action quite analogous to that of conine.</p> + +<p>The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied +quite extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that +several of its salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very +like quinine, and capable in cases of being used as a substitute +for it. In general, the hydrogen addition products were found to be +more active than the simple base, an observation entirely in accord +with the theory formed by Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the +result of the study of the decomposition products of the alkaloids, +viz., the alkaloids are in general hydrogen addition products of +pyridine and quinoline, or of the two bases combined. Thus Prof. +Filehne found that hydrochlorate of tetrahydroquinoline was much +more energetic in its action than quinoline, but could not be used +on account of a too powerful local effect. The hydrochlorate of +dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was distinguished by its strong +bitter taste, much resembling that of quinine, had an effect like +that of curare poison. The most decided febrifuge action, however +was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the hydrochlorate of +oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice by Prof. O. +Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate of +tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of +"Kairolin." These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, +without any unpleasant after effects or local disturbances.</p> + +<p>The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of +the alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in +1880--Königs and Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. +The study of the decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids +especially points quite distinctly to the probable existence in +quinine of a hydrogen addition product of pyridine, in combination +with a methyl-quinoline group. The many experiments that are now +being made to test this and other questions that suggest +themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. Whether a practical +commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is another matter, but +it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps even of +probability.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia +is formed <i>paraconine</i>, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural +conine, but differing in physiological action. By the action of +sodium upon pyridine is produced a compound +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, known as dipyridyl, and +this, under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms +and becomes <i>isonicotine</i> +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>14</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, a physiologically active +alkaloid, isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a +series of alkaloids under the name of <i>codeines</i>, by the +substitution of other organic radicals instead of methyl in the +codeine reaction, has already been alluded to. <i>Atropine</i> can +be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, the two decomposition +products already noted. The latter of these products is already +shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and the other will no +doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial atropine is +identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also formed a +series of artificial alkaloids, called <i>tropeines</i>, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of +the compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as +<i>homatropine</i>, an alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but +possessing some decided advantages in its use. <i>Piperine</i> has +also been made by the uniting of piperidine and piperic acid, and, +as piperidine has already been formed from pyridine, we have here a +true synthesis also. Both <i>theobromine</i> and <i>caffeine</i>, +its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, which itself +can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano.</p> + +<p>We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the +last few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of +the alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, +keen-sighted chemists will effect their artificial formation. When +these most valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a +state of entire purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the +present extraction of them from relatively rare plants, organic +chemistry will have placed all of us under obligations as great as +those owing any branch of science, no matter how practical we call +it.--<i>Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE.</h2> + +<h3>By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York.</h3> + +<p>If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by +the apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. +Everywhere attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. +We are compelled to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to +the relative merits of various therapeutic measures, that those who +were foremost to disparage the treatment pursued by others were +totally ignorant of the fact that those same symptomatic +manifestations which they were considering might be owing to +entirely different causes from similar conditions described by +others. Hence a commensurate modification in therapy might not only +be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is more especially of +recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate the various +etiological factors involved in different forms of headache has +been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick +Headache," which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of +this particular form of headache. The work, however, is +conspicuously lacking in those philosophical qualities which are so +necessary to a true understanding of the questions involved. Dr. +E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a most interesting paper on +"Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views therein expressed are +remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly scientific elucidation +of the two great physiological principles involved in the +consideration of by far the greater majority of instances of +cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by this +eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, +among the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more +puzzling or more destructive of logical practice than a +contradiction between the doctrine of physiology and the daily +practice of medicine."</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. +Sieveking, M.D., <i>Medical Times and Gazette</i> London, August +12, 1854.]</p> + +<p>What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, +indeed, the position then taken has received substantial +indorsement through the positive results of more recent +experimental physiology. Conspicuous in this connection are the +inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and Hammond, touching the +modifications in the cerebral circulation during sleep and +wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively proved +that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep and +increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have +published the results of those researches in various papers and +articles.[1] "What Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, +"that it results either from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more +modern terms, from hyperæmia or anæmia, applies equally +to headache; but, to embrace all the causes of this affection we +must add a third element, which, though most commonly complicating +one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily included in +them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." While I +agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be ascribed +to the first two factors--cerebral hyperæmia and +anæmia, in the production of the group of symptoms known as +"headache,"--I fail to perceive why especial prominence should be +given to the third condition mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I +am quite unable to imagine how the periodical, and more especially +the intermittent form, of headache is to be explained by what Dr. +Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a "change in the +constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, admitting that +such a change is capable of producing an amount of cerebral +irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that the +latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly +willing to admit that other factors besides cerebral +hyperæmia and anæmia may produce the functional variety +of headache. There would seem to be ample ground for ascribing +great causative importance to excessive irritation of the brain +plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, being +unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree +of mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of +the multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time +permit. As regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content +myself by referring to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred +Diseases of the Nervous System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in +which will be found many interesting facts bearing on the question. +Accepting the propositions, then, that the more adjacent causes of +headache are (1) cerebral hyperæmia, (2) cerebral +anæmia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral plasma itself, let +us now consider how these morbid factors are most scientifically +and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more particularly, those +distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so baneful an item +in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are best +overcome.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: <i>Vide</i> Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by +J.L. Corning, M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.]</p> + +<p>Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and +maniacs, which involved the application of protracted pressure to +the common carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these +experiments the thought suggested itself that suppression of the +carotids might prove a salutary means of reducing that form of +cerebral congestion which is so prolific a source of headache and +vertigo. Accordingly I made a protracted series of experiments with +carotid compression upon those suffering from congestive headache, +and I can only say that I have been so far pleased with the +uniformly good results obtained, that I have felt it a duty to call +the attention of the profession to a procedure which, for obvious +reasons, possesses all the advantages of local depletion by +leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of either +of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of +the carotids have already been described in former communications. +It is only necessary to say that the implements in question are of +two kinds; one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, +which being held in the hand of the operator permits him to exert +any degree of pressure upon both carotids for any desired length of +time. The other instrument, which I have designated as the "carotid +truss," for lack of a better name, is a circular spring provided +with adjustable pads at each extremity. The spring is placed about +the neck of the patient, and by suitable appliances the pads at the +extremities can be placed directly above the trunks of the two +common carotid arteries. By turning the screws to which the pads +are attached the desired amount of pressure can be applied to the +arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length of time by +the patient.</p> + +<p>With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting +the most obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly +short time (on one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, +the headache is of manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by +any especial circulatory derangements, I have never been able to +achieve notable results with this method. Indeed, pressure upon the +carotids is an excellent method of differentiating the congestive +form of headache from the nervous varieties of head pains.</p> + +<p>Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most +valuable methods which we possess for treating the form of headache +under consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the +smaller arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the +plasma of the brain itself.</p> + +<p>A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or +less extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head +and spinal symptoms, is cold.</p> + +<p>A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to +the head, at the same time, is afforded by a species of +refrigerating electrode, designed by myself for this purpose. The +apparatus in question consists of a concave sponge electrode, the +concavity of which corresponds to the convexity of the external +aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is a chamber of metal or +India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole is secured to the +head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and connection +established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is +applied over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be +taken not to employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and +other unpleasant symptoms may be produced. An application of from +five to ten minutes is usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. +As an additional security it is well to recommend the patient to +take a hot foot-bath, and to remain as quiet as possible for twelve +hours succeeding the treatment. In hyperæmic headache cupping +and blood-letting have been recommended; but as a rule both +procedures are not only unnecessary but positively inadmissible, as +exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by compression upon +the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of the +peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost +always be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the +symptoms. Among the internal remedies which may be employed with +good effect in certain cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and +Indian hemp. The inhalation of from five to ten drops of chloroform +is an excellent expedient in some instances. Chlorodyne, which is +nothing more than a mixture of sedatives, often works well, and +indeed frequently excels other remedies. The regulation of the +heart's action is also of very great importance in these cases, and +the physician should have no hesitancy in resorting to such +remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose of reducing +the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a matter +of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--<i>Med. Record</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY +CONSUMPTION.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From a paper published in the <i>British Medical +Journal</i>.]</p> + +<h3>By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin.</h3> + +<p>From time immemorial, the <i>Verbascum thapsus</i>, or great +mullein, has been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the +treatment of the above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most +persons would call it a weed--found in many parts of the United +Kingdom; and, according to Sowerby's <i>British Botany</i>, vol. +vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly distributed over England and +the south of Scotland." In most parts of Ireland, however, in +addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated in gardens, and +occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is done wholly +and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the herb by +phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far +as I know, has its use received the official sanction of the +medical profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter +at the Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, +suggested that it would be desirable to make a therapeutical +research into the powers of this drug, and ascertain by actual +experiment its efficacy or otherwise. Having partially accomplished +this, I am anxious to very briefly set forth what has been done, in +order that others may be induced to co-operate in the work.</p> + +<p>"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of +the Scrophulariaceæ; but the old Irish remedy is the great +mullein, or <i>Verbascum thapsus</i>, a faithful delineation of +which will be found in Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a +hardy biennial, with a thick stalk, from eighteen inches to four +feet high, and with very peculiar large woolly and mucilaginous +leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly yellow and nearly sessile +flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late summer or autumn, +shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it appears to +have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy for +diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it.</p> + +<p>"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from +a garden near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced +operations. As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured +from our drug-contractor.</p> + +<p>"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place +an ounce of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh +ones, in a pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to +strain. This strained fluid is given warm to the patient, with or +without a little sugar. It is administered twice a day; and the +taste of the mixture is bland, mucilaginous, comforting to the +praecordia, and not disagreeable. I resolved to try this method, +and also the watery infusion; and, moreover, the natural expressed +juice fortified with glycerin. This latter preparation was +carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, by Dr. John +Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales.</p> + +<p>"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too +many, were now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's +Hospital. They were admitted in all stages, from an early one to +the most advanced. On each admission the case was carefully +examined; the history, symptoms, and physical signs were exactly +noted; and the patient was weighed on a stage balance with great +accuracy. The patient was put as much as possible on the mullein +treatment only. For obvious reasons, no cod-liver oil, koumiss, or +other weight producer was given; the patients got the diet suitable +to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms became troublesome, +received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, however, they +were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, +they were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that +this should be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, +with the same clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the +same conditions. In securing this the patients anxiously +co-operated; and it was frequently amusing, but sometimes painful, +to watch the satisfaction or chagrin with which the weekly result +was received. I must here tender my acknowledgments to our zealous, +attentive, and accurate house surgeon, Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom +this important, but tedious, duty was discharged."</p> + +<p>Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein +plant has been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that +these cases, although too few to justify any general conclusion, +appear to establish some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in +milk is liked by the patients; in watery infusion it is +disagreeable, and the succus is still more so. The hot milk +decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic neighbors call +<i>pectorale</i>) sensation, and when once patients take it they +experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the +patients scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon +to phthisical sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of +checking phthisical looseness of the bowels was very marked, and +experiment proved that this was not merely due to the well known +astringent properties of boiled milk. It also gave great relief to +the dyspnoea. For phthisical night sweats it is utterly useless; +but these can be completely checked by the hypodermic use of from +one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the atropia sulphate; +the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, as the +larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of +weight, nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. +Carrick, in his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of +Southern Russia (page 213), says: "I have seen a consumption +invalid gain largely in weight, while the disease was making rapid +progress in her lungs, and the evening temperature rarely fell +below 101° Fahr. Until then I considered that an increase of +weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the arrest of the +malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does not; but +unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive +invalid must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In +pretubercular and early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein +appears to have a distinct weight-increasing power; and I have +observed this in several private cases also. Having no weighings of +these latter, however, makes this statement merely an expression of +opinion. In early cases, mullein milk appears to act very much in +the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when we consider that it is +at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth a trial. I will +continue the research by careful weighings of early cases; and will +further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of mullein to +the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the phthisical +bacillus.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE.</h2> + +<p>Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude +that the use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase +the quantity of bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This +increased flow is beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in +the gall-bladder. A subsequent increase in the quantity of bile +indicates a greater flow of bile into the gall-bladder, and this +also is of service in emptying out any stagnant bile, and restoring +the normal condition when this is disturbed. Artificial solutions +of alkaline salts were found to have a similar action to the +natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the action varies +according to the concentration of the solution. Bicarbonate of +sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting effect on the +composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and weak +solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile +much like that of the mineral waters.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>VIVISECTION.</h2> + +<p>Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is +as old as science itself.</p> + +<p>Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century +of the Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is +regarded as having merited his name (<i>Galenus</i>, "gentle") from +the mildness of his character. Five centuries before him, under the +Ptolemies, Egyptian experimenters had operated upon condemned +persons. So, then, vivisection is not, as usually thought, a +diabolical invention of modern science.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt= +"Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.</p> + +<p>In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon +animals that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the +hog, and the dog, and who share with the king of creation the +privilege of eating a little of everything. Claude Bernard, +however, had another way of looking at things. It is true that he +especially made researches into the general laws of physiology, the +secret of the vital functions, and the operation of the various +organic systems that constitute living matter, but his immediate +object was not to furnish weapons for the art of curing. He left to +physicians and surgeons the care of drawing conclusions from his +great work in biology, and of acting experimentally upon animals +allied to man in order to found a rational system of therapeutics. +So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the animal +scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him greater +service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded animals +offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present +more accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so +much account of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary +in many cases to choose subjects that possess endurance. The +unfortunate frog, so aptly named "the Job of physiology," becomes +resigned to living under most dreadful conditions, and when, +through sheer exhaustion, he has succumbed, his twitching limbs may +still he used as an object of experimentation for twenty-four +hours. Thanks are due to nature for giving so extraordinary a +vitality to the tissues of a modest batrachian! We owe to it the +famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta to the discovery of the +pile and what followed it, the astonishing conquests of electricity +and those more marvelous ones still that are now in their dawn. +Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the homage that we +pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been imposed +upon this brave animal!</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12b_th.jpg" alt= +"Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.</p> + +<p>The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly +enough for the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend +it. No one, however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription +of it, but it is only desired that the abuse of an abominable +practice shall be curbed. Does the abuse exist? That is the +question, and it may be answered in the affirmative. Yes, we do +sometimes impose useless sufferings upon animals. It is a culpable +folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat barbarous +experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known physical +fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it would +only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it +should be confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask +that it be confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the +exclusion of visitors, and to require from students a diploma +guaranteeing their knowledge and giving a programme of researches +to be made. It is useless to seek in the living what a study of the +corpse reveals in all its details.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12c_th.jpg" alt= +"Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.</p> + +<p>And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a +series of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the +practice of vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by +Claude Bernard. Fig. 1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a +strong cord placed behind an iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of +tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in which hares or cats are placed +in order to anæsthetize them. Fig. 4 shows the mode of fixing +an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of fixing him on his +back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting table, and Fig. +7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the general +arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anæsthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) +the extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the +muzzle is applied for anæsthetizing, and gives the details of +construction of the chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the +arrangement of the apparatus used for holding the animal's jaws +open upon the vivisecting table.--<i>L'Illustration</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association +for the Protection of the Insane and translated for the American +Psychological Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.]</p> + +<h3>By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany.</h3> + +<p>The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and +which require different means in order to attain lasting success. +Since the number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last +few years, in all civilized countries, so that the responsibility +of the proper charge of them occupies continually not only the +community, but also the State; and since the public as well as the +private asylums are filled almost before they are finished, it +becomes necessary to rid the institutions, as soon as possible, of +those patients which have been cured, as well as of those which are +improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as possible, returned +to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the expectation that +the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial influence, +besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found +that the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is +not of sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting +interests. Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged +patient returns to the institution, after a short lapse of time, +because the "rudder" (steuer) of his intelligence was soon +shattered in the turmoil of life. How can, for instance, the +indigent and poor patient, after his discharge from the institution +in which he has found a shelter and the proper care, stand up in +the struggle for existence and the support of his family? Is it not +to be expected that a large proportion of those who have been +discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand the +ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul?</p> + +<p>Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of +benevolent people have been formed in all countries in which true +civilization and humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish +social evils, whose object is to assist the restored patient who +has been discharged from the institution, at a time when he is most +in need of help and assistance. Switzerland has taken the lead of +all countries by her brilliant example, and there these societies +found the greatest encouragement. It should be looked upon as a +good sign of the spirit of modern times, that the seed of true +humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far and wide, +for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all European +countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch of a +truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by +aiding them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct +donations of money, etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a +relapse of the disease. May this portion of the work of your +society be an ever-flowing fountain of joy and satisfaction to your +members!</p> + +<p>Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, +namely, <i>the prevention of insanity</i>. It is nevertheless true, +and cannot be doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity +increases in a manner which is out of proportion to the increase of +the population. Much thought has been given to the cause of this +phenomenon, and physicians as well as moralists, national +economists as well as philosophers and philanthropists, have +endeavored to fathom the connection between this fact and the +conditions of modern social life. According to all observations, it +is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a single +etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages +in the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which +give rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the +manner in which modern civilization influences mankind, in its +development and culture, in the family and in the school-room, in +its views of life and habits; also in the manner in which +civilization forces a man to fight a heavier and harder battle for +pleasure and possessions, power and knowledge, and causes him to go +even beyond his powers of endurance.</p> + +<p>More than even civilization itself, are at fault those +pernicious abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted +from generation to generation, or are also often newly developed +and appear to belong to our civilization. If we want to prevent the +increase of insanity, we must endeavor to do away with these +monstrosities and eccentricities from our social life which remove +mankind more and more, in a pernicious manner, from its natural +development and from the normal conditions of moral and physical +life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous offshoots of pseudo +civilization, which are the enemies of the normal existence of man. +It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as the entire +society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which spurs +man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile +decay of both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which +causes the modern individual in every class of society to find +satisfaction in over excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is +necessary to strengthen more than has been done heretofore the +young, by means of their education, in their physical development, +and at the same time to diminish, in proper proportion, the amount +of mental over-exertion; and finally it is necessary to fight +against, to do away with, those habits of modern society-life which +have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well as the mental +and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there is none +so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as well +as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors.</p> + +<p>Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and +increase of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only +on account of its existing relation, but particularly because +intemperance, among all the factors which aid in the increase of +insanity, can best be diminished, and its influence weakened, +through the will of the single individual, as well as of society as +a whole. The relation between intemperance and insanity is so +definite and clear, that it is not necessary to adduce proofs of +this fact. I will not refer to the writings of the older authors, +such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, Macnish, Carpenter, and +others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; Ramaer, in Holland; +Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and others, in France; +Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in Germany. I +could name a much larger number of the greatest modern authorities +on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding +increase of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those +countries in which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and +particularly in the form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and +corn, has only in later years become general. Thus Lunier has shown +the number of alcoholic insane increased by ten per cent. in those +departments in which more whisky and less wine is consumed.</p> + +<p>In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and +in that country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, +Castiglione, Ferri, and others) the frequency of insanity caused by +the abuse of alcohol stands in an unmistakable relation to the +consumption of alcohol in certain provinces of Italy.</p> + +<p>In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members +was, that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase +of insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, +and alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental +disease. Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that +intemperance, without hereditary predisposition, was one of the +most powerful agencies in the production of aberration of the mind. +Even Beckwith, who could not coincide with others as to the great +importance of intemperance as an etiological element, says +distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, the most potent of all +removable causes of mental disease.</p> + +<p>In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different +provinces of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both +in public institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the +census report of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that +everywhere, where the number of drinking places, i.e., the +consumption of alcohol, was greatest, the number of insane was also +largest. Without doubt, to my mind it is in alcohol that we must +look for and will find the most potent cause of the development and +spread of mental diseases.</p> + +<p>As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the +nerve centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive +quantity. In consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation +and nutrition an acute intoxication takes place, which may range +from a slight excitation to a complete loss of consciousness. After +habitual abuse of alcohol, the functional disturbances of the brain +and spinal cord became constant and disappear the less, as in the +central organs degenerative processes are more and more developed, +processes which lead to congestions and hemorrhagic effusions in +the meninges and in the brain itself, to softening or hardening, +and finally to disappearance of the brain substance. These +degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a progressive +decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the ethical +functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and +motor disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy.</p> + +<p>The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by +alcohol intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if +we assert that from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand +in a direct or indirect relation to the evil consequences of +intemperance in the use of intoxicating liquors. This is the +opinion of a large number of authorities on mental diseases in all +countries. Habitual intemperance leads to severe (psychical?) +lesions (of the nervous system) which may show themselves in the +different forms of insanity, but express themselves chiefly as +mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous system was +weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in those +whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention.</p> + +<p>An investigation among the patients in the insane department of +the Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was +lately carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des +Alcoholismus zur Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed +that among 607 patients who had entered the ward as epileptics or +epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 per cent. had been addicted to drink; +133 before, and 17 after the disease had shown itself; further, +that of 1572 patients with delirium tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic +dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per cent., were epileptic; and +that in 221 intemperance was present before the outbreak of +epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which entered the +department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., were +inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per +cent. were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of +intemperate parents.</p> + +<p>If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, +does directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, +the baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the +intemperance of parents, upon the mental constitution of their +progeny is surely just as great and disastrous. The children of +intemperate parents frequently become drunkards themselves; they +have inherited a degeneration of the vitiated constitution, and +carry the stamp of this degeneration within themselves. The +offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, and die +early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born +idiotic, or show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of +alcohol, the individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered +and depraved, and, according to the law of inheritance, is +transmitted through the progeny to the race.</p> + +<p>Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease +(Stuttgart, 1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names +alcoholism among the transient abnormal conditions which, during +conception, exert their influence, so that children of intemperate +parents acquire pathological, and especially neuro-pathological, +dispositions. Intemperance, says this author, in its acute, as well +as in its chronic form, causes frequently pathological changes in +the nervous system, and thus may the pathological differences in +children of the same parents be partially explained. On account of +the inheritance of a depraved and pathological constitution, the +children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from an abnormal +psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, epileptics, +suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of drunkards, +do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, +also of depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime.</p> + +<p>Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated +facts, nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well +as inexhaustible source for the increase and development of +insanity; and that every effort toward diminution of the frequency +of insanity, toward the prevention of mental diseases, must be +directed against this widespread evil, intemperance.</p> + +<p>May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil +in a narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse +which cannot be too much contended with.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.]</p> + +<h3>By J.W. COLCORD.</h3> + +<p>Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic +properties of plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my +attention, I determined to try a few experiments when opportunity +offered. Having a shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a +bountiful crop of the article, I was easily able to secure an +abundant supply for my experiments. Believing that better results +would be obtained from fresh plants than from dried, I expressed +the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" mill, obtaining +about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. The juice +was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the +press into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute +alcohol, evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, +mixing with the 12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of +alcohol. This preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents +virtually equal parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a +dark brown color with a marked odor of the recent plant, and so +far, after standing three months undisturbed on my shelves, shows +no sign of precipitation.</p> + +<p>My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the +expressed juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing +three months, the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of +precipitation. This, I think, promises to be the most efficient +preparation, and will prove valuable as an injection in the +treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, and similar disorders.</p> + +<p>Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice +and alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one +part of alcohol.</p> + +<p>In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in +about equal proportions, and was removed about one month after +making by filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of +precipitation since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown +liquids.</p> + +<p>Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had +sufficient trial to form an opinion, although, as far as I can +judge, they have proved satisfactory. While writing this article, a +cook from a neighboring restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a +potato slicer, exposing the bone, came in for treatment. Having +bandaged I applied the glycerate, which soon stopped the profuse +bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it to apply subsequently. I +asked her to report to me in two or three days, and, on reporting, +I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic properties +are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have been +able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds.</p> + +<p>The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for +the purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to +add to our list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer +and more extended experiment.--<i>New Remedies</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>DANGER FROM FLIES.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Grassi is said (<i>British Medical Journal</i>) to have made +an important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to +flies. It was always recognized that these insects might carry the +germs of infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known +that they are capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the +ova of various worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in +their fæces. This point has now been established, and several +striking experiments illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his +laboratory a plate containing a great number of the eggs of a human +parasite, the <i>Tricocephalus dispar</i>. Some sheets of white +paper were placed in the kitchen, which stands about ten meters +from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual little spots +produced by the fæces of flies were found on the paper. These +spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were +then caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the +ova. Similar experiments with the ova of the <i>Oxyuris +vermicularis</i> and of the <i>Toenia solium</i> afforded +corresponding results. Shortly after the flies had some mouldy +cream, the <i>Oidium lactis</i> was found in their fæces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that +every one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, +and afterward examine the fæces and intestines of the flies; +numerous spores will be found. As flies are by no means particular +in choosing either a place to feed or a place to defecate, often +selecting meat or food for the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision +of possible consequences is raised.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS.</h2> + +<p>The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the +serpents, alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our +illustration, must be commended as a valuable improvement of the +Zoological Society's establishment in Regent's Park. This building, +which has a rather stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, +constructed of brick and terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, +stands close to the south gate of the Gardens, entered from the +Broad Walk of the Park. The visitor, on entering by that gate, +should turn immediately to the left hand, along the narrow path +beside the aviary of the Chinese golden pheasants, and will +presently come to the Reptile House, which is too much concealed +from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious interior, +represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places in the +whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, very +nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and +in baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with +substantial margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the +reptiles crawling over them, while one basin is further protected +by an iron grating, contain water in which the alligators, the +infant crocodiles, and a number of tortoises, but none of the +larger species, make themselves quite at home. One side of the +house, with its windows looking into a pleasant airy vestibule, is +occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller lizards, with +boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, which +present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large +wall cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, +rising about 14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are +confined--the huge pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the +poisonous cobras and rattlesnakes, and others well known to the +visitors at these gardens. Each cage or compartment has a sliding +door of iron behind, to which the keeper has access in a passage +running along the back of the wall, and there are doors also from +one compartment to another. The floor is of smooth slate, and the +largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or to climb up the +trunks and branches of trees placed there for its exercise and +amusement.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA +FAMILY.</p> + +<h3>THE BABIROUSSA.</h3> + +<p>We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, +a male and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the +society by Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, +in the Malay Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different +stalls of the ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The +babiroussa is a species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of +Eastern Asia, and remarkable, in the male animal, for the +extraordinary growth and direction of the canine teeth. The upper +pair of canine teeth, growing out through the upper jaw, curve +backward and upward on the forehead, having somewhat the aspect of +horns; while the lower canine teeth form a pair of crooked tusks in +the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for defensive fighting, as +a guard to the head, but could not serve for attack. The skull of a +babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in the possession of +Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the Zoological Society's +collection.--<i>Illustrated London News</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt= +"THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE +HOUSE.</p> + +<hr> +<p>Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797.</p> + +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK +CITY.</h2> + +<h3>PART IV.</h3> + +<h3>By NELSON H. DARTON.</h3> + +<p>Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old +one, and well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits +prescribed in introducing this series of paper, but by only a few +miles, and being such an interesting locality, I have included it +in the granular limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge +in the gneiss within a space of ten acres, about two miles north of +the railroad station of Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the +Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad, and is reached by a +road running north from about a mile east of the railroad station. +This road branches into two at the limestone kilns, about a mile +from the railroad track, and the left hand branch is taken, which +leads more directly to the quarry, which is on the right hand, +about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the loose rock +lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. John +J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for +agricultural purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity +for fifteen miles. Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of +the minerals so characteristic of the locality, and for which it +has become famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite +pyrites, biotite, aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly +others in lesser quantity.</p> + +<p><i>Serpentine</i>.--All the varieties of this species, and of +every color from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed +through the limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and +pockets. It is generally soft, translucent, and to be found in +masses from a pea to a cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure +oil green color, rich and translucent, making a very fine and +attractive looking mineral specimen. No difficulty need be +experienced in producing all the varieties of this mineral, as much +has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of the quarry, as +it is always carefully separated from the limestone as being +useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as +marmolite, which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral +packed together similar to mica, but of the green color of the +serpentine picolite, or fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs +of a light grass green color, and is a very interesting +variety.</p> + +<p>In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to +procure that which is the most translucent, and that holding +miniature veins of asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of +the pure serpentine alone, but occur in the southern end of the +main quarry. The width of these veins of asbestos is seldom over an +inch, but those of even much less are highly prized as specimens. +These veins of asbestos are, in places, several inches in length, +but are generally much broken in removing them, as their fibrous +structure, at right angles to their length, makes them very +fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can seldom be found. +However, they make much finer specimens when with the serpentine. +Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this +assortment is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which +they were formed, which was by a process termed segregation.</p> + +<p>This gurhofite, called bone by the quarrymen, occurs in white, +dense looking masses, intermingled with the serpentine, especially +in the upper end of the quarry, where veins six and eight inches in +thickness are abundant, and from which specimens may be readily +obtained showing the fibrous structure of the gurhofite and the +association with the serpentine, to which it is found attached; it +is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and need not +be mistaken for it.</p> + +<p><i>Phlozopite</i>.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, +near the asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, +which is a variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a +pure silvery white color, and from one by three inches in area to +less. It is easily separable in folia, and cannot be confounded +with any of the other minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone +holding abundance of this mineral is exposed, whence it may be +plentifully obtained in excellent crystals.</p> + +<p><i>Pyrites</i>.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in +the gneissic rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very +fine, perfect crystals may be found handsomely dressed upon the +rock. There is no particular portion of the quarries in which they +abound.</p> + +<p><i>Biotite</i>.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of +a dark brown color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the +veins of limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; +on the north wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, +and there even in large number, in a locality, generally a pocket +in the gneiss.</p> + +<p><i>Tremolite</i> is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone +in the extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the +main one, over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white +crystals, about a quarter inch in width and from a half to three +inches in length. The crystals are opaque, but very smooth and +glistening, lining cavities in this mass of limestone. It is a +variety of hornblende, composed of silica, lime, and magnesia, with +a little alumina. It probably occurs in places in the vicinity of +this block, and in finer specimens, as these are frequently, when +near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is a characteristic +granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. We will +again meet it when examining the New York city localities.</p> + +<p><i>Aragonite</i> occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow +color and fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When +they are separated by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the +fibers are very large, coarse, and brittle, and thus do not +resemble asbestos, although in some instances they might be +mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from it by effervescing +on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate of lime, and +also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it +may occur in greater profusion.</p> + +<p>Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being +in the form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with +aragonite of a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. +As before noticed, Staten Island is the best locality for this +species.</p> + +<p><i>Calcite</i>.--In places the limestone is perfectly +crystallized, and of a pure white or other color, when it forms an +attractive mineral, and often worth removing. The limestone of the +main quarry, carefully averaged, was found to have the following +chemical composition.</p> + +<pre> + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 +</pre> + +<p>In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from +its rough state resembles "<i>verde antique</i>," and at that of a +beautiful color; samples of this should be obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Feldspar</i>.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the +space between the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh +red color and often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an +inch and a half in length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily +distinguished from calcite, which it much resembles, but which has +only a hardness of 3, and dissolves with effervescence in +acids.</p> + +<p>A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to +spend a holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many +interesting and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip +as well. In reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and +if one has an early start these may all be visited. I will describe +a few of these, which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and +instructing geological features and not far from the main line of +travel.</p> + +<p>Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the +first stop may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey +City. Here a visit to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably +taken; and as I have written a full account of this locality in a +previous portion of these articles,[1] I will not reiterate it +here, but refer to that paper. The mine, I might add, is only a +mile north of the railroad station, and on Schuyler Avenue, a short +distance north from its junction with the Jersey City and Paterson +turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and walking on the track +for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep cut, the manner +in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so large a +portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. +At a point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the +layers of shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a +slight irregularity in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, +and is a point at which the layers of rock on the east have fallen +vertically, the western side remaining in its original position. +This fault has a thrust of only three feet, but is an instructive +example of faults which occur on a tremendous scale in some of the +other formations. It will be noticed that between the two edges of +the separated layers there is a deposit of a talcky substance, +which has been derived from infiltrating waters. Fissure veins are +generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled in a similar +manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further west a +short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its banks +for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington +pumps and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The +Passaic River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and +Paterson road may be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence +it is two miles east to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the +bank of the Passaic may be followed and the quarries reached in an +hour from Belleville. Here again are met the sandstones and shales, +besides another and larger fault, and many interesting features of +the sandstone and its quarrying may be examined. The railroad +station having been regained, Paterson is the next point of +interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the city are +the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these may +be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of +the station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the +trap above and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales +and conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track +(the Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed +for some distance west, when the various strata can be examined in +the cut of the railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the +trap; this is noticed as a depression in the face of the cliff, and +it may be seen by the superposition of the layers of trap and +basalt. Where the fault occurs a short distance further west, there +is another smaller fault. A visit to the Great Falls of the Passaic +is a very pleasurable diversion at this point, and these are about +a half mile north of this locality. Here the arrangement of the +trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, and the +mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one of +these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to +the Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein +the contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the +numerous additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is +the best point in which to find these exposures, and from the +viaduct crossing the river an excellent view of the surrounding +country may be obtained. Regaining the train, Montville is soon +reached and visited, and after this, if time sufficient Boonville, +two miles west, may be taken in, or it may be necessary to go there +to catch a return train, as but few stop at Montville. At Boonton +there are many interesting features--iron works furnaces, +localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor +to give a detailed account in some other of this series of +articles.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.]</p> + +<p>[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.]</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM.</h2> + +<p>An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus +Gate, Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the +Palestine Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The +ruin has proved to be one of great extent, and of special interest. +The way in which it was brought to light is worth recording. In an +uneven field, which rose considerably above the land about it, +parts of which appearing, indeed, like little hillocks, the owner +of the soil tried to maintain a vegetable garden, but the ground +was so dry that neither grain nor vegetables would flourish, and +even irrigation did little or no good; besides, here and there +large holes appeared in the ground which could not be accounted +for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what there was +below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very soon +came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. +The amount of <i>débris</i> which had accumulated above the +floor of these buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this +mass of earth has required much time and labor, and the work is not +yet completed. The piece of ground in question has about 60 yards +of frontage on the main road, and extends, so far as the +excavations go, about the same distance back from the road, that +is, to the east.</p> + +<p>The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, +and is very near the street. The ground in front of the church is +paved with fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was +entered were 5 feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat +wider. From the entrance to the altar step, or platform, the +distance is 55 feet, and from that point to the back of the apse 15 +feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is 16 feet 6 inches. The width +of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet in front of the altar +step a wall has been thrown across the church in a manner similar +to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This wall, also +those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally +painted, and some of the figures and designs can still be traced. +At the southeast corner of the church, leading from the apse, there +is a narrow but well built passageway to the buildings in the rear. +The character of these buildings is not very evident; certainly +they did not stand on a line with the church, but at an angle of +25° with that line. Between the church and what appears now to +have been the main building in the rear, there was a passage not +over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear of the church is 47 +feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 feet more of a +special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and which had a +beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic +floor is 140 feet.</p> + +<p>On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall +of the main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 +feet 6 inches long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This +is considerably wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even +the entrance of the church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have +been found, but in one place two or three square yards have been +preserved, enough to show that the work was extremely beautiful. +The colored tracings resemble those in the church on the Mount of +Olives, and on one side are the large Greek letters +Θεον. North of this mosaic floor, and of +the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has +been leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced +in an east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 +inches deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From +about the middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right +angle and runs 20 feet or more to the north; it is possible that it +led <i>from</i> the north, and at the point indicated turned a +right angle and ran to the west. Piles of stones and <i>debris</i> +prevent us at present from deciding as to the length of the channel +or where it comes from. In the bank of <i>debris</i>, which rises +on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height of 20 feet, there +is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed of cement, +running north and south at right angles to the line of the church +and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the +mosaic pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and +the mass of <i>debris</i> which is yet to be removed.</p> + +<p>In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is +found, very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut +channel, there is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of +the floor. The tomb is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered +by a doorway 26 inches wide, which is well built, and in the sides +of which are grooves for a door to slide up and down. On the wall +of the tomb at the east end there is a raised Greek cross, 22 +inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot stand erect in its +highest part, but it is to be considered that the loculi are +two-thirds full of <i>debris</i>, composed chiefly of decayed bones +and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The +loculi are 2 feet in depth.</p> + +<p>What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," +turn out to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 +feet long by 28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided +(one or two of them at least) into apartments by means of arches. +The lower courses of the walls, to the height of several feet, are +of squared stones, while the upper portions and the roofs are of +rubble work, which was covered with a heavy coating of plaster. The +threshold of one has been exposed, which is 6 feet in the clear, +and the sides of the doorway show excellent work.</p> + +<p>Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each +33 inches in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of +which were nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were +closed, were many feet below the surface of the ground before the +excavations began, hence no one knows how old the water in them may +be. Some of the slabs with which the church was paved were 6 feet +long by 2½ feet wide. In the church two pieces of cornice +were found, each 8 feet in length. One is entire and quite plain, +while the other is broken in the middle. It is upon this that the +figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were painted. They can +still be traced, although exposure has nearly obliterated the +colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken glass have +been found and some small articles in marble of no great value. The +top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a basin, and +a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water to run +off.</p> + +<p>South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main +building there is a large underground chamber with seven openings +(each the size of a man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 +feet wide and nearly 20 feet long, but the depth is not yet +ascertained, owing to the accumulation of <i>debris</i> on the +bottom. On the west and north sides a wall of solid rock appears to +a depth of 6 feet, showing that the chamber was excavated in part +at least in the solid rock. The use of this chamber does not appear +evident, unless it may have been a store room. The place within the +city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a similar chamber (not +dug in the solid rock, however), with similar openings in the +ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some distance to the +east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to purchase +the land in that direction, in order to allow of the excavations +being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat +of ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move +with aggravating slowness.</p> + +<p>Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that +the west wall of what he called the "main building," toward the +apse of the church, has been removed and the floor cleared, +exposing a fine pavement. This pavement, the threshold before +mentioned, and the mosaic floor all belong to one period, and to a +structure very much older than the date of the "main building." It +puzzled the doctor, because the threshold west of the mosaic floor +was not square with the east wall of the "main buildings," but the +reason is now clear. Captain Conder says of this church with such +of the ruins about it as were exposed when he was there, that "the +whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As regards the church +itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor especially may +belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At the south +side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the largest +cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick stone +5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against the +wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the +two halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest +to state that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years +since, and for a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last +it was sold for 40 Napoleons. During the present year it has passed +into the hands of the French for 2,000 Napoleons.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>DAMMARA AUSTRALIS</h2> + +<p>One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of +collections of such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, +is the subject of the present note. Some months since cones were +observed to be forming on this tree, and a representation of which +we are now enabled, through the courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay +before our readers. We are not aware whether the tree has +previously produced cones at Kew, though we have the impression +that such is the case; at any rate it has done so elsewhere, as +recorded in the <i>Flore des Serres</i>, 1856, p. 75, but fertile +seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen.</p> + +<p>In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect +and richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive +tiers of branches, which render it specially suitable for the +decoration of winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, +where no great amount of heat is required. In the northern island +of New Zealand, however, it is quite another matter, for there, +where it is known as the Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable +of timbers, as may be judged from the fact that the trunk of the +tree attains a height of from 50 to 100 feet clear of the branches; +moreover, it yields a gum resin like copal, which exudes from the +trunk, and which is sometimes found below ground in the vicinity of +the trees, thus giving the clew to the real nature of amber and +other similar substances.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/16a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/16a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.</p> + +<p>The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the +construction of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and +elasticity rendering it particularly suitable for this purpose, and +Laslett speaks of it as one of the best woods for working that the +carpenter can take in hand, and recommends its use for the decks of +yachts, for cabin panels, for joiner's work generally, or for +ornamental purposes. Owing to the difficulty and expense of working +the forests, and the great distance, comparatively little of it +comes to this country.--<i>The London Gardeners' Chronicle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES.</h2> + +<p>Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the +woods, and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, +than to buy nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail +because proper precautions have not been taken. In digging up a +tree, all the roots outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are +cut off, and the tree is reset with its full head of branches. +Whoever has seen trees in the forest that were upturned by a +tornado, must have been struck by the manner in which the roots run +very near to the surface, and to a great distance. When the roots +of these trees are cut off at two or three feet from the trunk, few +or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the mass of tops is +left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not be responded +to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must follow. If +such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a bare +pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to +meet the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and +growth above and below ground is well balanced.</p> + +<p>We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or +more high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees +treated in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten +years ago. They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show +no signs of former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the +edge of the woods, are better furnished with roots. These should be +prepared for transplanting by digging down to the roots, and +cutting off all that extended beyond the desired distance. This +will cause the formation of fibrous roots near the tree. It will be +safer to take two years for the operation, cutting half of the +roots each year. Such trees may be removed in safety, especially if +a good share of the top is removed at transplanting--<i>American +Agriculturist</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>The Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>261 Broadway, New York, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +38 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, +public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and +sales or introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can +ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be +obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 261 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C.</p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +415, December 15, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 *** + + + + +Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +Scientific American Supplement No. 415 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in Steel. + + Heat developed in Forging. + + Recent Studies on the Constitution of Alkaloids.--Extract from + a lecture delivered before the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. + --By SAML.P. SADTLER. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for Extracting + Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving. + + A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By Prof. E.J. + HALLOCK. 1 figure. + + A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description and numerous + engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD. + + The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With engraving. + + A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic Reaction--Figures showing + plan and side views of the steamer. + + A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. W.C. + UNWIN. 4 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and Opals.--By + A. GOODALL. + + The Manufacture and Characteristics of Photographic Lenses. + + Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. EDER. + + The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By Prof. REDWOOD. + + Anti-Corrosion Paint. + + Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different kilns used. + +IV. ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHAEOLOGY.--The German + National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of + Peace and War. + + The Art Aspects of Modern Dress. + + Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With engraving. + + Discovery of Ancient Church In Jerusalem. + +V. ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With engraving. + + Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 engravings showing + Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. Electrolyzing + Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens Machine. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and around New + York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's Gardens, London.--With + full page engravings showing the new Reptile House, and the + Babiroussa family. + +VIII. HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra Australis.-- + With engraving. + + How to Successfully Transplant Trees. + +IX. MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of Congestive + Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING. + + The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of Pulmonary + Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN. + + Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon the Bile. + + Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of engravings. + + Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful as well as + inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By Dr. A. BAER, + Berlin. + + Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD. + + Danger from Flies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE. + + +In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," lately +unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now present, as +beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two statues, War and +Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental facade. These figures +are about twenty feet high. The statue of War represents an allegorical +character, partly Mercury, partly mediaeval knight, with trumpet in one +hand, sword in the other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and +modest maiden, holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn +of peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." Here +the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, surrounded by a +noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, commanders, and +statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped to found the +empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German nation. + +[Illustration: WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.] + + * * * * * + +A writer in the London _Lancet_ ridicules a habit of being in great +haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of +commercial men, and argues that in most cases there is not the least +cause for it, and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous +volume of business which almost overwhelms the house. The writer further +says that, when developed into a confirmed habit, it is fertile in +provoking nervous maladies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS. + + +At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic Society, +Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having expressed his belief +that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion, the +lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who +were open to conviction could have all the variety Fashion promised, +together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow, while +health received the fullest attention. Two excellent societies, worthy +of encouragement up to a certain point, had been showing us the folly +and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, +crippled the feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the +limbs, and even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been +more successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might +not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the zero of +artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. We were +inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without rules to guide +us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris fashions and those of +Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, choose the former. Let it be +shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful, capable of an +infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never +violated art principle, and in which the wearer, and not some Paris +liner, could exercise her taste, and the day would have been gained. +This was the task he had set himself to formulate, and so doing he +should divide his subject in two--Color and Form. + +In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning +of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured nation like the +English should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony. We +were nicely critical of music, yet in color were constantly committing +the gravest solecisms. He did not think there were seventeen interiors +in London that the educated eye could wander over without pain. Yet what +knowledge was so useful? We were not competent to buy a picture, choose +a dress, or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say +nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on +porcelain, art needlework, and a hundred occupations. + +An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect +they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be worn in dark +shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was commonly called, olive +green, went well together; but a dress of full red or yellow would be +painful to behold. The rule for full primaries was, employ them +sparingly, and contrast them only with black or gray. He might notice in +passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was +usually of the one color unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that +would lend beauty to any color placed upon it. + +Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in +hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden +changes, and a species of color discord was the consequence. But if the +colors, even though primaries, were of some very dark or very light +shade, they become harmonious. All very dark shades of color went well +with black and with each other, and all very light shades went well with +white and each other. + +A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my complexion?" +The generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink, either +light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, working dire +confusion. But no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted +one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade were pink, and their pink dresses +were in harmony. No natural complexion whatever was improved by pink; +but gray would go with any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence +to the dominant hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce +flesh color he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The +skin of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green, +tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color always +subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it. +Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside pink altered it +to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy +complexion, the worst color they could wear would be their own +complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color, for it would +clear their complexion. + +Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer urged +that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without +disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of Miss Mary Anderson, +attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was exhibited, and the lecturer +observed that while the dress once worn by Greek women was unequaled for +elegance, Greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in +knots round the knees, and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more +habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings. + +An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as illustrating +the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted +the waist to be the normal size, and allowed the drapery to fall in +natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays +and "improvers"--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of +womanly grace and modesty. + +A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from _Myra's Journal_, dated +June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference of the waist was but 123/4 +in., involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the +organization, and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the _ne +plus ultra_ of formal ugliness. + +Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected from a +recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, Why did women +think small waists beautiful? Was it because big-waisted women were so +frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A young girl had no waist, and +did not need stays. As the figure matured the hips developed, and it was +this development which formed the waist. The slightest artificial +compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the +grown woman should never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken +the muscles of the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A +waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress +was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner garment +should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress should be as +thin as possible, that it might drape itself into natural folds. Velvet, +from its texture, was ill adapted for this. When worn, it should be in +close fitting garments, and in dark colors only. It was most effective +when black. + +Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the lecturer +suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the +too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could be artistic +without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in +fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive color their tailor +pleased. He would suggest that any reformation should begin with color. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY. + + +The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in +the progress of building in the metropolis, and speculative builders who +work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact. The +Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings Company (Limited) has been +conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for +artisans, clerks, and others whose means necessitates the renting of a +convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it. We +give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the +above company, who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal +manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at Shaftesbury +and Queen's Parks they have already built about three thousand houses, +employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling, +while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred +acres, which will contain, when completed, no less than two thousand six +hundred houses, to be let at weekly rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. +6d., rates and taxes all included. The object has been to provide +separate cottages, each in itself complete, and in so doing they have +not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace +plan, but adopting this as most favorable to economy, have added many +improvements, including sanitary appliances of the latest and most +approved type. + +The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, a road +60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of the estate. On +either side of this road the houses are set back 15 ft., in front of +which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a suitable growth are +being planted, as also on all other roads on the estate. About the +center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for +a church, and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has +been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground, should the +development of the estate warrant such an outlay. The remaining streets +are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in width, clear of the garden space in front +of the houses. Shops will be erected as may be required. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.] + +The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, the +surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. Nowhere have +these drains been carried through the houses, but they are taken +directly into drains at the back, having specially ventilated manholes +and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers; +the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet +ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals, discharging +above the houses. This system of ventilation was adopted on the +recommendation of Mr. W.A. De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the +Tottenham Local Board. + +All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole +area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every room is +specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent +the passage of sound. A constant water supply is laid on, there being no +cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets. All water +pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside. + +The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta sills, the +roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the purpose of forming +an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some cases the central +houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over porches being similarly +treated. The houses are simply but effectively designed, and the general +appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. +All end houses of terraces have been specially treated, and in some +cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately +adjoining, a slightly increased rental is required. There are five +different classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate +this week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, kitchen, +scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and water-closet on +ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The water-closet is entered from +the outside, but in many first-class houses another water-closet has +been provided on the first floor, and one room on this floor is provided +with a small range, so that if two families live in the one house they +will be entirely separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to +11s. 6d. per week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, +W., is the architect.--_Building and Engineering Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS. + +By A. GOODALL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland Photographic +Association.] + + +The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements +on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now, +and cannot be called new; but still it is neither so well known nor +understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be, and I may +just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of +it I believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving +better results than can be got by this process when properly understood +and wrought, as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to +those obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of +any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino bromide +enlargement on opal. + +[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 opal, +using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for two and +a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant opal was the +result.] + +We now come to the paper process, and most effective enlargements can be +made by it also; indeed, as a basis for coloring, nothing could well be +better. Artists all over the country have told me that after a few +trials they prefer it to anything else, while excellent and effective +plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled. A +very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just +done, with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have the +appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture adhering +to the glass, however, and at the same time to give greater brilliancy, +it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 grain solution of clear +gelatine before squeezing it down. The one fault or shortcoming of the +plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry, and this +certainly makes it unsuitable for small work, such as the rapid +production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry; the +tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being +objectionable; but my impression is, that it is not so much the tone as +the want of brilliancy that is the fault there, and if once the public +were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper, they might possibly +like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are +familiar, provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and +some time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +_Photographic News_, I set about trying to produce this result by +enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with +the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were successful, and we +now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with +brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper. I here show you +specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from +C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic. + +[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and +portrait negatives, which it would have been difficult to distinguish +from prints on double albumenized paper.] + +I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an +argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer, +for instance; but there is another and more important point to be +considered between the two, and that is, their durability and +permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, unless most +particular care be taken in the washing of it (and those who have made +them will well know what a delicate, not to say difficult, job it is to +get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, and at the same time preserve +the film intact), there is no permanence in a collodion transfer, and +that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of +decay in them from the first day of their existence. I know, at least in +Glasgow, where an enormous business has been done within the last few +years by certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being +a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has +been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the +present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the picture in +disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a collodion +transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, unless an amount +of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor +consistent with the popular price and extensive output. How now stands +the case with an argentic enlargement? Of course it may be said that +there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic +enlargements are still only on their trial. + +I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset that seven +or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and failed, but got one +or two results which I retained as curiosities till only a month or two +ago; but up to that time I cannot say they had faded in the least, and I +have here a specimen made three years ago, which I have purposely +subjected to very severe treatment. It has been exposed without any +protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of +a Glasgow atmosphere, and although certainly tarnished, I think you will +find that it has not faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have +lost nothing of their original strength. I here show you the picture +referred to, a 12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here +state, in short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads +me to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. Chromotypes +and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, but their +permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed, and +associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced, most +of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, being unable to +withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks. +Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in +which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the +decolorizing action of light. But there is no pigment in an argentic +print, nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action +of light; and that has been shown by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a +very stable and not easily decomposed nature; while if the pictures are +passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine +also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to +the action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon +pictures without carbon. + +I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with +in working this process; and first in regard to the yellowing of the +whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites, +especially in vignetted enlargements, and I believe that this almost +always arises from one or other of the two following causes: + +First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer; +and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is more in +suspension than solution, and in the course of development it is +deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the gelatinous film. + +The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution +of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has been +recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the +subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of potassic oxalate to 1 part +of ferrous sulphate. + +Now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a +negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best for +gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that potassic +oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate +solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for +any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed. + +The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and vignetted +enlargements especially, should always be fresh and pretty strong, so +that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take +place, as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron +developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to +take place, so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing +prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small +quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in +black and white. The proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of +water. Almost the only other complaints I now hear are traceable to +over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the +paper. The operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, +or pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up by +blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and +smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements, +but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently developed, and +cleanly and carefully handled. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. + + +At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced his +lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by describing the +method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a +definite focal length. The varieties of optical glass were next +discussed, and specimens (both in the rough and partly shaped state) +were handed round for examination. The defects frequently met with in +glass, such as striae and tears, were then treated upon; specimens of +lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection, and the +mode of searching for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and +polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a +collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & +Co., and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were gone +into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes +was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which he placed upon +the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of photographic +lenses, and explained the influence of particular constructions in +producing certain results; positive and negative spherical aberration, +and the manner in which they are made to balance each other, was also +described by the aid of diagrams, as was also chromatic aberration. He +next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses, and said that +that was not, as had been hitherto generally supposed, the true place +from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination. This place was +a point very near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" +point, from the name of the eminent German mathematician who had +investigated and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was +of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For this +drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo Schroeder, now +with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer congratulated the +newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John Stuart, for his +enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound +acquirements. The subject of distortion was next treated of, and the +manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved +from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses +with a central diaphragm was shown. The influence of density of glass +was illustrated by a description of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent +of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names. The +effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious +method of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by +pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of +the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by requesting a careful +examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table, kindly lent for the +occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES. + +By Dr. Eder. + + +We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved formulas given +below as translated by him for the _Photographic Times_. + +Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the +soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer certain +advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage becomes +particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, which +frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, or a fog of +clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by transmitted light. +Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind; so do soda +and potassa developers. + +For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, without +the addition of any bromide. + +More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. No. 1: +Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; sodium +sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 11/2 gr.; sodium sulphite, +25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is for its better keeping +qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's solution.[A] The solutions when in +well stoppered bottles keep well for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. +of water with 40 min. of No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears +quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable +to decrease the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. +The negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a +deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which excludes +all possible necessities of an after intensification. + +[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; 1 gr. +salicylic acid.] + +The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when +iron developer is used, frequently even greater. + +The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. Bromides +in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce the +sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing power +almost entirely. + +Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution of +potassium bromide is quite sufficient. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY. + +[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of +Great Britain, November 7, 1883.] + +By Professor REDWOOD. + + +I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at its +recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more particularly +attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard. Reference +is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared in different ways, and it +appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to +the process of the British Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from +rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been +otherwise prepared. The general tendency of the discussion, as far as +related to this part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same +direction; but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the +question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so +specially referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be. + +When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, +suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which consisted in +removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, by first +thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the +tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat, +this method of operating seemed to be generally approved. It was adopted +by men largely engaged in "rendering" fatty substances for use in +pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as +free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid. It +became the process of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it +formed the basis of a process, which was patented in Paris and this +country by Hippolite Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste +and odor, and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. +Mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." This +process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance +called oleomargarine. + +But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I have +been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that +the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than +beneficial. I have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining +ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of +the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested +for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity. + +I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many +experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, and at the +same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of +oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of which experience has +been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of the Pharmacopeia process. +I have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers +of oleomargarine, which is produced in immense quantities, the use of +water, for washing the fat before melting it, is not only omitted but +specially avoided. The parts of the process to which most importance is +attached are: First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural +fat, which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly +slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and adhering +portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; after which it +is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to +completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is +inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated +by warm water, and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding +130 deg.F. + +If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be easily +melted away from the membraneous matter at 120 deg.F., or even below that, +and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is +necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the +membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete separation of all +suspended matter is obviously important, and therefore nitration seems +desirable, where practicable; which however is not on the large scale. + +My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that +best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy. There is, +however, a point connected with this or any other method of preparing +lard which is deserving of more attention than it has, I believe, +usually received, and that is, the source from which the flare has been +derived. Everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon +the manner in which the pig has been fed, and this applies to the fat as +well as other parts of the animal. Some time ago I had some pork +submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it, which had a +decided fishy flavor, both in taste and smell. This flavor was present +in every part, fat and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from +that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been +prescribed a fish diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a +better variety of lard. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTI-CORROSION PAINT. + + +The _Neueste Erfinderung_ describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron. It +states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even baryta, or +strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil paint, and then +enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, the free acid of the +paint will be neutralized, while the iron will be protected by the +permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in damp earth +may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin (colophony), 25 +parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which 20 parts of +magnesia and some mineral oil have been added. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBON IN STEEL. + + +At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was read +entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in Steel," by +Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering. + +Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks of steel +2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. They were all +cut from the same strip of metal, but some were "cold-rolled," some +"annealed," and some "hardened." The total carbon was found to be: +"cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, 1.128 per cent.; and annealed, +0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of the disks were submitted to the action +of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of +potassium bichromate with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated +sulphuric acid. In all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left +undissolved. These residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks +employed, had the following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 +per cent.; iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by treatment +with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains +undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, but only about +one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the +hardened disk. The authors then give a _resume_ of previous work on the +subject. In the second part they have investigated the action of +bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about +0.098 inch thick, which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per +cent.; silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four +solutions were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of +bichromate and 9 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4} by weight; the second was +eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the fourth about +one and a half times as strong. In all cases the amount of solution +employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve +the steel used. A residue was obtained as before. With solution 1, the +residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. 2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the +atomic ratio of iron to carbon was Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), +2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 per 100 of steel. The authors conclude +that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused +mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron +carbide, Fe_{3}C, a definite product, capable of resisting the action of +an oxidizing solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a +rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES. + + +In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed cuts +(Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the washer, C, +slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which reduces them to a fine +pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the +pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir, B, from whence a +pump, P, forces it through the pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is +suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion. By means +of a rose, c, water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve +and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged +with fine particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through +the tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. This +latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not +been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through the tube, h, +into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is completely separated +from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix, i, to +a revolving perforated drum at e. From this, the milky starch flows into +the jacket, N, while the pulp (ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the +apparatus through the aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o. + +[Illustration: ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.] + +The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, which, +like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward motion, and +which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very +finest impurities from the milky starch. The refined liquid then flows +into the reservoir, m, and the impure mass of sediment runs into the +pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, forces the milky liquid from the +reservoir, m, to the settling back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, +u, from the receptacle, o, into a large pulp-reservoir. + +The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, a, into +the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, r, into the +different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion by two +shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per +minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty +revolutions.--_Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de l'Indust_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES. + +By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. + + +A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about 1/4 inch wide by 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches +long. Beginning 1/2 inch from the end, bore a row of small holes only +large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch +apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the third 1, the fifth 2, and so on +to 12, so that the numbers represent the distance from O in inches. A +small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, +but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side. + +[Illustration: ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.] + +Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long; pass +it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it until it forms a +single cord. Pass the needle _upward_ through the hole marked 0, and tie +a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through. The +apparatus is now ready for immediate use. It only remains to set it to +the size of the oval desired. + +Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of +which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 inches. Insert a +pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 and 7, which is distant +6-1/2 inches from O. Pass the needle through hole 5, allowing the thread +to pass around the tack or pin; draw it tightly and fasten it in the +slit or clip at the end. Lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, +place the point of a pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it +around and describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two +ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to +metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On drawings +it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins. + +As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the +string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a crochet +needle. + +As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width +and length, but does not know what the distance between the foci must be +to produce this effect, a few directions on this point may be useful: + +It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between +the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a +right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter. +Hence in order to find the distance between the foci, when the length +and width of the ellipse are known, these two are squared and the lesser +square subtracted from the greater, when the square root of the +difference will be the quantity sought. For example, if it be required +to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of 5 inches and a width +of 3 inches, the distance between the foci will be found as follows: + + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. + +In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot +rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure +marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then bringing the figure +on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the +square; the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought. +Unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers. We present herewith a +table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different +ovals when the length and distance between foci are given. + + + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. + + 2 1 13/4 + 2 11/2 11/4 + + 21/2 1 21/4 + 21/2 11/2 2 + 21/2 2 11/2 + + 3 1 11/2 + 3 11/2 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 21/2 21/4 + + 31/2 1 3-3/8 + 31/2 11/2 3-1/8 + 31/2 2 2-7/8 + 31/2 21/2 21/2 + 31/2 3 13/4 + + 4 2 31/2 + 4 21/2 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 31/2 2 + + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 + +For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus for 7 and +4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to 31/2 and 2, which +is twice 2-7/8, or 53/4. It will be noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are +interchangeable. + +To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the length of +the desired oval in the first column of the table, and the width most +nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column. The +corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle +must be passed through. The tack D, _around_ which the string must pass, +is so placed that the total length of the string AD + DC, or its equal +AE + EC, shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse. In the figure +it is placed 61/2 inches from A, and 11/2 inches from C, making the total +length of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 61/4 inches wide. + +The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by +fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all +the text books on the subject. On the other hand, the instrument may be +set "by guess" when no particular accuracy is required. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS. + + +The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago, after +a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces, to be +unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the +remark, that in order to use the method economically the products of +distillation, both liquid and gaseous, must be collected. T. Egleston, +Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New York, has read a paper on the subject +before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, from which we extract +as follows: As there are many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke +cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used, and where +the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a +reverberatory furnace, the most economical method of making charcoal is +an important question. + +Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and +size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the +necessities of the shape of the ground selected. They do not differ from +each other in any principle of manufacture, nor does there seem to be +any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce, when +the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties; but +there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the +process in favor of small over large kilns. The different varieties have +come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of +construction and of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the +cover of a meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the +meiler and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has all +the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar to +itself. + +The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, the round, +and the conical, but the first two seem to be disappearing before the +last, which is as readily built and much more easily managed. + + +ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS + +Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone together. +Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not necessary. The +foundations are usually made of stone. There are several precautions +necessary in constructing the walls. The brick should be sufficiently +hard to resist the fire, and should therefore be tested before using. It +is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality +fire-brick. As the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation +of the wood attacks lime mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with +fire-clay mortar, to which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam +mixed with coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As +the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is especially +necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled, as any small +open spaces would admit air, and would materially decrease the yield of +the kiln. The floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick +set edgewise and carefully laid, but latterly it is found to be best +made of clay. Any material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It +must be well beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six +inches higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted on +the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered with a +coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does not require +to be renewed for several years. + +[Illustration: RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL.] + +The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the +masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found to +result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued. + +The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The diameter is +not considered of much importance, except in so far as it is desirable +to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most of the wood is +small, and only a small part of it is large, the large pieces are +usually split, to make it pack well. It has been found most satisfactory +to have three rows of vents around the kiln, which should be provided +with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace. The vents +near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two +bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed +by inserting one or two bricks in them. They are usually the size of one +brick, and larger on the outside than on the inside. These holes are +usually from 0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to +0.90 m. apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of +the brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with the +floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is sometimes an +additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the +smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then closed, and kept +closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies mostly to the best +types of conical kilns. In the circular and conical ones the top +charging door is sometimes used for this purpose. Hard and soft woods +are burned indifferently in the kilns. Hard-wood coal weighs more than +soft, and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast +furnaces, and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 +per cent. or even more in using hard woods. For the direct process in +the bloomaries, soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is +not usually advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters +in capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got from +kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft wood. The +average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, two and a half +to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, or 30 to 40 bushels +to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, so that the loss in fine +coal is very much diminished. The pieces usually come out the whole +size, and sometimes the whole length of the wood. + +The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use. +They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of wood. The +usual sizes are given in the table below: + + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 + +1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. 4. Kiln +at Lauton, Mich. + +The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of No. 4, as +constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a good burn, will +yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal. + +The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet high, and +1-1/2 brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks to the cubic foot of +wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and +contraction due to the heating and cooling, they should be provided with +buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 wide, as at Wassaic, New York; +but many of them are built without them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as +shown in the engraving. In both cases they are supported with strong +braces, from 3 to 4 feet apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast +iron, which are buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below +with iron rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath +the floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, which are +securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners, as shown. +When a number of kilns are built together, as at the Michigan Central +Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the plan view, only the end +kilns are braced in this way. The intermediate ones are supported below +by wooden braces, securely fastened at the bottom. The roof is always +arched, is one brick, or eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, +fourteen being used in each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in +the center a round hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, +which is closed by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. +brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. + + * * * * * + +The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is so far +from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it is increasing +more rapidly than the population of the United Kingdom. The statistics +of population show an increase of 16 per cent. on the last decennial +period, while the increase in the United Kingdom in the ten years +preceding the last census was under 11 per cent. This increase appears +to be general, and is only slightly influenced by immigration. "The +population of the West Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater +than that of any of the larger Australian colonies, and three times that +of New Zealand." + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING. + + +M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some very +interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat +produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging. The +method used was as follows: The bar was carefully polished on both +sides, and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax. It was +then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight, P, +falling from a height, H. The faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly +alike, and care was taken that the whole work, T = PH, should be +expended upon the bar. A single blow was enough to melt the wax over a +certain zone; and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces +had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax. The form +of this melted part could be made to differ considerably, but +approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of +this zone, b the width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, +and t-t0 the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature +of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the base of a horizontal +prism, which is everywhere heated to the temperature, t, the heating +effect produced will be expressed by + +Ab x d x C(t-t0) + +Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical system, +the energy developed in heat is given by + +T1 = 425 AbdC(t-t0). + +Dividing T1 by T, we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat +bears to the total energy of the blow. + +With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found always to +extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow. We +are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and +anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a +sort of cross with curved arms, the arms being thinner or thicker +according to the greater or less energy of the shock. These forms are +shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will be seen that these zones correspond to +the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a +sharp edged hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done +in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat. + +[Illustration] + +With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat developed +and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than had been +expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration. +In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a table given the limits +vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. with an energy of 40 +kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an energy of 90 +kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly constant at 70 per +cent. It will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is +less, and it also diminishes with the section of the bar. This is no +doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly. +On the whole, the results are summed up by M. Tresca as follows: + +(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the +energy of the blow. + +(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described allows +this heat to be clearly indicated. + +(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the +material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the mechanical cause +which produces the heating effect. + +(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size, about +80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat. + +(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, showing +the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the +bar. + +(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not +reliable. + +So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have +sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat +different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in the case of bars +struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. It will be seen that, +instead of commencing at the edges of the indent, the fusion begins near +the middle, and appears in small triangular figures, which gradually +increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex, as in +Fig. 12. The explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression +at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner +remaining comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are moderate in +intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes +punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when examined, was found +to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch. With +regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat, it was about the +same as in the previous experiments, reaching in one case, with an iron +bar and with an energy of 110 kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high +figure of 91 per cent. With copper, the same figure varied between 50 +and 60 per cent.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE. + +By Prof. C.W. MacCord. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller +engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder and valve gear +were recently designed by the writer, and are in process of construction +by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of Charleston, S.C. + +In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as will be +perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, following +nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed by a shifting +link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; and the expansion +valves are of the well known Meyer type, consisting of two plates on the +back of the main valve, driven by a third eccentric, and connected by a +right and left handed screw, the turning of which alters the distance +between the plates and the point of cutting off. + +The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel features, +of which the following description will be understood by reference to +the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general +plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-2 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left +handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it is rotated. + +Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut upon +the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with the +eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases the valve +stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so that it must both +slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes, necessarily +of comparatively large size. + +All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more +compact, in the following manner: + +Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their lower ends +by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, and at their +upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling snugly between two +collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, imparts a longitudinal +motion to the latter, while at the same time leaving it free to rotate. + +This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through the +upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by means of a +bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is communicated to +the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter +and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal +grooves in the spindle. + +Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is +running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel +pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the index, which points +out upon the dial the distance followed. These details are shown in +Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of which it may be added that +Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve chest and its contents, the cover, +and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the +main valve (in the arrangement of which there is nothing new), being +removed in order to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and +spindle above described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is +a transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a +plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side being a +section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the +manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest; the latter +having no pipes for this service, the steam enters below the valve, at +each end of the chest, just as it escapes in the center. + +The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of this +kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular position in +relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed; two +strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the eccentric in one +direction, the other in the opposite, by acting against the reverse +faces of a projection from the side of The eccentric pulley. + +The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection +with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine +when driving a single slide valve. Its use in connection with the Meyer +cut-off valves, however, is believed to be new; and the reason for its +employment will be understood by the aid of Fig. 6. + +For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering them +both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; let L O M +represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is shown the port +leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of the main valve, at the +beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will then be apparent that the +center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point, C, if the +engine turn to the left, as shown by the arrow, and at G, if the +rotation be in the opposite direction; C and G then may be taken as the +centers of the "go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, +which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link. + +Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in effect +revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric. +Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, represent the face of +the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, the back of the main valve, +in which the port, C N, corresponds to one of those shown in Fig. 4; and +the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely, the +same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around +the center, C. + +In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon the +assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement +that when cutting off at the earliest point required, the cut-off valve +shall, at the instant of closing the port, be moving over it at its +highest speed. And this requires that the center of the eccentric shall +at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through C. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3-12 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the angle +through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that +distance is readily found; then, drawing an indefinite line C T, making +with the vertical line, G O, an angle, G C T. equal to the one thus +determined, any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of +the required center of the cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the +stroke. + +But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when +backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be symmetrically +situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O M bisects and is +perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed +on the shaft, its center must be located at H, the intersection of C T +with L M. This would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given +instant to be at Q, perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main +valve would be equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the +eccentric, the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the +real eccentricity. + +This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if the +lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of the +cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close the port. +CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, AB. + +The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter decreases; +therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity, and the +openings of the two ports will be the same; and the question is, Will +this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam? + +This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under +consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of +5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it is found that +the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of +that allowed when following full stroke, whereas the speed of the piston +at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its +greatest speed. + +This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, no +longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is reversed it +ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the angle, KOL. By +leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, by the means above +described, through the angle, KOP, the desired object is accomplished. +The real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of OK to OH, +while the lengths of the cut-off valves, and what is equally important, +their travel over the back of the main valve, are reduced in the +proportion of CK to CH, in this instance nearly one-half; a gain quite +sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient. + +The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the manner of +suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, this link is +used only for reversing, and is therefore always in "full gear" in one +direction or the other; and the striking feature of the arrangement here +used is that, whether going ahead or backing, there is _no slipping of +the link upon the link block_. + +The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved flat bar, +L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the link is hung +upon the pins, which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at +their upper ends. + +This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next to the +eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which projects the +journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical section by the +plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever, M, +which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve, through the +rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected with the lever, M, by the +bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a slotted arm, G, as shown in the end +view, Fig. 10. The center line of this slot lies in the plane which +contains the axes of the journal, J, and of the shaft, O. + +A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in this block +is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the pin, A, of one +of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as shown in Fig. 8; +and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, with the upper end of +the reversing lever, T, which is operated by the worm and sector. The +distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other words the length of the lever, M, +is precisely equal to the distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right +line; and the rods, R and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also +each of precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, as in +Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end is exactly +in line with the rock-shaft, O. + +When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the arm, G, +and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions will be +identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the +rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely to the +pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the journal, J, so +that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected +directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being also in line with B and J, +and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it will be seen that the +bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as though the two were +rigidly fastened together. + +When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in Fig. 12, +the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm, G, and is +thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The suspension-rod, S, +will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, will have been drawn, by +the bridle-rod, R, into line with the journal, J, and the bridle-rod +itself will now vibrate with the lever, M, whose sole motion will be +derived from the pin, A. + +There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and +operated is run in "full gear," either forward or backward. + +If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an +expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip while +running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be observed +that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker arm is one of +vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion relatively to the +sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the center, P, whose motion +relatively to E is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the +slot, due to the fact that the rocker arm itself, which virtually +carries the block, E, vibrates about O, while the suspension-rod, S, +vibrates about another fixed center. It will thus be seen that, finally, +the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs +_which curve in the same direction_, whether the engine be running +forward or backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block +slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions. + +Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to +reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, while in +the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI. + + +The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of Mr. +Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called the Poti, +which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly differs from all +others of her class, at least as regards her model. Her extremities, +which are strongly depressed in the upperworks, and the excessive +inclination of her sides, give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance +to the rams of our navy, such as the Taureau and Tigre. + +[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".] + +A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. Her +water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in no wise +cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is entirely of +steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 meters; extreme +breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, 1.9 meters; +displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound one, is of 600 +H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or 33-34 meters, per hour, +and it will probably reach 40 kilometers. + +The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., and 2 +Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be sufficient for a +voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION. + + +The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means +of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a +motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. The sail +constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not figure in our +enumeration, considering the essentially variable character of the force +utilized. + +In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a rude +one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks, +and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction +that which imitates these the best. + +Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in effecting a +movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at +the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists cite whole families of +mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity. It is probable +that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating. +However this may be, as long ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in +England, on this principle, by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the +patents of Allen (1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli +presented to the Academic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century. + +Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. This +ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, and was +constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of this was +incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could +be got from the idea. Another boat, the Albert, was built at Stettin, +after the same type and at about the same epoch; and the question was +considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the Great Eastern. + +About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of Cokerill de +Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did service as an excursion +boat between Liege and Seraing. The propeller of this consisted of a +strong centrifugal pump, with vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure +engine. This pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom +of the boat, and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling +tubes. These latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the +sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such +a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, as in +the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected the +propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the propelling +tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when they were turned +toward the front, she was thrust backward. When one was turned toward +the front and the other toward the stern, the boat swung around. +Finally, when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained +immovable. All the evolutions were easy, even without the help of the +rudder, and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were +capable of being varied _ad infinitum_ by a system of levers. + +The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, and +took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and forward, of +85 kilometers, with four stoppages. + +The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most satisfactory. +It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of effective duty it +would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its +exit from the propellers. + +Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system +employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. Seraing's +experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and the theoretic +effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar system of +construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in practice, falls to 40 +or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases. + +It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary pumps where +effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., we might obtain +much better results, and it is this that justifies the new researches +that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot & Pinette, whose first +experiments we are about to make known. + +In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and the +draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the +hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be +directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be had of a +sensibly constant speed, and without change in its running; the +production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be +avoided; the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge +pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the boat will be able to run at +any speed under good conditions, while the helix works well only when +the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch; it will be possible to +put the propelling apparatus under water; and, finally, it will be +possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, +without intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles +and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines. + +[Illustration: NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.] + +We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the description of +which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this +article. The inventors have employed a boat 14 meters in length by 1.8 +m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught behind and 32 in front. The +section of the midship beam is 70 square decimeters, and that of the +exhaust port is 4. At a speed of 2.2 meters per second the tractive +stress, K, is from 10 to 11 kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers +per hour, or 3.75 meters per second, the engine develops a power of 12 +horses. The piston is 19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 +centimeters. The shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 +revolutions per minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction +occurs at the lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced +out at B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for +putting the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small dimensions +and is only used for _directing_ the boat. The vessel may be turned +about _in situ_ by opening one of the receiving tubes, according to the +side toward which it is desired to turn. + +This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first trials +of her that have recently been made upon the Saone have shown the +necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work +upon.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER. + +[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.] + +By Professor W.C. UNWIN. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes carrying +segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor, the +power of which is to be measured. If the pulley turns with left-handed +rotation, the friction would carry the strap toward the left, unless the +weight, Q, were greater than P. If the belt does not slip in either +direction when the pulley rotates under it, then Q-P exactly measures +the friction on the surface of the pulley; and V being the surface +velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, is exactly the work consumed by the +dynamometer. But the work consumed in friction can be expressed in +another way. Putting [theta] for the arc embraced by the belt, and [mu] +for the coefficient of friction, + + Q/P = [epsilon]^{[mu]^{[theta]}}, + +or for a given arc of contact Q = [kappa]P, where [kappa] depends only +on the coefficient of friction, increasing as [mu] increases, and _vice +versa_. Hence, for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights, Q +and P, it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be +exactly constant. But this constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient +of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of +the pulley, which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in a +dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the +weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled without +impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors Ayrton and Perry +have recently used a modification of this dynamometer, in which the part +of the cord nearest to P is larger and rougher than the part nearest to +Q. The effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction +increase, Q rises a little, and diminishes the amount of the rougher +cord in contact, and _vice versa_. Thus reducing the friction, +notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, +and the only objection to it, if it is an objection, is that only a +purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that +the range of the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of +the weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction. + +[Illustration: FIG.2 FIG.3] + +For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 lengthens, Q +increases, and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley +increases, both in consequence of the increase of Q, which increases the +pressure on the pulley, and of the increase of the coefficient of +friction. Similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction, the +spring in Fig. 3 shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface +of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction on +the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, and +the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less. Fig. +3, therefore, is the better form. + +A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break set to a +given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence of any cause +the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., the difference of +tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would +increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from 1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. +3. That is, the vibration of the spring, and the possible error of +measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in Fig. 2 +than in Fig. 3. It has recently occurred to the author that a further +change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still +more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction, and +consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. +Suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by +the motor and round a fixed pulley, C. + +For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, but they +are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the spring balance +be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs. Then it +will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. in the friction produces +a somewhat greater variation of P than in Fig. 3. But P is now so much +smaller than before that Q-P is much less affected by any error in the +estimate of P. An alteration of 20 per cent. in the friction will only +alter the quantity Q-P from 5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less +than 6 per cent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer are due +to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are caused by +variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer. By making +P very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer, any +errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of +the work absorbed. We may go further. The cord may be taken over four +pulleys; in that case a variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional +coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys 11/4 percent. P +is now so insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it +is of comparatively little consequence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form +Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the author thinks +that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V grooves in the +pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the greatest resistance with +the least variation of the coefficient of friction; the heat developed +being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley. It would +be quite possible with a pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at +50 feet of surface velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible +wire, capable of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable value +of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a brake in +the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and with a brake in +the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. But since it would +be easy to have two, three, or more wires side by side, each carrying +its load of 100 lb., large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently +absorbed and measured. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEE'S GAS STOVE. + + +This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with +radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or +lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products of combustion are +discharged through a pipe of small diameter, which may be readily +inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the +wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by +radiation from the radiator rings that the gases, on making their exit, +have no longer a temperature of more than from 35 to 40 degrees. + +[Illustration: SEE'S GAS STOVE.] + +The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is surrounded on all +sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being entirely of cast iron, +it will last for a long time. The joints, being of asbestos, are +absolutely tight, so as to prevent the escape of bad odors. The water +due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of +doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to +change the hygrometric state of the air. The consumption of gas is very +small, it taking but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic +meters to a temperature of 18 deg. C.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + +The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India last +year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of cattle, +46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, 2,606 were killed +by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the deaths occasioned by the +attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 +by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 by alligators; 18,591 wild animals +and 322,421 snakes were destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards +amounting to 141,653 rupees. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] devised a +method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to +impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic hydrogen, the +apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, and afterward +electrolyzers with platinum plates. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, 1882, p. +5472.] + +His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In the +zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to employ +zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state presents +grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower part, under the +influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an obstacle to the free +circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, the cleaning presents +insurmountable difficulties. This is why he substituted for the +clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily +found in commerce. The management and cleaning of the pile thus became +very simple. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS.] + +The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form +shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, or, what is +better, rectangular, because of the square form under which the sheets +of zinc are found in commerce. + +In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc plates, b, +b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating with a flat +one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been scoured, first with a +weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty +matter derived from rolling, and then with very dilute hydrochloric +acid, and finally are washed with common water. In order to facilitate +the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction, care must be taken to +form apertures in the zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row +with respect to the bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 +hectoliters contains 105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, +whose total weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing +surface of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50 deg. to 60 deg. Gay-Lussac. The raw impure spirits enter +the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a sufficient stay +therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, into a reservoir, R, +from whence, by means of a pump, they are forced to the rectifier. + +The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an +aperture in the cover of the pile. + +As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors +may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. The liquefied alcohol +returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of 15 deg., the quantity of +alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant. In order to secure +a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits, during the period +devoted to the operation, the liquid is made to circulate from top to +bottom by means of a pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the +liquid in the vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation +consists in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the +pile, by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it. + +The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working +of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the following +conditions: + +1. Impure spirits of 40 deg. Gay-Lussac, and not water, should be used as a +menstruum for the salt of copper. + +2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of +1/2 per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per 100 +square meters of zinc exposed, or a total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate +for a pile of 150 hectoliters capacity. + +3. A temperature of 25 deg. should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization. + +The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the +alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each charging +with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days to form the +pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown +and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence becomes much greater after +a fortnight's operation. + +Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of +the reaction. Below +5 deg. the couple no longer works, and above +35 deg. the +reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to +such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The +battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of +hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 +kilos. of acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this +acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the +copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of operating +from 18 months to two years without being renewed or cleaned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.] + +Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize +the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a rectifier. But, +in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile +with another one by electrolysis. The voltameters in which this second +operation is performed have likewise been modified. They consist now +(Fig. 2) of cylindrical glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in +height, with polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite +cover through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the +liquid, E+E-E'+E', to circulate. + +The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, R, +which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per hour. +In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, there is +placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a +second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock. + +In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters of +impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished to the +voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors in +derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires +interposed in the circuit of the inductors. + +The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a +commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez galvanometer. The +voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted in derivation in +groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse them in two parallel +currents. The Siemens machine is of the type SD2, and revolves at the +rate of 1,200 times per minute, absorbing a motive power of four horses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.] + +The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected by the +metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages this process +presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple +distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. Naudin: + +In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol must +undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the +mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated and sold according +to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield in the first +distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss experienced in +distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 per cent.; (4) the +quantity of essential oils (mixture of the homologues of ethylic +alcohol) collected at the end of the first distillation equals, on an +average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of a rectification may be estimated +at, on an average, 4 francs per hectoliter. + +All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the electric +method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an average, 0.40 +franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is therefore +considerable. For an establishment in which 150 hectoliters of 100 deg. +alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident, amounting, as +it does, to 373 francs. + +We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits +which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the ordinary +processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for example, that +artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the old processes, +give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from Indian +corn.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES. + + +Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in _Neueste Erfindung_.: +Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed +into moulds made of iron and brass. After drying for a few days in a +closed place, it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the +direct flames and burned, feebly at first, then strongly, the fire being +gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The +fire is then permitted to slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the +carbon is taken out of the furnace. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS. + +By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D. + +[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia College +of Pharmacy.] + + +The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very different +aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or +sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass of observations in most +of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval. +Were that all, the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed +benefit, because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this +additional matter. Many would be the contradictions in the observations +and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. +The advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways. + +Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The chemistry of +the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive +science, such as the natural history branches, zoology, and botany are +still in great part. Reasonably exact mineral analyses were made, it is +true, but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental +conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally +established. Now, this want of comprehensive views of chemical +reactions, their why and wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the +study of inorganic and metallic compounds, but what must have been the +conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely +spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous +that, in the absence of any established relationships, not much more +than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists have +attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic +chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range most carbon +compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or as benzol +derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. To do this, +methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry +had to be applied. The mere finding out of percentage composition tells +us little or nothing about an organic compound. What the elements are +that compose the compound is not to be found out. That can be told +beforehand with almost absolute certainty. What is wanted is to know how +the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, +for, strange to say, these differences of groupings, which may be found +to exist between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification. + +The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required very +different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a compound +in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we submit it to a +course of treatment with reagents, which take it apart very gradually, +or modify it in the production of some related substance. In this way, +we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and +to put it in its proper place. Of equal importance with the analytical +method of study, however, is the synthetical. This method of research, +as applied to organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of +modern chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds. +Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts +attest its practical value. It may, therefore, seem anomalous when I say +that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds +has not shared in this advance. The alkaloids, that most important class +from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite +recently been defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, +containing nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives +was not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown. +Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their constitution was +very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of any of the more +important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to +effect from every point of view. Within the last five years, however, +quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer +understanding of these most important compounds, and I shall offer to +your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and +what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future. + +It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or +ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic character of +these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential element, and, +above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united +with acids to form salts, not by replacement of the hydrogen of the +acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, pointed unmistakably to +this constitution. But with this granted, the simplest alkaloid +formulas, those of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, and nicotine, +C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, still showed that the amine molecule contained quite +complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of +the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the +three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the +difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those +alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other +organic compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until +analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon +the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of the +decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance +to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field. + +It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like +bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or amido-toluol, and xylidine +or amido-xylol, which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the +so-called aniline dye-colors. It is perhaps not so well known that there +are other series of bases found there too. The first of these is the +pyridine series, including _pyridine_, C_{5}H_{5}N, _picoline_ +(methyl-pyridine), C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), _lutidine_ (dimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{5}N(CH_{3})_{2}, and _collidine_ (trimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{2}N(CH_{3})_{3}. This series is also found in relatively larger +proportion in what is known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry +distillation of bones. + +The second series is the quinoline series, including _quinoline_, +C_{9}H_{7}N, _lepidine_ (methyl-quinoline), C_{10}H_{9}N, and +_cryptidine_ (dimethyl-quinoline), C_{11}H_{11}N. The two compounds +which give name to these series, pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N, and quinoline, +C_{9}H_{7}N, respectively, bear to each other a relation analogous to +that existing between benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, and naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8}; +and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been +occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that +pyridine is simply benzol, in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the +triad group, CH, and quinoline, the naphthalene molecule with a similar +change. Indeed, Ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as +an alteration product from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, +from methyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), would be derived an acid know +as pyridine-carboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, C_{6}H_{5}CH_{3}, and +from dimethyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{3}N(CH_{3})_{2}, an acid known as +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}, just as phthalic +acid, C_{6}H_{4}(COOH)_{2}, is derived from dimethyl-benzol, +C_{6}H_{4}(CH_{3})_{2}. The same thing applies to quinoline as compared +to naphthalene. + +We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents +upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most efficacious in +decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents, +of bromine, of organic iodides, of concentrated acids and alkalies, and +of heat. + +Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to _conine_, +first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary +amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the +original ammonia molecule. Its formula is therefore C_{8}H_{16}NH. From +conine can be prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C_{8}H_{14}, conylene, homologous with acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}. Conine, on +oxidation, yields chiefly butyric acid, but among the products of +oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred +to. The formula of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, shows it to be homologous with +piperidine, C_{5}H_{11}N, a derivative of piperine, the alkaloid of +pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just as piperidine is derived from +pyridine by the action of reducing agents, so conine is probably derived +from a propyl-pyridine. The artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric +with the natural conine, will be referred to later. + +_Nicotine_, C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, the next simplest in formula of the +alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that is, contains no replaceable hydrogen +atoms in its molecule. It shows very close relations to pyridine. When +nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially +collidine, and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases +such as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120 deg.C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and +pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of +potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, C_{10}H_{10}N_{2}. Potassium +permanganate, chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), and which, distilled over quick-lime, yields +pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. + +Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up first +the opium alkaloids. _Morphine_, C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}, is a tertiary +amine, and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction with +ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from it, is +_codeine_, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. Besides the +methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and several have been +recently prepared, giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known +as _codeines_. Morphine, rapidly distilled over zinc dust, yields +phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other +bases. The action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it +into apomorphine, C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}, by the withdrawal of a molecule of +water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change +morphine into oxidimorphine, C_{34}H_{36}N_{2}O_{6}. When heated with +strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine. + +_Narcotine_, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated with manganese +dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits apart into opianic +acid, C_{10}H_{10}O_{5}, and cotarnine, C_{12}H_{13}NO_{3}. This latter, +by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, C_{8}H_{7}NO_{4}, and +this, on heating with hydrochloric acid to 240 deg. C., yields +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{9}N(COOH)_{2}. The base cotarnine +also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone. +In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction product meconine, +C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}, is produced. + +_Meconic acid_, C_{7}H_{4}O_{7}, which is found in opium in combination +with the different bases, has also been investigated. By acting upon +meconic acid with ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, +when heated with zinc dust, yields pyridine. + +If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. _Quinine_, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, when carefully +oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, yields a series of +products. First is formed quitenine, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O_{4}, a weak +base, then quininic acid, C_{11}H_{9}NO_{3}, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C_{8}H_{5}N0_{6}, and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C_{7}H_{6}NO_{4}. Now the two acids last mentioned are simple +substitution products of pyridine, oxycinchomeronic acid being a +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{2}N(COOH)_{3}, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its +homologues. The alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base. + +_Quinidine_ yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as +quinine. + +_Cinchonine_, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O, the second most important alkaloid of +these barks, when oxidized with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic +acid, which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid, C_{9}H_{6}N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When cinchonine is +treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into quinoline and a +solid body, which on further treatment yields a liquid base, +C_{7}H_{9}N, which is probably lutidine. It has been found, moreover, +that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled with +solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine +and quinoline series. + +_Cinchonidine_, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields quinoline +also, and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine. + +_Strychnine_ has been found to be a tertiary amine. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed. + +_Brucine_ is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by substitution in a +double ammonia molecule. When distilled with potassium hydrate it yields +quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric collidines. + +The alkaloid _atropine_ has been quite thoroughly studied with results +of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid, +it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine, +C_{8}H_{15}NO, and tropic acid, C_{9}H_{10}O_{3}. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180 deg.C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C_{8}H_{13}N, a liquid base, with an odor resembling +conine. When this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine, it +yields dibrompyridine. + +_Piperine_, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well studied. When +boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a molecule of water +and splits apart into piperic acid, C_{12}H_{10}O_{4}, and piperidine, +C_{5}H_{11}N. This latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine hydrochlorate, +also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180 deg. C., yields +dibrompyridine. + +_Sinapine_, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard +seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and +piperine, quite different results. When boiled with baryta water, +sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, C_{11}H_{12}O_{5}, and choline, +C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2}, the latter a well-known constituent of the bile, and +produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk +of egg. + +_Cocaine_, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by heating with +hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystalline +base, ecgonine, C_{9}H_{15}NO_{3}. + +_Caffeine_ and _theobromine_ have also quite different relations. +Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of theobromine, and +can be prepared from it. When caffeine is carefully oxidized with +chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea. Both theobromine +and caffeine are decomposed by heating to 240 deg. C. in sealed tubes with +hydrochloric acid, identical products being obtained. These products are +carbon dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their relations. + +If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of +decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, we +review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned, +except the last four, a more or less immediate connection with the +pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated. The conviction +accordingly forces itself upon us that, if we want to attack the problem +of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially, we must +turn to these bases as our starting point. + +As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series +also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and +collidine, the first four members of the pyridine series, have, +moreover, all been formed synthetically, although the processes are not +such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from +Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the first member of the higher series, had been +made synthetically by several chemists, but by expensive and involved +methods, when Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol +and glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with +glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if +desirable. Shortly after, by an application of the same principle, +Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of lepidine, the second member +of the quinoline series. + +At the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as +the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the +natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was thought well +to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate +derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own. + +Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have shown +may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by Dr. +Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was found to +have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine. +Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large number of these +pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, moreover, that the +hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite +analogous to that of conine. + +The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite +extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that several of its +salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very like quinine, and +capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it. In general, the +hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple +base, an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by +Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the result of the study of the +decomposition products of the alkaloids, viz., the alkaloids are in +general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline, or of the +two bases combined. Thus Prof. Filehne found that hydrochlorate of +tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than +quinoline, but could not be used on account of a too powerful local +effect. The hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was +distinguished by its strong bitter taste, much resembling that of +quinine, had an effect like that of curare poison. The most decided +febrifuge action, however was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the +hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice +by Prof. O. Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate +of tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of "Kairolin." +These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, without any +unpleasant after effects or local disturbances. + +The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the +alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in 1880--Koenigs and +Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. The study of the +decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite +distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, in combination with a methyl-quinoline group. The +many experiments that are now being made to test this and other +questions that suggest themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. +Whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is +another matter, but it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps +even of probability. + +It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is +formed _paraconine_, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine, but +differing in physiological action. By the action of sodium upon pyridine +is produced a compound C_{10}H_{8}N_{2}, known as dipyridyl, and this, +under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms and becomes +_isonicotine_ C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, a physiologically active alkaloid, +isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a series of alkaloids +under the name of _codeines_, by the substitution of other organic +radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction, has already been +alluded to. _Atropine_ can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, +the two decomposition products already noted. The latter of these +products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and +the other will no doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial +atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also +formed a series of artificial alkaloids, called _tropeines_, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of the +compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as _homatropine_, an +alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but possessing some decided +advantages in its use. _Piperine_ has also been made by the uniting of +piperidine and piperic acid, and, as piperidine has already been formed +from pyridine, we have here a true synthesis also. Both _theobromine_ +and _caffeine_, its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, +which itself can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano. + +We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last +few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the +alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, keen-sighted +chemists will effect their artificial formation. When these most +valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a state of entire +purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of +them from relatively rare plants, organic chemistry will have placed all +of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science, +no matter how practical we call it.--_Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York. + + +If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by the +apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. Everywhere +attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. We are compelled +to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits +of various therapeutic measures, that those who were foremost to +disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the +fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were +considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar +conditions described by others. Hence a commensurate modification in +therapy might not only be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is +more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate +the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache +has been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick Headache," +which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular +form of headache. The work, however, is conspicuously lacking in those +philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding +of the questions involved. Dr. E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a +most interesting paper on "Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views +therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly +scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles +involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of +instances of cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by +this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, among +the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more puzzling or +more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the +doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine." + +[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. Sieveking, +M.D., _Medical Times and Gazette_ London, August 12, 1854.] + +What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, indeed, +the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the +positive results of more recent experimental physiology. Conspicuous in +this connection are the inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and +Hammond, touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during +sleep and wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively +proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep +and increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have published +the results of those researches in various papers and articles.[1] "What +Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, "that it results either +from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more modern terms, from hyperaemia +or anaemia, applies equally to headache; but, to embrace all the causes +of this affection we must add a third element, which, though most +commonly complicating one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily +included in them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." +While I agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be +ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hyperaemia and anaemia, in the +production of the group of symptoms known as "headache,"--I fail to +perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition +mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I am quite unable to imagine how the +periodical, and more especially the intermittent form, of headache is to +be explained by what Dr. Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a +"change in the constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, +admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of +cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that +the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly willing +to admit that other factors besides cerebral hyperaemia and anaemia may +produce the functional variety of headache. There would seem to be ample +ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation +of the brain plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, +being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of +mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the +multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time permit. As +regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content myself by referring +to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred Diseases of the Nervous +System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in which will be found many +interesting facts bearing on the question. Accepting the propositions, +then, that the more adjacent causes of headache are (1) cerebral +hyperaemia, (2) cerebral anaemia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral +plasma itself, let us now consider how these morbid factors are most +scientifically and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more +particularly, those distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so +baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are +best overcome. + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by J.L. Corning, +M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.] + +Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs, +which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common +carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these experiments the +thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a +salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so +prolific a source of headache and vertigo. Accordingly I made a +protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those +suffering from congestive headache, and I can only say that I have been +so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained, that I have +felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure +which, for obvious reasons, possesses all the advantages of local +depletion by leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of +either of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the +carotids have already been described in former communications. It is +only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds; +one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, which being held +in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure +upon both carotids for any desired length of time. The other instrument, +which I have designated as the "carotid truss," for lack of a better +name, is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each +extremity. The spring is placed about the neck of the patient, and by +suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly +above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries. By turning the +screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can +be applied to the arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length +of time by the patient. + +With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting the most +obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time (on +one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, the headache is of +manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory +derangements, I have never been able to achieve notable results with +this method. Indeed, pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method +of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous +varieties of head pains. + +Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most valuable +methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under +consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller +arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the +brain itself. + +A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or less +extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and +spinal symptoms, is cold. + +A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head, +at the same time, is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode, +designed by myself for this purpose. The apparatus in question consists +of a concave sponge electrode, the concavity of which corresponds to the +convexity of the external aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is +a chamber of metal or India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole +is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and +connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is applied +over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be taken not to +employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant +symptoms may be produced. An application of from five to ten minutes is +usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. As an additional security it +is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath, and to remain +as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment. In +hyperaemic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended; but +as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively +inadmissible, as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by +compression upon the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of +the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost always +be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms. Among the +internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain +cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and Indian hemp. The inhalation +of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in +some instances. Chlorodyne, which is nothing more than a mixture of +sedatives, often works well, and indeed frequently excels other +remedies. The regulation of the heart's action is also of very great +importance in these cases, and the physician should have no hesitancy in +resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose +of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a +matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--_Med. Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. + +[Footnote: From a paper published in the _British Medical Journal_.] + +By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin. + + +From time immemorial, the _Verbascum thapsus_, or great mullein, has +been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the treatment of the +above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most persons would call it +a weed--found in many parts of the United Kingdom; and, according to +Sowerby's _British Botany_, vol. vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly +distributed over England and the south of Scotland." In most parts of +Ireland, however, in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated +in gardens, and occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is +done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the +herb by phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far as I +know, has its use received the official sanction of the medical +profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter at the +Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, suggested that it +would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of +this drug, and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise. +Having partially accomplished this, I am anxious to very briefly set +forth what has been done, in order that others may be induced to +co-operate in the work. + +"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of the +Scrophulariaceae; but the old Irish remedy is the great mullein, or +_Verbascum thapsus_, a faithful delineation of which will be found in +Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a hardy biennial, with a thick +stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, and with very peculiar +large woolly and mucilaginous leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly +yellow and nearly sessile flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late +summer or autumn, shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it +appears to have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy +for diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it. + +"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden +near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced operations. +As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured from our +drug-contractor. + +"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce +of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a +pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to strain. This strained +fluid is given warm to the patient, with or without a little sugar. It +is administered twice a day; and the taste of the mixture is bland, +mucilaginous, comforting to the praecordia, and not disagreeable. I +resolved to try this method, and also the watery infusion; and, +moreover, the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin. This +latter preparation was carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, +by Dr. John Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales. + +"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too many, were +now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's Hospital. They were +admitted in all stages, from an early one to the most advanced. On each +admission the case was carefully examined; the history, symptoms, and +physical signs were exactly noted; and the patient was weighed on a +stage balance with great accuracy. The patient was put as much as +possible on the mullein treatment only. For obvious reasons, no +cod-liver oil, koumiss, or other weight producer was given; the patients +got the diet suitable to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms +became troublesome, received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, +however, they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, they +were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that this should +be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, with the same +clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the same conditions. In +securing this the patients anxiously co-operated; and it was frequently +amusing, but sometimes painful, to watch the satisfaction or chagrin +with which the weekly result was received. I must here tender my +acknowledgments to our zealous, attentive, and accurate house surgeon, +Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom this important, but tedious, duty was +discharged." + +Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein plant has +been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that these cases, +although too few to justify any general conclusion, appear to establish +some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the +patients; in watery infusion it is disagreeable, and the succus is still +more so. The hot milk decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic +neighbors call _pectorale_) sensation, and when once patients take it +they experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the patients +scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical +sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of checking phthisical +looseness of the bowels was very marked, and experiment proved that this +was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled +milk. It also gave great relief to the dyspnoea. For phthisical night +sweats it is utterly useless; but these can be completely checked by the +hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the +atropia sulphate; the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, +as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of weight, +nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. Carrick, in +his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of Southern Russia (page +213), says: "I have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight, +while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs, and the +evening temperature rarely fell below 101 deg. Fahr. Until then I considered +that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the +arrest of the malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does +not; but unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive invalid +must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In pretubercular and +early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein appears to have a distinct +weight-increasing power; and I have observed this in several private +cases also. Having no weighings of these latter, however, makes this +statement merely an expression of opinion. In early cases, mullein milk +appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when +we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth +a trial. I will continue the research by careful weighings of early +cases; and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of +mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the +phthisical bacillus. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE. + + +Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude that the +use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of +bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This increased flow is +beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder. A +subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of +bile into the gall-bladder, and this also is of service in emptying out +any stagnant bile, and restoring the normal condition when this is +disturbed. Artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a +similar action to the natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the +action varies according to the concentration of the solution. +Bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting +effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and +weak solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much +like that of the mineral waters. + + * * * * * + + + + +VIVISECTION. + + +Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is as +old as science itself. + +Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century of the +Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is regarded as +having merited his name (_Galenus_, "gentle") from the mildness of his +character. Five centuries before him, under the Ptolemies, Egyptian +experimenters had operated upon condemned persons. So, then, vivisection +is not, as usually thought, a diabolical invention of modern science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals +that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the hog, and the +dog, and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a +little of everything. Claude Bernard, however, had another way of +looking at things. It is true that he especially made researches into +the general laws of physiology, the secret of the vital functions, and +the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living +matter, but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art +of curing. He left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing +conclusions from his great work in biology, and of acting experimentally +upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of +therapeutics. So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the +animal scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him +greater service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded +animals offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present more +accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so much account +of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary in many cases to +choose subjects that possess endurance. The unfortunate frog, so aptly +named "the Job of physiology," becomes resigned to living under most +dreadful conditions, and when, through sheer exhaustion, he has +succumbed, his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of +experimentation for twenty-four hours. Thanks are due to nature for +giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest +batrachian! We owe to it the famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta +to the discovery of the pile and what followed it, the astonishing +conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are +now in their dawn. Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the +homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been +imposed upon this brave animal! + +[Illustration: Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for +the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it. No one, +however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it, but it is +only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed. +Does the abuse exist? That is the question, and it may be answered in +the affirmative. Yes, we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon +animals. It is a culpable folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat +barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known +physical fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it +would only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be +confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask that it be +confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the exclusion of visitors, +and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and +giving a programme of researches to be made. It is useless to seek in +the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a series +of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of +vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by Claude Bernard. Fig. +1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an +iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in +which hares or cats are placed in order to anaesthetize them. Fig. 4 +shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of +fixing him on his back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting +table, and Fig. 7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the +general arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anaesthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) the +extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the muzzle is +applied for anaesthetizing, and gives the details of construction of the +chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used +for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting +table.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL. + +[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association for the +Protection of the Insane and translated for the American Psychological +Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.] + +By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany. + + +The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and which +require different means in order to attain lasting success. Since the +number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years, in +all civilized countries, so that the responsibility of the proper charge +of them occupies continually not only the community, but also the State; +and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost +before they are finished, it becomes necessary to rid the institutions, +as soon as possible, of those patients which have been cured, as well as +of those which are improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as +possible, returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the +expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial +influence, besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found that +the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of +sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests. +Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns +to the institution, after a short lapse of time, because the "rudder" +(steuer) of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life. +How can, for instance, the indigent and poor patient, after his +discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the +proper care, stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of +his family? Is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those +who have been discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand +the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul? + +Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of benevolent +people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and +humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish social evils, whose object +is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the +institution, at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance. +Switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant +example, and there these societies found the greatest encouragement. It +should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times, that +the seed of true humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far +and wide, for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all +European countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch +of a truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by aiding +them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct donations of money, +etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a relapse of the disease. +May this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain +of joy and satisfaction to your members! + +Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, namely, +_the prevention of insanity_. It is nevertheless true, and cannot be +doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner +which is out of proportion to the increase of the population. Much +thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon, and physicians +as well as moralists, national economists as well as philosophers and +philanthropists, have endeavored to fathom the connection between this +fact and the conditions of modern social life. According to all +observations, it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a +single etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in +the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which give +rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in +which modern civilization influences mankind, in its development and +culture, in the family and in the school-room, in its views of life and +habits; also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a +heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions, power and +knowledge, and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance. + +More than even civilization itself, are at fault those pernicious +abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted from generation +to generation, or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to +our civilization. If we want to prevent the increase of insanity, we +must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities +from our social life which remove mankind more and more, in a pernicious +manner, from its natural development and from the normal conditions of +moral and physical life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous +offshoots of pseudo civilization, which are the enemies of the normal +existence of man. It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as +the entire society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which +spurs man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile decay of +both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which causes the +modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over +excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is necessary to strengthen more +than has been done heretofore the young, by means of their education, in +their physical development, and at the same time to diminish, in proper +proportion, the amount of mental over-exertion; and finally it is +necessary to fight against, to do away with, those habits of modern +society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well +as the mental and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there +is none so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as +well as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors. + +Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase +of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only on account of +its existing relation, but particularly because intemperance, among all +the factors which aid in the increase of insanity, can best be +diminished, and its influence weakened, through the will of the single +individual, as well as of society as a whole. The relation between +intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear, that it is not +necessary to adduce proofs of this fact. I will not refer to the +writings of the older authors, such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, +Macnish, Carpenter, and others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; +Ramaer, in Holland; Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and +others, in France; Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in +Germany. I could name a much larger number of the greatest modern +authorities on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding increase +of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those countries in +which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and particularly in the +form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn, has only in later +years become general. Thus Lunier has shown the number of alcoholic +insane increased by ten per cent. in those departments in which more +whisky and less wine is consumed. + +In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and in that +country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, Castiglione, Ferri, +and others) the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol +stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in +certain provinces of Italy. + +In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members was, +that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of +insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, and +alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease. +Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that intemperance, +without hereditary predisposition, was one of the most powerful agencies +in the production of aberration of the mind. Even Beckwith, who could +not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as +an etiological element, says distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, +the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease. + +In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces +of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public +institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report +of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that everywhere, where the +number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, was +greatest, the number of insane was also largest. Without doubt, to my +mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most +potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases. + +As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve +centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity. In +consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an +acute intoxication takes place, which may range from a slight excitation +to a complete loss of consciousness. After habitual abuse of alcohol, +the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant +and disappear the less, as in the central organs degenerative processes +are more and more developed, processes which lead to congestions and +hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself, to +softening or hardening, and finally to disappearance of the brain +substance. These degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a +progressive decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the +ethical functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and motor +disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy. + +The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol +intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if we assert that +from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand in a direct or +indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of +intoxicating liquors. This is the opinion of a large number of +authorities on mental diseases in all countries. Habitual intemperance +leads to severe (psychical?) lesions (of the nervous system) which may +show themselves in the different forms of insanity, but express +themselves chiefly as mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous +system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in +those whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention. + +An investigation among the patients in the insane department of the +Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was lately +carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des Alcoholismus zur +Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed that among 607 patients +who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 +per cent. had been addicted to drink; 133 before, and 17 after the +disease had shown itself; further, that of 1572 patients with delirium +tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per +cent., were epileptic; and that in 221 intemperance was present before +the outbreak of epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which +entered the department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., +were inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per cent. +were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of intemperate +parents. + +If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, does +directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, the +baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the intemperance of +parents, upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as +great and disastrous. The children of intemperate parents frequently +become drunkards themselves; they have inherited a degeneration of the +vitiated constitution, and carry the stamp of this degeneration within +themselves. The offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, +and die early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born idiotic, or +show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of alcohol, the +individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved, +and, according to the law of inheritance, is transmitted through the +progeny to the race. + +Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease (Stuttgart, +1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names alcoholism among the +transient abnormal conditions which, during conception, exert their +influence, so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological, +and especially neuro-pathological, dispositions. Intemperance, says this +author, in its acute, as well as in its chronic form, causes frequently +pathological changes in the nervous system, and thus may the +pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially +explained. On account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological +constitution, the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from +an abnormal psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, +epileptics, suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of +drunkards, do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, also of +depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime. + +Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated facts, +nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as +inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity; and +that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity, toward +the prevention of mental diseases, must be directed against this +widespread evil, intemperance. + +May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a +narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot +be too much contended with. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC. + +[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.] + +By J.W. COLCORD. + + +Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic properties of +plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my attention, I +determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered. Having a +shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article, +I was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments. +Believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than +from dried, I expressed the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" +mill, obtaining about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. +The juice was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the press +into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol, +evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, mixing with the +12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of alcohol. This +preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents virtually equal +parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a dark brown color with a +marked odor of the recent plant, and so far, after standing three months +undisturbed on my shelves, shows no sign of precipitation. + +My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed +juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing three months, +the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of precipitation. This, I +think, promises to be the most efficient preparation, and will prove +valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, +and similar disorders. + +Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and +alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of +alcohol. + +In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about +equal proportions, and was removed about one month after making by +filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of precipitation +since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown liquids. + +Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had sufficient trial +to form an opinion, although, as far as I can judge, they have proved +satisfactory. While writing this article, a cook from a neighboring +restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer, exposing the +bone, came in for treatment. Having bandaged I applied the glycerate, +which soon stopped the profuse bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it +to apply subsequently. I asked her to report to me in two or three days, +and, on reporting, I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic +properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have +been able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds. + +The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the +purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our +list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more +extended experiment.--_New Remedies_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DANGER FROM FLIES. + + +Dr. Grassi is said (_British Medical Journal_) to have made an +important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to flies. It +was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of +infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known that they are +capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various +worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in their faeces. This +point has now been established, and several striking experiments +illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a +great number of the eggs of a human parasite, the _Tricocephalus +dispar_. Some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen, which +stands about ten meters from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual +little spots produced by the faeces of flies were found on the paper. +These spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were then +caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova. Similar +experiments with the ova of the _Oxyuris vermicularis_ and of the +_Toenia solium_ afforded corresponding results. Shortly after the flies +had some mouldy cream, the _Oidium lactis_ was found in their faeces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every +one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, and +afterward examine the faeces and intestines of the flies; numerous spores +will be found. As flies are by no means particular in choosing either a +place to feed or a place to defecate, often selecting meat or food for +the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is +raised. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. + + +The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents, +alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our illustration, must +be commended as a valuable improvement of the Zoological Society's +establishment in Regent's Park. This building, which has a rather +stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, constructed of brick and +terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, stands close to the south +gate of the Gardens, entered from the Broad Walk of the Park. The +visitor, on entering by that gate, should turn immediately to the left +hand, along the narrow path beside the aviary of the Chinese golden +pheasants, and will presently come to the Reptile House, which is too +much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious +interior, represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places +in the whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, +very nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and in +baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with substantial +margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over +them, while one basin is further protected by an iron grating, contain +water in which the alligators, the infant crocodiles, and a number of +tortoises, but none of the larger species, make themselves quite at +home. One side of the house, with its windows looking into a pleasant +airy vestibule, is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller +lizards, with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, +which present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large wall +cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, rising about +14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are confined--the huge +pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the poisonous cobras and +rattlesnakes, and others well known to the visitors at these gardens. +Each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind, to which the +keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall, and +there are doors also from one compartment to another. The floor is of +smooth slate, and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or +to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its +exercise and amusement. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY.] + + +THE BABIROUSSA. + +We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, a male +and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the society by +Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, in the Malay +Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the +ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The babiroussa is a +species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of Eastern Asia, and +remarkable, in the male animal, for the extraordinary growth and +direction of the canine teeth. The upper pair of canine teeth, growing +out through the upper jaw, curve backward and upward on the forehead, +having somewhat the aspect of horns; while the lower canine teeth form a +pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for +defensive fighting, as a guard to the head, but could not serve for +attack. The skull of a babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in +the possession of Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the +Zoological Society's collection.--_Illustrated London News_. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE.] + + * * * * * + +Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797. + + + + +ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY. + +PART IV. + +By NELSON H. DARTON. + + +Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old one, and +well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits prescribed in +introducing this series of paper, but by only a few miles, and being +such an interesting locality, I have included it in the granular +limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a +space of ten acres, about two miles north of the railroad station of +Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and +Western Railroad, and is reached by a road running north from about a +mile east of the railroad station. This road branches into two at the +limestone kilns, about a mile from the railroad track, and the left hand +branch is taken, which leads more directly to the quarry, which is on +the right hand, about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the +loose rock lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. +John J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for agricultural +purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles. +Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so +characteristic of the locality, and for which it has become +famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite pyrites, biotite, +aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly others in lesser quantity. + +_Serpentine_.--All the varieties of this species, and of every color +from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed through the +limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets. It is +generally soft, translucent, and to be found in masses from a pea to a +cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure oil green color, rich and +translucent, making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen. +No difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this +mineral, as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of +the quarry, as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as +being useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as marmolite, +which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together +similar to mica, but of the green color of the serpentine picolite, or +fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs of a light grass green color, +and is a very interesting variety. + +In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to procure +that which is the most translucent, and that holding miniature veins of +asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine +alone, but occur in the southern end of the main quarry. The width of +these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch, but those of even much +less are highly prized as specimens. These veins of asbestos are, in +places, several inches in length, but are generally much broken in +removing them, as their fibrous structure, at right angles to their +length, makes them very fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can +seldom be found. However, they make much finer specimens when with the +serpentine. Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this assortment +is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which they were +formed, which was by a process termed segregation. + +This gurhofite, called bone +by the quarrymen, occurs in white, dense looking masses, intermingled +with the serpentine, especially in the upper end of the quarry, where +veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant, and from which +specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the +gurhofite and the association with the serpentine, to which it is found +attached; it is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and +need not be mistaken for it. + +_Phlozopite_.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, near the +asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, which is a +variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery +white color, and from one by three inches in area to less. It is easily +separable in folia, and cannot be confounded with any of the other +minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral +is exposed, whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals. + +_Pyrites_.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic +rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very fine, perfect crystals +may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock. There is no particular +portion of the quarries in which they abound. + +_Biotite_.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of a dark brown +color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of +limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; on the north +wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, and there even in +large number, in a locality, generally a pocket in the gneiss. + +_Tremolite_ is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the +extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the main one, +over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white crystals, about a +quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length. The +crystals are opaque, but very smooth and glistening, lining cavities in +this mass of limestone. It is a variety of hornblende, composed of +silica, lime, and magnesia, with a little alumina. It probably occurs in +places in the vicinity of this block, and in finer specimens, as these +are frequently, when near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is +a characteristic granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. +We will again meet it when examining the New York city localities. + +_Aragonite_ occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow color and +fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When they are separated +by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the fibers are very large, +coarse, and brittle, and thus do not resemble asbestos, although in some +instances they might be mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from +it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate +of lime, and also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it may +occur in greater profusion. + +Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being in the +form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with aragonite of +a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. As before noticed, +Staten Island is the best locality for this species. + +_Calcite_.--In places the limestone is perfectly crystallized, and of a +pure white or other color, when it forms an attractive mineral, and +often worth removing. The limestone of the main quarry, carefully +averaged, was found to have the following chemical composition. + + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 + +In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from its rough +state resembles "_verde antique_," and at that of a beautiful color; +samples of this should be obtained. + +_Feldspar_.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between +the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh red color and +often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an inch and a half in +length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily distinguished from +calcite, which it much resembles, but which has only a hardness of 3, +and dissolves with effervescence in acids. + +A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a +holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many interesting +and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip as well. In +reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and if one has an +early start these may all be visited. I will describe a few of these, +which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing +geological features and not far from the main line of travel. + +Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the first stop +may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey City. Here a visit +to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken; and as I have +written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these +articles,[1] I will not reiterate it here, but refer to that paper. The +mine, I might add, is only a mile north of the railroad station, and on +Schuyler Avenue, a short distance north from its junction with the +Jersey City and Paterson turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and +walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep +cut, the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so +large a portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. At a +point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of +shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity +in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, and is a point at which +the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically, the western side +remaining in its original position. This fault has a thrust of only +three feet, but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a +tremendous scale in some of the other formations. It will be noticed +that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of +a talcky substance, which has been derived from infiltrating waters. +Fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled +in a similar manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further +west a short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its +banks for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington pumps +and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The Passaic +River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and Paterson road may +be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence it is two miles east +to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the bank of the Passaic may be +followed and the quarries reached in an hour from Belleville. Here again +are met the sandstones and shales, besides another and larger fault, and +many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be +examined. The railroad station having been regained, Paterson is the +next point of interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the +city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these +may be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of the +station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above +and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales and +conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track (the +Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed for some +distance west, when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the +railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap; this is noticed +as a depression in the face of the cliff, and it may be seen by the +superposition of the layers of trap and basalt. Where the fault occurs a +short distance further west, there is another smaller fault. A visit to +the Great Falls of the Passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this +point, and these are about a half mile north of this locality. Here the +arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, +and the mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one +of these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to the +Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein the +contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous +additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is the best point +in which to find these exposures, and from the viaduct crossing the +river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained. +Regaining the train, Montville is soon reached and visited, and after +this, if time sufficient Boonville, two miles west, may be taken in, or +it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train, as but few stop +at Montville. At Boonton there are many interesting features--iron works +furnaces, localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor to +give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + +[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + + * * * * * + + + + +DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM. + + +An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus Gate, +Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine +Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The ruin has proved +to be one of great extent, and of special interest. The way in which it +was brought to light is worth recording. In an uneven field, which rose +considerably above the land about it, parts of which appearing, indeed, +like little hillocks, the owner of the soil tried to maintain a +vegetable garden, but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor +vegetables would flourish, and even irrigation did little or no good; +besides, here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could +not be accounted for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what +there was below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very +soon came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. The +amount of _debris_ which had accumulated above the floor of these +buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this mass of earth has +required much time and labor, and the work is not yet completed. The +piece of ground in question has about 60 yards of frontage on the main +road, and extends, so far as the excavations go, about the same distance +back from the road, that is, to the east. + +The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, and is +very near the street. The ground in front of the church is paved with +fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was entered were 5 +feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat wider. From the entrance +to the altar step, or platform, the distance is 55 feet, and from that +point to the back of the apse 15 feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is +16 feet 6 inches. The width of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet +in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a +manner similar to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This +wall, also those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally painted, and +some of the figures and designs can still be traced. At the southeast +corner of the church, leading from the apse, there is a narrow but well +built passageway to the buildings in the rear. The character of these +buildings is not very evident; certainly they did not stand on a line +with the church, but at an angle of 25 deg. with that line. Between the +church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear, +there was a passage not over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear +of the church is 47 feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 +feet more of a special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and +which had a beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic floor +is 140 feet. + +On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall of the +main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 feet 6 inches +long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This is considerably +wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even the entrance of the +church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have been found, but in one +place two or three square yards have been preserved, enough to show that +the work was extremely beautiful. The colored tracings resemble those in +the church on the Mount of Olives, and on one side are the large Greek +letters [Theta][epsilon][omicron][nu]. North of this mosaic floor, and +of the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has been +leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced in an +east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 inches +deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From about the +middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs 20 +feet or more to the north; it is possible that it led _from_ the north, +and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west. +Piles of stones and _debris_ prevent us at present from deciding as to +the length of the channel or where it comes from. In the bank of +_debris_, which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height +of 20 feet, there is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed +of cement, running north and south at right angles to the line of the +church and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic +pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of +_debris_ which is yet to be removed. + +In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is found, +very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut channel, there +is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of the floor. The tomb +is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered by a doorway 26 inches +wide, which is well built, and in the sides of which are grooves for a +door to slide up and down. On the wall of the tomb at the east end there +is a raised Greek cross, 22 inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot +stand erect in its highest part, but it is to be considered that the +loculi are two-thirds full of _debris_, composed chiefly of decayed +bones and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The loculi are +2 feet in depth. + +What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," turn out +to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 feet long by +28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided (one or two of +them at least) into apartments by means of arches. The lower courses of +the walls, to the height of several feet, are of squared stones, while +the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work, which was covered +with a heavy coating of plaster. The threshold of one has been exposed, +which is 6 feet in the clear, and the sides of the doorway show +excellent work. + +Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each 33 inches +in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of which were +nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were closed, were many +feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began, hence +no one knows how old the water in them may be. Some of the slabs with +which the church was paved were 6 feet long by 21/2 feet wide. In the +church two pieces of cornice were found, each 8 feet in length. One is +entire and quite plain, while the other is broken in the middle. It is +upon this that the figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were +painted. They can still be traced, although exposure has nearly +obliterated the colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken +glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great +value. The top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a +basin, and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water +to run off. + +South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there +is a large underground chamber with seven openings (each the size of a +man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 feet wide and nearly 20 +feet long, but the depth is not yet ascertained, owing to the +accumulation of _debris_ on the bottom. On the west and north sides a +wall of solid rock appears to a depth of 6 feet, showing that the +chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock. The use of +this chamber does not appear evident, unless it may have been a store +room. The place within the city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a +similar chamber (not dug in the solid rock, however), with similar +openings in the ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some +distance to the east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to +purchase the land in that direction, in order to allow of the +excavations being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of +ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move with +aggravating slowness. + +Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that the west +wall of what he called the "main building," toward the apse of the +church, has been removed and the floor cleared, exposing a fine +pavement. This pavement, the threshold before mentioned, and the mosaic +floor all belong to one period, and to a structure very much older than +the date of the "main building." It puzzled the doctor, because the +threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of +the "main buildings," but the reason is now clear. Captain Conder says +of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he +was there, that "the whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As +regards the church itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor +especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At +the south side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the +largest cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick +stone 5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against +the wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two +halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest to state +that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since, and for +a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last it was sold for 40 +Napoleons. During the present year it has passed into the hands of the +French for 2,000 Napoleons. + + * * * * * + + + + +DAMMARA AUSTRALIS + + +One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of +such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, is the subject of +the present note. Some months since cones were observed to be forming on +this tree, and a representation of which we are now enabled, through the +courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay before our readers. We are not aware +whether the tree has previously produced cones at Kew, though we have +the impression that such is the case; at any rate it has done so +elsewhere, as recorded in the _Flore des Serres_, 1856, p. 75, but +fertile seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen. + +In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and +richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive tiers of +branches, which render it specially suitable for the decoration of +winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, where no great +amount of heat is required. In the northern island of New Zealand, +however, it is quite another matter, for there, where it is known as the +Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable of timbers, as may be judged +from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from 50 to +100 feet clear of the branches; moreover, it yields a gum resin like +copal, which exudes from the trunk, and which is sometimes found below +ground in the vicinity of the trees, thus giving the clew to the real +nature of amber and other similar substances. + +[Illustration: THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.] + +The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the construction +of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and elasticity rendering it +particularly suitable for this purpose, and Laslett speaks of it as one +of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand, and +recommends its use for the decks of yachts, for cabin panels, for +joiner's work generally, or for ornamental purposes. Owing to the +difficulty and expense of working the forests, and the great distance, +comparatively little of it comes to this country.--_The London +Gardeners' Chronicle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES. + + +Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods, +and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, than to buy +nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail because proper +precautions have not been taken. In digging up a tree, all the roots +outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off, and the tree is +reset with its full head of branches. Whoever has seen trees in the +forest that were upturned by a tornado, must have been struck by the +manner in which the roots run very near to the surface, and to a great +distance. When the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet +from the trunk, few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the +mass of tops is left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not +be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must +follow. If such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a +bare pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to meet +the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and growth above +and below ground is well balanced. + +We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or more +high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees treated +in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago. +They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show no signs of +former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the edge of the woods, +are better furnished with roots. These should be prepared for +transplanting by digging down to the roots, and cutting off all that +extended beyond the desired distance. This will cause the formation of +fibrous roots near the tree. It will be safer to take two years for the +operation, cutting half of the roots each year. Such trees may be +removed in safety, especially if a good share of the top is removed at +transplanting--_American Agriculturist_. + + * * * * * + +A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7ab58d4 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #11344 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11344) diff --git a/old/11344-8.txt b/old/11344-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..7432a98 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11344-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4194 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, +December 15, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 *** + + + + +Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +Scientific American Supplement No. 415 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in Steel. + + Heat developed in Forging. + + Recent Studies on the Constitution of Alkaloids.--Extract from + a lecture delivered before the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. + --By SAML.P. SADTLER. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for Extracting + Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving. + + A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By Prof. E.J. + HALLOCK. 1 figure. + + A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description and numerous + engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD. + + The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With engraving. + + A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic Reaction--Figures showing + plan and side views of the steamer. + + A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. W.C. + UNWIN. 4 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and Opals.--By + A. GOODALL. + + The Manufacture and Characteristics of Photographic Lenses. + + Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. EDER. + + The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By Prof. REDWOOD. + + Anti-Corrosion Paint. + + Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different kilns used. + +IV. ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHÆOLOGY.--The German + National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of + Peace and War. + + The Art Aspects of Modern Dress. + + Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With engraving. + + Discovery of Ancient Church In Jerusalem. + +V. ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With engraving. + + Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 engravings showing + Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. Electrolyzing + Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens Machine. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and around New + York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's Gardens, London.--With + full page engravings showing the new Reptile House, and the + Babiroussa family. + +VIII. HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra Australis.-- + With engraving. + + How to Successfully Transplant Trees. + +IX. MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of Congestive + Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING. + + The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of Pulmonary + Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN. + + Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon the Bile. + + Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of engravings. + + Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful as well as + inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By Dr. A. BAER, + Berlin. + + Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD. + + Danger from Flies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE. + + +In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," lately +unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now present, as +beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two statues, War and +Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental facade. These figures +are about twenty feet high. The statue of War represents an allegorical +character, partly Mercury, partly mediæval knight, with trumpet in one +hand, sword in the other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and +modest maiden, holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn +of peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." Here +the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, surrounded by a +noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, commanders, and +statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped to found the +empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German nation. + +[Illustration: WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.] + + * * * * * + +A writer in the London _Lancet_ ridicules a habit of being in great +haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of +commercial men, and argues that in most cases there is not the least +cause for it, and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous +volume of business which almost overwhelms the house. The writer further +says that, when developed into a confirmed habit, it is fertile in +provoking nervous maladies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS. + + +At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic Society, +Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having expressed his belief +that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion, the +lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who +were open to conviction could have all the variety Fashion promised, +together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow, while +health received the fullest attention. Two excellent societies, worthy +of encouragement up to a certain point, had been showing us the folly +and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, +crippled the feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the +limbs, and even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been +more successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might +not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the zero of +artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. We were +inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without rules to guide +us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris fashions and those of +Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, choose the former. Let it be +shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful, capable of an +infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never +violated art principle, and in which the wearer, and not some Paris +liner, could exercise her taste, and the day would have been gained. +This was the task he had set himself to formulate, and so doing he +should divide his subject in two--Color and Form. + +In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning +of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured nation like the +English should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony. We +were nicely critical of music, yet in color were constantly committing +the gravest solecisms. He did not think there were seventeen interiors +in London that the educated eye could wander over without pain. Yet what +knowledge was so useful? We were not competent to buy a picture, choose +a dress, or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say +nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on +porcelain, art needlework, and a hundred occupations. + +An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect +they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be worn in dark +shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was commonly called, olive +green, went well together; but a dress of full red or yellow would be +painful to behold. The rule for full primaries was, employ them +sparingly, and contrast them only with black or gray. He might notice in +passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was +usually of the one color unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that +would lend beauty to any color placed upon it. + +Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in +hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden +changes, and a species of color discord was the consequence. But if the +colors, even though primaries, were of some very dark or very light +shade, they become harmonious. All very dark shades of color went well +with black and with each other, and all very light shades went well with +white and each other. + +A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my complexion?" +The generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink, either +light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, working dire +confusion. But no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted +one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade were pink, and their pink dresses +were in harmony. No natural complexion whatever was improved by pink; +but gray would go with any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence +to the dominant hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce +flesh color he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The +skin of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green, +tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color always +subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it. +Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside pink altered it +to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy +complexion, the worst color they could wear would be their own +complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color, for it would +clear their complexion. + +Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer urged +that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without +disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of Miss Mary Anderson, +attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was exhibited, and the lecturer +observed that while the dress once worn by Greek women was unequaled for +elegance, Greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in +knots round the knees, and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more +habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings. + +An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as illustrating +the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted +the waist to be the normal size, and allowed the drapery to fall in +natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays +and "improvers"--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of +womanly grace and modesty. + +A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from _Myra's Journal_, dated +June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference of the waist was but 12¾ +in., involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the +organization, and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the _ne +plus ultra_ of formal ugliness. + +Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected from a +recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, Why did women +think small waists beautiful? Was it because big-waisted women were so +frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A young girl had no waist, and +did not need stays. As the figure matured the hips developed, and it was +this development which formed the waist. The slightest artificial +compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the +grown woman should never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken +the muscles of the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A +waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress +was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner garment +should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress should be as +thin as possible, that it might drape itself into natural folds. Velvet, +from its texture, was ill adapted for this. When worn, it should be in +close fitting garments, and in dark colors only. It was most effective +when black. + +Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the lecturer +suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the +too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could be artistic +without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in +fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive color their tailor +pleased. He would suggest that any reformation should begin with color. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY. + + +The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in +the progress of building in the metropolis, and speculative builders who +work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact. The +Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings Company (Limited) has been +conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for +artisans, clerks, and others whose means necessitates the renting of a +convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it. We +give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the +above company, who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal +manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at Shaftesbury +and Queen's Parks they have already built about three thousand houses, +employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling, +while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred +acres, which will contain, when completed, no less than two thousand six +hundred houses, to be let at weekly rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. +6d., rates and taxes all included. The object has been to provide +separate cottages, each in itself complete, and in so doing they have +not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace +plan, but adopting this as most favorable to economy, have added many +improvements, including sanitary appliances of the latest and most +approved type. + +The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, a road +60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of the estate. On +either side of this road the houses are set back 15 ft., in front of +which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a suitable growth are +being planted, as also on all other roads on the estate. About the +center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for +a church, and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has +been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground, should the +development of the estate warrant such an outlay. The remaining streets +are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in width, clear of the garden space in front +of the houses. Shops will be erected as may be required. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.] + +The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, the +surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. Nowhere have +these drains been carried through the houses, but they are taken +directly into drains at the back, having specially ventilated manholes +and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers; +the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet +ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals, discharging +above the houses. This system of ventilation was adopted on the +recommendation of Mr. W.A. De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the +Tottenham Local Board. + +All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole +area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every room is +specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent +the passage of sound. A constant water supply is laid on, there being no +cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets. All water +pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside. + +The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta sills, the +roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the purpose of forming +an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some cases the central +houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over porches being similarly +treated. The houses are simply but effectively designed, and the general +appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. +All end houses of terraces have been specially treated, and in some +cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately +adjoining, a slightly increased rental is required. There are five +different classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate +this week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, kitchen, +scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and water-closet on +ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The water-closet is entered from +the outside, but in many first-class houses another water-closet has +been provided on the first floor, and one room on this floor is provided +with a small range, so that if two families live in the one house they +will be entirely separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to +11s. 6d. per week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, +W., is the architect.--_Building and Engineering Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS. + +By A. GOODALL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland Photographic +Association.] + + +The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements +on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now, +and cannot be called new; but still it is neither so well known nor +understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be, and I may +just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of +it I believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving +better results than can be got by this process when properly understood +and wrought, as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to +those obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of +any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino bromide +enlargement on opal. + +[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 opal, +using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for two and +a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant opal was the +result.] + +We now come to the paper process, and most effective enlargements can be +made by it also; indeed, as a basis for coloring, nothing could well be +better. Artists all over the country have told me that after a few +trials they prefer it to anything else, while excellent and effective +plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled. A +very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just +done, with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have the +appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture adhering +to the glass, however, and at the same time to give greater brilliancy, +it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 grain solution of clear +gelatine before squeezing it down. The one fault or shortcoming of the +plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry, and this +certainly makes it unsuitable for small work, such as the rapid +production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry; the +tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being +objectionable; but my impression is, that it is not so much the tone as +the want of brilliancy that is the fault there, and if once the public +were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper, they might possibly +like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are +familiar, provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and +some time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +_Photographic News_, I set about trying to produce this result by +enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with +the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were successful, and we +now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with +brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper. I here show you +specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from +C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic. + +[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and +portrait negatives, which it would have been difficult to distinguish +from prints on double albumenized paper.] + +I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an +argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer, +for instance; but there is another and more important point to be +considered between the two, and that is, their durability and +permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, unless most +particular care be taken in the washing of it (and those who have made +them will well know what a delicate, not to say difficult, job it is to +get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, and at the same time preserve +the film intact), there is no permanence in a collodion transfer, and +that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of +decay in them from the first day of their existence. I know, at least in +Glasgow, where an enormous business has been done within the last few +years by certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being +a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has +been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the +present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the picture in +disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a collodion +transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, unless an amount +of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor +consistent with the popular price and extensive output. How now stands +the case with an argentic enlargement? Of course it may be said that +there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic +enlargements are still only on their trial. + +I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset that seven +or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and failed, but got one +or two results which I retained as curiosities till only a month or two +ago; but up to that time I cannot say they had faded in the least, and I +have here a specimen made three years ago, which I have purposely +subjected to very severe treatment. It has been exposed without any +protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of +a Glasgow atmosphere, and although certainly tarnished, I think you will +find that it has not faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have +lost nothing of their original strength. I here show you the picture +referred to, a 12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here +state, in short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads +me to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. Chromotypes +and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, but their +permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed, and +associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced, most +of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, being unable to +withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks. +Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in +which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the +decolorizing action of light. But there is no pigment in an argentic +print, nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action +of light; and that has been shown by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a +very stable and not easily decomposed nature; while if the pictures are +passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine +also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to +the action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon +pictures without carbon. + +I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with +in working this process; and first in regard to the yellowing of the +whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites, +especially in vignetted enlargements, and I believe that this almost +always arises from one or other of the two following causes: + +First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer; +and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is more in +suspension than solution, and in the course of development it is +deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the gelatinous film. + +The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution +of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has been +recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the +subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of potassic oxalate to 1 part +of ferrous sulphate. + +Now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a +negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best for +gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that potassic +oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate +solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for +any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed. + +The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and vignetted +enlargements especially, should always be fresh and pretty strong, so +that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take +place, as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron +developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to +take place, so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing +prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small +quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in +black and white. The proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of +water. Almost the only other complaints I now hear are traceable to +over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the +paper. The operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, +or pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up by +blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and +smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements, +but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently developed, and +cleanly and carefully handled. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. + + +At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced his +lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by describing the +method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a +definite focal length. The varieties of optical glass were next +discussed, and specimens (both in the rough and partly shaped state) +were handed round for examination. The defects frequently met with in +glass, such as striæ and tears, were then treated upon; specimens of +lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection, and the +mode of searching for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and +polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a +collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & +Co., and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were gone +into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes +was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which he placed upon +the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of photographic +lenses, and explained the influence of particular constructions in +producing certain results; positive and negative spherical aberration, +and the manner in which they are made to balance each other, was also +described by the aid of diagrams, as was also chromatic aberration. He +next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses, and said that +that was not, as had been hitherto generally supposed, the true place +from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination. This place was +a point very near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" +point, from the name of the eminent German mathematician who had +investigated and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was +of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For this +drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo Schroeder, now +with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer congratulated the +newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John Stuart, for his +enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound +acquirements. The subject of distortion was next treated of, and the +manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved +from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses +with a central diaphragm was shown. The influence of density of glass +was illustrated by a description of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent +of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names. The +effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious +method of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by +pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of +the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by requesting a careful +examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table, kindly lent for the +occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES. + +By Dr. Eder. + + +We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved formulas given +below as translated by him for the _Photographic Times_. + +Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the +soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer certain +advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage becomes +particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, which +frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, or a fog of +clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by transmitted light. +Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind; so do soda +and potassa developers. + +For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, without +the addition of any bromide. + +More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. No. 1: +Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; sodium +sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 1½ gr.; sodium sulphite, +25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is for its better keeping +qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's solution.[A] The solutions when in +well stoppered bottles keep well for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. +of water with 40 min. of No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears +quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable +to decrease the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. +The negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a +deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which excludes +all possible necessities of an after intensification. + +[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; 1 gr. +salicylic acid.] + +The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when +iron developer is used, frequently even greater. + +The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. Bromides +in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce the +sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing power +almost entirely. + +Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution of +potassium bromide is quite sufficient. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY. + +[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of +Great Britain, November 7, 1883.] + +By Professor REDWOOD. + + +I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at its +recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more particularly +attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard. Reference +is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared in different ways, and it +appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to +the process of the British Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from +rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been +otherwise prepared. The general tendency of the discussion, as far as +related to this part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same +direction; but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the +question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so +specially referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be. + +When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, +suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which consisted in +removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, by first +thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the +tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat, +this method of operating seemed to be generally approved. It was adopted +by men largely engaged in "rendering" fatty substances for use in +pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as +free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid. It +became the process of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it +formed the basis of a process, which was patented in Paris and this +country by Hippolite Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste +and odor, and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. +Mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." This +process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance +called oleomargarine. + +But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I have +been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that +the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than +beneficial. I have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining +ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of +the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested +for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity. + +I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many +experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, and at the +same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of +oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of which experience has +been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of the Pharmacopeia process. +I have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers +of oleomargarine, which is produced in immense quantities, the use of +water, for washing the fat before melting it, is not only omitted but +specially avoided. The parts of the process to which most importance is +attached are: First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural +fat, which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly +slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and adhering +portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; after which it +is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to +completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is +inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated +by warm water, and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding +130°F. + +If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be easily +melted away from the membraneous matter at 120°F., or even below that, +and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is +necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the +membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete separation of all +suspended matter is obviously important, and therefore nitration seems +desirable, where practicable; which however is not on the large scale. + +My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that +best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy. There is, +however, a point connected with this or any other method of preparing +lard which is deserving of more attention than it has, I believe, +usually received, and that is, the source from which the flare has been +derived. Everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon +the manner in which the pig has been fed, and this applies to the fat as +well as other parts of the animal. Some time ago I had some pork +submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it, which had a +decided fishy flavor, both in taste and smell. This flavor was present +in every part, fat and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from +that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been +prescribed a fish diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a +better variety of lard. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTI-CORROSION PAINT. + + +The _Neueste Erfinderung_ describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron. It +states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even baryta, or +strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil paint, and then +enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, the free acid of the +paint will be neutralized, while the iron will be protected by the +permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in damp earth +may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin (colophony), 25 +parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which 20 parts of +magnesia and some mineral oil have been added. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBON IN STEEL. + + +At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was read +entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in Steel," by +Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering. + +Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks of steel +2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. They were all +cut from the same strip of metal, but some were "cold-rolled," some +"annealed," and some "hardened." The total carbon was found to be: +"cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, 1.128 per cent.; and annealed, +0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of the disks were submitted to the action +of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of +potassium bichromate with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated +sulphuric acid. In all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left +undissolved. These residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks +employed, had the following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 +per cent.; iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by treatment +with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains +undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, but only about +one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the +hardened disk. The authors then give a _resume_ of previous work on the +subject. In the second part they have investigated the action of +bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about +0.098 inch thick, which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per +cent.; silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four +solutions were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of +bichromate and 9 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4} by weight; the second was +eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the fourth about +one and a half times as strong. In all cases the amount of solution +employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve +the steel used. A residue was obtained as before. With solution 1, the +residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. 2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the +atomic ratio of iron to carbon was Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), +2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 per 100 of steel. The authors conclude +that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused +mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron +carbide, Fe_{3}C, a definite product, capable of resisting the action of +an oxidizing solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a +rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES. + + +In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed cuts +(Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the washer, C, +slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which reduces them to a fine +pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the +pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir, B, from whence a +pump, P, forces it through the pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is +suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion. By means +of a rose, c, water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve +and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged +with fine particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through +the tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. This +latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not +been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through the tube, h, +into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is completely separated +from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix, i, to +a revolving perforated drum at e. From this, the milky starch flows into +the jacket, N, while the pulp (ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the +apparatus through the aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o. + +[Illustration: ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.] + +The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, which, +like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward motion, and +which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very +finest impurities from the milky starch. The refined liquid then flows +into the reservoir, m, and the impure mass of sediment runs into the +pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, forces the milky liquid from the +reservoir, m, to the settling back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, +u, from the receptacle, o, into a large pulp-reservoir. + +The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, a, into +the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, r, into the +different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion by two +shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per +minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty +revolutions.--_Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de l'Indust_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES. + +By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. + + +A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about ¼ inch wide by 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches +long. Beginning ½ inch from the end, bore a row of small holes only +large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch +apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the third 1, the fifth 2, and so on +to 12, so that the numbers represent the distance from O in inches. A +small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, +but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side. + +[Illustration: ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.] + +Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long; pass +it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it until it forms a +single cord. Pass the needle _upward_ through the hole marked 0, and tie +a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through. The +apparatus is now ready for immediate use. It only remains to set it to +the size of the oval desired. + +Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of +which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 inches. Insert a +pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 and 7, which is distant +6-½ inches from O. Pass the needle through hole 5, allowing the thread +to pass around the tack or pin; draw it tightly and fasten it in the +slit or clip at the end. Lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, +place the point of a pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it +around and describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two +ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to +metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On drawings +it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins. + +As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the +string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a crochet +needle. + +As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width +and length, but does not know what the distance between the foci must be +to produce this effect, a few directions on this point may be useful: + +It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between +the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a +right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter. +Hence in order to find the distance between the foci, when the length +and width of the ellipse are known, these two are squared and the lesser +square subtracted from the greater, when the square root of the +difference will be the quantity sought. For example, if it be required +to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of 5 inches and a width +of 3 inches, the distance between the foci will be found as follows: + + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. + +In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot +rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure +marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then bringing the figure +on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the +square; the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought. +Unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers. We present herewith a +table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different +ovals when the length and distance between foci are given. + + + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. + + 2 1 1¾ + 2 1½ 1¼ + + 2½ 1 2¼ + 2½ 1½ 2 + 2½ 2 1½ + + 3 1 1½ + 3 1½ 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 2½ 2¼ + + 3½ 1 3-3/8 + 3½ 1½ 3-1/8 + 3½ 2 2-7/8 + 3½ 2½ 2½ + 3½ 3 1¾ + + 4 2 3½ + 4 2½ 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 3½ 2 + + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 + +For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus for 7 and +4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to 3½ and 2, which +is twice 2-7/8, or 5¾. It will be noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are +interchangeable. + +To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the length of +the desired oval in the first column of the table, and the width most +nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column. The +corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle +must be passed through. The tack D, _around_ which the string must pass, +is so placed that the total length of the string AD + DC, or its equal +AE + EC, shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse. In the figure +it is placed 6½ inches from A, and 1½ inches from C, making the total +length of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 6¼ inches wide. + +The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by +fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all +the text books on the subject. On the other hand, the instrument may be +set "by guess" when no particular accuracy is required. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS. + + +The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago, after +a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces, to be +unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the +remark, that in order to use the method economically the products of +distillation, both liquid and gaseous, must be collected. T. Egleston, +Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New York, has read a paper on the subject +before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, from which we extract +as follows: As there are many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke +cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used, and where +the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a +reverberatory furnace, the most economical method of making charcoal is +an important question. + +Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and +size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the +necessities of the shape of the ground selected. They do not differ from +each other in any principle of manufacture, nor does there seem to be +any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce, when +the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties; but +there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the +process in favor of small over large kilns. The different varieties have +come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of +construction and of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the +cover of a meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the +meiler and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has all +the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar to +itself. + +The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, the round, +and the conical, but the first two seem to be disappearing before the +last, which is as readily built and much more easily managed. + + +ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS + +Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone together. +Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not necessary. The +foundations are usually made of stone. There are several precautions +necessary in constructing the walls. The brick should be sufficiently +hard to resist the fire, and should therefore be tested before using. It +is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality +fire-brick. As the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation +of the wood attacks lime mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with +fire-clay mortar, to which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam +mixed with coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As +the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is especially +necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled, as any small +open spaces would admit air, and would materially decrease the yield of +the kiln. The floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick +set edgewise and carefully laid, but latterly it is found to be best +made of clay. Any material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It +must be well beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six +inches higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted on +the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered with a +coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does not require +to be renewed for several years. + +[Illustration: RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL.] + +The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the +masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found to +result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued. + +The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The diameter is +not considered of much importance, except in so far as it is desirable +to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most of the wood is +small, and only a small part of it is large, the large pieces are +usually split, to make it pack well. It has been found most satisfactory +to have three rows of vents around the kiln, which should be provided +with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace. The vents +near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two +bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed +by inserting one or two bricks in them. They are usually the size of one +brick, and larger on the outside than on the inside. These holes are +usually from 0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to +0.90 m. apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of +the brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with the +floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is sometimes an +additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the +smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then closed, and kept +closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies mostly to the best +types of conical kilns. In the circular and conical ones the top +charging door is sometimes used for this purpose. Hard and soft woods +are burned indifferently in the kilns. Hard-wood coal weighs more than +soft, and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast +furnaces, and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 +per cent. or even more in using hard woods. For the direct process in +the bloomaries, soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is +not usually advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters +in capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got from +kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft wood. The +average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, two and a half +to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, or 30 to 40 bushels +to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, so that the loss in fine +coal is very much diminished. The pieces usually come out the whole +size, and sometimes the whole length of the wood. + +The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use. +They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of wood. The +usual sizes are given in the table below: + + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 + +1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. 4. Kiln +at Lauton, Mich. + +The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of No. 4, as +constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a good burn, will +yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal. + +The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet high, and +1-½ brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks to the cubic foot of +wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and +contraction due to the heating and cooling, they should be provided with +buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 wide, as at Wassaic, New York; +but many of them are built without them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as +shown in the engraving. In both cases they are supported with strong +braces, from 3 to 4 feet apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast +iron, which are buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below +with iron rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath +the floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, which are +securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners, as shown. +When a number of kilns are built together, as at the Michigan Central +Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the plan view, only the end +kilns are braced in this way. The intermediate ones are supported below +by wooden braces, securely fastened at the bottom. The roof is always +arched, is one brick, or eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, +fourteen being used in each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in +the center a round hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, +which is closed by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. +brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. + + * * * * * + +The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is so far +from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it is increasing +more rapidly than the population of the United Kingdom. The statistics +of population show an increase of 16 per cent. on the last decennial +period, while the increase in the United Kingdom in the ten years +preceding the last census was under 11 per cent. This increase appears +to be general, and is only slightly influenced by immigration. "The +population of the West Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater +than that of any of the larger Australian colonies, and three times that +of New Zealand." + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING. + + +M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some very +interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat +produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging. The +method used was as follows: The bar was carefully polished on both +sides, and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax. It was +then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight, P, +falling from a height, H. The faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly +alike, and care was taken that the whole work, T = PH, should be +expended upon the bar. A single blow was enough to melt the wax over a +certain zone; and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces +had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax. The form +of this melted part could be made to differ considerably, but +approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of +this zone, b the width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, +and t-t0 the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature +of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the base of a horizontal +prism, which is everywhere heated to the temperature, t, the heating +effect produced will be expressed by + +Ab x d x C(t-t0) + +Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical system, +the energy developed in heat is given by + +T1 = 425 AbdC(t-t0). + +Dividing T1 by T, we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat +bears to the total energy of the blow. + +With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found always to +extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow. We +are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and +anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a +sort of cross with curved arms, the arms being thinner or thicker +according to the greater or less energy of the shock. These forms are +shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will be seen that these zones correspond to +the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a +sharp edged hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done +in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat. + +[Illustration] + +With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat developed +and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than had been +expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration. +In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a table given the limits +vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. with an energy of 40 +kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an energy of 90 +kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly constant at 70 per +cent. It will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is +less, and it also diminishes with the section of the bar. This is no +doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly. +On the whole, the results are summed up by M. Tresca as follows: + +(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the +energy of the blow. + +(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described allows +this heat to be clearly indicated. + +(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the +material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the mechanical cause +which produces the heating effect. + +(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size, about +80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat. + +(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, showing +the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the +bar. + +(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not +reliable. + +So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have +sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat +different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in the case of bars +struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. It will be seen that, +instead of commencing at the edges of the indent, the fusion begins near +the middle, and appears in small triangular figures, which gradually +increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex, as in +Fig. 12. The explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression +at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner +remaining comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are moderate in +intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes +punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when examined, was found +to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch. With +regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat, it was about the +same as in the previous experiments, reaching in one case, with an iron +bar and with an energy of 110 kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high +figure of 91 per cent. With copper, the same figure varied between 50 +and 60 per cent.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE. + +By Prof. C.W. MacCord. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller +engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder and valve gear +were recently designed by the writer, and are in process of construction +by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of Charleston, S.C. + +In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as will be +perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, following +nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed by a shifting +link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; and the expansion +valves are of the well known Meyer type, consisting of two plates on the +back of the main valve, driven by a third eccentric, and connected by a +right and left handed screw, the turning of which alters the distance +between the plates and the point of cutting off. + +The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel features, +of which the following description will be understood by reference to +the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general +plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-2 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left +handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it is rotated. + +Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut upon +the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with the +eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases the valve +stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so that it must both +slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes, necessarily +of comparatively large size. + +All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more +compact, in the following manner: + +Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their lower ends +by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, and at their +upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling snugly between two +collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, imparts a longitudinal +motion to the latter, while at the same time leaving it free to rotate. + +This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through the +upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by means of a +bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is communicated to +the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter +and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal +grooves in the spindle. + +Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is +running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel +pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the index, which points +out upon the dial the distance followed. These details are shown in +Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of which it may be added that +Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve chest and its contents, the cover, +and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the +main valve (in the arrangement of which there is nothing new), being +removed in order to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and +spindle above described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is +a transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a +plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side being a +section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the +manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest; the latter +having no pipes for this service, the steam enters below the valve, at +each end of the chest, just as it escapes in the center. + +The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of this +kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular position in +relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed; two +strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the eccentric in one +direction, the other in the opposite, by acting against the reverse +faces of a projection from the side of The eccentric pulley. + +The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection +with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine +when driving a single slide valve. Its use in connection with the Meyer +cut-off valves, however, is believed to be new; and the reason for its +employment will be understood by the aid of Fig. 6. + +For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering them +both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; let L O M +represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is shown the port +leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of the main valve, at the +beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will then be apparent that the +center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point, C, if the +engine turn to the left, as shown by the arrow, and at G, if the +rotation be in the opposite direction; C and G then may be taken as the +centers of the "go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, +which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link. + +Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in effect +revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric. +Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, represent the face of +the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, the back of the main valve, +in which the port, C N, corresponds to one of those shown in Fig. 4; and +the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely, the +same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around +the center, C. + +In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon the +assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement +that when cutting off at the earliest point required, the cut-off valve +shall, at the instant of closing the port, be moving over it at its +highest speed. And this requires that the center of the eccentric shall +at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through C. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3-12 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the angle +through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that +distance is readily found; then, drawing an indefinite line C T, making +with the vertical line, G O, an angle, G C T. equal to the one thus +determined, any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of +the required center of the cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the +stroke. + +But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when +backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be symmetrically +situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O M bisects and is +perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed +on the shaft, its center must be located at H, the intersection of C T +with L M. This would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given +instant to be at Q, perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main +valve would be equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the +eccentric, the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the +real eccentricity. + +This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if the +lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of the +cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close the port. +CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, AB. + +The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter decreases; +therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity, and the +openings of the two ports will be the same; and the question is, Will +this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam? + +This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under +consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of +5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it is found that +the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of +that allowed when following full stroke, whereas the speed of the piston +at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its +greatest speed. + +This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, no +longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is reversed it +ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the angle, KOL. By +leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, by the means above +described, through the angle, KOP, the desired object is accomplished. +The real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of OK to OH, +while the lengths of the cut-off valves, and what is equally important, +their travel over the back of the main valve, are reduced in the +proportion of CK to CH, in this instance nearly one-half; a gain quite +sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient. + +The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the manner of +suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, this link is +used only for reversing, and is therefore always in "full gear" in one +direction or the other; and the striking feature of the arrangement here +used is that, whether going ahead or backing, there is _no slipping of +the link upon the link block_. + +The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved flat bar, +L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the link is hung +upon the pins, which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at +their upper ends. + +This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next to the +eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which projects the +journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical section by the +plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever, M, +which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve, through the +rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected with the lever, M, by the +bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a slotted arm, G, as shown in the end +view, Fig. 10. The center line of this slot lies in the plane which +contains the axes of the journal, J, and of the shaft, O. + +A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in this block +is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the pin, A, of one +of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as shown in Fig. 8; +and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, with the upper end of +the reversing lever, T, which is operated by the worm and sector. The +distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other words the length of the lever, M, +is precisely equal to the distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right +line; and the rods, R and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also +each of precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, as in +Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end is exactly +in line with the rock-shaft, O. + +When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the arm, G, +and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions will be +identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the +rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely to the +pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the journal, J, so +that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected +directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being also in line with B and J, +and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it will be seen that the +bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as though the two were +rigidly fastened together. + +When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in Fig. 12, +the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm, G, and is +thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The suspension-rod, S, +will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, will have been drawn, by +the bridle-rod, R, into line with the journal, J, and the bridle-rod +itself will now vibrate with the lever, M, whose sole motion will be +derived from the pin, A. + +There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and +operated is run in "full gear," either forward or backward. + +If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an +expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip while +running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be observed +that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker arm is one of +vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion relatively to the +sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the center, P, whose motion +relatively to E is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the +slot, due to the fact that the rocker arm itself, which virtually +carries the block, E, vibrates about O, while the suspension-rod, S, +vibrates about another fixed center. It will thus be seen that, finally, +the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs +_which curve in the same direction_, whether the engine be running +forward or backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block +slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions. + +Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to +reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, while in +the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI. + + +The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of Mr. +Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called the Poti, +which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly differs from all +others of her class, at least as regards her model. Her extremities, +which are strongly depressed in the upperworks, and the excessive +inclination of her sides, give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance +to the rams of our navy, such as the Taureau and Tigre. + +[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".] + +A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. Her +water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in no wise +cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is entirely of +steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 meters; extreme +breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, 1.9 meters; +displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound one, is of 600 +H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or 33-34 meters, per hour, +and it will probably reach 40 kilometers. + +The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., and 2 +Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be sufficient for a +voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION. + + +The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means +of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a +motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. The sail +constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not figure in our +enumeration, considering the essentially variable character of the force +utilized. + +In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a rude +one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks, +and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction +that which imitates these the best. + +Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in effecting a +movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at +the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists cite whole families of +mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity. It is probable +that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating. +However this may be, as long ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in +England, on this principle, by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the +patents of Allen (1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli +presented to the Académic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century. + +Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. This +ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, and was +constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of this was +incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could +be got from the idea. Another boat, the Albert, was built at Stettin, +after the same type and at about the same epoch; and the question was +considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the Great Eastern. + +About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of Cokerill de +Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did service as an excursion +boat between Liége and Seraing. The propeller of this consisted of a +strong centrifugal pump, with vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure +engine. This pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom +of the boat, and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling +tubes. These latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the +sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such +a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, as in +the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected the +propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the propelling +tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when they were turned +toward the front, she was thrust backward. When one was turned toward +the front and the other toward the stern, the boat swung around. +Finally, when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained +immovable. All the evolutions were easy, even without the help of the +rudder, and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were +capable of being varied _ad infinitum_ by a system of levers. + +The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, and +took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and forward, of +85 kilometers, with four stoppages. + +The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most satisfactory. +It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of effective duty it +would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its +exit from the propellers. + +Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system +employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. Seraing's +experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and the theoretic +effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar system of +construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in practice, falls to 40 +or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases. + +It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary pumps where +effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., we might obtain +much better results, and it is this that justifies the new researches +that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot & Pinette, whose first +experiments we are about to make known. + +In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and the +draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the +hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be +directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be had of a +sensibly constant speed, and without change in its running; the +production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be +avoided; the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge +pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the boat will be able to run at +any speed under good conditions, while the helix works well only when +the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch; it will be possible to +put the propelling apparatus under water; and, finally, it will be +possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, +without intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles +and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines. + +[Illustration: NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.] + +We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the description of +which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this +article. The inventors have employed a boat 14 meters in length by 1.8 +m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught behind and 32 in front. The +section of the midship beam is 70 square decimeters, and that of the +exhaust port is 4. At a speed of 2.2 meters per second the tractive +stress, K, is from 10 to 11 kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers +per hour, or 3.75 meters per second, the engine develops a power of 12 +horses. The piston is 19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 +centimeters. The shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 +revolutions per minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction +occurs at the lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced +out at B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for +putting the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small dimensions +and is only used for _directing_ the boat. The vessel may be turned +about _in situ_ by opening one of the receiving tubes, according to the +side toward which it is desired to turn. + +This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first trials +of her that have recently been made upon the Saône have shown the +necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work +upon.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER. + +[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.] + +By Professor W.C. UNWIN. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes carrying +segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor, the +power of which is to be measured. If the pulley turns with left-handed +rotation, the friction would carry the strap toward the left, unless the +weight, Q, were greater than P. If the belt does not slip in either +direction when the pulley rotates under it, then Q-P exactly measures +the friction on the surface of the pulley; and V being the surface +velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, is exactly the work consumed by the +dynamometer. But the work consumed in friction can be expressed in +another way. Putting [theta] for the arc embraced by the belt, and [mu] +for the coefficient of friction, + + Q/P = [epsilon]^{[mu]^{[theta]}}, + +or for a given arc of contact Q = [kappa]P, where [kappa] depends only +on the coefficient of friction, increasing as [mu] increases, and _vice +versa_. Hence, for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights, Q +and P, it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be +exactly constant. But this constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient +of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of +the pulley, which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in a +dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the +weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled without +impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors Ayrton and Perry +have recently used a modification of this dynamometer, in which the part +of the cord nearest to P is larger and rougher than the part nearest to +Q. The effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction +increase, Q rises a little, and diminishes the amount of the rougher +cord in contact, and _vice versa_. Thus reducing the friction, +notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, +and the only objection to it, if it is an objection, is that only a +purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that +the range of the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of +the weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction. + +[Illustration: FIG.2 FIG.3] + +For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 lengthens, Q +increases, and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley +increases, both in consequence of the increase of Q, which increases the +pressure on the pulley, and of the increase of the coefficient of +friction. Similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction, the +spring in Fig. 3 shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface +of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction on +the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, and +the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less. Fig. +3, therefore, is the better form. + +A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break set to a +given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence of any cause +the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., the difference of +tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would +increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from 1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. +3. That is, the vibration of the spring, and the possible error of +measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in Fig. 2 +than in Fig. 3. It has recently occurred to the author that a further +change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still +more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction, and +consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. +Suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by +the motor and round a fixed pulley, C. + +For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, but they +are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the spring balance +be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs. Then it +will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. in the friction produces +a somewhat greater variation of P than in Fig. 3. But P is now so much +smaller than before that Q-P is much less affected by any error in the +estimate of P. An alteration of 20 per cent. in the friction will only +alter the quantity Q-P from 5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less +than 6 per cent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer are due +to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are caused by +variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer. By making +P very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer, any +errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of +the work absorbed. We may go further. The cord may be taken over four +pulleys; in that case a variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional +coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys 1¼ percent. P +is now so insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it +is of comparatively little consequence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form +Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the author thinks +that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V grooves in the +pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the greatest resistance with +the least variation of the coefficient of friction; the heat developed +being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley. It would +be quite possible with a pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at +50 feet of surface velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible +wire, capable of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable value +of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a brake in +the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and with a brake in +the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. But since it would +be easy to have two, three, or more wires side by side, each carrying +its load of 100 lb., large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently +absorbed and measured. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEE'S GAS STOVE. + + +This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with +radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or +lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products of combustion are +discharged through a pipe of small diameter, which may be readily +inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the +wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by +radiation from the radiator rings that the gases, on making their exit, +have no longer a temperature of more than from 35 to 40 degrees. + +[Illustration: SEE'S GAS STOVE.] + +The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is surrounded on all +sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being entirely of cast iron, +it will last for a long time. The joints, being of asbestos, are +absolutely tight, so as to prevent the escape of bad odors. The water +due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of +doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to +change the hygrometric state of the air. The consumption of gas is very +small, it taking but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic +meters to a temperature of 18° C.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + +The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India last +year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of cattle, +46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, 2,606 were killed +by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the deaths occasioned by the +attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 +by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 by alligators; 18,591 wild animals +and 322,421 snakes were destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards +amounting to 141,653 rupees. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] devised a +method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to +impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic hydrogen, the +apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, and afterward +electrolyzers with platinum plates. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, 1882, p. +5472.] + +His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In the +zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to employ +zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state presents +grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower part, under the +influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an obstacle to the free +circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, the cleaning presents +insurmountable difficulties. This is why he substituted for the +clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily +found in commerce. The management and cleaning of the pile thus became +very simple. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS.] + +The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form +shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, or, what is +better, rectangular, because of the square form under which the sheets +of zinc are found in commerce. + +In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc plates, b, +b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating with a flat +one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been scoured, first with a +weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty +matter derived from rolling, and then with very dilute hydrochloric +acid, and finally are washed with common water. In order to facilitate +the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction, care must be taken to +form apertures in the zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row +with respect to the bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 +hectoliters contains 105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, +whose total weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing +surface of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50° to 60° Gay-Lussac. The raw impure spirits enter +the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a sufficient stay +therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, into a reservoir, R, +from whence, by means of a pump, they are forced to the rectifier. + +The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an +aperture in the cover of the pile. + +As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors +may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. The liquefied alcohol +returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of 15°, the quantity of +alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant. In order to secure +a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits, during the period +devoted to the operation, the liquid is made to circulate from top to +bottom by means of a pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the +liquid in the vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation +consists in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the +pile, by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it. + +The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working +of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the following +conditions: + +1. Impure spirits of 40° Gay-Lussac, and not water, should be used as a +menstruum for the salt of copper. + +2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of +½ per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per 100 +square meters of zinc exposed, or a total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate +for a pile of 150 hectoliters capacity. + +3. A temperature of 25° should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization. + +The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the +alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each charging +with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days to form the +pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown +and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence becomes much greater after +a fortnight's operation. + +Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of +the reaction. Below +5° the couple no longer works, and above +35° the +reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to +such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The +battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of +hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 +kilos. of acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this +acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the +copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of operating +from 18 months to two years without being renewed or cleaned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.] + +Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize +the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a rectifier. But, +in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile +with another one by electrolysis. The voltameters in which this second +operation is performed have likewise been modified. They consist now +(Fig. 2) of cylindrical glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in +height, with polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite +cover through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the +liquid, E+E-E'+E', to circulate. + +The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, R, +which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per hour. +In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, there is +placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a +second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock. + +In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters of +impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished to the +voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors in +derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires +interposed in the circuit of the inductors. + +The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a +commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez galvanometer. The +voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted in derivation in +groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse them in two parallel +currents. The Siemens machine is of the type SD2, and revolves at the +rate of 1,200 times per minute, absorbing a motive power of four horses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.] + +The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected by the +metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages this process +presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple +distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. Naudin: + +In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol must +undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the +mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated and sold according +to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield in the first +distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss experienced in +distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 per cent.; (4) the +quantity of essential oils (mixture of the homologues of ethylic +alcohol) collected at the end of the first distillation equals, on an +average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of a rectification may be estimated +at, on an average, 4 francs per hectoliter. + +All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the electric +method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an average, 0.40 +franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is therefore +considerable. For an establishment in which 150 hectoliters of 100° +alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident, amounting, as +it does, to 373 francs. + +We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits +which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the ordinary +processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for example, that +artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the old processes, +give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from Indian +corn.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES. + + +Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in _Neueste Erfindung_.: +Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed +into moulds made of iron and brass. After drying for a few days in a +closed place, it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the +direct flames and burned, feebly at first, then strongly, the fire being +gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The +fire is then permitted to slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the +carbon is taken out of the furnace. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS. + +By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D. + +[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia College +of Pharmacy.] + + +The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very different +aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or +sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass of observations in most +of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval. +Were that all, the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed +benefit, because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this +additional matter. Many would be the contradictions in the observations +and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. +The advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways. + +Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The chemistry of +the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive +science, such as the natural history branches, zoology, and botany are +still in great part. Reasonably exact mineral analyses were made, it is +true, but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental +conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally +established. Now, this want of comprehensive views of chemical +reactions, their why and wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the +study of inorganic and metallic compounds, but what must have been the +conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely +spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous +that, in the absence of any established relationships, not much more +than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists have +attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic +chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range most carbon +compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or as benzol +derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. To do this, +methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry +had to be applied. The mere finding out of percentage composition tells +us little or nothing about an organic compound. What the elements are +that compose the compound is not to be found out. That can be told +beforehand with almost absolute certainty. What is wanted is to know how +the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, +for, strange to say, these differences of groupings, which may be found +to exist between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification. + +The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required very +different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a compound +in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we submit it to a +course of treatment with reagents, which take it apart very gradually, +or modify it in the production of some related substance. In this way, +we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and +to put it in its proper place. Of equal importance with the analytical +method of study, however, is the synthetical. This method of research, +as applied to organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of +modern chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds. +Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts +attest its practical value. It may, therefore, seem anomalous when I say +that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds +has not shared in this advance. The alkaloids, that most important class +from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite +recently been defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, +containing nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives +was not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown. +Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their constitution was +very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of any of the more +important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to +effect from every point of view. Within the last five years, however, +quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer +understanding of these most important compounds, and I shall offer to +your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and +what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future. + +It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or +ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic character of +these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential element, and, +above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united +with acids to form salts, not by replacement of the hydrogen of the +acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, pointed unmistakably to +this constitution. But with this granted, the simplest alkaloid +formulas, those of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, and nicotine, +C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, still showed that the amine molecule contained quite +complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of +the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the +three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the +difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those +alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other +organic compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until +analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon +the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of the +decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance +to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field. + +It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like +bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or amido-toluol, and xylidine +or amido-xylol, which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the +so-called aniline dye-colors. It is perhaps not so well known that there +are other series of bases found there too. The first of these is the +pyridine series, including _pyridine_, C_{5}H_{5}N, _picoline_ +(methyl-pyridine), C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), _lutidine_ (dimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{5}N(CH_{3})_{2}, and _collidine_ (trimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{2}N(CH_{3})_{3}. This series is also found in relatively larger +proportion in what is known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry +distillation of bones. + +The second series is the quinoline series, including _quinoline_, +C_{9}H_{7}N, _lepidine_ (methyl-quinoline), C_{10}H_{9}N, and +_cryptidine_ (dimethyl-quinoline), C_{11}H_{11}N. The two compounds +which give name to these series, pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N, and quinoline, +C_{9}H_{7}N, respectively, bear to each other a relation analogous to +that existing between benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, and naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8}; +and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been +occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that +pyridine is simply benzol, in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the +triad group, CH, and quinoline, the naphthalene molecule with a similar +change. Indeed, Ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as +an alteration product from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, +from methyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), would be derived an acid know +as pyridine-carboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, C_{6}H_{5}CH_{3}, and +from dimethyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{3}N(CH_{3})_{2}, an acid known as +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}, just as phthalic +acid, C_{6}H_{4}(COOH)_{2}, is derived from dimethyl-benzol, +C_{6}H_{4}(CH_{3})_{2}. The same thing applies to quinoline as compared +to naphthalene. + +We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents +upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most efficacious in +decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents, +of bromine, of organic iodides, of concentrated acids and alkalies, and +of heat. + +Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to _conine_, +first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary +amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the +original ammonia molecule. Its formula is therefore C_{8}H_{16}NH. From +conine can be prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C_{8}H_{14}, conylene, homologous with acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}. Conine, on +oxidation, yields chiefly butyric acid, but among the products of +oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred +to. The formula of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, shows it to be homologous with +piperidine, C_{5}H_{11}N, a derivative of piperine, the alkaloid of +pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just as piperidine is derived from +pyridine by the action of reducing agents, so conine is probably derived +from a propyl-pyridine. The artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric +with the natural conine, will be referred to later. + +_Nicotine_, C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, the next simplest in formula of the +alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that is, contains no replaceable hydrogen +atoms in its molecule. It shows very close relations to pyridine. When +nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially +collidine, and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases +such as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120°C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and +pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of +potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, C_{10}H_{10}N_{2}. Potassium +permanganate, chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), and which, distilled over quick-lime, yields +pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. + +Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up first +the opium alkaloids. _Morphine_, C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}, is a tertiary +amine, and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction with +ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from it, is +_codeine_, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. Besides the +methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and several have been +recently prepared, giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known +as _codeines_. Morphine, rapidly distilled over zinc dust, yields +phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other +bases. The action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it +into apomorphine, C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}, by the withdrawal of a molecule of +water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change +morphine into oxidimorphine, C_{34}H_{36}N_{2}O_{6}. When heated with +strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine. + +_Narcotine_, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated with manganese +dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits apart into opianic +acid, C_{10}H_{10}O_{5}, and cotarnine, C_{12}H_{13}NO_{3}. This latter, +by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, C_{8}H_{7}NO_{4}, and +this, on heating with hydrochloric acid to 240° C., yields +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{9}N(COOH)_{2}. The base cotarnine +also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone. +In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction product meconine, +C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}, is produced. + +_Meconic acid_, C_{7}H_{4}O_{7}, which is found in opium in combination +with the different bases, has also been investigated. By acting upon +meconic acid with ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, +when heated with zinc dust, yields pyridine. + +If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. _Quinine_, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, when carefully +oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, yields a series of +products. First is formed quitenine, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O_{4}, a weak +base, then quininic acid, C_{11}H_{9}NO_{3}, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C_{8}H_{5}N0_{6}, and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C_{7}H_{6}NO_{4}. Now the two acids last mentioned are simple +substitution products of pyridine, oxycinchomeronic acid being a +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{2}N(COOH)_{3}, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its +homologues. The alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base. + +_Quinidine_ yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as +quinine. + +_Cinchonine_, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O, the second most important alkaloid of +these barks, when oxidized with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic +acid, which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid, C_{9}H_{6}N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When cinchonine is +treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into quinoline and a +solid body, which on further treatment yields a liquid base, +C_{7}H_{9}N, which is probably lutidine. It has been found, moreover, +that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled with +solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine +and quinoline series. + +_Cinchonidine_, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields quinoline +also, and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine. + +_Strychnine_ has been found to be a tertiary amine. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed. + +_Brucine_ is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by substitution in a +double ammonia molecule. When distilled with potassium hydrate it yields +quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric collidines. + +The alkaloid _atropine_ has been quite thoroughly studied with results +of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid, +it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine, +C_{8}H_{15}NO, and tropic acid, C_{9}H_{10}O_{3}. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180°C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C_{8}H_{13}N, a liquid base, with an odor resembling +conine. When this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine, it +yields dibrompyridine. + +_Piperine_, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well studied. When +boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a molecule of water +and splits apart into piperic acid, C_{12}H_{10}O_{4}, and piperidine, +C_{5}H_{11}N. This latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine hydrochlorate, +also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180° C., yields +dibrompyridine. + +_Sinapine_, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard +seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and +piperine, quite different results. When boiled with baryta water, +sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, C_{11}H_{12}O_{5}, and choline, +C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2}, the latter a well-known constituent of the bile, and +produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk +of egg. + +_Cocaine_, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by heating with +hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystalline +base, ecgonine, C_{9}H_{15}NO_{3}. + +_Caffeine_ and _theobromine_ have also quite different relations. +Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of theobromine, and +can be prepared from it. When caffeine is carefully oxidized with +chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea. Both theobromine +and caffeine are decomposed by heating to 240° C. in sealed tubes with +hydrochloric acid, identical products being obtained. These products are +carbon dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their relations. + +If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of +decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, we +review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned, +except the last four, a more or less immediate connection with the +pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated. The conviction +accordingly forces itself upon us that, if we want to attack the problem +of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially, we must +turn to these bases as our starting point. + +As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series +also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and +collidine, the first four members of the pyridine series, have, +moreover, all been formed synthetically, although the processes are not +such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from +Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the first member of the higher series, had been +made synthetically by several chemists, but by expensive and involved +methods, when Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol +and glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with +glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if +desirable. Shortly after, by an application of the same principle, +Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of lepidine, the second member +of the quinoline series. + +At the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as +the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the +natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was thought well +to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate +derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own. + +Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have shown +may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by Dr. +Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was found to +have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine. +Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large number of these +pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, moreover, that the +hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite +analogous to that of conine. + +The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite +extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that several of its +salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very like quinine, and +capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it. In general, the +hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple +base, an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by +Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the result of the study of the +decomposition products of the alkaloids, viz., the alkaloids are in +general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline, or of the +two bases combined. Thus Prof. Filehne found that hydrochlorate of +tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than +quinoline, but could not be used on account of a too powerful local +effect. The hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was +distinguished by its strong bitter taste, much resembling that of +quinine, had an effect like that of curare poison. The most decided +febrifuge action, however was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the +hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice +by Prof. O. Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate +of tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of "Kairolin." +These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, without any +unpleasant after effects or local disturbances. + +The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the +alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in 1880--Königs and +Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. The study of the +decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite +distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, in combination with a methyl-quinoline group. The +many experiments that are now being made to test this and other +questions that suggest themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. +Whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is +another matter, but it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps +even of probability. + +It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is +formed _paraconine_, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine, but +differing in physiological action. By the action of sodium upon pyridine +is produced a compound C_{10}H_{8}N_{2}, known as dipyridyl, and this, +under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms and becomes +_isonicotine_ C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, a physiologically active alkaloid, +isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a series of alkaloids +under the name of _codeines_, by the substitution of other organic +radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction, has already been +alluded to. _Atropine_ can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, +the two decomposition products already noted. The latter of these +products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and +the other will no doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial +atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also +formed a series of artificial alkaloids, called _tropeines_, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of the +compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as _homatropine_, an +alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but possessing some decided +advantages in its use. _Piperine_ has also been made by the uniting of +piperidine and piperic acid, and, as piperidine has already been formed +from pyridine, we have here a true synthesis also. Both _theobromine_ +and _caffeine_, its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, +which itself can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano. + +We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last +few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the +alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, keen-sighted +chemists will effect their artificial formation. When these most +valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a state of entire +purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of +them from relatively rare plants, organic chemistry will have placed all +of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science, +no matter how practical we call it.--_Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York. + + +If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by the +apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. Everywhere +attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. We are compelled +to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits +of various therapeutic measures, that those who were foremost to +disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the +fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were +considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar +conditions described by others. Hence a commensurate modification in +therapy might not only be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is +more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate +the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache +has been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick Headache," +which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular +form of headache. The work, however, is conspicuously lacking in those +philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding +of the questions involved. Dr. E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a +most interesting paper on "Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views +therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly +scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles +involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of +instances of cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by +this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, among +the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more puzzling or +more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the +doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine." + +[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. Sieveking, +M.D., _Medical Times and Gazette_ London, August 12, 1854.] + +What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, indeed, +the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the +positive results of more recent experimental physiology. Conspicuous in +this connection are the inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and +Hammond, touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during +sleep and wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively +proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep +and increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have published +the results of those researches in various papers and articles.[1] "What +Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, "that it results either +from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more modern terms, from hyperæmia +or anæmia, applies equally to headache; but, to embrace all the causes +of this affection we must add a third element, which, though most +commonly complicating one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily +included in them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." +While I agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be +ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hyperæmia and anæmia, in the +production of the group of symptoms known as "headache,"--I fail to +perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition +mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I am quite unable to imagine how the +periodical, and more especially the intermittent form, of headache is to +be explained by what Dr. Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a +"change in the constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, +admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of +cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that +the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly willing +to admit that other factors besides cerebral hyperæmia and anæmia may +produce the functional variety of headache. There would seem to be ample +ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation +of the brain plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, +being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of +mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the +multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time permit. As +regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content myself by referring +to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred Diseases of the Nervous +System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in which will be found many +interesting facts bearing on the question. Accepting the propositions, +then, that the more adjacent causes of headache are (1) cerebral +hyperæmia, (2) cerebral anæmia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral +plasma itself, let us now consider how these morbid factors are most +scientifically and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more +particularly, those distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so +baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are +best overcome. + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by J.L. Corning, +M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.] + +Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs, +which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common +carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these experiments the +thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a +salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so +prolific a source of headache and vertigo. Accordingly I made a +protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those +suffering from congestive headache, and I can only say that I have been +so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained, that I have +felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure +which, for obvious reasons, possesses all the advantages of local +depletion by leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of +either of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the +carotids have already been described in former communications. It is +only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds; +one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, which being held +in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure +upon both carotids for any desired length of time. The other instrument, +which I have designated as the "carotid truss," for lack of a better +name, is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each +extremity. The spring is placed about the neck of the patient, and by +suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly +above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries. By turning the +screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can +be applied to the arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length +of time by the patient. + +With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting the most +obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time (on +one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, the headache is of +manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory +derangements, I have never been able to achieve notable results with +this method. Indeed, pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method +of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous +varieties of head pains. + +Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most valuable +methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under +consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller +arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the +brain itself. + +A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or less +extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and +spinal symptoms, is cold. + +A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head, +at the same time, is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode, +designed by myself for this purpose. The apparatus in question consists +of a concave sponge electrode, the concavity of which corresponds to the +convexity of the external aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is +a chamber of metal or India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole +is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and +connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is applied +over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be taken not to +employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant +symptoms may be produced. An application of from five to ten minutes is +usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. As an additional security it +is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath, and to remain +as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment. In +hyperæmic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended; but +as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively +inadmissible, as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by +compression upon the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of +the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost always +be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms. Among the +internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain +cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and Indian hemp. The inhalation +of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in +some instances. Chlorodyne, which is nothing more than a mixture of +sedatives, often works well, and indeed frequently excels other +remedies. The regulation of the heart's action is also of very great +importance in these cases, and the physician should have no hesitancy in +resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose +of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a +matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--_Med. Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. + +[Footnote: From a paper published in the _British Medical Journal_.] + +By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin. + + +From time immemorial, the _Verbascum thapsus_, or great mullein, has +been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the treatment of the +above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most persons would call it +a weed--found in many parts of the United Kingdom; and, according to +Sowerby's _British Botany_, vol. vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly +distributed over England and the south of Scotland." In most parts of +Ireland, however, in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated +in gardens, and occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is +done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the +herb by phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far as I +know, has its use received the official sanction of the medical +profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter at the +Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, suggested that it +would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of +this drug, and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise. +Having partially accomplished this, I am anxious to very briefly set +forth what has been done, in order that others may be induced to +co-operate in the work. + +"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of the +Scrophulariaceæ; but the old Irish remedy is the great mullein, or +_Verbascum thapsus_, a faithful delineation of which will be found in +Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a hardy biennial, with a thick +stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, and with very peculiar +large woolly and mucilaginous leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly +yellow and nearly sessile flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late +summer or autumn, shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it +appears to have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy +for diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it. + +"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden +near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced operations. +As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured from our +drug-contractor. + +"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce +of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a +pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to strain. This strained +fluid is given warm to the patient, with or without a little sugar. It +is administered twice a day; and the taste of the mixture is bland, +mucilaginous, comforting to the praecordia, and not disagreeable. I +resolved to try this method, and also the watery infusion; and, +moreover, the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin. This +latter preparation was carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, +by Dr. John Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales. + +"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too many, were +now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's Hospital. They were +admitted in all stages, from an early one to the most advanced. On each +admission the case was carefully examined; the history, symptoms, and +physical signs were exactly noted; and the patient was weighed on a +stage balance with great accuracy. The patient was put as much as +possible on the mullein treatment only. For obvious reasons, no +cod-liver oil, koumiss, or other weight producer was given; the patients +got the diet suitable to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms +became troublesome, received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, +however, they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, they +were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that this should +be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, with the same +clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the same conditions. In +securing this the patients anxiously co-operated; and it was frequently +amusing, but sometimes painful, to watch the satisfaction or chagrin +with which the weekly result was received. I must here tender my +acknowledgments to our zealous, attentive, and accurate house surgeon, +Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom this important, but tedious, duty was +discharged." + +Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein plant has +been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that these cases, +although too few to justify any general conclusion, appear to establish +some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the +patients; in watery infusion it is disagreeable, and the succus is still +more so. The hot milk decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic +neighbors call _pectorale_) sensation, and when once patients take it +they experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the patients +scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical +sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of checking phthisical +looseness of the bowels was very marked, and experiment proved that this +was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled +milk. It also gave great relief to the dyspnoea. For phthisical night +sweats it is utterly useless; but these can be completely checked by the +hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the +atropia sulphate; the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, +as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of weight, +nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. Carrick, in +his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of Southern Russia (page +213), says: "I have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight, +while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs, and the +evening temperature rarely fell below 101° Fahr. Until then I considered +that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the +arrest of the malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does +not; but unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive invalid +must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In pretubercular and +early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein appears to have a distinct +weight-increasing power; and I have observed this in several private +cases also. Having no weighings of these latter, however, makes this +statement merely an expression of opinion. In early cases, mullein milk +appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when +we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth +a trial. I will continue the research by careful weighings of early +cases; and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of +mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the +phthisical bacillus. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE. + + +Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude that the +use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of +bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This increased flow is +beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder. A +subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of +bile into the gall-bladder, and this also is of service in emptying out +any stagnant bile, and restoring the normal condition when this is +disturbed. Artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a +similar action to the natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the +action varies according to the concentration of the solution. +Bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting +effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and +weak solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much +like that of the mineral waters. + + * * * * * + + + + +VIVISECTION. + + +Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is as +old as science itself. + +Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century of the +Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is regarded as +having merited his name (_Galenus_, "gentle") from the mildness of his +character. Five centuries before him, under the Ptolemies, Egyptian +experimenters had operated upon condemned persons. So, then, vivisection +is not, as usually thought, a diabolical invention of modern science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals +that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the hog, and the +dog, and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a +little of everything. Claude Bernard, however, had another way of +looking at things. It is true that he especially made researches into +the general laws of physiology, the secret of the vital functions, and +the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living +matter, but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art +of curing. He left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing +conclusions from his great work in biology, and of acting experimentally +upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of +therapeutics. So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the +animal scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him +greater service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded +animals offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present more +accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so much account +of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary in many cases to +choose subjects that possess endurance. The unfortunate frog, so aptly +named "the Job of physiology," becomes resigned to living under most +dreadful conditions, and when, through sheer exhaustion, he has +succumbed, his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of +experimentation for twenty-four hours. Thanks are due to nature for +giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest +batrachian! We owe to it the famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta +to the discovery of the pile and what followed it, the astonishing +conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are +now in their dawn. Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the +homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been +imposed upon this brave animal! + +[Illustration: Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for +the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it. No one, +however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it, but it is +only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed. +Does the abuse exist? That is the question, and it may be answered in +the affirmative. Yes, we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon +animals. It is a culpable folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat +barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known +physical fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it +would only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be +confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask that it be +confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the exclusion of visitors, +and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and +giving a programme of researches to be made. It is useless to seek in +the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a series +of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of +vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by Claude Bernard. Fig. +1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an +iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in +which hares or cats are placed in order to anæsthetize them. Fig. 4 +shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of +fixing him on his back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting +table, and Fig. 7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the +general arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anæsthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) the +extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the muzzle is +applied for anæsthetizing, and gives the details of construction of the +chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used +for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting +table.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL. + +[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association for the +Protection of the Insane and translated for the American Psychological +Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.] + +By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany. + + +The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and which +require different means in order to attain lasting success. Since the +number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years, in +all civilized countries, so that the responsibility of the proper charge +of them occupies continually not only the community, but also the State; +and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost +before they are finished, it becomes necessary to rid the institutions, +as soon as possible, of those patients which have been cured, as well as +of those which are improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as +possible, returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the +expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial +influence, besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found that +the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of +sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests. +Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns +to the institution, after a short lapse of time, because the "rudder" +(steuer) of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life. +How can, for instance, the indigent and poor patient, after his +discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the +proper care, stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of +his family? Is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those +who have been discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand +the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul? + +Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of benevolent +people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and +humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish social evils, whose object +is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the +institution, at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance. +Switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant +example, and there these societies found the greatest encouragement. It +should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times, that +the seed of true humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far +and wide, for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all +European countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch +of a truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by aiding +them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct donations of money, +etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a relapse of the disease. +May this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain +of joy and satisfaction to your members! + +Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, namely, +_the prevention of insanity_. It is nevertheless true, and cannot be +doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner +which is out of proportion to the increase of the population. Much +thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon, and physicians +as well as moralists, national economists as well as philosophers and +philanthropists, have endeavored to fathom the connection between this +fact and the conditions of modern social life. According to all +observations, it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a +single etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in +the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which give +rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in +which modern civilization influences mankind, in its development and +culture, in the family and in the school-room, in its views of life and +habits; also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a +heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions, power and +knowledge, and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance. + +More than even civilization itself, are at fault those pernicious +abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted from generation +to generation, or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to +our civilization. If we want to prevent the increase of insanity, we +must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities +from our social life which remove mankind more and more, in a pernicious +manner, from its natural development and from the normal conditions of +moral and physical life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous +offshoots of pseudo civilization, which are the enemies of the normal +existence of man. It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as +the entire society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which +spurs man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile decay of +both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which causes the +modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over +excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is necessary to strengthen more +than has been done heretofore the young, by means of their education, in +their physical development, and at the same time to diminish, in proper +proportion, the amount of mental over-exertion; and finally it is +necessary to fight against, to do away with, those habits of modern +society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well +as the mental and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there +is none so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as +well as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors. + +Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase +of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only on account of +its existing relation, but particularly because intemperance, among all +the factors which aid in the increase of insanity, can best be +diminished, and its influence weakened, through the will of the single +individual, as well as of society as a whole. The relation between +intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear, that it is not +necessary to adduce proofs of this fact. I will not refer to the +writings of the older authors, such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, +Macnish, Carpenter, and others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; +Ramaer, in Holland; Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and +others, in France; Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in +Germany. I could name a much larger number of the greatest modern +authorities on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding increase +of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those countries in +which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and particularly in the +form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn, has only in later +years become general. Thus Lunier has shown the number of alcoholic +insane increased by ten per cent. in those departments in which more +whisky and less wine is consumed. + +In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and in that +country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, Castiglione, Ferri, +and others) the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol +stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in +certain provinces of Italy. + +In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members was, +that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of +insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, and +alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease. +Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that intemperance, +without hereditary predisposition, was one of the most powerful agencies +in the production of aberration of the mind. Even Beckwith, who could +not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as +an etiological element, says distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, +the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease. + +In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces +of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public +institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report +of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that everywhere, where the +number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, was +greatest, the number of insane was also largest. Without doubt, to my +mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most +potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases. + +As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve +centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity. In +consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an +acute intoxication takes place, which may range from a slight excitation +to a complete loss of consciousness. After habitual abuse of alcohol, +the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant +and disappear the less, as in the central organs degenerative processes +are more and more developed, processes which lead to congestions and +hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself, to +softening or hardening, and finally to disappearance of the brain +substance. These degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a +progressive decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the +ethical functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and motor +disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy. + +The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol +intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if we assert that +from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand in a direct or +indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of +intoxicating liquors. This is the opinion of a large number of +authorities on mental diseases in all countries. Habitual intemperance +leads to severe (psychical?) lesions (of the nervous system) which may +show themselves in the different forms of insanity, but express +themselves chiefly as mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous +system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in +those whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention. + +An investigation among the patients in the insane department of the +Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was lately +carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des Alcoholismus zur +Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed that among 607 patients +who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 +per cent. had been addicted to drink; 133 before, and 17 after the +disease had shown itself; further, that of 1572 patients with delirium +tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per +cent., were epileptic; and that in 221 intemperance was present before +the outbreak of epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which +entered the department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., +were inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per cent. +were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of intemperate +parents. + +If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, does +directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, the +baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the intemperance of +parents, upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as +great and disastrous. The children of intemperate parents frequently +become drunkards themselves; they have inherited a degeneration of the +vitiated constitution, and carry the stamp of this degeneration within +themselves. The offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, +and die early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born idiotic, or +show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of alcohol, the +individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved, +and, according to the law of inheritance, is transmitted through the +progeny to the race. + +Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease (Stuttgart, +1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names alcoholism among the +transient abnormal conditions which, during conception, exert their +influence, so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological, +and especially neuro-pathological, dispositions. Intemperance, says this +author, in its acute, as well as in its chronic form, causes frequently +pathological changes in the nervous system, and thus may the +pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially +explained. On account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological +constitution, the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from +an abnormal psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, +epileptics, suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of +drunkards, do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, also of +depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime. + +Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated facts, +nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as +inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity; and +that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity, toward +the prevention of mental diseases, must be directed against this +widespread evil, intemperance. + +May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a +narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot +be too much contended with. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC. + +[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.] + +By J.W. COLCORD. + + +Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic properties of +plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my attention, I +determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered. Having a +shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article, +I was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments. +Believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than +from dried, I expressed the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" +mill, obtaining about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. +The juice was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the press +into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol, +evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, mixing with the +12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of alcohol. This +preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents virtually equal +parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a dark brown color with a +marked odor of the recent plant, and so far, after standing three months +undisturbed on my shelves, shows no sign of precipitation. + +My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed +juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing three months, +the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of precipitation. This, I +think, promises to be the most efficient preparation, and will prove +valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, +and similar disorders. + +Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and +alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of +alcohol. + +In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about +equal proportions, and was removed about one month after making by +filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of precipitation +since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown liquids. + +Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had sufficient trial +to form an opinion, although, as far as I can judge, they have proved +satisfactory. While writing this article, a cook from a neighboring +restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer, exposing the +bone, came in for treatment. Having bandaged I applied the glycerate, +which soon stopped the profuse bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it +to apply subsequently. I asked her to report to me in two or three days, +and, on reporting, I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic +properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have +been able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds. + +The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the +purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our +list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more +extended experiment.--_New Remedies_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DANGER FROM FLIES. + + +Dr. Grassi is said (_British Medical Journal_) to have made an +important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to flies. It +was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of +infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known that they are +capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various +worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in their fæces. This +point has now been established, and several striking experiments +illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a +great number of the eggs of a human parasite, the _Tricocephalus +dispar_. Some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen, which +stands about ten meters from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual +little spots produced by the fæces of flies were found on the paper. +These spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were then +caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova. Similar +experiments with the ova of the _Oxyuris vermicularis_ and of the +_Toenia solium_ afforded corresponding results. Shortly after the flies +had some mouldy cream, the _Oidium lactis_ was found in their fæces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every +one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, and +afterward examine the fæces and intestines of the flies; numerous spores +will be found. As flies are by no means particular in choosing either a +place to feed or a place to defecate, often selecting meat or food for +the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is +raised. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. + + +The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents, +alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our illustration, must +be commended as a valuable improvement of the Zoological Society's +establishment in Regent's Park. This building, which has a rather +stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, constructed of brick and +terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, stands close to the south +gate of the Gardens, entered from the Broad Walk of the Park. The +visitor, on entering by that gate, should turn immediately to the left +hand, along the narrow path beside the aviary of the Chinese golden +pheasants, and will presently come to the Reptile House, which is too +much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious +interior, represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places +in the whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, +very nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and in +baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with substantial +margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over +them, while one basin is further protected by an iron grating, contain +water in which the alligators, the infant crocodiles, and a number of +tortoises, but none of the larger species, make themselves quite at +home. One side of the house, with its windows looking into a pleasant +airy vestibule, is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller +lizards, with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, +which present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large wall +cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, rising about +14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are confined--the huge +pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the poisonous cobras and +rattlesnakes, and others well known to the visitors at these gardens. +Each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind, to which the +keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall, and +there are doors also from one compartment to another. The floor is of +smooth slate, and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or +to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its +exercise and amusement. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY.] + + +THE BABIROUSSA. + +We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, a male +and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the society by +Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, in the Malay +Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the +ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The babiroussa is a +species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of Eastern Asia, and +remarkable, in the male animal, for the extraordinary growth and +direction of the canine teeth. The upper pair of canine teeth, growing +out through the upper jaw, curve backward and upward on the forehead, +having somewhat the aspect of horns; while the lower canine teeth form a +pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for +defensive fighting, as a guard to the head, but could not serve for +attack. The skull of a babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in +the possession of Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the +Zoological Society's collection.--_Illustrated London News_. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE.] + + * * * * * + +Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797. + + + + +ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY. + +PART IV. + +By NELSON H. DARTON. + + +Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old one, and +well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits prescribed in +introducing this series of paper, but by only a few miles, and being +such an interesting locality, I have included it in the granular +limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a +space of ten acres, about two miles north of the railroad station of +Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and +Western Railroad, and is reached by a road running north from about a +mile east of the railroad station. This road branches into two at the +limestone kilns, about a mile from the railroad track, and the left hand +branch is taken, which leads more directly to the quarry, which is on +the right hand, about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the +loose rock lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. +John J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for agricultural +purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles. +Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so +characteristic of the locality, and for which it has become +famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite pyrites, biotite, +aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly others in lesser quantity. + +_Serpentine_.--All the varieties of this species, and of every color +from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed through the +limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets. It is +generally soft, translucent, and to be found in masses from a pea to a +cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure oil green color, rich and +translucent, making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen. +No difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this +mineral, as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of +the quarry, as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as +being useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as marmolite, +which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together +similar to mica, but of the green color of the serpentine picolite, or +fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs of a light grass green color, +and is a very interesting variety. + +In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to procure +that which is the most translucent, and that holding miniature veins of +asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine +alone, but occur in the southern end of the main quarry. The width of +these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch, but those of even much +less are highly prized as specimens. These veins of asbestos are, in +places, several inches in length, but are generally much broken in +removing them, as their fibrous structure, at right angles to their +length, makes them very fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can +seldom be found. However, they make much finer specimens when with the +serpentine. Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this assortment +is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which they were +formed, which was by a process termed segregation. + +This gurhofite, called bone +by the quarrymen, occurs in white, dense looking masses, intermingled +with the serpentine, especially in the upper end of the quarry, where +veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant, and from which +specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the +gurhofite and the association with the serpentine, to which it is found +attached; it is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and +need not be mistaken for it. + +_Phlozopite_.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, near the +asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, which is a +variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery +white color, and from one by three inches in area to less. It is easily +separable in folia, and cannot be confounded with any of the other +minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral +is exposed, whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals. + +_Pyrites_.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic +rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very fine, perfect crystals +may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock. There is no particular +portion of the quarries in which they abound. + +_Biotite_.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of a dark brown +color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of +limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; on the north +wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, and there even in +large number, in a locality, generally a pocket in the gneiss. + +_Tremolite_ is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the +extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the main one, +over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white crystals, about a +quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length. The +crystals are opaque, but very smooth and glistening, lining cavities in +this mass of limestone. It is a variety of hornblende, composed of +silica, lime, and magnesia, with a little alumina. It probably occurs in +places in the vicinity of this block, and in finer specimens, as these +are frequently, when near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is +a characteristic granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. +We will again meet it when examining the New York city localities. + +_Aragonite_ occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow color and +fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When they are separated +by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the fibers are very large, +coarse, and brittle, and thus do not resemble asbestos, although in some +instances they might be mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from +it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate +of lime, and also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it may +occur in greater profusion. + +Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being in the +form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with aragonite of +a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. As before noticed, +Staten Island is the best locality for this species. + +_Calcite_.--In places the limestone is perfectly crystallized, and of a +pure white or other color, when it forms an attractive mineral, and +often worth removing. The limestone of the main quarry, carefully +averaged, was found to have the following chemical composition. + + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 + +In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from its rough +state resembles "_verde antique_," and at that of a beautiful color; +samples of this should be obtained. + +_Feldspar_.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between +the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh red color and +often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an inch and a half in +length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily distinguished from +calcite, which it much resembles, but which has only a hardness of 3, +and dissolves with effervescence in acids. + +A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a +holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many interesting +and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip as well. In +reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and if one has an +early start these may all be visited. I will describe a few of these, +which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing +geological features and not far from the main line of travel. + +Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the first stop +may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey City. Here a visit +to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken; and as I have +written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these +articles,[1] I will not reiterate it here, but refer to that paper. The +mine, I might add, is only a mile north of the railroad station, and on +Schuyler Avenue, a short distance north from its junction with the +Jersey City and Paterson turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and +walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep +cut, the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so +large a portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. At a +point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of +shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity +in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, and is a point at which +the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically, the western side +remaining in its original position. This fault has a thrust of only +three feet, but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a +tremendous scale in some of the other formations. It will be noticed +that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of +a talcky substance, which has been derived from infiltrating waters. +Fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled +in a similar manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further +west a short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its +banks for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington pumps +and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The Passaic +River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and Paterson road may +be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence it is two miles east +to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the bank of the Passaic may be +followed and the quarries reached in an hour from Belleville. Here again +are met the sandstones and shales, besides another and larger fault, and +many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be +examined. The railroad station having been regained, Paterson is the +next point of interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the +city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these +may be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of the +station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above +and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales and +conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track (the +Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed for some +distance west, when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the +railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap; this is noticed +as a depression in the face of the cliff, and it may be seen by the +superposition of the layers of trap and basalt. Where the fault occurs a +short distance further west, there is another smaller fault. A visit to +the Great Falls of the Passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this +point, and these are about a half mile north of this locality. Here the +arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, +and the mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one +of these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to the +Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein the +contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous +additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is the best point +in which to find these exposures, and from the viaduct crossing the +river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained. +Regaining the train, Montville is soon reached and visited, and after +this, if time sufficient Boonville, two miles west, may be taken in, or +it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train, as but few stop +at Montville. At Boonton there are many interesting features--iron works +furnaces, localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor to +give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + +[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + + * * * * * + + + + +DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM. + + +An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus Gate, +Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine +Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The ruin has proved +to be one of great extent, and of special interest. The way in which it +was brought to light is worth recording. In an uneven field, which rose +considerably above the land about it, parts of which appearing, indeed, +like little hillocks, the owner of the soil tried to maintain a +vegetable garden, but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor +vegetables would flourish, and even irrigation did little or no good; +besides, here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could +not be accounted for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what +there was below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very +soon came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. The +amount of _débris_ which had accumulated above the floor of these +buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this mass of earth has +required much time and labor, and the work is not yet completed. The +piece of ground in question has about 60 yards of frontage on the main +road, and extends, so far as the excavations go, about the same distance +back from the road, that is, to the east. + +The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, and is +very near the street. The ground in front of the church is paved with +fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was entered were 5 +feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat wider. From the entrance +to the altar step, or platform, the distance is 55 feet, and from that +point to the back of the apse 15 feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is +16 feet 6 inches. The width of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet +in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a +manner similar to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This +wall, also those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally painted, and +some of the figures and designs can still be traced. At the southeast +corner of the church, leading from the apse, there is a narrow but well +built passageway to the buildings in the rear. The character of these +buildings is not very evident; certainly they did not stand on a line +with the church, but at an angle of 25° with that line. Between the +church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear, +there was a passage not over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear +of the church is 47 feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 +feet more of a special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and +which had a beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic floor +is 140 feet. + +On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall of the +main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 feet 6 inches +long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This is considerably +wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even the entrance of the +church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have been found, but in one +place two or three square yards have been preserved, enough to show that +the work was extremely beautiful. The colored tracings resemble those in +the church on the Mount of Olives, and on one side are the large Greek +letters [Theta][epsilon][omicron][nu]. North of this mosaic floor, and +of the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has been +leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced in an +east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 inches +deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From about the +middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs 20 +feet or more to the north; it is possible that it led _from_ the north, +and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west. +Piles of stones and _debris_ prevent us at present from deciding as to +the length of the channel or where it comes from. In the bank of +_debris_, which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height +of 20 feet, there is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed +of cement, running north and south at right angles to the line of the +church and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic +pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of +_debris_ which is yet to be removed. + +In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is found, +very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut channel, there +is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of the floor. The tomb +is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered by a doorway 26 inches +wide, which is well built, and in the sides of which are grooves for a +door to slide up and down. On the wall of the tomb at the east end there +is a raised Greek cross, 22 inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot +stand erect in its highest part, but it is to be considered that the +loculi are two-thirds full of _debris_, composed chiefly of decayed +bones and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The loculi are +2 feet in depth. + +What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," turn out +to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 feet long by +28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided (one or two of +them at least) into apartments by means of arches. The lower courses of +the walls, to the height of several feet, are of squared stones, while +the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work, which was covered +with a heavy coating of plaster. The threshold of one has been exposed, +which is 6 feet in the clear, and the sides of the doorway show +excellent work. + +Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each 33 inches +in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of which were +nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were closed, were many +feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began, hence +no one knows how old the water in them may be. Some of the slabs with +which the church was paved were 6 feet long by 2½ feet wide. In the +church two pieces of cornice were found, each 8 feet in length. One is +entire and quite plain, while the other is broken in the middle. It is +upon this that the figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were +painted. They can still be traced, although exposure has nearly +obliterated the colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken +glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great +value. The top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a +basin, and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water +to run off. + +South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there +is a large underground chamber with seven openings (each the size of a +man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 feet wide and nearly 20 +feet long, but the depth is not yet ascertained, owing to the +accumulation of _debris_ on the bottom. On the west and north sides a +wall of solid rock appears to a depth of 6 feet, showing that the +chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock. The use of +this chamber does not appear evident, unless it may have been a store +room. The place within the city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a +similar chamber (not dug in the solid rock, however), with similar +openings in the ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some +distance to the east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to +purchase the land in that direction, in order to allow of the +excavations being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of +ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move with +aggravating slowness. + +Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that the west +wall of what he called the "main building," toward the apse of the +church, has been removed and the floor cleared, exposing a fine +pavement. This pavement, the threshold before mentioned, and the mosaic +floor all belong to one period, and to a structure very much older than +the date of the "main building." It puzzled the doctor, because the +threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of +the "main buildings," but the reason is now clear. Captain Conder says +of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he +was there, that "the whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As +regards the church itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor +especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At +the south side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the +largest cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick +stone 5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against +the wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two +halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest to state +that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since, and for +a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last it was sold for 40 +Napoleons. During the present year it has passed into the hands of the +French for 2,000 Napoleons. + + * * * * * + + + + +DAMMARA AUSTRALIS + + +One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of +such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, is the subject of +the present note. Some months since cones were observed to be forming on +this tree, and a representation of which we are now enabled, through the +courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay before our readers. We are not aware +whether the tree has previously produced cones at Kew, though we have +the impression that such is the case; at any rate it has done so +elsewhere, as recorded in the _Flore des Serres_, 1856, p. 75, but +fertile seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen. + +In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and +richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive tiers of +branches, which render it specially suitable for the decoration of +winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, where no great +amount of heat is required. In the northern island of New Zealand, +however, it is quite another matter, for there, where it is known as the +Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable of timbers, as may be judged +from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from 50 to +100 feet clear of the branches; moreover, it yields a gum resin like +copal, which exudes from the trunk, and which is sometimes found below +ground in the vicinity of the trees, thus giving the clew to the real +nature of amber and other similar substances. + +[Illustration: THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.] + +The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the construction +of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and elasticity rendering it +particularly suitable for this purpose, and Laslett speaks of it as one +of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand, and +recommends its use for the decks of yachts, for cabin panels, for +joiner's work generally, or for ornamental purposes. Owing to the +difficulty and expense of working the forests, and the great distance, +comparatively little of it comes to this country.--_The London +Gardeners' Chronicle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES. + + +Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods, +and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, than to buy +nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail because proper +precautions have not been taken. In digging up a tree, all the roots +outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off, and the tree is +reset with its full head of branches. Whoever has seen trees in the +forest that were upturned by a tornado, must have been struck by the +manner in which the roots run very near to the surface, and to a great +distance. When the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet +from the trunk, few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the +mass of tops is left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not +be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must +follow. If such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a +bare pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to meet +the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and growth above +and below ground is well balanced. + +We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or more +high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees treated +in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago. +They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show no signs of +former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the edge of the woods, +are better furnished with roots. These should be prepared for +transplanting by digging down to the roots, and cutting off all that +extended beyond the desired distance. This will cause the formation of +fibrous roots near the tree. It will be safer to take two years for the +operation, cutting half of the roots each year. Such trees may be +removed in safety, especially if a good share of the top is removed at +transplanting--_American Agriculturist_. + + * * * * * + +A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 *** + + + + +Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + + +</pre> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>Scientific American Supplement No. 415</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in +Steel.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Heat developed in Forging.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Recent Studies on the Constitution of +Alkaloids.--Extract from a lecture delivered before the +Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. --By SAML.P. SADTLER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#4">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for +Extracting Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By +Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description +and numerous engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic +Reaction--Figures showing plan and side views of the +steamer.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. +W.C. UNWIN. 4 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#10">TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and +Opals.--By A. GOODALL.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">The Manufacture and Characteristics of +Photographic Lenses.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. +EDER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By +Prof. REDWOOD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Anti-Corrosion Paint.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different +kilns used.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#16">ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHÆOLOGY.--The +German National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of +Peace and War.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">The Art Aspects of Modern Dress.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">Discovery of Ancient Church In +Jerusalem.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#20">ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 +engravings showing Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. +Electrolyzing Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens +Machine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#22">GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and +around New York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#23">NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's +Gardens, London.--With full page engravings showing the new Reptile +House, and the Babiroussa family.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#24">HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra +Australis.-- With engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">How to Successfully Transplant Trees.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#26">MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of +Congestive Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of +Pulmonary Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon +the Bile.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of +engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#30">Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful +as well as inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By +Dr. A. BAER, Berlin.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#31">Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">Danger from Flies.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE.</h2> + +<p>In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," +lately unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now +present, as beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two +statues, War and Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental +facade. These figures are about twenty feet high. The statue of War +represents an allegorical character, partly Mercury, partly +mediæval knight, with trumpet in one hand, sword in the +other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and modest maiden, +holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn of +peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." +Here the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, +surrounded by a noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, +commanders, and statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped +to found the empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German +nation.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/1b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/1b_th.jpg" alt= +"WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A writer in the London <i>Lancet</i> ridicules a habit of being +in great haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among +all classes of commercial men, and argues that in most cases there +is not the least cause for it, and that it is done to convey a +notion of the tremendous volume of business which almost overwhelms +the house. The writer further says that, when developed into a +confirmed habit, it is fertile in provoking nervous maladies.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS.</h2> + +<p>At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic +Society, Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having +expressed his belief that mere considerations of health would never +dethrone fashion, the lecturer said he should endeavor to show on +art principles how those who were open to conviction could have all +the variety Fashion promised, together with far greater elegance +than that goddess could bestow, while health received the fullest +attention. Two excellent societies, worthy of encouragement up to a +certain point, had been showing us the folly and wickedness of +fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, crippled the +feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the limbs, and +even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been more +successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or +might not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the +zero of artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. +We were inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without +rules to guide us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris +fashions and those of Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, +choose the former. Let it be shown that the substitute was both +sanitary and beautiful, capable of an infinite variety in color and +in form--in colors and forms which never violated art principle, +and in which the wearer, and not some Paris liner, could exercise +her taste, and the day would have been gained. This was the task he +had set himself to formulate, and so doing he should divide his +subject in two--Color and Form.</p> + +<p>In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the +meaning of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured +nation like the English should be so generally ignorant of the laws +of color harmony. We were nicely critical of music, yet in color +were constantly committing the gravest solecisms. He did not think +there were seventeen interiors in London that the educated eye +could wander over without pain. Yet what knowledge was so useful? +We were not competent to buy a picture, choose a dress, or furnish +a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say nothing of the +facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on porcelain, +art needlework, and a hundred occupations.</p> + +<p>An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the +effect they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be +worn in dark shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was +commonly called, olive green, went well together; but a dress of +full red or yellow would be painful to behold. The rule for full +primaries was, employ them sparingly, and contrast them only with +black or gray. He might notice in passing that when people dressed +in gray or black the entire dress was usually of the one color +unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that would lend beauty +to any color placed upon it.</p> + +<p>Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing +widely in hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating +itself to sudden changes, and a species of color discord was the +consequence. But if the colors, even though primaries, were of some +very dark or very light shade, they become harmonious. All very +dark shades of color went well with black and with each other, and +all very light shades went well with white and each other.</p> + +<p>A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my +complexion?" The generally received opinion was that the complexion +was pink, either light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, +working dire confusion. But no one living ever had a pink +complexion unless a painted one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade +were pink, and their pink dresses were in harmony. No natural +complexion whatever was improved by pink; but gray would go with +any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence to the dominant +hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce flesh color +he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The skin +of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea +green, tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color +always subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination +near it. Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside +pink altered it to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as +to have a muddy complexion, the worst color they could wear would +be their own complexion's complementary--the best would be mud +color, for it would clear their complexion.</p> + +<p>Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer +urged that the proper function of dress was to drape the human +figure without disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of +Miss Mary Anderson, attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was +exhibited, and the lecturer observed that while the dress once worn +by Greek women was unequaled for elegance, Greek women were not in +the habit of tying their skirts in knots round the knees, and the +nervous pose of the toes suggested a more habitual acquaintance +with shoes and stockings.</p> + +<p>An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as +illustrating the principles of artistic and natural +costume--costume which permitted the waist to be the normal size, +and allowed the drapery to fall in natural folds--costume which +knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays and "improvers"--costume +which was very symbolization and embodiment of womanly grace and +modesty.</p> + +<p>A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from <i>Myra's +Journal</i>, dated June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference +of the waist was but 12¾ in., involving an utter exclusion +of the liver from that part of the organization, and the attitude +was worthy of a costume which was the <i>ne plus ultra</i> of +formal ugliness.</p> + +<p>Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected +from a recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, +Why did women think small waists beautiful? Was it because +big-waisted women were so frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A +young girl had no waist, and did not need stays. As the figure +matured the hips developed, and it was this development which +formed the waist. The slightest artificial compression of the waist +destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the grown woman should +never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken the muscles of +the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A waist really +too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress was +designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner +garment should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress +should be as thin as possible, that it might drape itself into +natural folds. Velvet, from its texture, was ill adapted for this. +When worn, it should be in close fitting garments, and in dark +colors only. It was most effective when black.</p> + +<p>Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the +lecturer suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto +had been the too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could +be artistic without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without +clothes fairly in fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive +color their tailor pleased. He would suggest that any reformation +should begin with color.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY.</h2> + +<p>The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent +feature in the progress of building in the metropolis, and +speculative builders who work on a smaller scale would do well not +to ignore the fact. The Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings +Company (Limited) has been conspicuously successful in rearing +large blocks of dwellings for artisans, clerks, and others whose +means necessitates the renting of a convenient house at as low a +rental as it is possible to find it. We give an illustration of a +terrace of first-class houses built by the above company, who +deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal manner in which +they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at +Shaftesbury and Queen's Parks they have already built about three +thousand houses, employing therein a capital of considerably over a +million sterling, while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an +estate of one hundred acres, which will contain, when completed, no +less than two thousand six hundred houses, to be let at weekly +rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. 6d., rates and taxes all included. +The object has been to provide separate cottages, each in itself +complete, and in so doing they have not made any marked departure +from the ordinary type of suburban terrace plan, but adopting this +as most favorable to economy, have added many improvements, +including sanitary appliances of the latest and most approved +type.</p> + +<p>The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, +a road 60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of +the estate. On either side of this road the houses are set back 15 +ft., in front of which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a +suitable growth are being planted, as also on all other roads on +the estate. About the center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has +been reserved as a site for a church, and a space of five acres in +another portion of the estate has been set apart to be laid out as +a recreation ground, should the development of the estate warrant +such an outlay. The remaining streets are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in +width, clear of the garden space in front of the houses. Shops will +be erected as may be required.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/3a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/3a_th.jpg" alt= +"SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE DWELLINGS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.</p> + +<p>The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, +the surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. +Nowhere have these drains been carried through the houses, but they +are taken directly into drains at the back, having specially +ventilated manholes and being brought through at the ends of +terraces into the road sewers; the ventilating openings in the +roads have been converted into inlet ventilators by placing upcast +shafts at short intervals, discharging above the houses. This +system of ventilation was adopted on the recommendation of Mr. W.A. +De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the Tottenham Local +Board.</p> + +<p>All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the +whole area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every +room is specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in +order to prevent the passage of sound. A constant water supply is +laid on, there being no cisterns but those to the water-waste +preventers to closets. All water pipes discharge over open trapped +gullies outside.</p> + +<p>The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta +sills, the roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the +purpose of forming an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some +cases the central houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over +porches being similarly treated. The houses are simply but +effectively designed, and the general appearance of the finished +portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. All end houses of +terraces have been specially treated, and in some cases having +rather more accommodation than houses immediately adjoining, a +slightly increased rental is required. There are five different +classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate this +week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, +kitchen, scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and +water-closet on ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The +water-closet is entered from the outside, but in many first-class +houses another water-closet has been provided on the first floor, +and one room on this floor is provided with a small range, so that +if two families live in the one house they will be entirely +separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to 11s. 6d. per +week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, W., is +the architect.--<i>Building and Engineering Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS.</h2> + +<h3>By A. GOODALL.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland +Photographic Association.]</p> + +<p>The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or +enlargements on paper or opal has been before the public for two or +three years now, and cannot be called new; but still it is neither +so well known nor understood as such a facile and easy process +deserves to be, and I may just say here that after a pretty +extensive experience in the working of it I believe there is no +other enlarging process capable of giving better results than can +be got by this process when properly understood and wrought, as the +results that can be got by it are certainly equal to those +obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead +of any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino +bromide enlargement on opal.</p> + +<p>[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 +opal, using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for +two and a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant +opal was the result.]</p> + +<p>We now come to the paper process, and most effective +enlargements can be made by it also; indeed, as a basis for +coloring, nothing could well be better. Artists all over the +country have told me that after a few trials they prefer it to +anything else, while excellent and effective plain enlargements are +easily made by it if only carefully handled. A very good +enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just done, +with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have +the appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture +adhering to the glass, however, and at the same time to give +greater brilliancy, it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 +grain solution of clear gelatine before squeezing it down. The one +fault or shortcoming of the plain argentic paper is the dullness of +the surface when dry, and this certainly makes it unsuitable for +small work, such as the rapid production of cartes or proofs from +negatives wanted in a hurry; the tone of an argentic print is also +spoken of sometimes as being objectionable; but my impression is, +that it is not so much the tone as the want of brilliancy that is +the fault there, and if once the public were accustomed to the +tones of argentine paper, they might possibly like them twice as +well as the purples and browns with which they are familiar, +provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and some +time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +<i>Photographic News</i>, I set about trying to produce this result +by enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating +it with the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were +successful, and we now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which +the prints stand out with brilliancy equal to those on albumenized +paper. I here show you specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures +enlarged from C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic.</p> + +<p>[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from +landscape and portrait negatives, which it would have been +difficult to distinguish from prints on double albumenized +paper.]</p> + +<p>I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which +an argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion +transfer, for instance; but there is another and more important +point to be considered between the two, and that is, their +durability and permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, +unless most particular care be taken in the washing of it (and +those who have made them will well know what a delicate, not to say +difficult, job it is to get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, +and at the same time preserve the film intact), there is no +permanence in a collodion transfer, and that practically in nine +cases out of ten they have the elements of decay in them from the +first day of their existence. I know, at least in Glasgow, where an +enormous business has been done within the last few years by +certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being a +collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more +has been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at +the present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the +picture in disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a +collodion transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, +unless an amount of care be taken in the making of it which is +neither compatible nor consistent with the popular price and +extensive output. How now stands the case with an argentic +enlargement? Of course it may be said that there is scarcely time +yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic enlargements are +still only on their trial.</p> + +<p>I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset +that seven or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and +failed, but got one or two results which I retained as curiosities +till only a month or two ago; but up to that time I cannot say they +had faded in the least, and I have here a specimen made three years +ago, which I have purposely subjected to very severe treatment. It +has been exposed without any protection to the light and damp and +all the other noxious influences of a Glasgow atmosphere, and +although certainly tarnished, I think you will find that it has not +faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have lost nothing of +their original strength. I here show you the picture referred to, a +12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here state, in +short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads me +to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. +Chromotypes and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, +but their permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment +employed, and associated with the chromated gelatine in which they +are produced, most of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, +being unable to withstand the bleaching action of the light for +more than a few weeks. Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent +according to the degree in which the coloring matter employed is +capable of resisting the decolorizing action of light. But there is +no pigment in an argentic print, nothing but the silver reduced by +the developer after the action of light; and that has been shown +by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a very stable and not easily +decomposed nature; while if the pictures are passed through a +solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine also is so +acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to the +action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to +carbon pictures without carbon.</p> + +<p>I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes +met with in working this process; and first in regard to the +yellowing of the whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of +purity in the whites, especially in vignetted enlargements, and I +believe that this almost always arises from one or other of the two +following causes:</p> + +<p>First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate +developer; and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is +more in suspension than solution, and in the course of development +it is deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the +gelatinous film.</p> + +<p>The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated +solution of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has +been recommended by the highest and almost only scientific +authority on the subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of +potassic oxalate to 1 part of ferrous sulphate.</p> + +<p>Now while these proportions may be the best for the development +of a negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best +for gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that +potassic oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the +ferrous sulphate solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold +in proper solution for any length of time the compound salt formed +when the two are mixed.</p> + +<p>The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and +vignetted enlargements especially, should always be fresh and +pretty strong, so that the picture will clear rapidly before any +deposit has time to take place, as it will be observed that very +shortly after even one iron developed print has been fixed in it a +deposit of some kind begins to take place, so that although it may +be used a number of times for fixing prints that are meant to be +colored afterward it is best to take a small quantity of fresh hypo +for every enlargement meant to be finished in black and white. The +proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of water. Almost the +only other complaints I now hear are traceable to over-exposure or +lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the paper. The +operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, or +pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up +by blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black +stains and smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent +enlargements, but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently +developed, and cleanly and carefully handled.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC +LENSES.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced +his lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by +describing the method by which the necessary curves were computed +in order to obtain a definite focal length. The varieties of +optical glass were next discussed, and specimens (both in the rough +and partly shaped state) were handed round for examination. The +defects frequently met with in glass, such as striæ and +tears, were then treated upon; specimens of lenses defective from +this cause were submitted to inspection, and the mode of searching +for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and polishing lenses +of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a collection of +glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & Co., +and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were +gone into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the +processes was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which +he placed upon the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of +photographic lenses, and explained the influence of particular +constructions in producing certain results; positive and negative +spherical aberration, and the manner in which they are made to +balance each other, was also described by the aid of diagrams, as +was also chromatic aberration. He next spoke of the question of +optical center of lenses, and said that that was not, as had been +hitherto generally supposed, the true place from which to measure +the focus of a lens or combination. This place was a point very +near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" point, from +the name of the eminent German mathematician who had investigated +and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was of the +greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For +this drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo +Schroeder, now with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer +congratulated the newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John +Stuart, for his enterprise in securing for this country a man of +such profound acquirements. The subject of distortion was next +treated of, and the manner in which the idea of a non distorting +doublet could be evolved from a single bi-convex lens by division +into two plano-convex lenses with a central diaphragm was shown. +The influence of density of glass was illustrated by a description +of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent of the large family of +rapid doublets now known under various names. The effect of +thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious method +of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large +angle by pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in +the manner of the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by +requesting a careful examination of the valuable exhibits upon the +table, kindly lent for the occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES.</h2> + +<h3>By Dr. Eder.</h3> + +<p>We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved +formulas given below as translated by him for the <i>Photographic +Times</i>.</p> + +<p>Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention +to the soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer +certain advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage +becomes particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, +which frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, +or a fog of clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by +transmitted light. Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of +that kind; so do soda and potassa developers.</p> + +<p>For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, +without the addition of any bromide.</p> + +<p>More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. +No. 1: Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; +sodium sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 1½ +gr.; sodium sulphite, 25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is +for its better keeping qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's +solution.[A] The solutions when in well stoppered bottles keep well +for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. of water with 40 min. of +No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears quickly and more +vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable to decrease +the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. The +negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative +a deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which +excludes all possible necessities of an after intensification.</p> + +<p>[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; +1 gr. salicylic acid.]</p> + +<p>The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that +when iron developer is used, frequently even greater.</p> + +<p>The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. +Bromides in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce +the sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing +power almost entirely.</p> + +<p>Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution +of potassium bromide is quite sufficient.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical +Society of Great Britain, November 7, 1883.]</p> + +<h3>By Professor REDWOOD.</h3> + +<p>I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at +its recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more +particularly attracted my attention is that which relates to +prepared lard. Reference is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared +in different ways, and it appears from the results of his +experiments that when made according to the process of the British +Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from rancidity for so long a +time as some of the samples do which have been otherwise prepared. +The general tendency of the discussion, as far as related to this +part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same direction; +but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the question of +the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so specially +referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be.</p> + +<p>When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical +Society, suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which +consisted in removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, +by first thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after +breaking up the tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat +at a moderate heat, this method of operating seemed to be generally +approved. It was adopted by men largely engaged in "rendering" +fatty substances for use in pharmacy and for other purposes for +which the fat was required to be as free as possible from flavor +and not unduly subject to become rancid. It became the process of +the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it formed the basis of a +process, which was patented in Paris and this country by Hippolite +Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste and odor, and +suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. Mege's +process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." +This process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty +substance called oleomargarine.</p> + +<p>But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I +have been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the +effect that the washing of the flare before melting the fat was +rather hurtful than beneficial. I have reason to believe that this +opinion has been gaining ground among those who have carefully +inquired into the properties of the products obtained by the +various methods which have been suggested for obtaining animal fat +in its greatest state of purity.</p> + +<p>I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make +many experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, +and at the same time have been brought into communication with +manufacturers of oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of +which experience has been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of +the Pharmacopeia process. I have found that in the method now +generally adopted by manufacturers of oleomargarine, which is +produced in immense quantities, the use of water, for washing the +fat before melting it, is not only omitted but specially avoided. +The parts of the process to which most importance is attached are: +First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural fat, +which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the +freshly slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and +adhering portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; +after which it is cut up and passed through a machine in which it +is mashed so as to completely break up the membraneous vesicles in +which the fat is inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a +deep jacketed pan heated by warm water, and the fat is melted at a +temperature not exceeding 130°F.</p> + +<p>If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be +easily melted away from the membraneous matter at 120°F., or +even below that, and no further continuance of the heat is required +beyond what is necessary for effecting a separation of the melted +fat from the membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete +separation of all suspended matter is obviously important, and +therefore nitration seems desirable, where practicable; which +however is not on the large scale.</p> + +<p>My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described +is that best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in +pharmacy. There is, however, a point connected with this or any +other method of preparing lard which is deserving of more attention +than it has, I believe, usually received, and that is, the source +from which the flare has been derived. Everybody knows how greatly +the quality of pork depends upon the manner in which the pig has +been fed, and this applies to the fat as well as other parts of the +animal. Some time ago I had some pork submitted to me for the +expression of opinion upon it, which had a decided fishy flavor, +both in taste and smell. This flavor was present in every part, fat +and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from that fat would +not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been prescribed a fish +diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a better variety +of lard.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>ANTI-CORROSION PAINT.</h2> + +<p>The <i>Neueste Erfinderung</i> describes an anti-corrosion paint +for iron. It states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even +baryta, or strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil +paint, and then enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, +the free acid of the paint will be neutralized, while the iron will +be protected by the permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to +be buried in damp earth may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts +of resin (colophony), 25 parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of +paraffin, to which 20 parts of magnesia and some mineral oil have +been added.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>CARBON IN STEEL.</h2> + +<p>At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was +read entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in +Steel," by Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering.</p> + +<p>Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks +of steel 2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. +They were all cut from the same strip of metal, but some were +"cold-rolled," some "annealed," and some "hardened." The total +carbon was found to be: "cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, +1.128 per cent.; and annealed, 0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of +the disks were submitted to the action of an oxidizing solution +consisting of a cold saturated solution of potassium bichromate +with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated sulphuric acid. In +all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left undissolved. These +residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks employed, had the +following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 per cent.; +iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by +treatment with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the +carbon remains undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, +but only about one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in +the case of the hardened disk. The authors then give a +<i>resume</i> of previous work on the subject. In the second part +they have investigated the action of bichromate solutions of +various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about 0.098 inch thick, +which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per cent.; +silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four solutions +were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of bichromate and +9 per cent. of H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> by weight; the second +was eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the +fourth about one and a half times as strong. In all cases the +amount of solution employed was considerably in excess of the +amount required to dissolve the steel used. A residue was obtained +as before. With solution 1, the residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. +2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the atomic ratio of iron to carbon was +Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), 2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 +per 100 of steel. The authors conclude that the carbon in cold +rolled steel exists not simply diffused mechanically through the +mass of steel but in the form of an iron carbide, Fe<sub>3</sub>C, +a definite product, capable of resisting the action of an oxidizing +solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a rapid +solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES.</h2> + +<p>In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed +cuts (Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the +washer, C, slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which +reduces them to a fine pulp under the action of a continuous +current of water led in by the pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into +the iron reservoir, B, from whence a pump, P, forces it through the +pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is suspended by four bars and has a +backward and forward motion. By means of a rose, c, water is +sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve and separates the +fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged with fine +particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through the +tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. +This latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that +have not been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through +the tube, h, into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is +completely separated from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried +by means of a helix, i, to a revolving perforated drum at e. From +this, the milky starch flows into the jacket, N, while the pulp +(ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the apparatus through the +aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/4a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/4a_th.jpg" alt= +"ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, +which, like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward +motion, and which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to +separate the very finest impurities from the milky starch. The +refined liquid then flows into the reservoir, m, and the impure +mass of sediment runs into the pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, +forces the milky liquid from the reservoir, m, to the settling +back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, u, from the receptacle, +o, into a large pulp-reservoir.</p> + +<p>The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, +a, into the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, +r, into the different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion +by two shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred +revolutions per minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is +but fifty revolutions.--<i>Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de +l'Indust</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK.</h3> + +<p>A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about ¼ inch wide by 1/8 inch thick +and 13 inches long. Beginning ½ inch from the end, bore a +row of small holes only large enough for a darning needle to pass +through and half an inch apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the +third 1, the fifth 2, and so on to 12, so that the numbers +represent the distance from O in inches. A small slit may be made +in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, but a better plan +is to attach a small clip on one side.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/4b.png" alt= +"ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT."></p> + +<p class="ctr">ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.</p> + +<p>Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet +long; pass it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it +until it forms a single cord. Pass the needle <i>upward</i> through +the hole marked 0, and tie a knot in the end of the thread to +prevent its slipping through. The apparatus is now ready for +immediate use. It only remains to set it to the size of the oval +desired.</p> + +<p>Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer +diameter of which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 +inches. Insert a pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 +and 7, which is distant 6-½ inches from O. Pass the needle +through hole 5, allowing the thread to pass around the tack or pin; +draw it tightly and fasten it in the slit or clip at the end. Lay +the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, place the point of a +pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it around and +describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two ends of +the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied +to metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On +drawings it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with +pins.</p> + +<p>As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by +the string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a +crochet needle.</p> + +<p>As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given +width and length, but does not know what the distance between the +foci must be to produce this effect, a few directions on this point +may be useful:</p> + +<p>It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance +between the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the +sides of a right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the +greater diameter. Hence in order to find the distance between the +foci, when the length and width of the ellipse are known, these two +are squared and the lesser square subtracted from the greater, when +the square root of the difference will be the quantity sought. For +example, if it be required to describe an ellipse that shall have a +length of 5 inches and a width of 3 inches, the distance between +the foci will be found as follows:</p> + +<pre> + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. +</pre> + +<p>In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying +a foot rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch +the figure marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then +bringing the figure on the rule that represents the greater +diameter to the edge of the square; the figure on the square at +this point is the distance sought. Unfortunately they rarely +represent whole numbers. We present herewith a table giving the +width to the eighth of an inch for several different ovals when the +length and distance between foci are given.</p> + +<pre> +<br> + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. +<br> + 2 1 1¾ + 2 1½ 1¼ +<br> + 2½ 1 2¼ + 2½ 1½ 2 + 2½ 2 1½ +<br> + 3 1 1½ + 3 1½ 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 2½ 2¼ +<br> + 3½ 1 3-3/8 + 3½ 1½ 3-1/8 + 3½ 2 2-7/8 + 3½ 2½ 2½ + 3½ 3 1¾ +<br> + 4 2 3½ + 4 2½ 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 3½ 2 +<br> + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 +</pre> + +<p>For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus +for 7 and 4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to +3½ and 2, which is twice 2-7/8, or 5¾. It will be +noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are interchangeable.</p> + +<p>To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the +length of the desired oval in the first column of the table, and +the width most nearly corresponding to that desired in the third +column. The corresponding number in the middle column tells which +hole the needle must be passed through. The tack D, <i>around</i> +which the string must pass, is so placed that the total length of +the string AD + DC, or its equal AE + EC, shall equal the greater +diameter of the ellipse. In the figure it is placed 6½ +inches from A, and 1½ inches from C, making the total length +of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 6¼ inches wide.</p> + +<p>The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals +by fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is +recommended in all the text books on the subject. On the other +hand, the instrument may be set "by guess" when no particular +accuracy is required.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS.</h2> + +<p>The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years +ago, after a series of experiments made in poorly constructed +furnaces, to be unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most +writers with the remark, that in order to use the method +economically the products of distillation, both liquid and gaseous, +must be collected. T. Egleston, Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New +York, has read a paper on the subject before the American Institute +of Mining Engineers, from which we extract as follows: As there are +many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke cannot be had at such +a price as will allow of its being used, and where the ores are of +such a nature that wood cannot be used in a reverberatory furnace, +the most economical method of making charcoal is an important +question.</p> + +<p>Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any +shape and size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the +builder or by the necessities of the shape of the ground selected. +They do not differ from each other in any principle of manufacture, +nor does there seem to be any appreciable difference in the quality +of the fuel they produce, when the process is conducted with equal +care in the different varieties; but there is a considerable +difference in the yield and in the cost of the process in favor of +small over large kilns. The different varieties have come into and +gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of construction and +of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the cover of a +meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the meiler +and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has +all the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar +to itself.</p> + +<p>The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, +the round, and the conical, but the first two seem to be +disappearing before the last, which is as readily built and much +more easily managed.</p> + +<h3>ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS</h3> + +<p>Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone +together. Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not +necessary. The foundations are usually made of stone. There are +several precautions necessary in constructing the walls. The brick +should be sufficiently hard to resist the fire, and should +therefore be tested before using. It is an unnecessary expense to +use either second or third quality fire-brick. As the pyroligneous +acid which results from the distillation of the wood attacks lime +mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with fire-clay mortar, to +which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam mixed with +coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As the +principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is +especially necessary that all the joints should be carefully +filled, as any small open spaces would admit air, and would +materially decrease the yield of the kiln. The floor of the kiln +was formerly made of two rows of brick set edgewise and carefully +laid, but latterly it is found to be best made of clay. Any +material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It must be well +beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six inches +higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted +on the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered +with a coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does +not require to be renewed for several years.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/5a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF +CHARCOAL.</p> + +<p>The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect +the masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found +to result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued.</p> + +<p>The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The +diameter is not considered of much importance, except in so far as +it is desirable to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most +of the wood is small, and only a small part of it is large, the +large pieces are usually split, to make it pack well. It has been +found most satisfactory to have three rows of vents around the +kiln, which should be provided with a cast-iron frame reaching to +the inside of the furnace. The vents near the ground are generally +five inches high--the size of two bricks--and four inches wide--the +width of one--and the holes are closed by inserting one or two +bricks in them. They are usually the size of one brick, and larger +on the outside than on the inside. These holes are usually from +0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to 0.90 m. +apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of the +brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with +the floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is +sometimes an additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid +escape of the smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then +closed, and kept closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies +mostly to the best types of conical kilns. In the circular and +conical ones the top charging door is sometimes used for this +purpose. Hard and soft woods are burned indifferently in the kilns. +Hard-wood coal weighs more than soft, and the hard variety of +charcoal is usually preferred for blast furnaces, and for such +purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 per cent. or even +more in using hard woods. For the direct process in the bloomaries, +soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is not usually +advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters in +capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got +from kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft +wood. The average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, +two and a half to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, +or 30 to 40 bushels to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, +so that the loss in fine coal is very much diminished. The pieces +usually come out the whole size, and sometimes the whole length of +the wood.</p> + +<p>The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively +in use. They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of +wood. The usual sizes are given in the table below:</p> + +<pre> + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 +</pre> + +<p>1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. +4. Kiln at Lauton, Mich.</p> + +<p>The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of +No. 4, as constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a +good burn, will yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal.</p> + +<p>The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet +high, and 1-½ brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks +to the cubic foot of wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist +the expansion and contraction due to the heating and cooling, they +should be provided with buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 +wide, as at Wassaic, New York; but many of them are built without +them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as shown in the engraving. In both +cases they are supported with strong braces, from 3 to 4 feet +apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast iron, which are +buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below with iron +rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath the +floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, +which are securely fastened by iron rods running through the +corners, as shown. When a number of kilns are built together, as at +the Michigan Central Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the +plan view, only the end kilns are braced in this way. The +intermediate ones are supported below by wooden braces, securely +fastened at the bottom. The roof is always arched, is one brick, or +eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, fourteen being used in +each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in the center a round +hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, which is closed +by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. brick for a +kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is +so far from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it +is increasing more rapidly than the population of the United +Kingdom. The statistics of population show an increase of 16 per +cent. on the last decennial period, while the increase in the +United Kingdom in the ten years preceding the last census was under +11 per cent. This increase appears to be general, and is only +slightly influenced by immigration. "The population of the West +Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater than that of any of +the larger Australian colonies, and three times that of New +Zealand."</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING.</h2> + +<p>M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some +very interesting experiments on the development and distribution of +heat produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of +forging. The method used was as follows: The bar was carefully +polished on both sides, and this polished part covered with a thin +layer of wax. It was then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey +of known weight, P, falling from a height, H. The faces of the +monkey and anvil were exactly alike, and care was taken that the +whole work, T = PH, should be expended upon the bar. A single blow +was enough to melt the wax over a certain zone; and this indicated +clearly how much of the lateral faces had been raised by the shock +to the temperature of melting wax. The form of this melted part +could be made to differ considerably, but approximated to that of +an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of this zone, b the +width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, and +t-t<sub>0</sub> the excess of temperature of melting wax over the +temperature of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the +base of a horizontal prism, which is everywhere heated to the +temperature, t, the heating effect produced will be expressed +by</p> + +<p>Ab x d x C(t-t<sub>0</sub>)</p> + +<p>Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical +system, the energy developed in heat is given by</p> + +<p>T<sub>1</sub> = 425 AbdC(t-t<sub>0</sub>).</p> + +<p>Dividing T<sub>1</sub> by T, we obtain the ratio which the +energy developed in heat bears to the total energy of the blow.</p> + +<p>With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found +always to extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar +by the blow. We are speaking for the present of cases where the +faces of the monkey and anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar +the zone took the form of a sort of cross with curved arms, the +arms being thinner or thicker according to the greater or less +energy of the shock. These forms are shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will +be seen that these zones correspond to the zones of greatest +sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a sharp edged +hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done in this +sliding which is afterward transformed into heat.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/5b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat +developed and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than +had been expected when the other sources of loss were taken into +consideration. In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a +table given the limits vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. +with an energy of 40 kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an +energy of 90 kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly +constant at 70 per cent. It will be seen that the proportion is +less when the energy is less, and it also diminishes with the +section of the bar. This is no doubt due to the fact that the heat +is then conducted away more rapidly. On the whole, the results are +summed up by M. Tresca as follows:</p> + +<p>(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and +the energy of the blow.</p> + +<p>(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described +allows this heat to be clearly indicated.</p> + +<p>(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of +the material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the +mechanical cause which produces the heating effect.</p> + +<p>(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient +size, about 80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat.</p> + +<p>(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, +showing the distribution of the heat and the character of the +deformation in the bar.</p> + +<p>(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage +is not reliable.</p> + +<p>So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey +have sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are +somewhat different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in +the case of bars struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. +It will be seen that, instead of commencing at the edges of the +indent, the fusion begins near the middle, and appears in small +triangular figures, which gradually increase in width and depth +until at last they meet at the apex, as in Fig. 12. The explanation +is that with the rounded edges the compression at first takes place +only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner remaining +comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are +moderate in intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in +cases of holes punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when +examined, was found to have suffered the greatest compression just +below the punch. With regard to the percentage of energy developed +as heat, it was about the same as in the previous experiments, +reaching in one case, with an iron bar and with an energy of 110 +kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high figure of 91 per cent. With +copper, the same figure varied between 50 and 60 per +cent.--<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE.</h2> + +<h3>By Prof. C.W. MacCord.</h3> + +<p>The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a +propeller engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder +and valve gear were recently designed by the writer, and are in +process of construction by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of +Charleston, S.C.</p> + +<p>In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as +will be perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, +following nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed +by a shifting link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; +and the expansion valves are of the well known Meyer type, +consisting of two plates on the back of the main valve, driven by a +third eccentric, and connected by a right and left handed screw, +the turning of which alters the distance between the plates and the +point of cutting off.</p> + +<p>The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel +features, of which the following description will be understood by +reference to the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale +than the general plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Figs. 1-2<br> +IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.</p> + +<p>The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and +left handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it +is rotated.</p> + +<p>Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut +upon the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with +the eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases +the valve stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so +that it must both slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two +stuffing boxes, necessarily of comparatively large size.</p> + +<p>All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and +more compact, in the following manner:</p> + +<p>Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their +lower ends by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, +and at their upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling +snugly between two collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, +imparts a longitudinal motion to the latter, while at the same time +leaving it free to rotate.</p> + +<p>This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through +the upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by +means of a bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is +communicated to the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the +body of the latter and projecting inwardly so as to slide in +corresponding longitudinal grooves in the spindle.</p> + +<p>Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine +is running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of +the bevel pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the +index, which points out upon the dial the distance followed. These +details are shown in Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of +which it may be added that Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve +chest and its contents, the cover, and also the balance plate for +relieving the pressure on the back of the main valve (in the +arrangement of which there is nothing new), being removed in order +to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and spindle above +described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is a +transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by +a plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side +being a section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting +more clearly the manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve +chest; the latter having no pipes for this service, the steam +enters below the valve, at each end of the chest, just as it +escapes in the center.</p> + +<p>The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of +this kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular +position in relation to the crank being changed when the engine is +reversed; two strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the +eccentric in one direction, the other in the opposite, by acting +against the reverse faces of a projection from the side of The +eccentric pulley.</p> + +<p>The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in +connection with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of +reversing an engine when driving a single slide valve. Its use in +connection with the Meyer cut-off valves, however, is believed to +be new; and the reason for its employment will be understood by the +aid of Fig. 6.</p> + +<p>For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering +them both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; +let L O M represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is +shown the port leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of +the main valve, at the beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will +then be apparent that the center of the eccentric must at that +instant be at the point, C, if the engine turn to the left, as +shown by the arrow, and at G, if the rotation be in the opposite +direction; C and G then may be taken as the centers of the +"go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, which operate +the main valve through the intervention of the link.</p> + +<p>Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in +effect revolves in the same direction about the center of the main +eccentric. Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, +represent the face of the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, +the back of the main valve, in which the port, C N, corresponds to +one of those shown in Fig. 4; and the motion of the cut-off valve +over this seat will be precisely, the same as though it were driven +directly by an eccentric revolving around the center, C.</p> + +<p>In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon +the assumption that the best results will be effected by such an +arrangement that when cutting off at the earliest point required, +the cut-off valve shall, at the instant of closing the port, be +moving over it at its highest speed. And this requires that the +center of the eccentric shall at the instant in question lie in the +vertical line through C.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/6b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/6b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Figs. 3-12<br> +IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.</p> + +<p>Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the +angle through which the crank will turn while the piston is +traveling that distance is readily found; then, drawing an +indefinite line C T, making with the vertical line, G O, an angle, +G C T. equal to the one thus determined, any point upon that line +may be assumed as the position of the required center of the +cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the stroke.</p> + +<p>But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same +manner when backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be +symmetrically situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O +M bisects and is perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the +cut-off eccentric be fixed on the shaft, its center must be located +at H, the intersection of C T with L M. This would require the edge +of the cut-off valve at the given instant to be at Q, +perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main valve would be +equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the eccentric, the +actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the real +eccentricity.</p> + +<p>This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if +the lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of +the cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close +the port. CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, +AB.</p> + +<p>The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter +decreases; therefore at some point they will become equal in +velocity, and the openings of the two ports will be the same; and +the question is, Will this maximum effective port area give a +sufficient supply of steam?</p> + +<p>This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine +under consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum +distance of 5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it +is found that the actual port opening for that point of cutting off +is three-fifths of that allowed when following full stroke, whereas +the speed of the piston at the time when this maximum opening +occurs is less than half its greatest speed.</p> + +<p>This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, +no longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is +reversed it ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the +angle, KOL. By leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, +by the means above described, through the angle, KOP, the desired +object is accomplished. The real eccentricity is now reduced in the +proportion of OK to OH, while the lengths of the cut-off valves, +and what is equally important, their travel over the back of the +main valve, are reduced in the proportion of CK to CH, in this +instance nearly one-half; a gain quite sufficient to warrant the +adoption of the expedient.</p> + +<p>The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the +manner of suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, +this link is used only for reversing, and is therefore always in +"full gear" in one direction or the other; and the striking feature +of the arrangement here used is that, whether going ahead or +backing, there is <i>no slipping of the link upon the link +block</i>.</p> + +<p>The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved +flat bar, L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the +link is hung upon the pins, which project from the sides of the +eccentric rods at their upper ends.</p> + +<p>This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next +to the eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which +projects the journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical +section by the plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer +end of a lever, M, which transmits the reciprocating motion to the +valve, through the rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected +with the lever, M, by the bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a +slotted arm, G, as shown in the end view, Fig. 10. The center line +of this slot lies in the plane which contains the axes of the +journal, J, and of the shaft, O.</p> + +<p>A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in +this block is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the +pin, A, of one of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as +shown in Fig. 8; and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, +with the upper end of the reversing lever, T, which is operated by +the worm and sector. The distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other +words the length of the lever, M, is precisely equal to the +distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right line; and the rods, R +and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also each of +precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, +as in Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end +is exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O.</p> + +<p>When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the +arm, G, and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions +will be identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of +the rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely +to the pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the +journal, J, so that the result is the same as though this eccentric +rod were connected directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being +also in line with B and J, and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it +will be seen that the bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as +though the two were rigidly fastened together.</p> + +<p>When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in +Fig. 12, the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the +arm, G, and is thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The +suspension-rod, S, will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, +will have been drawn, by the bridle-rod, R, into line with the +journal, J, and the bridle-rod itself will now vibrate with the +lever, M, whose sole motion will be derived from the pin, A.</p> + +<p>There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus +suspended and operated is run in "full gear," either forward or +backward.</p> + +<p>If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as +an expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip +while running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be +observed that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker +arm is one of vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion +relatively to the sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the +center, P, whose motion relatively to E is a small amount of +sliding in the direction of the slot, due to the fact that the +rocker arm itself, which virtually carries the block, E, vibrates +about O, while the suspension-rod, S, vibrates about another fixed +center. It will thus be seen that, finally, the block slip will be +determined by the difference in curvature of arcs <i>which curve in +the same direction</i>, whether the engine be running forward or +backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block slip +in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions.</p> + +<p>Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect +to reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, +while in the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable +feature.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI.</h2> + +<p>The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of +Mr. Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called +the Poti, which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly +differs from all others of her class, at least as regards her +model. Her extremities, which are strongly depressed in the +upperworks, and the excessive inclination of her sides, give the +boat as a whole a certain resemblance to the rams of our navy, such +as the Taureau and Tigre.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/7a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/7a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".</p> + +<p>A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. +Her water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in +no wise cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is +entirely of steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 +meters; extreme breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, +1.9 meters; displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound +one, is of 600 H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or +33-34 meters, per hour, and it will probably reach 40 +kilometers.</p> + +<p>The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., +and 2 Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be +sufficient for a voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 +knots.--<i>L'Illustration</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.</h2> + +<p>The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present +the means of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has +recourse to a motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. +The sail constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not +figure in our enumeration, considering the essentially variable +character of the force utilized.</p> + +<p>In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a +rude one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and +mollusks, and the mode that we now wish to make known is without +contradiction that which imitates these the best.</p> + +<p>Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in +effecting a movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and +forcing it out at the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists +cite whole families of mollusks that move about in this way with +great rapidity. It is probable that such was the origin of the +first idea of this mode of operating. However this may be, as long +ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in England, on this principle, +by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the patents of Allen +(1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli presented to +the Académic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century.</p> + +<p>Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. +This ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, +and was constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of +this was incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the +advantage that could be got from the idea. Another boat, the +Albert, was built at Stettin, after the same type and at about the +same epoch; and the question was considered of placing a reaction +propeller upon the Great Eastern.</p> + +<p>About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of +Cokerill de Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did +service as an excursion boat between Liége and Seraing. The +propeller of this consisted of a strong centrifugal pump, with +vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure engine. This pump sucked +water into a perforated channel at the bottom of the boat, and +forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling tubes. These +latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the sides of the +vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such a way +as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, +as in the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected +the propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the +propelling tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when +they were turned toward the front, she was thrust backward. When +one was turned toward the front and the other toward the stern, the +boat swung around. Finally, when the two mouths were placed +vertically the boat remained immovable. All the evolutions were +easy, even without the help of the rudder, and the ways in which +the propelling tubes could be placed were capable of being varied +<i>ad infinitum</i> by a system of levers.</p> + +<p>The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, +and took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and +forward, of 85 kilometers, with four stoppages.</p> + +<p>The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most +satisfactory. It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of +effective duty it would have been desirable to reduce the velocity +of the water at its exit from the propellers.</p> + +<p>Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the +system employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. +Seraing's experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and +the theoretic effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar +system of construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in +practice, falls to 40 or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases.</p> + +<p>It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary +pumps where effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., +we might obtain much better results, and it is this that justifies +the new researches that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot +& Pinette, whose first experiments we are about to make +known.</p> + +<p>In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and +the draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that +of the hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine +might be directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be +had of a sensibly constant speed, and without change in its +running; the production of waves capable of injuring the banks of +canals will be avoided; the propeller will be capable of being +utilized as a bilge pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the +boat will be able to run at any speed under good conditions, while +the helix works well only when the speed of the vessel corresponds +to its pitch; it will be possible to put the propelling apparatus +under water; and, finally, it will be possible to run the pump +directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, without +intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by +piles and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8a_th.jpg" alt= +"NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.</p> + +<p>We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the +description of which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram +that accompanies this article. The inventors have employed a boat +14 meters in length by 1.8 m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught +behind and 32 in front. The section of the midship beam is 70 +square decimeters, and that of the exhaust port is 4. At a speed of +2.2 meters per second the tractive stress, K, is from 10 to 11 +kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers per hour, or 3.75 meters +per second, the engine develops a power of 12 horses. The piston is +19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 centimeters. The +shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 revolutions per +minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction occurs at the +lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced out at +B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for putting +the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small +dimensions and is only used for <i>directing</i> the boat. The +vessel may be turned about <i>in situ</i> by opening one of the +receiving tubes, according to the side toward which it is desired +to turn.</p> + +<p>This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first +trials of her that have recently been made upon the Saône +have shown the necessity of certain modifications that the +inventors are now at work upon.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.]</p> + +<h3>By Professor W.C. UNWIN.</h3> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8b.png" alt="Fig. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes +carrying segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by +the motor, the power of which is to be measured. If the pulley +turns with left-handed rotation, the friction would carry the strap +toward the left, unless the weight, Q, were greater than P. If the +belt does not slip in either direction when the pulley rotates +under it, then Q-P exactly measures the friction on the surface of +the pulley; and V being the surface velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, +is exactly the work consumed by the dynamometer. But the work +consumed in friction can be expressed in another way. Putting +θ for the arc embraced by the belt, and μ for the +coefficient of friction,</p> + +<pre> + Q/P = ε^{μ^{θ}}, +</pre> + +<p>or for a given arc of contact Q = κP, where κ +depends only on the coefficient of friction, increasing as μ +increases, and <i>vice versa</i>. Hence, for the belt to remain at +rest with two fixed weights, Q and P, it is necessary that the +coefficient of friction should be exactly constant. But this +constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient of friction varies +with the condition of lubrication of the surface of the pulley, +which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in +a dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations +of the weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled +without impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors +Ayrton and Perry have recently used a modification of this +dynamometer, in which the part of the cord nearest to P is larger +and rougher than the part nearest to Q. The effect of this is that +when the coefficients of friction increase, Q rises a little, and +diminishes the amount of the rougher cord in contact, and <i>vice +versa</i>. Thus reducing the friction, notwithstanding the increase +of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, and the only objection +to it, if it is an objection, is that only a purely empirical +adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that the range of +the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of the +weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8c.png" alt= +"FIG.2 FIG.3"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG.2 FIG.3</p> + +<p>For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 +lengthens, Q increases, and the frictional resistance on the +surface of the pulley increases, both in consequence of the +increase of Q, which increases the pressure on the pulley, and of +the increase of the coefficient of friction. Similarly for any +increase of the coefficient of friction, the spring in Fig. 3 +shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface of the +pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction +on the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, +and the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is +less. Fig. 3, therefore, is the better form.</p> + +<p>A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break +set to a given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence +of any cause the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., +the difference of tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient +of friction would increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from +1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. 3. That is, the vibration of the spring, +and the possible error of measurement of the difference of tension +would be much greater in Fig. 2 than in Fig. 3. It has recently +occurred to the author that a further change in the dynamometer +would make the friction on the pulley still more independent of +changes in the coefficient of friction, and consequently the +measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. Suppose the +cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by the +motor and round a fixed pulley, C.</p> + +<p>For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, +but they are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the +spring balance be at the free end of the cord toward which the +pulley runs. Then it will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. +in the friction produces a somewhat greater variation of P than in +Fig. 3. But P is now so much smaller than before that Q-P is much +less affected by any error in the estimate of P. An alteration of +20 per cent. in the friction will only alter the quantity Q-P from +5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less than 6 per cent.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8d.png" alt="FIG. 4"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4</p> + +<p>To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer +are due to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are +caused by variations of the coefficient of friction of the +dynamometer. By making P very much smaller than in the usual form +of the dynamometer, any errors in determining it have much less +influence on the measurement of the work absorbed. We may go +further. The cord may be taken over four pulleys; in that case a +variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional coefficient only alters +the total friction on the pulleys 1¼ percent. P is now so +insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it is of +comparatively little consequence.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/8e.png" alt="FIG. 5"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 5</p> + +<p>The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in +the form Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the +author thinks that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V +grooves in the pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the +greatest resistance with the least variation of the coefficient of +friction; the heat developed being in that case neutralized by a +jet of water on the pulley. It would be quite possible with a +pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at 50 feet of surface +velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible wire, capable +of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable +value of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a +brake in the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and +with a brake in the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. +But since it would be easy to have two, three, or more wires side +by side, each carrying its load of 100 lb., large amounts of +horsepower could be conveniently absorbed and measured.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>SEE'S GAS STOVE.</h2> + +<p>This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided +with radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either +the upper or lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products +of combustion are discharged through a pipe of small diameter, +which may be readily inserted into an already existing chimney or +be hidden behind the wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas +flame is so well absorbed by radiation from the radiator rings that +the gases, on making their exit, have no longer a temperature of +more than from 35 to 40 degrees.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/8f.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/8f_th.jpg" alt="SEE'S GAS STOVE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SEE'S GAS STOVE.</p> + +<p>The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is +surrounded on all sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being +entirely of cast iron, it will last for a long time. The joints, +being of asbestos, are absolutely tight, so as to prevent the +escape of bad odors. The water due to the condensation of the gases +is led through a small pipe out of doors or into a vessel from +whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to change the hygrometric +state of the air. The consumption of gas is very small, it taking +but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic meters to a +temperature of 18° C.--<i>Revue Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India +last year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of +cattle, 46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, +2,606 were killed by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the +deaths occasioned by the attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused +by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 +by alligators; 18,591 wild animals and 322,421 snakes were +destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards amounting to +141,653 rupees.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY.</h2> + +<p>Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] +devised a method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste +and odor to impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic +hydrogen, the apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, +and afterward electrolyzers with platinum plates.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, +1882, p. 5472.]</p> + +<p>His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In +the zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to +employ zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state +presents grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower +part, under the influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an +obstacle to the free circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, +the cleaning presents insurmountable difficulties. This is why he +substituted for the clippings zinc in straight and corrugated +plates such as may be easily found in commerce. The management and +cleaning of the pile thus became very simple.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9a_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE +SPIRITS.</p> + +<p>The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the +form shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, +or, what is better, rectangular, because of the square form under +which the sheets of zinc are found in commerce.</p> + +<p>In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc +plates, b, b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating +with a flat one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been +scoured, first with a weak solution of caustic soda in order to +remove every trace of fatty matter derived from rolling, and then +with very dilute hydrochloric acid, and finally are washed with +common water. In order to facilitate the disengagement of hydrogen +during the reaction, care must be taken to form apertures in the +zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row with respect to the +bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 hectoliters contains +105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, whose total +weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing surface +of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50° to 60° Gay-Lussac. The raw impure +spirits enter the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a +sufficient stay therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, +into a reservoir, R, from whence, by means of a pump, they are +forced to the rectifier.</p> + +<p>The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged +through an aperture in the cover of the pile.</p> + +<p>As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with +alcoholic vapors may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. +The liquefied alcohol returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of +15°, the quantity of alcohol carried along mechanically is +insignificant. In order to secure a uniformity of action in all +parts of the spirits, during the period devoted to the operation, +the liquid is made to circulate from top to bottom by means of a +pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the liquid in the +vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation consists +in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the pile, +by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it.</p> + +<p>The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper +working of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the +following conditions:</p> + +<p>1. Impure spirits of 40° Gay-Lussac, and not water, should +be used as a menstruum for the salt of copper.</p> + +<p>2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive +solutions of ½ per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of +sulphate of copper per 100 square meters of zinc exposed, or a +total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate for a pile of 150 hectoliters +capacity.</p> + +<p>3. A temperature of 25° should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization.</p> + +<p>The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of +the alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each +charging with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days +to form the pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of +a chocolate-brown and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence +becomes much greater after a fortnight's operation.</p> + +<p>Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and +continuity of the reaction. Below +5° the couple no longer +works, and above +35° the reaction becomes vigorous and +destroys the adherence of the copper to such a degree that it +becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The battery is kept +up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of hydrochloric +acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 kilos. of +acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this acid +is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of +the copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of +operating from 18 months to two years without being renewed or +cleaned.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/9b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/9b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.</p> + +<p>Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to +deodorize the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a +rectifier. But, in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the +treatment by the pile with another one by electrolysis. The +voltameters in which this second operation is performed have +likewise been modified. They consist now (Fig. 2) of cylindrical +glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in height, with +polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite cover +through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the liquid, +E+E-E'+E', to circulate.</p> + +<p>The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, +R, which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per +hour. In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, +there is placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that +supplies them a second and constant level reservoir regulated by an +automatic cock.</p> + +<p>In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters +of impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished +to the voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors +in derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of +resistance wires interposed in the circuit of the inductors.</p> + +<p>The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by +means of a commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez +galvanometer. The voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted +in derivation in groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse +them in two parallel currents. The Siemens machine is of the type +SD<sub>2</sub>, and revolves at the rate of 1,200 times per minute, +absorbing a motive power of four horses.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="./illustrations/9c.png" alt= +"FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.</p> + +<p>The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected +by the metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages +this process presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and +simple distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. +Naudin:</p> + +<p>In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol +must undergo five rectifications in order that the products +composing the mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated +and sold according to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield +in the first distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss +experienced in distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 +per cent.; (4) the quantity of essential oils (mixture of the +homologues of ethylic alcohol) collected at the end of the first +distillation equals, on an average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of +a rectification may be estimated at, on an average, 4 francs per +hectoliter.</p> + +<p>All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the +electric method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an +average, 0.40 franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is +therefore considerable. For an establishment in which 150 +hectoliters of 100° alcohol are treated per day this saving +becomes evident, amounting, as it does, to 373 francs.</p> + +<p>We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying +spirits which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the +ordinary processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for +example, that artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the +old processes, give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that +derived from Indian corn.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES.</h2> + +<p>Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in <i>Neueste +Erfindung</i>.: Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a +stiff dough and pressed into moulds made of iron and brass. After +drying for a few days in a closed place, it is heated in a furnace +where it is protected from the direct flames and burned, feebly at +first, then strongly, the fire being gradually raised to white heat +which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The fire is then permitted to +slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the carbon is taken out of +the furnace.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS.</h2> + +<h3>By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia +College of Pharmacy.]</p> + +<p>The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very +different aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they +appeared fifty or sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass +of observations in most of these lines of study has enormously +increased during this interval. Were that all, the change could +hardly be considered as an unmixed benefit, because of the +increased difficulty of assimilation of this additional matter. +Many would be the contradictions in the observations and hopeless +would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. The +advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways.</p> + +<p>Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The +chemistry of the last century and the early decades of this was +largely a descriptive science, such as the natural history +branches, zoology, and botany are still in great part. Reasonably +exact mineral analyses were made, it is true, but the laws of +chemical combination and the fundamental conceptions of atoms and +molecules had not been as yet generally established. Now, this want +of comprehensive views of chemical reactions, their why and +wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the study of inorganic and +metallic compounds, but what must have been the conditions for +studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely spread in the +vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous that, in +the absence of any established relationships, not much more than a +mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists +have attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of +organic chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range +most carbon compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or +as benzol derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. +To do this, methods of analysis very different from those used in +mineral chemistry had to be applied. The mere finding out of +percentage composition tells us little or nothing about an organic +compound. What the elements are that compose the compound is not to +be found out. That can be told beforehand with almost absolute +certainty. What is wanted is to know how the atoms of carbon, +hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, for, strange to +say, these differences of groupings, which may be found to exist +between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification.</p> + +<p>The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required +very different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a +compound in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we +submit it to a course of treatment with reagents, which take it +apart very gradually, or modify it in the production of some +related substance. In this way, we are enabled to establish its +relations with well defined classes and to put it in its proper +place. Of equal importance with the analytical method of study, +however, is the synthetical. This method of research, as applied to +organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of modern +chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler +compounds. Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds +used in the arts attest its practical value. It may, therefore, +seem anomalous when I say that one of the most important of all the +classes of organic compounds has not shared in this advance. The +alkaloids, that most important class from a medical and +pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite recently been +defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, containing +nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives was +not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing +unknown. Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their +constitution was very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of +any of the more important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently +desirable thing to effect from every point of view. Within the last +five years, however, quite considerable progress has been made in +arriving at a clearer understanding of these most important +compounds, and I shall offer to your attention this evening a brief +statement of what has been done and what seems likely to be +accomplished in the near future.</p> + +<p>It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines +or ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic +character of these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential +element, and, above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way +these bases united with acids to form salts, not by replacement of +the hydrogen of the acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, +pointed unmistakably to this constitution. But with this granted, +the simplest alkaloid formulas, those of conine, +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>17</sub>N, and nicotine, +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>14</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, still showed that the +amine molecule contained quite complex groups of carbon and +hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of the alkaloids--the +non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the three elements, +carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the difficulty in +acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those alkaloids +at all comparable with that attained in the case of other organic +compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until analysis +had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried +upon the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of +the decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of +assistance to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this +field.</p> + +<p>It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of +ammonia-like bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or +amido-toluol, and xylidine or amido-xylol, which are utilized +practically in the manufacture of the so-called aniline dye-colors. +It is perhaps not so well known that there are other series of +bases found there too. The first of these is the pyridine series, +including <i>pyridine</i>, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N, +<i>picoline</i> (methyl-pyridine), +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>), <i>lutidine</i> +(dimethyl-pyridine), +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, and +<i>collidine</i> (trimethyl-pyridine), +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>2</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>. This +series is also found in relatively larger proportion in what is +known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry distillation of +bones.</p> + +<p>The second series is the quinoline series, including +<i>quinoline</i>, C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>7</sub>N, <i>lepidine</i> +(methyl-quinoline), C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>9</sub>N, and +<i>cryptidine</i> (dimethyl-quinoline), +C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>11</sub>N. The two compounds which give name to +these series, pyridine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N, and quinoline, +C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>7</sub>N, respectively, bear to each other a +relation analogous to that existing between benzol, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>6</sub>, and naphthalene, +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>; and the theory generally accepted by +those chemists who have been occupying themselves with these bases +and their derivatives is that pyridine is simply benzol, in which +an atom of nitrogen replaces the triad group, CH, and quinoline, +the naphthalene molecule with a similar change. Indeed, Ladenberg +has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as an alteration product +from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, from +methyl-pyridine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>), would +be derived an acid know as pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>CH<sub>3</sub>, and from +dimethyl-pyridine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>, an acid +known as pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N(COOH)<sub>2</sub>, just as phthalic +acid, C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(COOH)<sub>2</sub>, is derived from +dimethyl-benzol, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>4</sub>(CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>2</sub>. The same +thing applies to quinoline as compared to naphthalene.</p> + +<p>We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of +reagents upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most +efficacious in decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing +and reducing agents, of bromine, of organic iodides, of +concentrated acids and alkalies, and of heat.</p> + +<p>Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to +<i>conine</i>, first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to +be a secondary amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable +hydrogen atom of the original ammonia molecule. Its formula is +therefore C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>16</sub>NH. From conine can be +prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>14</sub>, conylene, homologous with acetylene, +C<sub>2</sub>H<sub>2</sub>. Conine, on oxidation, yields chiefly +butyric acid, but among the products of oxidation has been found +the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred to. The formula of +conine, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>17</sub>N, shows it to be homologous +with piperidine, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>N, a derivative of +piperine, the alkaloid of pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just +as piperidine is derived from pyridine by the action of reducing +agents, so conine is probably derived from a propyl-pyridine. The +artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric with the natural conine, +will be referred to later.</p> + +<p><i>Nicotine</i>, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>14</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, the +next simplest in formula of the alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that +is, contains no replaceable hydrogen atoms in its molecule. It +shows very close relations to pyridine. When nicotine vapor is +passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially collidine, +and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases such +as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120°C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, +and pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with +ferricyanide of potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>N<sub>2</sub>. Potassium permanganate, +chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C<sub>6</sub>H<sub>5</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>, which is simply +pyridine-carboxylic acid, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>4</sub>N(COOH), and +which, distilled over quick-lime, yields pyridine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N.</p> + +<p>Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up +first the opium alkaloids. <i>Morphine</i>, +C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>19</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>, is a tertiary amine, +and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction +with ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from +it, is <i>codeine</i>, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. +Besides the methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and +several have been recently prepared, giving rise to a class of +artificial alkaloids known as <i>codeines</i>. Morphine, rapidly +distilled over zinc dust, yields phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, +pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other bases. The action of strong +hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it into apomorphine, +C<sub>17</sub>H<sub>17</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>, by the withdrawal of a +molecule of water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda +solution change morphine into oxidimorphine, +C<sub>34</sub>H<sub>36</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>6</sub>. When heated +with strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine.</p> + +<p><i>Narcotine</i>, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated +with manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits +apart into opianic acid, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, +and cotarnine, C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>13</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>. This +latter, by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, +C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>7</sub>NO<sub>4</sub>, and this, on heating with +hydrochloric acid to 240° C., yields pyridine-dicarboxylic +acid, C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>9</sub>N(COOH)<sub>2</sub>. The base +cotarnine also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with +water alone. In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction +product meconine, C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, is +produced.</p> + +<p><i>Meconic acid</i>, C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>4</sub>O<sub>7</sub>, +which is found in opium in combination with the different bases, +has also been investigated. By acting upon meconic acid with +ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, when heated +with zinc dust, yields pyridine.</p> + +<p>If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. <i>Quinine</i>, +C<sub>20</sub>H<sub>24</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>, when +carefully oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, +yields a series of products. First is formed quitenine, +C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>22</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, a weak +base, then quininic acid, +C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>9</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N0<sub>6</sub>, +and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>6</sub>NO<sub>4</sub>. Now the two acids last +mentioned are simple substitution products of pyridine, +oxycinchomeronic acid being a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>2</sub>N(COOH)<sub>3</sub>, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>3</sub>N(COOH)<sub>2</sub>. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its homologues. The +alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base.</p> + +<p><i>Quinidine</i> yields with chromic acid the same decomposition +products as quinine.</p> + +<p><i>Cinchonine</i>, C<sub>19</sub>H<sub>22</sub>N<sub>2</sub>O, +the second most important alkaloid of these barks, when oxidized +with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic acid, which is a +quinoline-carboxylic acid, C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>6</sub>N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When +cinchonine is treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into +quinoline and a solid body, which on further treatment yields a +liquid base, C<sub>7</sub>H<sub>9</sub>N, which is probably +lutidine. It has been found, moreover, that both +tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled +with solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both +the pyridine and quinoline series.</p> + +<p><i>Cinchonidine</i>, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields +quinoline also, and with nitric acid the same products as +cinchonine.</p> + +<p><i>Strychnine</i> has been found to be a tertiary amine. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed.</p> + +<p><i>Brucine</i> is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by +substitution in a double ammonia molecule. When distilled with +potassium hydrate it yields quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric +collidines.</p> + +<p>The alkaloid <i>atropine</i> has been quite thoroughly studied +with results of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or +hydrochloric acid, it takes up a molecule of water and is split +into tropine, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO, and tropic acid, +C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>3</sub>. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180°C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C<sub>8</sub>H<sub>13</sub>N, a liquid base, with +an odor resembling conine. When this tropidine is heated with an +excess of bromine, it yields dibrompyridine.</p> + +<p><i>Piperine</i>, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well +studied. When boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a +molecule of water and splits apart into piperic acid, +C<sub>12</sub>H<sub>10</sub>O<sub>4</sub>, and piperidine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>11</sub>N. This latter base has been shown to be +a hydrogen addition product of pyridine, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>5</sub>N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine +hydrochlorate, also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180° +C., yields dibrompyridine.</p> + +<p><i>Sinapine</i>, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in +white mustard seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied +to atropine and piperine, quite different results. When boiled with +baryta water, sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, +C<sub>11</sub>H<sub>12</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, and choline, +C<sub>5</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO<sub>2</sub>, the latter a well-known +constituent of the bile, and produced also in the decomposition of +the lecithin of the brain and yolk of egg.</p> + +<p><i>Cocaine</i>, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by +heating with hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, +and a crystalline base, ecgonine, +C<sub>9</sub>H<sub>15</sub>NO<sub>3</sub>.</p> + +<p><i>Caffeine</i> and <i>theobromine</i> have also quite different +relations. Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of +theobromine, and can be prepared from it. When caffeine is +carefully oxidized with chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and +methyl-urea. Both theobromine and caffeine are decomposed by +heating to 240° C. in sealed tubes with hydrochloric acid, +identical products being obtained. These products are carbon +dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their +relations.</p> + +<p>If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way +of decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, +we review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids +mentioned, except the last four, a more or less immediate +connection with the pyridine and quinoline bases has been +indicated. The conviction accordingly forces itself upon us that, +if we want to attack the problem of building up any of these +important alkaloids artificially, we must turn to these bases as +our starting point.</p> + +<p>As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the +pyridine series also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, +picoline, lutidine, and collidine, the first four members of the +pyridine series, have, moreover, all been formed synthetically, +although the processes are not such as would yield the products as +cheaply as they can be gotten from Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the +first member of the higher series, had been made synthetically by +several chemists, but by expensive and involved methods, when +Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol and +glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline +with glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a +commercial scale if desirable. Shortly after, by an application of +the same principle, Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of +lepidine, the second member of the quinoline series.</p> + +<p>At the same time that this general agreement to consider these +bases as the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis +of the natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was +thought well to look into the question whether these bases and +their immediate derivatives had any therapeutic value of their +own.</p> + +<p>Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have +shown may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by +Dr. Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was +found to have an action upon animals in many respects resembling +that of conine. Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large +number of these pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, +moreover, that the hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a +physiological action quite analogous to that of conine.</p> + +<p>The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied +quite extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that +several of its salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very +like quinine, and capable in cases of being used as a substitute +for it. In general, the hydrogen addition products were found to be +more active than the simple base, an observation entirely in accord +with the theory formed by Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the +result of the study of the decomposition products of the alkaloids, +viz., the alkaloids are in general hydrogen addition products of +pyridine and quinoline, or of the two bases combined. Thus Prof. +Filehne found that hydrochlorate of tetrahydroquinoline was much +more energetic in its action than quinoline, but could not be used +on account of a too powerful local effect. The hydrochlorate of +dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was distinguished by its strong +bitter taste, much resembling that of quinine, had an effect like +that of curare poison. The most decided febrifuge action, however +was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the hydrochlorate of +oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice by Prof. O. +Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate of +tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of +"Kairolin." These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, +without any unpleasant after effects or local disturbances.</p> + +<p>The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of +the alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in +1880--Königs and Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. +The study of the decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids +especially points quite distinctly to the probable existence in +quinine of a hydrogen addition product of pyridine, in combination +with a methyl-quinoline group. The many experiments that are now +being made to test this and other questions that suggest +themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. Whether a practical +commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is another matter, but +it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps even of +probability.</p> + +<p>It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia +is formed <i>paraconine</i>, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural +conine, but differing in physiological action. By the action of +sodium upon pyridine is produced a compound +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>8</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, known as dipyridyl, and +this, under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms +and becomes <i>isonicotine</i> +C<sub>10</sub>H<sub>14</sub>N<sub>2</sub>, a physiologically active +alkaloid, isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a +series of alkaloids under the name of <i>codeines</i>, by the +substitution of other organic radicals instead of methyl in the +codeine reaction, has already been alluded to. <i>Atropine</i> can +be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, the two decomposition +products already noted. The latter of these products is already +shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and the other will no +doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial atropine is +identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also formed a +series of artificial alkaloids, called <i>tropeines</i>, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of +the compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as +<i>homatropine</i>, an alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but +possessing some decided advantages in its use. <i>Piperine</i> has +also been made by the uniting of piperidine and piperic acid, and, +as piperidine has already been formed from pyridine, we have here a +true synthesis also. Both <i>theobromine</i> and <i>caffeine</i>, +its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, which itself +can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano.</p> + +<p>We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the +last few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of +the alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, +keen-sighted chemists will effect their artificial formation. When +these most valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a +state of entire purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the +present extraction of them from relatively rare plants, organic +chemistry will have placed all of us under obligations as great as +those owing any branch of science, no matter how practical we call +it.--<i>Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE.</h2> + +<h3>By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York.</h3> + +<p>If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by +the apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. +Everywhere attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. +We are compelled to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to +the relative merits of various therapeutic measures, that those who +were foremost to disparage the treatment pursued by others were +totally ignorant of the fact that those same symptomatic +manifestations which they were considering might be owing to +entirely different causes from similar conditions described by +others. Hence a commensurate modification in therapy might not only +be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is more especially of +recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate the various +etiological factors involved in different forms of headache has +been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick +Headache," which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of +this particular form of headache. The work, however, is +conspicuously lacking in those philosophical qualities which are so +necessary to a true understanding of the questions involved. Dr. +E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a most interesting paper on +"Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views therein expressed are +remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly scientific elucidation +of the two great physiological principles involved in the +consideration of by far the greater majority of instances of +cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by this +eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, +among the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more +puzzling or more destructive of logical practice than a +contradiction between the doctrine of physiology and the daily +practice of medicine."</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. +Sieveking, M.D., <i>Medical Times and Gazette</i> London, August +12, 1854.]</p> + +<p>What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, +indeed, the position then taken has received substantial +indorsement through the positive results of more recent +experimental physiology. Conspicuous in this connection are the +inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and Hammond, touching the +modifications in the cerebral circulation during sleep and +wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively proved +that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep and +increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have +published the results of those researches in various papers and +articles.[1] "What Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, +"that it results either from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more +modern terms, from hyperæmia or anæmia, applies equally +to headache; but, to embrace all the causes of this affection we +must add a third element, which, though most commonly complicating +one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily included in +them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." While I +agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be ascribed +to the first two factors--cerebral hyperæmia and +anæmia, in the production of the group of symptoms known as +"headache,"--I fail to perceive why especial prominence should be +given to the third condition mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I +am quite unable to imagine how the periodical, and more especially +the intermittent form, of headache is to be explained by what Dr. +Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a "change in the +constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, admitting that +such a change is capable of producing an amount of cerebral +irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that the +latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly +willing to admit that other factors besides cerebral +hyperæmia and anæmia may produce the functional variety +of headache. There would seem to be ample ground for ascribing +great causative importance to excessive irritation of the brain +plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, being +unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree +of mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of +the multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time +permit. As regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content +myself by referring to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred +Diseases of the Nervous System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in +which will be found many interesting facts bearing on the question. +Accepting the propositions, then, that the more adjacent causes of +headache are (1) cerebral hyperæmia, (2) cerebral +anæmia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral plasma itself, let +us now consider how these morbid factors are most scientifically +and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more particularly, those +distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so baneful an item +in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are best +overcome.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: <i>Vide</i> Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by +J.L. Corning, M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.]</p> + +<p>Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and +maniacs, which involved the application of protracted pressure to +the common carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these +experiments the thought suggested itself that suppression of the +carotids might prove a salutary means of reducing that form of +cerebral congestion which is so prolific a source of headache and +vertigo. Accordingly I made a protracted series of experiments with +carotid compression upon those suffering from congestive headache, +and I can only say that I have been so far pleased with the +uniformly good results obtained, that I have felt it a duty to call +the attention of the profession to a procedure which, for obvious +reasons, possesses all the advantages of local depletion by +leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of either +of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of +the carotids have already been described in former communications. +It is only necessary to say that the implements in question are of +two kinds; one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, +which being held in the hand of the operator permits him to exert +any degree of pressure upon both carotids for any desired length of +time. The other instrument, which I have designated as the "carotid +truss," for lack of a better name, is a circular spring provided +with adjustable pads at each extremity. The spring is placed about +the neck of the patient, and by suitable appliances the pads at the +extremities can be placed directly above the trunks of the two +common carotid arteries. By turning the screws to which the pads +are attached the desired amount of pressure can be applied to the +arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length of time by +the patient.</p> + +<p>With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting +the most obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly +short time (on one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, +the headache is of manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by +any especial circulatory derangements, I have never been able to +achieve notable results with this method. Indeed, pressure upon the +carotids is an excellent method of differentiating the congestive +form of headache from the nervous varieties of head pains.</p> + +<p>Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most +valuable methods which we possess for treating the form of headache +under consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the +smaller arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the +plasma of the brain itself.</p> + +<p>A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or +less extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head +and spinal symptoms, is cold.</p> + +<p>A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to +the head, at the same time, is afforded by a species of +refrigerating electrode, designed by myself for this purpose. The +apparatus in question consists of a concave sponge electrode, the +concavity of which corresponds to the convexity of the external +aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is a chamber of metal or +India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole is secured to the +head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and connection +established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is +applied over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be +taken not to employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and +other unpleasant symptoms may be produced. An application of from +five to ten minutes is usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. +As an additional security it is well to recommend the patient to +take a hot foot-bath, and to remain as quiet as possible for twelve +hours succeeding the treatment. In hyperæmic headache cupping +and blood-letting have been recommended; but as a rule both +procedures are not only unnecessary but positively inadmissible, as +exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by compression upon +the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of the +peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost +always be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the +symptoms. Among the internal remedies which may be employed with +good effect in certain cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and +Indian hemp. The inhalation of from five to ten drops of chloroform +is an excellent expedient in some instances. Chlorodyne, which is +nothing more than a mixture of sedatives, often works well, and +indeed frequently excels other remedies. The regulation of the +heart's action is also of very great importance in these cases, and +the physician should have no hesitancy in resorting to such +remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose of reducing +the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a matter +of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--<i>Med. Record</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY +CONSUMPTION.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From a paper published in the <i>British Medical +Journal</i>.]</p> + +<h3>By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin.</h3> + +<p>From time immemorial, the <i>Verbascum thapsus</i>, or great +mullein, has been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the +treatment of the above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most +persons would call it a weed--found in many parts of the United +Kingdom; and, according to Sowerby's <i>British Botany</i>, vol. +vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly distributed over England and +the south of Scotland." In most parts of Ireland, however, in +addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated in gardens, and +occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is done wholly +and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the herb by +phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far +as I know, has its use received the official sanction of the +medical profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter +at the Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, +suggested that it would be desirable to make a therapeutical +research into the powers of this drug, and ascertain by actual +experiment its efficacy or otherwise. Having partially accomplished +this, I am anxious to very briefly set forth what has been done, in +order that others may be induced to co-operate in the work.</p> + +<p>"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of +the Scrophulariaceæ; but the old Irish remedy is the great +mullein, or <i>Verbascum thapsus</i>, a faithful delineation of +which will be found in Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a +hardy biennial, with a thick stalk, from eighteen inches to four +feet high, and with very peculiar large woolly and mucilaginous +leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly yellow and nearly sessile +flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late summer or autumn, +shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it appears to +have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy for +diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it.</p> + +<p>"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from +a garden near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced +operations. As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured +from our drug-contractor.</p> + +<p>"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place +an ounce of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh +ones, in a pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to +strain. This strained fluid is given warm to the patient, with or +without a little sugar. It is administered twice a day; and the +taste of the mixture is bland, mucilaginous, comforting to the +praecordia, and not disagreeable. I resolved to try this method, +and also the watery infusion; and, moreover, the natural expressed +juice fortified with glycerin. This latter preparation was +carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, by Dr. John +Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales.</p> + +<p>"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too +many, were now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's +Hospital. They were admitted in all stages, from an early one to +the most advanced. On each admission the case was carefully +examined; the history, symptoms, and physical signs were exactly +noted; and the patient was weighed on a stage balance with great +accuracy. The patient was put as much as possible on the mullein +treatment only. For obvious reasons, no cod-liver oil, koumiss, or +other weight producer was given; the patients got the diet suitable +to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms became troublesome, +received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, however, they +were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, +they were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that +this should be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, +with the same clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the +same conditions. In securing this the patients anxiously +co-operated; and it was frequently amusing, but sometimes painful, +to watch the satisfaction or chagrin with which the weekly result +was received. I must here tender my acknowledgments to our zealous, +attentive, and accurate house surgeon, Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom +this important, but tedious, duty was discharged."</p> + +<p>Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein +plant has been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that +these cases, although too few to justify any general conclusion, +appear to establish some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in +milk is liked by the patients; in watery infusion it is +disagreeable, and the succus is still more so. The hot milk +decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic neighbors call +<i>pectorale</i>) sensation, and when once patients take it they +experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the +patients scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon +to phthisical sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of +checking phthisical looseness of the bowels was very marked, and +experiment proved that this was not merely due to the well known +astringent properties of boiled milk. It also gave great relief to +the dyspnoea. For phthisical night sweats it is utterly useless; +but these can be completely checked by the hypodermic use of from +one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the atropia sulphate; +the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, as the +larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of +weight, nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. +Carrick, in his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of +Southern Russia (page 213), says: "I have seen a consumption +invalid gain largely in weight, while the disease was making rapid +progress in her lungs, and the evening temperature rarely fell +below 101° Fahr. Until then I considered that an increase of +weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the arrest of the +malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does not; but +unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive +invalid must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In +pretubercular and early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein +appears to have a distinct weight-increasing power; and I have +observed this in several private cases also. Having no weighings of +these latter, however, makes this statement merely an expression of +opinion. In early cases, mullein milk appears to act very much in +the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when we consider that it is +at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth a trial. I will +continue the research by careful weighings of early cases; and will +further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of mullein to +the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the phthisical +bacillus.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE.</h2> + +<p>Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude +that the use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase +the quantity of bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This +increased flow is beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in +the gall-bladder. A subsequent increase in the quantity of bile +indicates a greater flow of bile into the gall-bladder, and this +also is of service in emptying out any stagnant bile, and restoring +the normal condition when this is disturbed. Artificial solutions +of alkaline salts were found to have a similar action to the +natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the action varies +according to the concentration of the solution. Bicarbonate of +sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting effect on the +composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and weak +solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile +much like that of the mineral waters.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>VIVISECTION.</h2> + +<p>Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is +as old as science itself.</p> + +<p>Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century +of the Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is +regarded as having merited his name (<i>Galenus</i>, "gentle") from +the mildness of his character. Five centuries before him, under the +Ptolemies, Egyptian experimenters had operated upon condemned +persons. So, then, vivisection is not, as usually thought, a +diabolical invention of modern science.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12a_th.jpg" alt= +"Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.</p> + +<p>In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon +animals that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the +hog, and the dog, and who share with the king of creation the +privilege of eating a little of everything. Claude Bernard, +however, had another way of looking at things. It is true that he +especially made researches into the general laws of physiology, the +secret of the vital functions, and the operation of the various +organic systems that constitute living matter, but his immediate +object was not to furnish weapons for the art of curing. He left to +physicians and surgeons the care of drawing conclusions from his +great work in biology, and of acting experimentally upon animals +allied to man in order to found a rational system of therapeutics. +So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the animal +scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him greater +service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded animals +offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present +more accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so +much account of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary +in many cases to choose subjects that possess endurance. The +unfortunate frog, so aptly named "the Job of physiology," becomes +resigned to living under most dreadful conditions, and when, +through sheer exhaustion, he has succumbed, his twitching limbs may +still he used as an object of experimentation for twenty-four +hours. Thanks are due to nature for giving so extraordinary a +vitality to the tissues of a modest batrachian! We owe to it the +famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta to the discovery of the +pile and what followed it, the astonishing conquests of electricity +and those more marvelous ones still that are now in their dawn. +Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the homage that we +pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been imposed +upon this brave animal!</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12b_th.jpg" alt= +"Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.</p> + +<p>The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly +enough for the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend +it. No one, however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription +of it, but it is only desired that the abuse of an abominable +practice shall be curbed. Does the abuse exist? That is the +question, and it may be answered in the affirmative. Yes, we do +sometimes impose useless sufferings upon animals. It is a culpable +folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat barbarous +experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known physical +fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it would +only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it +should be confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask +that it be confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the +exclusion of visitors, and to require from students a diploma +guaranteeing their knowledge and giving a programme of researches +to be made. It is useless to seek in the living what a study of the +corpse reveals in all its details.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/12c.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/12c_th.jpg" alt= +"Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.</p> + +<p>And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a +series of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the +practice of vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by +Claude Bernard. Fig. 1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a +strong cord placed behind an iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of +tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in which hares or cats are placed +in order to anæsthetize them. Fig. 4 shows the mode of fixing +an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of fixing him on his +back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting table, and Fig. +7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the general +arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anæsthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) +the extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the +muzzle is applied for anæsthetizing, and gives the details of +construction of the chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the +arrangement of the apparatus used for holding the animal's jaws +open upon the vivisecting table.--<i>L'Illustration</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association +for the Protection of the Insane and translated for the American +Psychological Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.]</p> + +<h3>By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany.</h3> + +<p>The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and +which require different means in order to attain lasting success. +Since the number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last +few years, in all civilized countries, so that the responsibility +of the proper charge of them occupies continually not only the +community, but also the State; and since the public as well as the +private asylums are filled almost before they are finished, it +becomes necessary to rid the institutions, as soon as possible, of +those patients which have been cured, as well as of those which are +improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as possible, returned +to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the expectation that +the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial influence, +besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found +that the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is +not of sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting +interests. Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged +patient returns to the institution, after a short lapse of time, +because the "rudder" (steuer) of his intelligence was soon +shattered in the turmoil of life. How can, for instance, the +indigent and poor patient, after his discharge from the institution +in which he has found a shelter and the proper care, stand up in +the struggle for existence and the support of his family? Is it not +to be expected that a large proportion of those who have been +discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand the +ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul?</p> + +<p>Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of +benevolent people have been formed in all countries in which true +civilization and humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish +social evils, whose object is to assist the restored patient who +has been discharged from the institution, at a time when he is most +in need of help and assistance. Switzerland has taken the lead of +all countries by her brilliant example, and there these societies +found the greatest encouragement. It should be looked upon as a +good sign of the spirit of modern times, that the seed of true +humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far and wide, +for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all European +countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch of a +truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by +aiding them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct +donations of money, etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a +relapse of the disease. May this portion of the work of your +society be an ever-flowing fountain of joy and satisfaction to your +members!</p> + +<p>Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, +namely, <i>the prevention of insanity</i>. It is nevertheless true, +and cannot be doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity +increases in a manner which is out of proportion to the increase of +the population. Much thought has been given to the cause of this +phenomenon, and physicians as well as moralists, national +economists as well as philosophers and philanthropists, have +endeavored to fathom the connection between this fact and the +conditions of modern social life. According to all observations, it +is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a single +etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages +in the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which +give rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the +manner in which modern civilization influences mankind, in its +development and culture, in the family and in the school-room, in +its views of life and habits; also in the manner in which +civilization forces a man to fight a heavier and harder battle for +pleasure and possessions, power and knowledge, and causes him to go +even beyond his powers of endurance.</p> + +<p>More than even civilization itself, are at fault those +pernicious abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted +from generation to generation, or are also often newly developed +and appear to belong to our civilization. If we want to prevent the +increase of insanity, we must endeavor to do away with these +monstrosities and eccentricities from our social life which remove +mankind more and more, in a pernicious manner, from its natural +development and from the normal conditions of moral and physical +life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous offshoots of pseudo +civilization, which are the enemies of the normal existence of man. +It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as the entire +society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which spurs +man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile +decay of both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which +causes the modern individual in every class of society to find +satisfaction in over excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is +necessary to strengthen more than has been done heretofore the +young, by means of their education, in their physical development, +and at the same time to diminish, in proper proportion, the amount +of mental over-exertion; and finally it is necessary to fight +against, to do away with, those habits of modern society-life which +have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well as the mental +and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there is none +so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as well +as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors.</p> + +<p>Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and +increase of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only +on account of its existing relation, but particularly because +intemperance, among all the factors which aid in the increase of +insanity, can best be diminished, and its influence weakened, +through the will of the single individual, as well as of society as +a whole. The relation between intemperance and insanity is so +definite and clear, that it is not necessary to adduce proofs of +this fact. I will not refer to the writings of the older authors, +such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, Macnish, Carpenter, and +others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; Ramaer, in Holland; +Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and others, in France; +Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in Germany. I +could name a much larger number of the greatest modern authorities +on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding +increase of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those +countries in which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and +particularly in the form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and +corn, has only in later years become general. Thus Lunier has shown +the number of alcoholic insane increased by ten per cent. in those +departments in which more whisky and less wine is consumed.</p> + +<p>In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and +in that country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, +Castiglione, Ferri, and others) the frequency of insanity caused by +the abuse of alcohol stands in an unmistakable relation to the +consumption of alcohol in certain provinces of Italy.</p> + +<p>In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members +was, that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase +of insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, +and alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental +disease. Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that +intemperance, without hereditary predisposition, was one of the +most powerful agencies in the production of aberration of the mind. +Even Beckwith, who could not coincide with others as to the great +importance of intemperance as an etiological element, says +distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, the most potent of all +removable causes of mental disease.</p> + +<p>In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different +provinces of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both +in public institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the +census report of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that +everywhere, where the number of drinking places, i.e., the +consumption of alcohol, was greatest, the number of insane was also +largest. Without doubt, to my mind it is in alcohol that we must +look for and will find the most potent cause of the development and +spread of mental diseases.</p> + +<p>As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the +nerve centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive +quantity. In consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation +and nutrition an acute intoxication takes place, which may range +from a slight excitation to a complete loss of consciousness. After +habitual abuse of alcohol, the functional disturbances of the brain +and spinal cord became constant and disappear the less, as in the +central organs degenerative processes are more and more developed, +processes which lead to congestions and hemorrhagic effusions in +the meninges and in the brain itself, to softening or hardening, +and finally to disappearance of the brain substance. These +degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a progressive +decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the ethical +functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and +motor disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy.</p> + +<p>The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by +alcohol intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if +we assert that from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand +in a direct or indirect relation to the evil consequences of +intemperance in the use of intoxicating liquors. This is the +opinion of a large number of authorities on mental diseases in all +countries. Habitual intemperance leads to severe (psychical?) +lesions (of the nervous system) which may show themselves in the +different forms of insanity, but express themselves chiefly as +mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous system was +weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in those +whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention.</p> + +<p>An investigation among the patients in the insane department of +the Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was +lately carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des +Alcoholismus zur Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed +that among 607 patients who had entered the ward as epileptics or +epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 per cent. had been addicted to drink; +133 before, and 17 after the disease had shown itself; further, +that of 1572 patients with delirium tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic +dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per cent., were epileptic; and +that in 221 intemperance was present before the outbreak of +epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which entered the +department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., were +inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per +cent. were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of +intemperate parents.</p> + +<p>If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, +does directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, +the baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the +intemperance of parents, upon the mental constitution of their +progeny is surely just as great and disastrous. The children of +intemperate parents frequently become drunkards themselves; they +have inherited a degeneration of the vitiated constitution, and +carry the stamp of this degeneration within themselves. The +offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, and die +early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born +idiotic, or show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of +alcohol, the individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered +and depraved, and, according to the law of inheritance, is +transmitted through the progeny to the race.</p> + +<p>Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease +(Stuttgart, 1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names +alcoholism among the transient abnormal conditions which, during +conception, exert their influence, so that children of intemperate +parents acquire pathological, and especially neuro-pathological, +dispositions. Intemperance, says this author, in its acute, as well +as in its chronic form, causes frequently pathological changes in +the nervous system, and thus may the pathological differences in +children of the same parents be partially explained. On account of +the inheritance of a depraved and pathological constitution, the +children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from an abnormal +psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, epileptics, +suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of drunkards, +do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, +also of depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime.</p> + +<p>Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated +facts, nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well +as inexhaustible source for the increase and development of +insanity; and that every effort toward diminution of the frequency +of insanity, toward the prevention of mental diseases, must be +directed against this widespread evil, intemperance.</p> + +<p>May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil +in a narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse +which cannot be too much contended with.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.]</p> + +<h3>By J.W. COLCORD.</h3> + +<p>Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic +properties of plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my +attention, I determined to try a few experiments when opportunity +offered. Having a shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a +bountiful crop of the article, I was easily able to secure an +abundant supply for my experiments. Believing that better results +would be obtained from fresh plants than from dried, I expressed +the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" mill, obtaining +about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. The juice +was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the +press into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute +alcohol, evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, +mixing with the 12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of +alcohol. This preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents +virtually equal parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a +dark brown color with a marked odor of the recent plant, and so +far, after standing three months undisturbed on my shelves, shows +no sign of precipitation.</p> + +<p>My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the +expressed juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing +three months, the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of +precipitation. This, I think, promises to be the most efficient +preparation, and will prove valuable as an injection in the +treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, and similar disorders.</p> + +<p>Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice +and alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one +part of alcohol.</p> + +<p>In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in +about equal proportions, and was removed about one month after +making by filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of +precipitation since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown +liquids.</p> + +<p>Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had +sufficient trial to form an opinion, although, as far as I can +judge, they have proved satisfactory. While writing this article, a +cook from a neighboring restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a +potato slicer, exposing the bone, came in for treatment. Having +bandaged I applied the glycerate, which soon stopped the profuse +bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it to apply subsequently. I +asked her to report to me in two or three days, and, on reporting, +I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic properties +are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have been +able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds.</p> + +<p>The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for +the purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to +add to our list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer +and more extended experiment.--<i>New Remedies</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>DANGER FROM FLIES.</h2> + +<p>Dr. Grassi is said (<i>British Medical Journal</i>) to have made +an important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to +flies. It was always recognized that these insects might carry the +germs of infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known +that they are capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the +ova of various worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in +their fæces. This point has now been established, and several +striking experiments illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his +laboratory a plate containing a great number of the eggs of a human +parasite, the <i>Tricocephalus dispar</i>. Some sheets of white +paper were placed in the kitchen, which stands about ten meters +from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual little spots +produced by the fæces of flies were found on the paper. These +spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were +then caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the +ova. Similar experiments with the ova of the <i>Oxyuris +vermicularis</i> and of the <i>Toenia solium</i> afforded +corresponding results. Shortly after the flies had some mouldy +cream, the <i>Oidium lactis</i> was found in their fæces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that +every one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, +and afterward examine the fæces and intestines of the flies; +numerous spores will be found. As flies are by no means particular +in choosing either a place to feed or a place to defecate, often +selecting meat or food for the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision +of possible consequences is raised.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS.</h2> + +<p>The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the +serpents, alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our +illustration, must be commended as a valuable improvement of the +Zoological Society's establishment in Regent's Park. This building, +which has a rather stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, +constructed of brick and terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, +stands close to the south gate of the Gardens, entered from the +Broad Walk of the Park. The visitor, on entering by that gate, +should turn immediately to the left hand, along the narrow path +beside the aviary of the Chinese golden pheasants, and will +presently come to the Reptile House, which is too much concealed +from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious interior, +represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places in the +whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, very +nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and +in baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with +substantial margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the +reptiles crawling over them, while one basin is further protected +by an iron grating, contain water in which the alligators, the +infant crocodiles, and a number of tortoises, but none of the +larger species, make themselves quite at home. One side of the +house, with its windows looking into a pleasant airy vestibule, is +occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller lizards, with +boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, which +present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large +wall cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, +rising about 14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are +confined--the huge pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the +poisonous cobras and rattlesnakes, and others well known to the +visitors at these gardens. Each cage or compartment has a sliding +door of iron behind, to which the keeper has access in a passage +running along the back of the wall, and there are doors also from +one compartment to another. The floor is of smooth slate, and the +largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or to climb up the +trunks and branches of trees placed there for its exercise and +amusement.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA +FAMILY.</p> + +<h3>THE BABIROUSSA.</h3> + +<p>We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, +a male and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the +society by Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, +in the Malay Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different +stalls of the ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The +babiroussa is a species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of +Eastern Asia, and remarkable, in the male animal, for the +extraordinary growth and direction of the canine teeth. The upper +pair of canine teeth, growing out through the upper jaw, curve +backward and upward on the forehead, having somewhat the aspect of +horns; while the lower canine teeth form a pair of crooked tusks in +the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for defensive fighting, as +a guard to the head, but could not serve for attack. The skull of a +babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in the possession of +Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the Zoological Society's +collection.--<i>Illustrated London News</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/14b.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/14b_th.jpg" alt= +"THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE +HOUSE.</p> + +<hr> +<p>Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797.</p> + +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK +CITY.</h2> + +<h3>PART IV.</h3> + +<h3>By NELSON H. DARTON.</h3> + +<p>Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old +one, and well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits +prescribed in introducing this series of paper, but by only a few +miles, and being such an interesting locality, I have included it +in the granular limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge +in the gneiss within a space of ten acres, about two miles north of +the railroad station of Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the +Delaware, Lackawanna, and Western Railroad, and is reached by a +road running north from about a mile east of the railroad station. +This road branches into two at the limestone kilns, about a mile +from the railroad track, and the left hand branch is taken, which +leads more directly to the quarry, which is on the right hand, +about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the loose rock +lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. John +J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for +agricultural purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity +for fifteen miles. Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of +the minerals so characteristic of the locality, and for which it +has become famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite +pyrites, biotite, aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly +others in lesser quantity.</p> + +<p><i>Serpentine</i>.--All the varieties of this species, and of +every color from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed +through the limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and +pockets. It is generally soft, translucent, and to be found in +masses from a pea to a cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure +oil green color, rich and translucent, making a very fine and +attractive looking mineral specimen. No difficulty need be +experienced in producing all the varieties of this mineral, as much +has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of the quarry, as +it is always carefully separated from the limestone as being +useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as +marmolite, which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral +packed together similar to mica, but of the green color of the +serpentine picolite, or fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs +of a light grass green color, and is a very interesting +variety.</p> + +<p>In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to +procure that which is the most translucent, and that holding +miniature veins of asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of +the pure serpentine alone, but occur in the southern end of the +main quarry. The width of these veins of asbestos is seldom over an +inch, but those of even much less are highly prized as specimens. +These veins of asbestos are, in places, several inches in length, +but are generally much broken in removing them, as their fibrous +structure, at right angles to their length, makes them very +fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can seldom be found. +However, they make much finer specimens when with the serpentine. +Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this +assortment is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which +they were formed, which was by a process termed segregation.</p> + +<p>This gurhofite, called bone by the quarrymen, occurs in white, +dense looking masses, intermingled with the serpentine, especially +in the upper end of the quarry, where veins six and eight inches in +thickness are abundant, and from which specimens may be readily +obtained showing the fibrous structure of the gurhofite and the +association with the serpentine, to which it is found attached; it +is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and need not +be mistaken for it.</p> + +<p><i>Phlozopite</i>.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, +near the asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, +which is a variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a +pure silvery white color, and from one by three inches in area to +less. It is easily separable in folia, and cannot be confounded +with any of the other minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone +holding abundance of this mineral is exposed, whence it may be +plentifully obtained in excellent crystals.</p> + +<p><i>Pyrites</i>.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in +the gneissic rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very +fine, perfect crystals may be found handsomely dressed upon the +rock. There is no particular portion of the quarries in which they +abound.</p> + +<p><i>Biotite</i>.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of +a dark brown color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the +veins of limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; +on the north wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, +and there even in large number, in a locality, generally a pocket +in the gneiss.</p> + +<p><i>Tremolite</i> is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone +in the extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the +main one, over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white +crystals, about a quarter inch in width and from a half to three +inches in length. The crystals are opaque, but very smooth and +glistening, lining cavities in this mass of limestone. It is a +variety of hornblende, composed of silica, lime, and magnesia, with +a little alumina. It probably occurs in places in the vicinity of +this block, and in finer specimens, as these are frequently, when +near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is a characteristic +granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. We will +again meet it when examining the New York city localities.</p> + +<p><i>Aragonite</i> occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow +color and fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When +they are separated by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the +fibers are very large, coarse, and brittle, and thus do not +resemble asbestos, although in some instances they might be +mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from it by effervescing +on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate of lime, and +also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it +may occur in greater profusion.</p> + +<p>Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being +in the form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with +aragonite of a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. +As before noticed, Staten Island is the best locality for this +species.</p> + +<p><i>Calcite</i>.--In places the limestone is perfectly +crystallized, and of a pure white or other color, when it forms an +attractive mineral, and often worth removing. The limestone of the +main quarry, carefully averaged, was found to have the following +chemical composition.</p> + +<pre> + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 +</pre> + +<p>In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from +its rough state resembles "<i>verde antique</i>," and at that of a +beautiful color; samples of this should be obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Feldspar</i>.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the +space between the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh +red color and often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an +inch and a half in length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily +distinguished from calcite, which it much resembles, but which has +only a hardness of 3, and dissolves with effervescence in +acids.</p> + +<p>A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to +spend a holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many +interesting and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip +as well. In reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and +if one has an early start these may all be visited. I will describe +a few of these, which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and +instructing geological features and not far from the main line of +travel.</p> + +<p>Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the +first stop may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey +City. Here a visit to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably +taken; and as I have written a full account of this locality in a +previous portion of these articles,[1] I will not reiterate it +here, but refer to that paper. The mine, I might add, is only a +mile north of the railroad station, and on Schuyler Avenue, a short +distance north from its junction with the Jersey City and Paterson +turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and walking on the track +for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep cut, the manner +in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so large a +portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. +At a point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the +layers of shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a +slight irregularity in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, +and is a point at which the layers of rock on the east have fallen +vertically, the western side remaining in its original position. +This fault has a thrust of only three feet, but is an instructive +example of faults which occur on a tremendous scale in some of the +other formations. It will be noticed that between the two edges of +the separated layers there is a deposit of a talcky substance, +which has been derived from infiltrating waters. Fissure veins are +generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled in a similar +manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further west a +short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its banks +for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington +pumps and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The +Passaic River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and +Paterson road may be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence +it is two miles east to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the +bank of the Passaic may be followed and the quarries reached in an +hour from Belleville. Here again are met the sandstones and shales, +besides another and larger fault, and many interesting features of +the sandstone and its quarrying may be examined. The railroad +station having been regained, Paterson is the next point of +interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the city are +the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these may +be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of +the station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the +trap above and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales +and conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track +(the Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed +for some distance west, when the various strata can be examined in +the cut of the railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the +trap; this is noticed as a depression in the face of the cliff, and +it may be seen by the superposition of the layers of trap and +basalt. Where the fault occurs a short distance further west, there +is another smaller fault. A visit to the Great Falls of the Passaic +is a very pleasurable diversion at this point, and these are about +a half mile north of this locality. Here the arrangement of the +trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, and the +mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one of +these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to +the Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein +the contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the +numerous additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is +the best point in which to find these exposures, and from the +viaduct crossing the river an excellent view of the surrounding +country may be obtained. Regaining the train, Montville is soon +reached and visited, and after this, if time sufficient Boonville, +two miles west, may be taken in, or it may be necessary to go there +to catch a return train, as but few stop at Montville. At Boonton +there are many interesting features--iron works furnaces, +localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor +to give a detailed account in some other of this series of +articles.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.]</p> + +<p>[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.]</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM.</h2> + +<p>An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus +Gate, Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the +Palestine Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The +ruin has proved to be one of great extent, and of special interest. +The way in which it was brought to light is worth recording. In an +uneven field, which rose considerably above the land about it, +parts of which appearing, indeed, like little hillocks, the owner +of the soil tried to maintain a vegetable garden, but the ground +was so dry that neither grain nor vegetables would flourish, and +even irrigation did little or no good; besides, here and there +large holes appeared in the ground which could not be accounted +for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what there was +below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very soon +came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. +The amount of <i>débris</i> which had accumulated above the +floor of these buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this +mass of earth has required much time and labor, and the work is not +yet completed. The piece of ground in question has about 60 yards +of frontage on the main road, and extends, so far as the +excavations go, about the same distance back from the road, that +is, to the east.</p> + +<p>The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, +and is very near the street. The ground in front of the church is +paved with fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was +entered were 5 feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat +wider. From the entrance to the altar step, or platform, the +distance is 55 feet, and from that point to the back of the apse 15 +feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is 16 feet 6 inches. The width +of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet in front of the altar +step a wall has been thrown across the church in a manner similar +to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This wall, also +those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally +painted, and some of the figures and designs can still be traced. +At the southeast corner of the church, leading from the apse, there +is a narrow but well built passageway to the buildings in the rear. +The character of these buildings is not very evident; certainly +they did not stand on a line with the church, but at an angle of +25° with that line. Between the church and what appears now to +have been the main building in the rear, there was a passage not +over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear of the church is 47 +feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 feet more of a +special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and which had a +beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic +floor is 140 feet.</p> + +<p>On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall +of the main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 +feet 6 inches long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This +is considerably wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even +the entrance of the church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have +been found, but in one place two or three square yards have been +preserved, enough to show that the work was extremely beautiful. +The colored tracings resemble those in the church on the Mount of +Olives, and on one side are the large Greek letters +Θεον. North of this mosaic floor, and of +the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has +been leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced +in an east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 +inches deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From +about the middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right +angle and runs 20 feet or more to the north; it is possible that it +led <i>from</i> the north, and at the point indicated turned a +right angle and ran to the west. Piles of stones and <i>debris</i> +prevent us at present from deciding as to the length of the channel +or where it comes from. In the bank of <i>debris</i>, which rises +on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height of 20 feet, there +is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed of cement, +running north and south at right angles to the line of the church +and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the +mosaic pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and +the mass of <i>debris</i> which is yet to be removed.</p> + +<p>In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is +found, very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut +channel, there is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of +the floor. The tomb is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered +by a doorway 26 inches wide, which is well built, and in the sides +of which are grooves for a door to slide up and down. On the wall +of the tomb at the east end there is a raised Greek cross, 22 +inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot stand erect in its +highest part, but it is to be considered that the loculi are +two-thirds full of <i>debris</i>, composed chiefly of decayed bones +and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The +loculi are 2 feet in depth.</p> + +<p>What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," +turn out to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 +feet long by 28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided +(one or two of them at least) into apartments by means of arches. +The lower courses of the walls, to the height of several feet, are +of squared stones, while the upper portions and the roofs are of +rubble work, which was covered with a heavy coating of plaster. The +threshold of one has been exposed, which is 6 feet in the clear, +and the sides of the doorway show excellent work.</p> + +<p>Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each +33 inches in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of +which were nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were +closed, were many feet below the surface of the ground before the +excavations began, hence no one knows how old the water in them may +be. Some of the slabs with which the church was paved were 6 feet +long by 2½ feet wide. In the church two pieces of cornice +were found, each 8 feet in length. One is entire and quite plain, +while the other is broken in the middle. It is upon this that the +figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were painted. They can +still be traced, although exposure has nearly obliterated the +colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken glass have +been found and some small articles in marble of no great value. The +top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a basin, and +a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water to run +off.</p> + +<p>South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main +building there is a large underground chamber with seven openings +(each the size of a man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 +feet wide and nearly 20 feet long, but the depth is not yet +ascertained, owing to the accumulation of <i>debris</i> on the +bottom. On the west and north sides a wall of solid rock appears to +a depth of 6 feet, showing that the chamber was excavated in part +at least in the solid rock. The use of this chamber does not appear +evident, unless it may have been a store room. The place within the +city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a similar chamber (not +dug in the solid rock, however), with similar openings in the +ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some distance to the +east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to purchase +the land in that direction, in order to allow of the excavations +being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat +of ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move +with aggravating slowness.</p> + +<p>Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that +the west wall of what he called the "main building," toward the +apse of the church, has been removed and the floor cleared, +exposing a fine pavement. This pavement, the threshold before +mentioned, and the mosaic floor all belong to one period, and to a +structure very much older than the date of the "main building." It +puzzled the doctor, because the threshold west of the mosaic floor +was not square with the east wall of the "main buildings," but the +reason is now clear. Captain Conder says of this church with such +of the ruins about it as were exposed when he was there, that "the +whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As regards the church +itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor especially may +belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At the south +side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the largest +cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick stone +5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against the +wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the +two halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest +to state that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years +since, and for a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last +it was sold for 40 Napoleons. During the present year it has passed +into the hands of the French for 2,000 Napoleons.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>DAMMARA AUSTRALIS</h2> + +<p>One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of +collections of such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, +is the subject of the present note. Some months since cones were +observed to be forming on this tree, and a representation of which +we are now enabled, through the courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay +before our readers. We are not aware whether the tree has +previously produced cones at Kew, though we have the impression +that such is the case; at any rate it has done so elsewhere, as +recorded in the <i>Flore des Serres</i>, 1856, p. 75, but fertile +seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen.</p> + +<p>In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect +and richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive +tiers of branches, which render it specially suitable for the +decoration of winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, +where no great amount of heat is required. In the northern island +of New Zealand, however, it is quite another matter, for there, +where it is known as the Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable +of timbers, as may be judged from the fact that the trunk of the +tree attains a height of from 50 to 100 feet clear of the branches; +moreover, it yields a gum resin like copal, which exudes from the +trunk, and which is sometimes found below ground in the vicinity of +the trees, thus giving the clew to the real nature of amber and +other similar substances.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="./illustrations/16a.png"><img src= +"./illustrations/16a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.</p> + +<p>The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the +construction of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and +elasticity rendering it particularly suitable for this purpose, and +Laslett speaks of it as one of the best woods for working that the +carpenter can take in hand, and recommends its use for the decks of +yachts, for cabin panels, for joiner's work generally, or for +ornamental purposes. Owing to the difficulty and expense of working +the forests, and the great distance, comparatively little of it +comes to this country.--<i>The London Gardeners' Chronicle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES.</h2> + +<p>Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the +woods, and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, +than to buy nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail +because proper precautions have not been taken. In digging up a +tree, all the roots outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are +cut off, and the tree is reset with its full head of branches. +Whoever has seen trees in the forest that were upturned by a +tornado, must have been struck by the manner in which the roots run +very near to the surface, and to a great distance. When the roots +of these trees are cut off at two or three feet from the trunk, few +or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the mass of tops is +left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not be responded +to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must follow. If +such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a bare +pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to +meet the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and +growth above and below ground is well balanced.</p> + +<p>We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or +more high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees +treated in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten +years ago. They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show +no signs of former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the +edge of the woods, are better furnished with roots. These should be +prepared for transplanting by digging down to the roots, and +cutting off all that extended beyond the desired distance. This +will cause the formation of fibrous roots near the tree. It will be +safer to take two years for the operation, cutting half of the +roots each year. Such trees may be removed in safety, especially if +a good share of the top is removed at transplanting--<i>American +Agriculturist</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>The Scientific American Supplement.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>261 Broadway, New York, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +38 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, +public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and +sales or introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can +ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be +obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 261 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C.</p> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +415, December 15, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. 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index 0000000..7d4075e --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11344-h/illustrations/9c.png diff --git a/old/11344.txt b/old/11344.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..0c76bbd --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11344.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4194 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, +December 15, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 415, December 15, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: February 27, 2004 [EBook #11344] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUPP. NO. 415 *** + + + + +Produced by Produced by Josephine Paolucci, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +Scientific American Supplement No. 415 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 15, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 415. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. CHEMISTRY AND METALLURGY.--Carbon in Steel. + + Heat developed in Forging. + + Recent Studies on the Constitution of Alkaloids.--Extract from + a lecture delivered before the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. + --By SAML.P. SADTLER. + +II. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Apparatus for Extracting + Starch from Potatoes.--With engraving. + + A Simple Apparatus for describing Ellipses.--By Prof. E.J. + HALLOCK. 1 figure. + + A Novel Propeller Engine.--With full description and numerous + engravings.--By Prof. MACCORD. + + The New Russian Torpedo Boat, the Poti.--With engraving. + + A New Steamer Propelled by Hydraulic Reaction--Figures showing + plan and side views of the steamer. + + A New Form of Flexible Band Dynamometer.--By Prof. W.C. + UNWIN. 4 figures. + +III. TECHNOLOGY.--Enlarging on Argentic Paper and Opals.--By + A. GOODALL. + + The Manufacture and Characteristics of Photographic Lenses. + + Improved Developers for Gelatine Plates.--By DR. EDER. + + The Preparation of Lard for Use in Pharmacy.--By Prof. REDWOOD. + + Anti-Corrosion Paint. + + Manufacture of Charcoal in Kilns.--Different kilns used. + +IV. ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND ARCHAEOLOGY.--The German + National Monument.--With two engravings of the statues of + Peace and War. + + The Art Aspects of Modern Dress. + + Artisans' Dwellings, Hornsey, London.--With engraving. + + Discovery of Ancient Church In Jerusalem. + +V. ELECTRICITY, HEAT. ETC.--See's Gas Stove.--With engraving. + + Rectification of Alcohol by Electricity. 3 engravings showing + Apparatus for Hydrogenizing Impure Spirits. Electrolyzing + Apparatus, and Arrangement of the Siemens Machine. + +VI. GEOLOGY.--On the Mineralogical Localities in and around New + York City.--By NELSON H. DARTON. + +VII. NATURAL HISTORY.--The Zoological Society's Gardens, London.--With + full page engravings showing the new Reptile House, and the + Babiroussa family. + +VIII. HORTICULTURE.--The Kauri Pine--Damarra Australis.-- + With engraving. + + How to Successfully Transplant Trees. + +IX. MEDICINE, HYGIENE, ETC.--On the Treatment of Congestive + Headache.--By Dr. J.L. CORNING. + + The Use of the Mullein Plant in the Treatment of Pulmonary + Consumption.--By Dr. J.B. QUINLAN. + + Action of Mineral Waters and of Hot Water upon the Bile. + + Vivisection.--Apparatus Used.--Full page of engravings. + + Insanity from Alcohol.--Intemperance a fruitful as well as + inexhaustible source for the increase of insanity.--By Dr. A. BAER, + Berlin. + + Plantain as a Styptic.--By J.W. COLCORD. + + Danger from Flies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT.--WAR AND PEACE. + + +In our SUPPLEMENT No. 412 we gave several engravings and a full +description of the colossal German National monument "Germania," lately +unveiled on the Niederwald slope of the Rhine. We now present, as +beautiful suggestions in art, engravings of the two statues, War and +Peace, which adorn the corners of the monumental facade. These figures +are about twenty feet high. The statue of War represents an allegorical +character, partly Mercury, partly mediaeval knight, with trumpet in one +hand, sword in the other. The statue of Peace represents a mild and +modest maiden, holding out an olive branch in one hand and the full horn +of peaceful blessings in the other. Between the two statues is a +magnificent group in relief representing the "Watch on the Rhine." Here +the Emperor William appears in the center, on horseback, surrounded by a +noble group of kings, princes, knights, warriors, commanders, and +statesmen, who, by word or deed or counsel, helped to found the +empire--an Elgin marble, so to speak, of the German nation. + +[Illustration: WAR. THE GERMAN NATIONAL MONUMENT. PEACE.] + + * * * * * + +A writer in the London _Lancet_ ridicules a habit of being in great +haste and terribly pressed for time which is common among all classes of +commercial men, and argues that in most cases there is not the least +cause for it, and that it is done to convey a notion of the tremendous +volume of business which almost overwhelms the house. The writer further +says that, when developed into a confirmed habit, it is fertile in +provoking nervous maladies. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ART ASPECTS OF MODERN DRESS. + + +At a recent conversazione of the London Literary and Artistic Society, +Mr. Sellon read a paper upon this subject. Having expressed his belief +that mere considerations of health would never dethrone fashion, the +lecturer said he should endeavor to show on art principles how those who +were open to conviction could have all the variety Fashion promised, +together with far greater elegance than that goddess could bestow, while +health received the fullest attention. Two excellent societies, worthy +of encouragement up to a certain point, had been showing us the folly +and wickedness of fashionable dress--dress which deformed the body, +crippled the feet, confined the waist, exposed the chest, loaded the +limbs, and even enslaved the understanding. But these societies had been +more successful in pulling down than in building up, and blinded with +excess of zeal were hurrying us onward to a goal which might or might +not be the acme of sanitative dress, but was certainly the zero of +artistic excellence. The cause of this was not far to seek. We were +inventing a new science, that of dress, and were without rules to guide +us. So long as ladies had to choose between Paris fashions and those of +Piccadilly Hall, they would, he felt sure, choose the former. Let it be +shown that the substitute was both sanitary and beautiful, capable of an +infinite variety in color and in form--in colors and forms which never +violated art principle, and in which the wearer, and not some Paris +liner, could exercise her taste, and the day would have been gained. +This was the task he had set himself to formulate, and so doing he +should divide his subject in two--Color and Form. + +In color it was desirable to distinguish carefully between the meaning +of shade, tint, and hue. It was amazing that a cultured nation like the +English should be so generally ignorant of the laws of color harmony. We +were nicely critical of music, yet in color were constantly committing +the gravest solecisms. He did not think there were seventeen interiors +in London that the educated eye could wander over without pain. Yet what +knowledge was so useful? We were not competent to buy a picture, choose +a dress, or furnish a house without a knowledge of color harmony, to say +nothing of the facility such knowledge gave in all kinds of painting on +porcelain, art needlework, and a hundred occupations. + +An important consideration in choosing colors for dress was the effect +they would have in juxtaposition. Primary colors should be worn in dark +shades; dark red and dark yellow, or as it was commonly called, olive +green, went well together; but a dress of full red or yellow would be +painful to behold. The rule for full primaries was, employ them +sparingly, and contrast them only with black or gray. He might notice in +passing that when people dressed in gray or black the entire dress was +usually of the one color unrelieved. Yet here they had a background that +would lend beauty to any color placed upon it. + +Another safe rule was never to place together colors differing widely in +hue. The eye experienced a difficulty in accommodating itself to sudden +changes, and a species of color discord was the consequence. But if the +colors, even though primaries, were of some very dark or very light +shade, they become harmonious. All very dark shades of color went well +with black and with each other, and all very light shades went well with +white and each other. + +A much-vexed question with ladies was, "What will suit my complexion?" +The generally received opinion was that the complexion was pink, either +light or dark, and colors were chosen accordingly, working dire +confusion. But no one living ever had a pink complexion unless a painted +one. The dolls in the Lowther Arcade were pink, and their pink dresses +were in harmony. No natural complexion whatever was improved by pink; +but gray would go with any. The tendency of gray was to give prominence +to the dominant hue in the complexion. When an artist wished to produce +flesh color he mixed white, light red, yellow ocher, and terra vert. The +skin of a fair person was a gray light red, tinged with green; the color +that would brighten and intensify it most was a gray light sea green, +tinged with pink--in other words, its complementary. A color always +subtracted any similar color that might exist in combination near it. +Thus red beside orange altered it to yellow; blue beside pink altered it +to cerise. Hence, if a person was so unfortunate as to have a muddy +complexion, the worst color they could wear would be their own +complexion's complementary--the best would be mud color, for it would +clear their complexion. + +Passing on to the consideration of form in costume, the lecturer urged +that the proper function of dress was to drape the human figure without +disguising or burlesquing it. An illustration of Miss Mary Anderson, +attired in a Greek dress as Parthenia, was exhibited, and the lecturer +observed that while the dress once worn by Greek women was unequaled for +elegance, Greek women were not in the habit of tying their skirts in +knots round the knees, and the nervous pose of the toes suggested a more +habitual acquaintance with shoes and stockings. + +An enlargement from a drawing by Walter Crane was shown as illustrating +the principles of artistic and natural costume--costume which permitted +the waist to be the normal size, and allowed the drapery to fall in +natural folds--costume which knew nothing of pleats and flounces, stays +and "improvers"--costume which was very symbolization and embodiment of +womanly grace and modesty. + +A life-sized enlargement of a fashion plate from _Myra's Journal_, dated +June 1, 1882, was next shown. The circumference of the waist was but 123/4 +in., involving an utter exclusion of the liver from that part of the +organization, and the attitude was worthy of a costume which was the _ne +plus ultra_ of formal ugliness. + +Having shown another and equally unbecoming costume, selected from a +recent issue by an Oxford Street firm, the lecturer asked, Why did women +think small waists beautiful? Was it because big-waisted women were so +frequently fat and forty, old and ugly? A young girl had no waist, and +did not need stays. As the figure matured the hips developed, and it was +this development which formed the waist. The slightest artificial +compression of the waist destroyed the line of beauty. Therefore, the +grown woman should never wear stays, and, since they tended to weaken +the muscles of the back, the aged and weak should not adopt them. A +waist really too large was less ungraceful than a waist too small. Dress +was designed partly for warmth and partly for adornment. As the uses +were distinct, the garments should be so. A close-fitting inner garment +should supply all requisite warmth, and the outer dress should be as +thin as possible, that it might drape itself into natural folds. Velvet, +from its texture, was ill adapted for this. When worn, it should be in +close fitting garments, and in dark colors only. It was most effective +when black. + +Turning for a few moments, in conclusion, to men's attire, the lecturer +suggested that the ill-success of dress reformers hitherto had been the +too-radical changes they sought to introduce. We could be artistic +without being archaic. Most men were satisfied without clothes fairly in +fashion, a tolerable fit, and any unobtrusive color their tailor +pleased. He would suggest that any reformation should begin with color. + + * * * * * + + + + +ARTISANS' DWELLINGS, HORNSEY. + + +The erection of artisans' dwellings is certainly a prominent feature in +the progress of building in the metropolis, and speculative builders who +work on a smaller scale would do well not to ignore the fact. The +Artisans, Laborers, and General Dwellings Company (Limited) has been +conspicuously successful in rearing large blocks of dwellings for +artisans, clerks, and others whose means necessitates the renting of a +convenient house at as low a rental as it is possible to find it. We +give an illustration of a terrace of first-class houses built by the +above company, who deserve great praise for the spirited and liberal +manner in which they are going to work on this the third of their London +estates--the Noel Park Estate, at Hornsey. On the estates at Shaftesbury +and Queen's Parks they have already built about three thousand houses, +employing therein a capital of considerably over a million sterling, +while at Noel Park they are rapidly covering an estate of one hundred +acres, which will contain, when completed, no less than two thousand six +hundred houses, to be let at weekly rentals varying from 6s. to 11s. +6d., rates and taxes all included. The object has been to provide +separate cottages, each in itself complete, and in so doing they have +not made any marked departure from the ordinary type of suburban terrace +plan, but adopting this as most favorable to economy, have added many +improvements, including sanitary appliances of the latest and most +approved type. + +The most important entrance to Noel Park is by Gladstone Avenue, a road +60 ft. wide leading from the Green Lanes to the center of the estate. On +either side of this road the houses are set back 15 ft., in front of +which, along the edge of the pavement, trees of a suitable growth are +being planted, as also on all other roads on the estate. About the +center of Gladstone Avenue an oval space has been reserved as a site for +a church, and a space of five acres in another portion of the estate has +been set apart to be laid out as a recreation ground, should the +development of the estate warrant such an outlay. The remaining streets +are from 40 ft. to 50 ft. in width, clear of the garden space in front +of the houses. Shops will be erected as may be required. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--A ROW OF COMFORTABLE +DWELLINGS.] + +The drainage of the estate has been arranged on the dual system, the +surface water being kept separate from the sewage drains. Nowhere have +these drains been carried through the houses, but they are taken +directly into drains at the back, having specially ventilated manholes +and being brought through at the ends of terraces into the road sewers; +the ventilating openings in the roads have been converted into inlet +ventilators by placing upcast shafts at short intervals, discharging +above the houses. This system of ventilation was adopted on the +recommendation of Mr. W.A. De Pape, the engineer and surveyor to the +Tottenham Local Board. + +All the houses are constructed with a layer of concrete over the whole +area of the site, and a portion of the garden at back. Every room is +specially ventilated, and all party walls are hollow in order to prevent +the passage of sound. A constant water supply is laid on, there being no +cisterns but those to the water-waste preventers to closets. All water +pipes discharge over open trapped gullies outside. + +The materials used are red and yellow bricks, with terracotta sills, the +roofs being slated over the greater part, and for the purpose of forming +an agreeable relief, the end houses, and in some cases the central +houses, have red tile roofs, the roofs over porches being similarly +treated. The houses are simply but effectively designed, and the general +appearance of the finished portion of the estate is bright and cheerful. +All end houses of terraces have been specially treated, and in some +cases having rather more accommodation than houses immediately +adjoining, a slightly increased rental is required. There are five +different classes of houses. The first class houses (which we illustrate +this week) are built on plats having 16 ft. frontage by 85 ft. depth, +and containing eight rooms, consisting of two sitting rooms, kitchen, +scullery, with washing copper, coal cellar, larder, and water-closet on +ground floor, and four bedrooms over. The water-closet is entered from +the outside, but in many first-class houses another water-closet has +been provided on the first floor, and one room on this floor is provided +with a small range, so that if two families live in the one house they +will be entirely separated. The rental of these houses is about 11s. to +11s. 6d. per week. Mr. Rowland Plumbe, F.R.I.B.A., of 13 Fitzroy Square, +W., is the architect.--_Building and Engineering Times_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ENLARGING ON ARGENTIC PAPER AND OPALS. + +By A. GOODALL. + +[Footnote: Read before the Dundee and East of Scotland Photographic +Association.] + + +The process of making gelatino bromide of silver prints or enlargements +on paper or opal has been before the public for two or three years now, +and cannot be called new; but still it is neither so well known nor +understood as such a facile and easy process deserves to be, and I may +just say here that after a pretty extensive experience in the working of +it I believe there is no other enlarging process capable of giving +better results than can be got by this process when properly understood +and wrought, as the results that can be got by it are certainly equal to +those obtainable by any other method, while the ease and rapidity with +which enlarged pictures can be made by it place it decidedly ahead of +any other method. I propose to show you how I make a gelatino bromide +enlargement on opal. + +[Mr. Goodall then proceeded to make an enlargement on a 12 by 10 opal, +using a sciopticon burning paraffin; after an exposure for two and +a-half minutes the developer was applied, and a brilliant opal was the +result.] + +We now come to the paper process, and most effective enlargements can be +made by it also; indeed, as a basis for coloring, nothing could well be +better. Artists all over the country have told me that after a few +trials they prefer it to anything else, while excellent and effective +plain enlargements are easily made by it if only carefully handled. A +very good enlargement is made by vignetting the picture, as I have just +done, with the opal, and then squeezing it down on a clean glass, and +afterward framing it with another glass in front, when it will have the +appearance almost equal to an opal. To make sure of the picture adhering +to the glass, however, and at the same time to give greater brilliancy, +it is better to flow the glass with a 10 or 15 grain solution of clear +gelatine before squeezing it down. The one fault or shortcoming of the +plain argentic paper is the dullness of the surface when dry, and this +certainly makes it unsuitable for small work, such as the rapid +production of cartes or proofs from negatives wanted in a hurry; the +tone of an argentic print is also spoken of sometimes as being +objectionable; but my impression is, that it is not so much the tone as +the want of brilliancy that is the fault there, and if once the public +were accustomed to the tones of argentine paper, they might possibly +like them twice as well as the purples and browns with which they are +familiar, provided they had the depth and gloss of a silver print; and +some time ago, acting on a suggestion made by the editor of the +_Photographic News_, I set about trying to produce this result by +enameling the paper with a barium emulsion previous to coating it with +the gelatinous bromide of silver. My experiments were successful, and we +now prepare an enamel argentic paper on which the prints stand out with +brilliancy equal to those on albumenized paper. I here show you +specimens of boudoirs and panels--pictures enlarged from +C.D.V.--negatives on this enamel argentic. + +[Mr. Goodall then passed round several enlargements from landscape and +portrait negatives, which it would have been difficult to distinguish +from prints on double albumenized paper.] + +I have already spoken of the great ease and facility with which an +argentic enlargement may be made as compared with a collodion transfer, +for instance; but there is another and more important point to be +considered between the two, and that is, their durability and +permanence. Now with regard to a collodion transfer, unless most +particular care be taken in the washing of it (and those who have made +them will well know what a delicate, not to say difficult, job it is to +get them thoroughly freed from the hypo, and at the same time preserve +the film intact), there is no permanence in a collodion transfer, and +that practically in nine cases out of ten they have the elements of +decay in them from the first day of their existence. I know, at least in +Glasgow, where an enormous business has been done within the last few +years by certain firms in the club picture trade (the club picture being +a collodion transfer tinted in oil or varnish colors), there are +literally thousands of pictures for which thirty shillings or more has +been paid, and of which the bare frame is all that remains at the +present day; the gilt of the frames has vanished, and the picture in +disgust, perhaps, has followed it. In short, I believe a collodion +transfer cannot be made even comparatively permanent, unless an amount +of care be taken in the making of it which is neither compatible nor +consistent with the popular price and extensive output. How now stands +the case with an argentic enlargement? Of course it may be said that +there is scarcely time yet to make a fair comparison--that the argentic +enlargements are still only on their trial. + +I will give you my own experience. I mentioned at the outset that seven +or eight years ago I had tried Kennet's pellicle and failed, but got one +or two results which I retained as curiosities till only a month or two +ago; but up to that time I cannot say they had faded in the least, and I +have here a specimen made three years ago, which I have purposely +subjected to very severe treatment. It has been exposed without any +protection to the light and damp and all the other noxious influences of +a Glasgow atmosphere, and although certainly tarnished, I think you will +find that it has not faded; the whites are dirty, but the blacks have +lost nothing of their original strength. I here show you the picture +referred to, a 12 by 10 enlargement on artist's canvas, and may here +state, in short, that my whole experience of argentic enlargements leads +me to the conclusion that, setting aside every other quality, they are +the most permanent pictures that have ever been produced. Chromotypes +and other carbon pictures have been called permanent, but their +permanence depends upon the nature of the pigment employed, and +associated with the chromated gelatine in which they are produced, most +of pigments used, and all of the prettiest ones, being unable to +withstand the bleaching action of the light for more than a few weeks. +Carbon pictures are therefore only permanent according to the degree in +which the coloring matter employed is capable of resisting the +decolorizing action of light. But there is no pigment in an argentic +print, nothing but the silver reduced by the developer after the action +of light; and that has been shown by, I think, Captain Abney, to be of a +very stable and not easily decomposed nature; while if the pictures are +passed through a solution of alum after washing and fixing, the gelatine +also is so acted upon as to be rendered in a great degree impervious to +the action of damp, and the pictures are then somewhat similar to carbon +pictures without carbon. + +I may now say a few words on the defects and failures sometimes met with +in working this process; and first in regard to the yellowing of the +whites. I hear frequent complaints of this want of purity in the whites, +especially in vignetted enlargements, and I believe that this almost +always arises from one or other of the two following causes: + +First. An excess of the ferrous salt in the ferrous oxalate developer; +and when this is the case, the yellow compound salt is more in +suspension than solution, and in the course of development it is +deposited upon, and at the same time formed in, the gelatinous film. + +The proportions of saturated solution of oxalate to saturated solution +of iron, to form the oxalate of iron developer, that has been +recommended by the highest and almost only scientific authority on the +subject--Dr. Eder--are from 4 to 6 parts of potassic oxalate to 1 part +of ferrous sulphate. + +Now while these proportions may be the best for the development of a +negative, they are not, according to my experience, the best for +gelatine bromide positive enlargements; I find, indeed, that potassic +oxalate should not have more than one-eighth of the ferrous sulphate +solution added to it, otherwise it will not hold in proper solution for +any length of time the compound salt formed when the two are mixed. + +The other cause is the fixing bath. This, for opals and vignetted +enlargements especially, should always be fresh and pretty strong, so +that the picture will clear rapidly before any deposit has time to take +place, as it will be observed that very shortly after even one iron +developed print has been fixed in it a deposit of some kind begins to +take place, so that although it may be used a number of times for fixing +prints that are meant to be colored afterward it is best to take a small +quantity of fresh hypo for every enlargement meant to be finished in +black and white. The proportions I use are 8 ounces to the pint of +water. Almost the only other complaints I now hear are traceable to +over-exposure or lack of intelligent cleanliness in the handling of the +paper. The operator, after having been dabbling for some time in hypo, +or pyro, or silver solution, gives his hands a wipe on the focusing +cloth, and straightway sets about making an enlargement, ending up by +blessing the manufacturer who sent him paper full of black stains and +smears. Argentic paper is capable of yielding excellent enlargements, +but it must be intelligently exposed, intelligently developed, and +cleanly and carefully handled. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTOGRAPHIC LENSES. + + +At a recent meeting of the London and Provincial Photographic +Association Mr. J. Traill Taylor, formerly of New York, commenced his +lecture by referring to the functions of lenses, and by describing the +method by which the necessary curves were computed in order to obtain a +definite focal length. The varieties of optical glass were next +discussed, and specimens (both in the rough and partly shaped state) +were handed round for examination. The defects frequently met with in +glass, such as striae and tears, were then treated upon; specimens of +lenses defective from this cause were submitted to inspection, and the +mode of searching for such flaws described. Tools for grinding and +polishing lenses of various curvatures were exhibited, together with a +collection of glass disks obtained from the factory of Messrs. Ross & +Co., and in various stages of manufacture--from the first rough slab to +the surface of highest polish. Details of polishing and edging were gone +into, and a series of the various grades of emery used in the processes +was shown. The lecturer then, by means of diagrams which he placed upon +the blackboard, showed the forms of various makes of photographic +lenses, and explained the influence of particular constructions in +producing certain results; positive and negative spherical aberration, +and the manner in which they are made to balance each other, was also +described by the aid of diagrams, as was also chromatic aberration. He +next spoke of the question of optical center of lenses, and said that +that was not, as had been hitherto generally supposed, the true place +from which to measure the focus of a lens or combination. This place was +a point very near the optical center, and was known as the "Gauss" +point, from the name of the eminent German mathematician who had +investigated and made known its properties, the knowledge of which was +of the greatest importance in the construction of lenses. A diagram was +drawn to show the manner of ascertaining the two Gauss points of a +bi-convex lens, and a sheet exhibited in which the various kinds of +lenses with their optical centers and Gauss points were shown. For this +drawing he (Mr. Taylor) said he was indebted to Dr. Hugo Schroeder, now +with the firm of Ross & Co. The lecturer congratulated the +newly-proposed member of the Society, Mr. John Stuart, for his +enterprise in securing for this country a man of such profound +acquirements. The subject of distortion was next treated of, and the +manner in which the idea of a non distorting doublet could be evolved +from a single bi-convex lens by division into two plano-convex lenses +with a central diaphragm was shown. The influence of density of glass +was illustrated by a description of the doublet of Steinheil, the parent +of the large family of rapid doublets now known under various names. The +effect of thickness of lenses was shown by a diagram of the ingenious +method of Mr. F. Wenham, who had long ago by this means corrected +spherical aberration in microscopic objective. The construction of +portrait lenses was next gone into, the influence of the negative +element of the back lens being especially noted. A method was then +referred to of making a rapid portrait lens cover a very large angle by +pivoting at its optical center and traversing the plate in the manner of +the pantoscopic camera. The lecturer concluded by requesting a careful +examination of the valuable exhibits upon the table, kindly lent for the +occasion by Messrs. Ross & Co. + + * * * * * + + + + +IMPROVED DEVELOPERS FOR GELATINE PLATES. + +By Dr. Eder. + + +We are indebted to Chas. Ehrmann, Esq., for the improved formulas given +below as translated by him for the _Photographic Times_. + +Dr. Eder has for a considerable time directed especial attention to the +soda and potash developers, either of which seems to offer certain +advantages over the ammoniacal pyrogallol. This advantage becomes +particularly apparent with emulsions prepared with ammonia, which +frequently show with ammoniacal developer green or red fog, or a fog of +clayish color by reflected, and of pale purple by transmitted light. +Ferrous oxalate works quite well with plates of that kind; so do soda +and potassa developers. + +For soda developers, Eder uses a solution of 10 parts of pure +crystallized soda in 100 parts of water. For use, 100 c.c. of this +solution are mixed with 6 c.c. of a pyrogallic solution of 1:10, without +the addition of any bromide. + +More pleasant to work with is Dr. Stolze's potassa developer. No. 1: +Water, 200 c.c.; chem. pure potassium carbonate, 90 gr.; sodium +sulphite, 25 gr. No. 2: Water 100 c.c.; citric, 11/2 gr.; sodium sulphite, +25 gr.; pyrogallol., 12 gr. Solution No. 2 is for its better keeping +qualities preferable to Dr. Stolze's solution.[A] The solutions when in +well stoppered bottles keep well for some time. To develop, mix 100 c.c. +of water with 40 min. of No. 1 and 50 min. of No. 2. The picture appears +quickly and more vigorously than with iron oxalate. If it is desirable +to decrease the density of the negatives, double the quantity of water. +The negatives have a greenish brown to olive-green tone. A very fine +grayish-black can be obtained by using a strong alum bath between +developing and fixing. The same bath after fixing does not act as +effectual in producing the desired tone. A bath of equal volumes of +saturated solutions of alum and ferrous sulphate gives the negative a +deep olive-brown color and an extraordinary intensity, which excludes +all possible necessities of an after intensification. + +[Footnote A: 100 c.c. water; 10 c.c. alcohol; 10 gr. pyrogallol; 1 gr. +salicylic acid.] + +The sensitiveness with this developer is at least equal to that when +iron developer is used, frequently even greater. + +The addition of bromides is superfluous, sometimes injurious. Bromides +in quantities, as added to ammoniacal pyro, would reduce the +sensitiveness to 1/10 or 1/20; will even retard the developing power +almost entirely. + +Must a restrainer be resorted to, 1 to 3 min. of a 1:10 solution of +potassium bromide is quite sufficient. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PREPARATION OF LARD FOR USE IN PHARMACY. + +[Footnote: Read at an evening meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society of +Great Britain, November 7, 1883.] + +By Professor REDWOOD. + + +I have read with much, interest the paper on "Ointment Bases," +communicated by Mr. Willmott to the Pharmaceutical Conference at its +recent meeting, but the part of the subject which has more particularly +attracted my attention is that which relates to prepared lard. Reference +is made by Mr. Willmott to lard prepared in different ways, and it +appears from the results of his experiments that when made according to +the process of the British Pharmacopoeia it does not keep free from +rancidity for so long a time as some of the samples do which have been +otherwise prepared. The general tendency of the discussion, as far as +related to this part of the subject, seems to have been also in the same +direction; but neither in the paper nor in the discussion was the +question of the best mode of preparing lard for use in pharmacy so +specially referred to or fully discussed as I think it deserves to be. + +When, in 1860, Mr. Hills, at a meeting of the Pharmaceutical Society, +suggested a process for the preparation of lard, which consisted in +removing from the "flare" all matter soluble in water, by first +thoroughly washing it in a stream of cold water after breaking up the +tissues and afterward melting and straining the fat at a moderate heat, +this method of operating seemed to be generally approved. It was adopted +by men largely engaged in "rendering" fatty substances for use in +pharmacy and for other purposes for which the fat was required to be as +free as possible from flavor and not unduly subject to become rancid. It +became the process of the British Pharmacopoeia in 1868. In 1869 it +formed the basis of a process, which was patented in Paris and this +country by Hippolite Mege, for the production of a fat free from taste +and odor, and suitable for dietetic use as a substitute for butter. +Mege's process consists in passing the fat between revolving rollers, +together with a stream of water, and then melting at "animal heat." This +process has been used abroad in the production of the fatty substance +called oleomargarine. + +But while there have been advocates for this process, of whom I have +been one, opinions have been now and then expressed to the effect that +the washing of the flare before melting the fat was rather hurtful than +beneficial. I have reason to believe that this opinion has been gaining +ground among those who have carefully inquired into the properties of +the products obtained by the various methods which have been suggested +for obtaining animal fat in its greatest state of purity. + +I have had occasion during the last two or three years to make many +experiments on the rendering and purification of animal fat, and at the +same time have been brought into communication with manufacturers of +oleomargarine on the large scale; the result of which experience has +been that I have lost faith in the efficacy of the Pharmacopeia process. +I have found that in the method now generally adopted by manufacturers +of oleomargarine, which is produced in immense quantities, the use of +water, for washing the fat before melting it, is not only omitted but +specially avoided. The parts of the process to which most importance is +attached are: First, the selection of fresh and perfectly sweet natural +fat, which is hung up and freely exposed to air and light. It thus +becomes dried and freed from an odor which is present in the freshly +slaughtered carcass. It is then carefully examined, and adhering +portions of flesh or membrane as far as possible removed; after which it +is cut up and passed through a machine in which it is mashed so as to +completely break up the membraneous vesicles in which the fat is +inclosed. The magma thus produced is put into a deep jacketed pan heated +by warm water, and the fat is melted at a temperature not exceeding +130 deg.F. + +If the flare has been very effectually mashed, the fat may be easily +melted away from the membraneous matter at 120 deg.F., or even below that, +and no further continuance of the heat is required beyond what is +necessary for effecting a separation of the melted fat from the +membraneous or other suspended matter. Complete separation of all +suspended matter is obviously important, and therefore nitration seems +desirable, where practicable; which however is not on the large scale. + +My experiments tend to indicate that the process just described is that +best adapted for the preparation of lard for use in pharmacy. There is, +however, a point connected with this or any other method of preparing +lard which is deserving of more attention than it has, I believe, +usually received, and that is, the source from which the flare has been +derived. Everybody knows how greatly the quality of pork depends upon +the manner in which the pig has been fed, and this applies to the fat as +well as other parts of the animal. Some time ago I had some pork +submitted to me for the expression of opinion upon it, which had a +decided fishy flavor, both in taste and smell. This flavor was present +in every part, fat and lean, and it is obvious that lard prepared from +that fat would not be fit for use in pharmacy. The pig had been +prescribed a fish diet. Barley meal would, no doubt, have produced a +better variety of lard. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANTI-CORROSION PAINT. + + +The _Neueste Erfinderung_ describes an anti-corrosion paint for iron. It +states that if 10 per cent. of burnt magnesia, or even baryta, or +strontia, is mixed (cold) with ordinary linseed-oil paint, and then +enough mineral oil to envelop the alkaline earth, the free acid of the +paint will be neutralized, while the iron will be protected by the +permanent alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in damp earth +may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin (colophony), 25 +parts of gutta-percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which 20 parts of +magnesia and some mineral oil have been added. + + * * * * * + + + + +CARBON IN STEEL. + + +At a recent meeting of the Chemical Society, London, a paper was read +entitled "Notes on the Condition in which Carbon exists in Steel," by +Sir F.A. Abel, C.B., and W.H. Deering. + +Two series of experiments were made. In the first series disks of steel +2.5 inches in diameter and 0.01 inch thick were employed. They were all +cut from the same strip of metal, but some were "cold-rolled," some +"annealed," and some "hardened." The total carbon was found to be: +"cold-rolled," 1.108 per cent.; hardened, 1.128 per cent.; and annealed, +0.924 and 0.860 per cent. Some of the disks were submitted to the action +of an oxidizing solution consisting of a cold saturated solution of +potassium bichromate with 5 per cent. by volume of pure concentrated +sulphuric acid. In all cases a blackish magnetic residue was left +undissolved. These residues, calculated upon 100 parts of the disks +employed, had the following compositions: "Cold-rolled" carbon, 1.039 +per cent.; iron, 5.871. Annealed, C, 0.83 per cent.; Fe, 4.74 per cent. +Hardened, C, 0.178 per cent.; Fe, 0.70 per cent. So that by treatment +with chromic acid in the cold nearly the whole of the carbon remains +undissolved with the cold-rolled and annealed disks, but only about +one-sixth of the total carbon is left undissolved in the case of the +hardened disk. The authors then give a _resume_ of previous work on the +subject. In the second part they have investigated the action of +bichromate solutions of various strengths on thin sheet-steel, about +0.098 inch thick, which was cold-rolled and contained: Carbon, 1.144 per +cent.; silica, 0.166 per cent.; manganese, 0.104 per cent. Four +solutions were used. The first contained about 10 per cent. of +bichromate and 9 per cent. of H_{2}SO_{4} by weight; the second was +eight-tenths as strong, the third about half as strong, the fourth about +one and a half times as strong. In all cases the amount of solution +employed was considerably in excess of the amount required to dissolve +the steel used. A residue was obtained as before. With solution 1, the +residue contained, C, 1.021; sol. 2, C, 0.969; sol. 3, C 1.049 the +atomic ratio of iron to carbon was Fe 2.694: C, 1; Fe, 2.65: C, 1; Fe), +2.867 C, 1): sol. 4. C, 0.266 per 100 of steel. The authors conclude +that the carbon in cold rolled steel exists not simply diffused +mechanically through the mass of steel but in the form of an iron +carbide, Fe_{3}C, a definite product, capable of resisting the action of +an oxidizing solution (if the latter is not too strong), which exerts a +rapid solvent action upon the iron through which the carbide is +distributed. + + * * * * * + + + + +APPARATUS FOR EXTRACTING STARCH FROM POTATOES. + + +In the apparatus of Mr. Angele, of Berlin, shown in the annexed cuts +(Figs. 1 and 2), the potatoes, after being cleaned in the washer, C, +slide through the chute, v, into a rasp, D, which reduces them to a fine +pulp under the action of a continuous current of water led in by the +pipe, d. The liquid pulp flows into the iron reservoir, B, from whence a +pump, P, forces it through the pipe, w, to a sieve, g, which is +suspended by four bars and has a backward and forward motion. By means +of a rose, c, water is sprinkled over the entire surface of the sieve +and separates the fecula from the fibrous matter. The water, charged +with fine particles of fecula, and forming a sort of milk, flows through +the tube, z, into the lower part, N, of the washing apparatus, F, while +the pulp runs over the sieve and falls into the grinding-mill, H. This +latter divides all those cellular portions of the fecula that have not +been opened by the rasp, and allows them to run, through the tube, h, +into the washing apparatus, F, where the fecula is completely separated +from woody fibers. The fluid pulp is carried by means of a helix, i, to +a revolving perforated drum at e. From this, the milky starch flows into +the jacket, N, while the pulp (ligneous fibers) makes its exit from the +apparatus through the aperture, n, and falls into the reservoir, o. + +[Illustration: ANGELE'S POTATO-STARCH APPARATUS.] + +The liquid from the jacket, N, passes to a refining sieve, K, which, +like the one before mentioned, has a backward and forward motion, and +which is covered with very fine silk gauze in order to separate the very +finest impurities from the milky starch. The refined liquid then flows +into the reservoir, m, and the impure mass of sediment runs into the +pulp-reservoir, o. The pump, l, forces the milky liquid from the +reservoir, m, to the settling back, while the pulp is forced by a pump, +u, from the receptacle, o, into a large pulp-reservoir. + +The water necessary for the manufacture is forced by the pump, a, into +the reservoir, W, from whence it flows, through the pipes, r, into the +different machines. All the apparatus are set in motion by two +shaftings, q. The principal shaft makes two hundred revolutions per +minute, but the velocity of that of the pumps is but fifty +revolutions.--_Polytech. Journ., and Bull. Musee de l'Indust_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A SIMPLE APPARATUS FOR DESCRIBING ELLIPSES. + +By Prof. E.J. HALLOCK. + + +A very simple apparatus for describing an oval or ellipse may be +constructed by any apprentice or school boy as follows: Procure a +straight piece of wood about 1/4 inch wide by 1/8 inch thick and 13 inches +long. Beginning 1/2 inch from the end, bore a row of small holes only +large enough for a darning needle to pass through and half an inch +apart. Mark the first one (at A) 0, the third 1, the fifth 2, and so on +to 12, so that the numbers represent the distance from O in inches. A +small slit may be made in the end of the ruler or strip of wood near A, +but a better plan is to attach a small clip on one side. + +[Illustration: ELLIPSE INSTRUMENT.] + +Next procure a strong piece of linen thread about four feet long; pass +it through the eye of a coarse needle, wax and twist it until it forms a +single cord. Pass the needle _upward_ through the hole marked 0, and tie +a knot in the end of the thread to prevent its slipping through. The +apparatus is now ready for immediate use. It only remains to set it to +the size of the oval desired. + +Suppose it is required to describe an ellipse the longer diameter of +which is 8 inches, and the distance between the foci 5 inches. Insert a +pin or small tack loosely in the hole between 6 and 7, which is distant +6-1/2 inches from O. Pass the needle through hole 5, allowing the thread +to pass around the tack or pin; draw it tightly and fasten it in the +slit or clip at the end. Lay the apparatus on a smooth sheet of paper, +place the point of a pencil at E, and keeping the string tight pass it +around and describe the curve, just in the same manner as when the two +ends of the string are fastened to the paper at the foci. The chief +advantage claimed over the usual method is that it may be applied to +metal and stone, where it is difficult to attach a string. On drawings +it avoids the necessity of perforating the paper with pins. + +As the pencil point is liable to slip out of the loop formed by the +string, it should have a nick cut or filed in one side, like a crochet +needle. + +As the mechanic frequently wants to make an oval having a given width +and length, but does not know what the distance between the foci must be +to produce this effect, a few directions on this point may be useful: + +It is a fact well known to mathematicians that if the distance between +the foci and the shorter diameter of an ellipse be made the sides of a +right angled triangle, its hypothenuse will equal the greater diameter. +Hence in order to find the distance between the foci, when the length +and width of the ellipse are known, these two are squared and the lesser +square subtracted from the greater, when the square root of the +difference will be the quantity sought. For example, if it be required +to describe an ellipse that shall have a length of 5 inches and a width +of 3 inches, the distance between the foci will be found as follows: + + (5 x 5) - (3 x 3) = (4 x 4) + or __ + 25 - 9 = 16 and \/16 = 4. + +In the shop this distance may be found experimentally by laying a foot +rule on a square so that one end of the former will touch the figure +marking the lesser diameter on the latter, and then bringing the figure +on the rule that represents the greater diameter to the edge of the +square; the figure on the square at this point is the distance sought. +Unfortunately they rarely represent whole numbers. We present herewith a +table giving the width to the eighth of an inch for several different +ovals when the length and distance between foci are given. + + + Length. Distance between foci. Width. + Inches. Inches. Inches. + + 2 1 13/4 + 2 11/2 11/4 + + 21/2 1 21/4 + 21/2 11/2 2 + 21/2 2 11/2 + + 3 1 11/2 + 3 11/2 2-7/8 + 3 2 2-5/8 + 3 21/2 21/4 + + 31/2 1 3-3/8 + 31/2 11/2 3-1/8 + 31/2 2 2-7/8 + 31/2 21/2 21/2 + 31/2 3 13/4 + + 4 2 31/2 + 4 21/2 3-1/8 + 4 3 2-5/8 + 4 31/2 2 + + 5 3 4 + 5 4 3 + +For larger ovals multiples of these numbers may be taken; thus for 7 and +4, take from the table twice the width corresponding to 31/2 and 2, which +is twice 2-7/8, or 53/4. It will be noticed also that columns 2 and 3 are +interchangeable. + +To use the apparatus in connection with the table: Find the length of +the desired oval in the first column of the table, and the width most +nearly corresponding to that desired in the third column. The +corresponding number in the middle column tells which hole the needle +must be passed through. The tack D, _around_ which the string must pass, +is so placed that the total length of the string AD + DC, or its equal +AE + EC, shall equal the greater diameter of the ellipse. In the figure +it is placed 61/2 inches from A, and 11/2 inches from C, making the total +length of string 8 inches. The oval described will then be 8 inches long +and 61/4 inches wide. + +The above table will be found equally useful in describing ovals by +fastening the ends of the string to the drawing as is recommended in all +the text books on the subject. On the other hand, the instrument may be +set "by guess" when no particular accuracy is required. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL IN KILNS. + + +The manufacture of charcoal in kilns was declared many years ago, after +a series of experiments made in poorly constructed furnaces, to be +unprofitable, and the subject is dismissed by most writers with the +remark, that in order to use the method economically the products of +distillation, both liquid and gaseous, must be collected. T. Egleston, +Ph.D., of the School of Mines, New York, has read a paper on the subject +before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, from which we extract +as follows: As there are many SILVER DISTRICTS IN THE WEST where coke +cannot be had at such a price as will allow of its being used, and where +the ores are of such a nature that wood cannot be used in a +reverberatory furnace, the most economical method of making charcoal is +an important question. + +Kilns for the manufacture of charcoal are made of almost any shape and +size, determined in most cases by the fancy of the builder or by the +necessities of the shape of the ground selected. They do not differ from +each other in any principle of manufacture, nor does there seem to be +any appreciable difference in the quality of the fuel they produce, when +the process is conducted with equal care in the different varieties; but +there is a considerable difference in the yield and in the cost of the +process in favor of small over large kilns. The different varieties have +come into and gone out of use mainly on account of the cost of +construction and of repairs. The object of a kiln is to replace the +cover of a meiler by a permanent structure. Intermediate between the +meiler and the kiln is the Foucauld system, the object of which is to +replace the cover by a structure more or less permanent, which has all +the disadvantages of both systems, with no advantages peculiar to +itself. + +The kilns which are used may be divided into the rectangular, the round, +and the conical, but the first two seem to be disappearing before the +last, which is as readily built and much more easily managed. + + +ALL VARIETIES OF KILNS + +Are usually built of red brick, or, rarely, of brick and stone together. +Occasionally, refractory brick is used, but it is not necessary. The +foundations are usually made of stone. There are several precautions +necessary in constructing the walls. The brick should be sufficiently +hard to resist the fire, and should therefore be tested before using. It +is an unnecessary expense to use either second or third quality +fire-brick. As the pyroligneous acid which results from the distillation +of the wood attacks lime mortar, it is best to lay up the brick with +fire-clay mortar, to which a little salt has been added; sometimes loam +mixed with coal-tar, to which a little salt is also added, is used. As +the principal office of this mortar is to fill the joints, special care +must be taken in laying the bricks that every joint is broken, and +frequent headers put in to tie the bricks together. It is especially +necessary that all the joints should be carefully filled, as any small +open spaces would admit air, and would materially decrease the yield of +the kiln. The floor of the kiln was formerly made of two rows of brick +set edgewise and carefully laid, but latterly it is found to be best +made of clay. Any material, however, that will pack hard may be used. It +must be well beaten down with paving mauls. The center must be about six +inches higher than the sides, which are brought up to the bottom of the +lower vents. Most kilns are carefully pointed, and are then painted on +the outside with a wash of clay suspended in water, and covered with a +coating of coal-tar, which makes them waterproof, and does not require +to be renewed for several years. + +[Illustration: RECTANGULAR KILNS FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF CHARCOAL.] + +The kilns were formerly roofed over with rough boards to protect the +masonry from the weather, but as no special advantage was found to +result from so doing, since of late years they have been made +water-proof, the practice has been discontinued. + +The wood used is cut about one and a fifth meters long. The diameter is +not considered of much importance, except in so far as it is desirable +to have it as nearly uniform as possible. When most of the wood is +small, and only a small part of it is large, the large pieces are +usually split, to make it pack well. It has been found most satisfactory +to have three rows of vents around the kiln, which should be provided +with a cast-iron frame reaching to the inside of the furnace. The vents +near the ground are generally five inches high--the size of two +bricks--and four inches wide--the width of one--and the holes are closed +by inserting one or two bricks in them. They are usually the size of one +brick, and larger on the outside than on the inside. These holes are +usually from 0.45 m. to 0.60 m. apart vertically, and from 0.80 m. to +0.90 m. apart horizontally. The lower vents start on the second row of +the brickwork above the foundation, and are placed on the level with the +floor, so that the fire can draw to the bottom. There is sometimes an +additional opening near the top to allow of the rapid escape of the +smoke and gas at the time of firing, which is then closed, and kept +closed until the kiln is discharged. This applies mostly to the best +types of conical kilns. In the circular and conical ones the top +charging door is sometimes used for this purpose. Hard and soft woods +are burned indifferently in the kilns. Hard-wood coal weighs more than +soft, and the hard variety of charcoal is usually preferred for blast +furnaces, and for such purposes there is an advantage of fully 33-1/3 +per cent. or even more in using hard woods. For the direct process in +the bloomaries, soft-wood charcoal is preferred. It is found that it is +not usually advantageous to build kilns of over 160 to 180 cubic meters +in capacity. Larger furnaces have been used, and give as good a yield, +but they are much more cumbersome to manage. The largest yield got from +kilns is from 50 to 60 bushels for hard wood to 50 for soft wood. The +average yield, however, is about 45 bushels. In meilers, two and a half +to three cords of wood are required for 100 bushels, or 30 to 40 bushels +to the cord. The kiln charcoal is very large, so that the loss in fine +coal is very much diminished. The pieces usually come out the whole +size, and sometimes the whole length of the wood. + +The rectangular kilns were those which were formerly exclusively in use. +They are generally built to contain from 30 to 90 cords of wood. The +usual sizes are given in the table below: + + 1 2 3 4 + Length 50 40 40 48 + Width 12 15 14 17 + Height 12 15 18 18 + Capacity, in cords 55 70 75 90 + +1 and 2. Used in New England. 3. Type of those used in Mexico. 4. Kiln +at Lauton, Mich. + +The arch is usually an arc of a circle. A kiln of the size of No. 4, as +constructed at the Michigan Central Iron Works, with a good burn, will +yield 4,000 bushels of charcoal. + +The vertical walls in the best constructions are 12 to 13 feet high, and +1-1/2 brick thick, containing from 20 to 52 bricks to the cubic foot of +wall. To insure sufficient strength to resist the expansion and +contraction due to the heating and cooling, they should be provided with +buttresses which are 1 brick thick and 2 wide, as at Wassaic, New York; +but many of them are built without them, as at Lauton, Michigan, as +shown in the engraving. In both cases they are supported with strong +braces, from 3 to 4 feet apart, made of round or hewn wood, or of cast +iron, which are buried in the ground below, and are tied above and below +with iron rods, as in the engraving, and the lower end passing beneath +the floor of the kiln. When made of wood they are usually 8 inches +square or round, or sometimes by 8 inches placed edgewise. They are +sometimes tied at the top with wooden braces of the same size, which are +securely fastened by iron rods running through the corners, as shown. +When a number of kilns are built together, as at the Michigan Central +Iron Works, at Lauton, Michigan, shown in the plan view, only the end +kilns are braced in this way. The intermediate ones are supported below +by wooden braces, securely fastened at the bottom. The roof is always +arched, is one brick, or eight inches, thick, and is laid in headers, +fourteen being used in each superficial foot. Many of the kilns have in +the center a round hole, from sixteen to eighteen inches in diameter, +which is closed by a cast iron plate. It requires from 35 M. to 40 M. +brick for a kiln of 45 cords, and 60 M. to 65 M. for one of 90 cords. + + * * * * * + +The belief that population in the West Indies is stationary is so far +from accurate that, as Sir Anthony Musgrave points out, it is increasing +more rapidly than the population of the United Kingdom. The statistics +of population show an increase of 16 per cent. on the last decennial +period, while the increase in the United Kingdom in the ten years +preceding the last census was under 11 per cent. This increase appears +to be general, and is only slightly influenced by immigration. "The +population of the West Indies," adds Sir A. Musgrave, "is now greater +than that of any of the larger Australian colonies, and three times that +of New Zealand." + + * * * * * + + + + +HEAT DEVELOPED IN FORGING. + + +M. Tresca has lately presented to the Academy of Sciences some very +interesting experiments on the development and distribution of heat +produced by a blow of the steam hammer in the process of forging. The +method used was as follows: The bar was carefully polished on both +sides, and this polished part covered with a thin layer of wax. It was +then placed on an anvil and struck by a monkey of known weight, P, +falling from a height, H. The faces of the monkey and anvil were exactly +alike, and care was taken that the whole work, T = PH, should be +expended upon the bar. A single blow was enough to melt the wax over a +certain zone; and this indicated clearly how much of the lateral faces +had been raised by the shock to the temperature of melting wax. The form +of this melted part could be made to differ considerably, but +approximated to that of an equilateral hyperbola. Let A be the area of +this zone, b the width of the bar, d the density, C the heat capacity, +and t-t0 the excess of temperature of melting wax over the temperature +of the air. Then, assuming that the area, A, is the base of a horizontal +prism, which is everywhere heated to the temperature, t, the heating +effect produced will be expressed by + +Ab x d x C(t-t0) + +Multiplying this by 425, or Joule's equivalent for the metrical system, +the energy developed in heat is given by + +T1 = 425 AbdC(t-t0). + +Dividing T1 by T, we obtain the ratio which the energy developed in heat +bears to the total energy of the blow. + +With regard to the form of the zone of melting, it was found always to +extend round the edges of the indent produced in the bar by the blow. We +are speaking for the present of cases where the faces of the monkey and +anvil were sharp. On the sides of the bar the zone took the form of a +sort of cross with curved arms, the arms being thinner or thicker +according to the greater or less energy of the shock. These forms are +shown in Figs. 1 to 6. It will be seen that these zones correspond to +the zones of greatest sliding in the deformation of a bar forged with a +sharp edged hammer, showing in fact that it is the mechanical work done +in this sliding which is afterward transformed into heat. + +[Illustration] + +With regard to the ratio, above mentioned, between the heat developed +and the energy of the blow, it is very much greater than had been +expected when the other sources of loss were taken into consideration. +In some cases it reached 80 per cent., and in a table given the limits +vary for an iron bar between 68.4 per cent. with an energy of 40 +kilogram-meters, and 83.6 per cent. with an energy of 90 +kilogram-meters. With copper the energy is nearly constant at 70 per +cent. It will be seen that the proportion is less when the energy is +less, and it also diminishes with the section of the bar. This is no +doubt due to the fact that the heat is then conducted away more rapidly. +On the whole, the results are summed up by M. Tresca as follows: + +(1) The development of heat depends on the form of the faces and the +energy of the blow. + +(2) In the case of faces with sharp edges, the process described allows +this heat to be clearly indicated. + +(3) The development of heat is greatest where the shearing of the +material is strongest. This shearing is therefore the mechanical cause +which produces the heating effect. + +(4) With a blow of sufficient energy and a bar of sufficient size, about +80 per cent. of the energy reappears in the heat. + +(5) The figures formed by the melted wax give a sort of diagram, showing +the distribution of the heat and the character of the deformation in the +bar. + +(6) Where the energy is small the calculation of the percentage is not +reliable. + +So far we have spoken only of cases where the anvil and monkey have +sharp faces. Where the faces are rounded the phenomena are somewhat +different. Figs. 7 to 12 give the area of melted wax in the case of bars +struck with blows gradually increasing in energy. It will be seen that, +instead of commencing at the edges of the indent, the fusion begins near +the middle, and appears in small triangular figures, which gradually +increase in width and depth until at last they meet at the apex, as in +Fig. 12. The explanation is that with the rounded edges the compression +at first takes place only in the outer layers of the bar, the inner +remaining comparatively unaffected. Hence the development of heat is +concentrated on these outer layers, so long as the blows are moderate in +intensity. The same thing had already been remarked in cases of holes +punched with a rounded punch, where the burr, when examined, was found +to have suffered the greatest compression just below the punch. With +regard to the percentage of energy developed as heat, it was about the +same as in the previous experiments, reaching in one case, with an iron +bar and with an energy of 110 kilogram-meters, the exceedingly high +figure of 91 per cent. With copper, the same figure varied between 50 +and 60 per cent.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NOVEL PROPELLER ENGINE. + +By Prof. C.W. MacCord. + + +The accompanying engravings illustrate the arrangement of a propeller +engine of 20 inch bore and 22 inch stroke, whose cylinder and valve gear +were recently designed by the writer, and are in process of construction +by Messrs. Valk & Murdoch, of Charleston, S.C. + +In the principal features of the engine, taken as a whole, as will be +perceived, there is no new departure. The main slide valve, following +nearly full stroke, is of the ordinary form, and reversed by a shifting +link actuated by two eccentrics, in the usual manner; and the expansion +valves are of the well known Meyer type, consisting of two plates on the +back of the main valve, driven by a third eccentric, and connected by a +right and left handed screw, the turning of which alters the distance +between the plates and the point of cutting off. + +The details of this mechanism, however, present several novel features, +of which the following description will be understood by reference to +the detached cuts, which are drawn upon a larger scale than the general +plan shown in Figs. 1 and 2. + +[Illustration: Figs. 1-2 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +The first of these relates to the arrangement of the right and left +handed screw, above mentioned, and of the device by which it is rotated. + +Usually, the threads, both right handed and left handed, are cut upon +the cut-off valve stem itself, which must be so connected with the +eccentric rod as to admit of being turned; and in most cases the valve +stem extends through both ends of the steam chest, so that it must both +slide endwise and turn upon its axis in two stuffing boxes, necessarily +of comparatively large size. + +All this involves considerable friction, and in the engine under +consideration an attempt has been made to reduce the amount of this +friction, and to make the whole of this part of the gear neater and more +compact, in the following manner: + +Two small valve stems are used, which are connected at their lower ends +by a crosstail actuated directly by the eccentric rod, and at their +upper ends by a transverse yoke. This yoke, filling snugly between two +collars formed upon a sleeve which it embraces, imparts a longitudinal +motion to the latter, while at the same time leaving it free to rotate. + +This sleeve has cut upon it the right and left handed screws for +adjusting the cut-off valves; and it slides freely upon a central +spindle which has no longitudinal motion, but, projecting through the +upper end of the valve chest, can be turned at pleasure by means of a +bevel wheel and pinion. The rotation of the spindle is communicated to +the sleeve by means of two steel keys fixed in the body of the latter +and projecting inwardly so as to slide in corresponding longitudinal +grooves in the spindle. + +Thus the point of cutting off is varied at will while the engine is +running, by means of the hand wheel on the horizontal axis of the bevel +pinion, and a small worm on the same axis turns the index, which points +out upon the dial the distance followed. These details are shown in +Figs. 3, 4, and 5; in further explanation of which it may be added that +Fig. 3 is a front view of the valve chest and its contents, the cover, +and also the balance plate for relieving the pressure on the back of the +main valve (in the arrangement of which there is nothing new), being +removed in order to show the valve stems, transverse yoke, sleeve, and +spindle above described. Fig. 4 is a longitudinal section, and Fig. 5 is +a transverse section, the right hand side showing the cylinder cut by a +plane through the middle of the exhaust port, the left hand side being a +section by a plane above, for the purpose of exhibiting more clearly the +manner in which the steam is admitted to the valve chest; the latter +having no pipes for this service, the steam enters below the valve, at +each end of the chest, just as it escapes in the center. + +The second noteworthy feature consists in this: that the cut-off +eccentric is not keyed fast, as is customary when valve gear of this +kind is employed, but is loose upon the shaft, the angular position in +relation to the crank being changed when the engine is reversed; two +strong lugs are bolted on the shaft, one driving the eccentric in one +direction, the other in the opposite, by acting against the reverse +faces of a projection from the side of The eccentric pulley. + +The loose eccentric is of course a familiar arrangement in connection +with poppet valves, as well as for the purpose of reversing an engine +when driving a single slide valve. Its use in connection with the Meyer +cut-off valves, however, is believed to be new; and the reason for its +employment will be understood by the aid of Fig. 6. + +For the purposes of this explanation we may neglect the angular +vibrations of the connecting rod and eccentric rod, considering them +both as of infinite length. Let O be the center of the shaft; let L O M +represent the face of the main valve seat, in which is shown the port +leading to the cylinder; and let A be the edge of the main valve, at the +beginning of a stroke of the piston. It will then be apparent that the +center of the eccentric must at that instant be at the point, C, if the +engine turn to the left, as shown by the arrow, and at G, if the +rotation be in the opposite direction; C and G then may be taken as the +centers of the "go-ahead" and the "backing" eccentrics respectively, +which operate the main valve through the intervention of the link. + +Now, in each revolution of the engine, the cut-off eccentric in effect +revolves in the same direction about the center of the main eccentric. +Consequently, we may let R C S, parallel to L O M, represent the face of +the cut-off valve seat, or, in other words, the back of the main valve, +in which the port, C N, corresponds to one of those shown in Fig. 4; and +the motion of the cut-off valve over this seat will be precisely, the +same as though it were driven directly by an eccentric revolving around +the center, C. + +In determining the position of this eccentric, we proceed upon the +assumption that the best results will be effected by such an arrangement +that when cutting off at the earliest point required, the cut-off valve +shall, at the instant of closing the port, be moving over it at its +highest speed. And this requires that the center of the eccentric shall +at the instant in question lie in the vertical line through C. + +[Illustration: Figs. 3-12 IMPROVED STEAM ENGINE.--BY PROF MACCORD.] + +Next, the least distance to be followed being assigned, the angle +through which the crank will turn while the piston is traveling that +distance is readily found; then, drawing an indefinite line C T, making +with the vertical line, G O, an angle, G C T. equal to the one thus +determined, any point upon that line may be assumed as the position of +the required center of the cut-off eccentric, at the beginning of the +stroke. + +But again, in order that the cut-off may operate in the same manner when +backing as when going ahead, this eccentric must be symmetrically +situated with respect to both C and G; and since L O M bisects and is +perpendicular to G C, it follows that if the cut-off eccentric be fixed +on the shaft, its center must be located at H, the intersection of C T +with L M. This would require the edge of the cut-off valve at the given +instant to be at Q, perpendicularly over H; and the travel over the main +valve would be equal to twice C H, the virtual lever arm of the +eccentric, the actual traverse in the valve chest being twice O H, the +real eccentricity. + +This being clearly excessive, let us next see what will occur if the +lever arm, CH, be reduced as in the diagram to CK. The edge of the +cut-off valve will then be at N; it instantly begins to close the port. +CN, but not so rapidly as the main valve opens the port, AB. + +The former motion increases in rapidity, while the latter decreases; +therefore at some point they will become equal in velocity, and the +openings of the two ports will be the same; and the question is, Will +this maximum effective port area give a sufficient supply of steam? + +This diagram is the same as the one actually used in the engine under +consideration, in which it was required to follow a minimum distance of +5 inches in the stroke of 22. Under these conditions it is found that +the actual port opening for that point of cutting off is three-fifths of +that allowed when following full stroke, whereas the speed of the piston +at the time when this maximum opening occurs is less than half its +greatest speed. + +This, it would seem, is ample; but we now find the eccentric, K, no +longer in the right position for backing; when the engine is reversed it +ought to be at, P, the angle, POL, being equal to the angle, KOL. By +leaving it free, therefore, to move upon the shaft, by the means above +described, through the angle, KOP, the desired object is accomplished. +The real eccentricity is now reduced in the proportion of OK to OH, +while the lengths of the cut-off valves, and what is equally important, +their travel over the back of the main valve, are reduced in the +proportion of CK to CH, in this instance nearly one-half; a gain quite +sufficient to warrant the adoption of the expedient. + +The third, and perhaps the most notable, peculiarity is the manner of +suspending and operating the main link. As before stated, this link is +used only for reversing, and is therefore always in "full gear" in one +direction or the other; and the striking feature of the arrangement here +used is that, whether going ahead or backing, there is _no slipping of +the link upon the link block_. + +The link itself is of the simplest form, being merely a curved flat bar, +L, in which are two holes, A and B (Fig. 7), by which the link is hung +upon the pins, which project from the sides of the eccentric rods at +their upper ends. + +This is most clearly shown in Fig. 8, which is a top view of the +reversing gear. The link block is a socket, open on the side next to the +eccentric rods, but closed on the side opposite, from which projects the +journal, J, as shown in Fig. 9, which is a vertical section by the +plane, XY. This journal turns freely in the outer end of a lever, M, +which transmits the reciprocating motion to the valve, through the +rock-shaft, O, and another lever, N. Connected with the lever, M, by the +bridge-piece, K, and facing it, is a slotted arm, G, as shown in the end +view, Fig. 10. The center line of this slot lies in the plane which +contains the axes of the journal, J, and of the shaft, O. + +A block, E, is fitted to slide in the slotted arm, G; and in this block +is fixed a pin, P. A bridle-rod, R, connects P with the pin, A, of one +of the eccentric-rods, prolonged for that purpose as shown in Fig. 8; +and a suspension-rod, S, connects the same pin, P, with the upper end of +the reversing lever, T, which is operated by the worm and sector. The +distance, JO, in Fig. 10, or in other words the length of the lever, M, +is precisely equal to the distance, AB, in Fig. 7, measured in a right +line; and the rods, R and S, from center to center of the eyes, are also +each of precisely this same length. Further, the axis about which the +reversing lever, T, vibrates is so situated that when that lever, as in +Fig 11, is thrown full to the left, the pin in its upper end is exactly +in line with the rock-shaft, O. + +When the parts are in this position, the suspension-rod, S, the arm, G, +and the lever, M, will be as one piece, and their motions will be +identical, consisting simply of vibration about the axis of the +rock-shaft, O. The motion of the lever, M, is then due solely to the +pin, B, which is in this case exactly in line with the journal, J, so +that the result is the same as though this eccentric rod were connected +directly to the lever; and the pin, P, being also in line with B and J, +and kept so by the suspension-rod, S, it will be seen that the +bridle-rod, R, will move with the link, L, as though the two were +rigidly fastened together. + +When the reversing lever, T, is thrown full to the right, as in Fig. 12, +the pin, P, is drawn to the inner end of the slot in the arm, G, and is +thus exactly in line with the rock-shaft, O. The suspension-rod, S, +will, therefore, be at rest; but the pin, A, will have been drawn, by +the bridle-rod, R, into line with the journal, J, and the bridle-rod +itself will now vibrate with the lever, M, whose sole motion will be +derived from the pin, A. + +There is, then, no block slip whatever when the link thus suspended and +operated is run in "full gear," either forward or backward. + +If this arrangement be used in cases where the link is used as an +expansion device, there will be, of course, some block slip while +running in the intermediate gears. But even then, it is to be observed +that the motion of the pin, A, relatively to the rocker arm is one of +vibration about the moving center, J; and its motion relatively to the +sliding block, E, is one of vibration about the center, P, whose motion +relatively to E is a small amount of sliding in the direction of the +slot, due to the fact that the rocker arm itself, which virtually +carries the block, E, vibrates about O, while the suspension-rod, S, +vibrates about another fixed center. It will thus be seen that, finally, +the block slip will be determined by the difference in curvature of arcs +_which curve in the same direction_, whether the engine be running +forward or backward; whereas in the common modes of suspension the block +slip in one direction is substantially the half sum of the curvatures of +two arcs curving in opposite directions. + +Consequently it would appear that the average action of the new +arrangement would be at least equal to that of the old in respect to +reducing the block slip when running in the intermediate gears, while in +the full gears it entirely obviates that objectionable feature. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE POTI. + + +The Russian government has just had built at the shipyards of Mr. +Normand, the celebrated Havre engineer, a torpedo boat called the Poti, +which we herewith illustrate. This vessel perceptibly differs from all +others of her class, at least as regards her model. Her extremities, +which are strongly depressed in the upperworks, and the excessive +inclination of her sides, give the boat as a whole a certain resemblance +to the rams of our navy, such as the Taureau and Tigre. + +[Illustration: THE NEW RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, THE "POTI".] + +A transverse section of the Poti approaches an ellipse in shape. Her +water lines are exceedingly fine, and, in point of elegance, in no wise +cede to those of the most renowned yachts. The vessel is entirely of +steel, and her dimensions are as follows: Length, 28 meters; extreme +breadth, 3.6 meters; depth, 2.5 meters; draught, 1.9 meters; +displacement, 66 tons. The engine, which is a compound one, is of 600 +H.P. The minimum speed required is 18 knots, or 33-34 meters, per hour, +and it will probably reach 40 kilometers. + +The vessel will be armed with 4 Whitehead torpedoes of 5.8 m., and 2 +Hotchkiss guns of 40 cm. Her supply of coal will be sufficient for a +voyage of 1000 nautical miles at a speed of 11 knots.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION. + + +The oar, the helix, and the paddle-wheel constitute at present the means +of propulsion that are exclusively employed when one has recourse to a +motive power for effecting the propulsion of a boat. The sail +constitutes an entirely different mode, and should not figure in our +enumeration, considering the essentially variable character of the force +utilized. + +In all these propellers, we have only an imitation, very often a rude +one, of the processes which nature puts in play in fishes and mollusks, +and the mode that we now wish to make known is without contradiction +that which imitates these the best. + +Hydraulic propulsion by reaction consists, in principle, in effecting a +movement of boats, by sucking in water at the bow and forcing it out at +the stern. This is a very old idea. Naturalists cite whole families of +mollusks that move about in this way with great rapidity. It is probable +that such was the origin of the first idea of this mode of operating. +However this may be, as long ago as 1661 a patent was taken out in +England, on this principle, by Toogood & Hayes. After this we find the +patents of Allen (1729) and Rumsay (1788). In France, Daniel Bernouilli +presented to the Academic des Sciences a similar project during the last +century. + +Mr. Seydell was the first to build a vessel on this principle. This +ship, which was called the Enterprise, was of 100 tons burden, and was +constructed at Edinburgh for marine fishery. The success of this was +incomplete, but it was sufficient to show all the advantage that could +be got from the idea. Another boat, the Albert, was built at Stettin, +after the same type and at about the same epoch; and the question was +considered of placing a reaction propeller upon the Great Eastern. + +About 1860 the question was taken up again by the house of Cokerill de +Seraing, which built the Seraing No. 2, that did service as an excursion +boat between Liege and Seraing. The propeller of this consisted of a +strong centrifugal pump, with vertical axis, actuated by a low pressure +engine. This pump sucked water into a perforated channel at the bottom +of the boat, and forced it through a spiral pipe to the propelling +tubes. These latter consisted of two elbowed pipes issuing from the +sides of the vessel and capable of pivoting in the exhaust ports in such +a way as to each turn its mouth downward at will, backward or forward. +The water expelled by the elbowed pipes reacted through pressure, as in +the hydraulic tourniquet of cabinets of physics, and effected the +propulsion of the vessel. Upon turning the two mouths of the propelling +tubes backward, the boat was thrust forward, and, when they were turned +toward the front, she was thrust backward. When one was turned toward +the front and the other toward the stern, the boat swung around. +Finally, when the two mouths were placed vertically the boat remained +immovable. All the evolutions were easy, even without the help of the +rudder, and the ways in which the propelling tubes could be placed were +capable of being varied _ad infinitum_ by a system of levers. + +The Seraing No. 2 had an engine of a nominal power of 40 horses, and +took on an average 30 minutes to make the trip, backward and forward, of +85 kilometers, with four stoppages. + +The success obtained was perfect, and the running was most satisfactory. +It was remarked, only, that from the standpoint of effective duty it +would have been desirable to reduce the velocity of the water at its +exit from the propellers. + +Mr. Poillon attributes the small effective performance to the system +employed for putting the water in motion. At time of Mr. Seraing's +experiments, only centrifugal force pumps were known, and the theoretic +effective duty of these, whatever be the peculiar system of +construction, cannot exceed 66 per cent., and, in practice, falls to 40 +or 50 per cent. in the majority of cases. + +It is probable, then, that in making use of those new rotary pumps where +effective duty reaches and often exceeds 80 per cent., we might obtain +much better results, and it is this that justifies the new researches +that have been undertaken by Messrs. Maginot & Pinette, whose first +experiments we are about to make known. + +In order to have it understood what interest attaches to these +researches, let us state the principal advantages that this mode of +propulsion will have over the helix and paddle wheel: The width of +side-wheel boats will be reduced by from 20 to 30 per cent., and the +draught of water will be diminished in screw steamers to that of the +hull itself; the maneuver in which the power of the engine might be +directly employed will be simplified; a machine will be had of a +sensibly constant speed, and without change in its running; the +production of waves capable of injuring the banks of canals will be +avoided; the propeller will be capable of being utilized as a bilge +pump; all vibration will be suppressed; the boat will be able to run at +any speed under good conditions, while the helix works well only when +the speed of the vessel corresponds to its pitch; it will be possible to +put the propelling apparatus under water; and, finally, it will be +possible to run the pump directly by the shaft of the high speed engine, +without intermediate gearing, which is something that would prove a very +great advantage in the case of electric pleasure boats actuated by piles +and accumulators and dynamo-electric machines. + +[Illustration: NEW STEAMER PROPELLED BY HYDRAULIC REACTION.] + +We now arrive at Messrs. Maginot & Pinette's system, the description of +which will be greatly facilitated by the diagram that accompanies this +article. The inventors have employed a boat 14 meters in length by 1.8 +m. in width, and 65 centimeters draught behind and 32 in front. The +section of the midship beam is 70 square decimeters, and that of the +exhaust port is 4. At a speed of 2.2 meters per second the tractive +stress, K, is from 10 to 11 kilogrammes. At a speed of 13.5 kilometers +per hour, or 3.75 meters per second, the engine develops a power of 12 +horses. The piston is 19 centimeters in diameter, and has a stroke of 15 +centimeters. The shaft, in common, of the pump and engine makes 410 +revolutions per minute. It will be seen from the figure that suction +occurs at the lower part of the hull, at A, and that the water is forced +out at B, to impel the vessel forward. C and C' are the tubes for +putting the vessel about, and DD' the tubes for causing her to run +backward. Owing to the tubes, C, C', the rudder has but small dimensions +and is only used for _directing_ the boat. The vessel may be turned +about _in situ_ by opening one of the receiving tubes, according to the +side toward which it is desired to turn. + +This boat is as yet only in an experimental state, and the first trials +of her that have recently been made upon the Saone have shown the +necessity of certain modifications that the inventors are now at work +upon.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW FORM OF FLEXIBLE BAND DYNAMOMETER. + +[Footnote: Read before Section G of British Association.] + +By Professor W.C. UNWIN. + + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +In the ordinary strap dynamometer a flexible band, sometimes carrying +segments of wood blocks, is hung over a pulley rotated by the motor, the +power of which is to be measured. If the pulley turns with left-handed +rotation, the friction would carry the strap toward the left, unless the +weight, Q, were greater than P. If the belt does not slip in either +direction when the pulley rotates under it, then Q-P exactly measures +the friction on the surface of the pulley; and V being the surface +velocity of the pulley (Q-P)V, is exactly the work consumed by the +dynamometer. But the work consumed in friction can be expressed in +another way. Putting [theta] for the arc embraced by the belt, and [mu] +for the coefficient of friction, + + Q/P = [epsilon]^{[mu]^{[theta]}}, + +or for a given arc of contact Q = [kappa]P, where [kappa] depends only +on the coefficient of friction, increasing as [mu] increases, and _vice +versa_. Hence, for the belt to remain at rest with two fixed weights, Q +and P, it is necessary that the coefficient of friction should be +exactly constant. But this constancy cannot be obtained. The coefficient +of friction varies with the condition of lubrication of the surface of +the pulley, which alters during the running and with every change in the +velocity and temperature of the rubbing surfaces. Consequently, in a +dynamometer in this simple form more or less violent oscillations of the +weights are set up, which cannot be directly controlled without +impairing the accuracy of the dynamometer. Professors Ayrton and Perry +have recently used a modification of this dynamometer, in which the part +of the cord nearest to P is larger and rougher than the part nearest to +Q. The effect of this is that when the coefficients of friction +increase, Q rises a little, and diminishes the amount of the rougher +cord in contact, and _vice versa_. Thus reducing the friction, +notwithstanding the increase of the coefficient. This is very ingenious, +and the only objection to it, if it is an objection, is that only a +purely empirical adjustment of the friction can be obtained, and that +the range of the adjustment cannot be very great. If in place of one of +the weights we use a spring balance, as in Figs. 2 and 3, we get a +dynamometer which automatically adjusts itself to changes in the +coefficient of friction. + +[Illustration: FIG.2 FIG.3] + +For any increase in the coefficient, the spring in Fig. 2 lengthens, Q +increases, and the frictional resistance on the surface of the pulley +increases, both in consequence of the increase of Q, which increases the +pressure on the pulley, and of the increase of the coefficient of +friction. Similarly for any increase of the coefficient of friction, the +spring in Fig. 3 shortens, P diminishes, and the friction on the surface +of the pulley diminishes so far as the diminution of P diminishes the +normal pressure, but on the whole increases in consequence of the +increase of the coefficient of friction. The value of the friction on +the surface of the pulley, however, is more constant for a given +variation of the frictional coefficient in Fig. 3 than in Fig. 2, and +the variation of the difference of tensions to be measured is less. Fig. +3, therefore, is the better form. + +A numerical calculation here may be useful. Supposing the break set to a +given difference of tension, Q-P, and that in consequence of any cause +the coefficient of friction increases 20 per cent., the difference of +tensions for an ordinary value of the coefficient of friction would +increase from 1.5 P to 2 P in Fig. 2, and from 1.5 P to 1.67 P in Fig. +3. That is, the vibration of the spring, and the possible error of +measurement of the difference of tension would be much greater in Fig. 2 +than in Fig. 3. It has recently occurred to the author that a further +change in the dynamometer would make the friction on the pulley still +more independent of changes in the coefficient of friction, and +consequently the measurement of the work absorbed still more accurate. +Suppose the cord taken twice over a pulley fixed on the shaft driven by +the motor and round a fixed pulley, C. + +For clearness, the pulleys, A B, are shown of different sizes, but they +are more conveniently of the same size. Further, let the spring balance +be at the free end of the cord toward which the pulley runs. Then it +will be found that a variation of 20 per cent. in the friction produces +a somewhat greater variation of P than in Fig. 3. But P is now so much +smaller than before that Q-P is much less affected by any error in the +estimate of P. An alteration of 20 per cent. in the friction will only +alter the quantity Q-P from 5.25 P to 5.55 P, or an alteration of less +than 6 per cent. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +To put it in another way, the errors in the use of dynamometer are due +to the vibration of the spring which measures P, and are caused by +variations of the coefficient of friction of the dynamometer. By making +P very much smaller than in the usual form of the dynamometer, any +errors in determining it have much less influence on the measurement of +the work absorbed. We may go further. The cord may be taken over four +pulleys; in that case a variation of 20 per cent. in the frictional +coefficient only alters the total friction on the pulleys 11/4 percent. P +is now so insignificant compared with Q that an error in determining it +is of comparatively little consequence. + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +The dynamometer is now more powerful in absorbing work than in the form +Fig. 3. As to the practical construction of the brake, the author thinks +that simple wires for the flexible bands, lying in V grooves in the +pulleys, of no great acuteness, would give the greatest resistance with +the least variation of the coefficient of friction; the heat developed +being in that case neutralized by a jet of water on the pulley. It would +be quite possible with a pulley of say 3 feet diameter, and running at +50 feet of surface velocity per second, to have a sufficiently flexible +wire, capable of carrying 100 lb. as the greater load, Q. Now with these +proportions a brake of the form in Fig. 3 would, with a probable value +of the coefficient of friction, absorb 6 horse power. With a brake in +the form Fig. 4, 8.2 horse power would be absorbed; and with a brake in +the form Fig. 5, 8.8 horse power would be absorbed. But since it would +be easy to have two, three, or more wires side by side, each carrying +its load of 100 lb., large amounts of horsepower could be conveniently +absorbed and measured. + + * * * * * + + + + +SEE'S GAS STOVE. + + +This stove consists of two or more superposed pipes provided with +radiators. A gas burner is placed at the entrance of either the upper or +lower pipe, according to circumstances. The products of combustion are +discharged through a pipe of small diameter, which may be readily +inserted into an already existing chimney or be hidden behind the +wainscoting. The heat furnished by the gas flame is so well absorbed by +radiation from the radiator rings that the gases, on making their exit, +have no longer a temperature of more than from 35 to 40 degrees. + +[Illustration: SEE'S GAS STOVE.] + +The apparatus, which is simple, compact, and cheap, is surrounded on all +sides with an ornamented sheet iron casing. Being entirely of cast iron, +it will last for a long time. The joints, being of asbestos, are +absolutely tight, so as to prevent the escape of bad odors. The water +due to the condensation of the gases is led through a small pipe out of +doors or into a vessel from whence it may evaporate anew, so as not to +change the hygrometric state of the air. The consumption of gas is very +small, it taking but 250 liters per hour to heat a room of 80 cubic +meters to a temperature of 18 deg. C.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + +The number of persons killed by wild animals and snakes in India last +year was 22,125, against 21,427 in the previous year, and of cattle, +46,707, against 44,669. Of the human beings destroyed, 2,606 were killed +by wild animals, and 19,519 by snakes. Of the deaths occasioned by the +attacks of wild animals, 895 were caused by tigers, 278 by wolves, 207 +by leopards, 356 by jackals, and 202 by alligators; 18,591 wild animals +and 322,421 snakes were destroyed, for which the Government paid rewards +amounting to 141,653 rupees. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECTIFICATION OF ALCOHOL BY ELECTRICITY. + + +Some time ago, Mr. Laurent Naudin, it will be remembered,[1] devised a +method of converting the aldehydes that give a bad taste and odor to +impure spirits, into alcohol, through electrolytic hydrogen, the +apparatus first employed being a zinc-copper couple, and afterward +electrolyzers with platinum plates. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT of July 29, 1882, p. +5472.] + +His apparatus had been in operation for several months, in the +distillery of Mr. Boulet, at Bapeaume-les-Rouen, when a fire in +December, 1881, completely destroyed that establishment. In +reconstructing his apparatus, Mr. Naudin has availed himself of the +experience already acquired, and has necessarily had to introduce +important modifications and simplifications into the process. In the +zinc-copper couple, he had in the very first place proposed to employ +zinc in the form of clippings; but the metal in this state presents +grave inconveniences, since the subsidence of the lower part, under the +influence of the zinc's weight, soon proves an obstacle to the free +circulation of the liquids, and, besides this, the cleaning presents +insurmountable difficulties. This is why he substituted for the +clippings zinc in straight and corrugated plates such as may be easily +found in commerce. The management and cleaning of the pile thus became +very simple. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--APPARATUS FOR HYDROGENIZING IMPURE SPIRITS.] + +The apparatus that contains the zinc-copper couple now has the form +shown in Fig. 1. It may be cylindrical, as here represented, or, what is +better, rectangular, because of the square form under which the sheets +of zinc are found in commerce. + +In this vessel of wood or iron plate, P, the corrugated zinc plates, b, +b', b", are placed one above the other, each alternating with a flat +one, a, a', a". These plates have previously been scoured, first with a +weak solution of caustic soda in order to remove every trace of fatty +matter derived from rolling, and then with very dilute hydrochloric +acid, and finally are washed with common water. In order to facilitate +the disengagement of hydrogen during the reaction, care must be taken to +form apertures in the zinc plates, and to incline the first lower row +with respect to the bottom of the vessel. A cubical pile of 150 +hectoliters contains 105 rows of No. 16 flat and corrugated zinc plates, +whose total weight is 6,200 kilogrammes. We obtain thus a hydrogenizing +surface of 1,800 square meters, or 12 square meters per hectoliter of +impure spirits of 50 deg. to 60 deg. Gay-Lussac. The raw impure spirits enter +the apparatus through the upper pipe, E, and, after a sufficient stay +therein, are drawn off through the lower pipe, H, into a reservoir, R, +from whence, by means of a pump, they are forced to the rectifier. + +The hydrogen engendered during the electrolysis is disengaged through an +aperture in the cover of the pile. + +As a measure of precaution, the hydrogen saturated with alcoholic vapors +may be forced to traverse a small, cooled room. The liquefied alcohol +returns to the pile. At a mean temperature of 15 deg., the quantity of +alcohol carried along mechanically is insignificant. In order to secure +a uniformity of action in all parts of the spirits, during the period +devoted to the operation, the liquid is made to circulate from top to +bottom by means of a pump, O. The tube, N, indicates the level of the +liquid in the vessel. The zinc having been arranged, the first operation +consists in forming the couple. This is done by introducing into the +pile, by means of the pump, O, a solution of sulphate of copper so as to +completely fill it. + +The adherence of the copper to the zinc is essential to a proper working +of the couple, and may be obtained by observing the following +conditions: + +1. Impure spirits of 40 deg. Gay-Lussac, and not water, should be used as a +menstruum for the salt of copper. + +2. The sulphatization should be operated by five successive solutions of +1/2 per cent., representing 20 kilogrammes of sulphate of copper per 100 +square meters of zinc exposed, or a total of 360 kilogrammes of sulphate +for a pile of 150 hectoliters capacity. + +3. A temperature of 25 deg. should not be exceeded during the +sulphatization. + +The use of spirits is justified by the fact that the presence of the +alcohol notably retards the precipitation of copper. As each charging +with copper takes twenty-four hours, it requires five days to form the +pile. At the end of this time the deposit should be of a chocolate-brown +and sufficiently adherent; but the adherence becomes much greater after +a fortnight's operation. + +Temperature has a marked influence upon the rapidity and continuity of +the reaction. Below +5 deg. the couple no longer works, and above +35 deg. the +reaction becomes vigorous and destroys the adherence of the copper to +such a degree that it becomes necessary to sulphatize the pile anew. The +battery is kept up by adding every eight days a few thousandths of +hydrochloric acid to a vatful of the spirits under treatment, say 5 +kilos. of acid to 150 hectoliters of spirits. The object of adding this +acid is to dissolve the hydrate of oxide of zinc formed during the +electrolysis and deposited in a whitish stratum upon the surface of the +copper. The pile required no attention, and it is capable of operating +from 18 months to two years without being renewed or cleaned. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--ELECTROLYZING APPARATUS.] + +Passing them over, the zinc-copper couple does not suffice to deodorize +the impure spirits, so they must be sent directly to a rectifier. But, +in certain cases, it is necessary to follow up the treatment by the pile +with another one by electrolysis. The voltameters in which this second +operation is performed have likewise been modified. They consist now +(Fig. 2) of cylindrical glass vessels, AH, 125 mm. in diameter by 600 in +height, with polished edges. These are hermetically closed by an ebonite +cover through which pass the tubes, B' C' and B C, that allow the +liquid, E+E-E'+E', to circulate. + +The current of spirits is regulated at the entrance by the cock, R, +which, through its division plate, gives the exact discharge per hour. +In addition, in order to secure great regularity in the flow, there is +placed between the voltameters and the reservoir that supplies them a +second and constant level reservoir regulated by an automatic cock. + +In practice, Mr. Naudin employs 12 voltameters that discharge 12 +hectoliters per hour, for a distillery that handles 300 hectoliters of +impure spirits every 24 hours. The electric current is furnished to the +voltameters by a Siemens machine (Fig. 3) having inductors in +derivation, the intensity being regulated by the aid of resistance wires +interposed in the circuit of the inductors. + +The current is made to pass into the series of voltameters by means of a +commutator, and its intensity is shown by a Deprez galvanometer. The +voltameters, as shown in the diagram, are mounted in derivation in +groups of two in tension. The spirits traverse them in two parallel +currents. The Siemens machine is of the type SD2, and revolves at the +rate of 1,200 times per minute, absorbing a motive power of four horses. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.--ARRANGEMENT OF THE SIEMENS MACHINE.] + +The disacidification, before entering the rectifier, is effected by the +metallic zinc. Let us now examine what economic advantages this process +presents over the old method of rectifying by pure and simple +distillation. The following are the data given by Mr. Naudin: + +In ordinary processes (1) a given quantity of impure alcohol must +undergo five rectifications in order that the products composing the +mixture (pure alcohol, oils, etc.) may be separated and sold according +to their respective quality; (2) the mean yield in the first +distillation does not exceed 60 cent.; (3) the loss experienced in +distillation amounts, for each rectification, to 4 per cent.; (4) the +quantity of essential oils (mixture of the homologues of ethylic +alcohol) collected at the end of the first distillation equals, on an +average, 3.5 per cent.; (5) the cost of a rectification may be estimated +at, on an average, 4 francs per hectoliter. + +All things being equal, the yield in the first operation by the electric +method is 80 per cent., and the treatment costs, on an average, 0.40 +franc per hectoliter. The economy that is realized is therefore +considerable. For an establishment in which 150 hectoliters of 100 deg. +alcohol are treated per day this saving becomes evident, amounting, as +it does, to 373 francs. + +We may add that the electric process permits of rectifying spirits +which, up to the present, could not be rectified by the ordinary +processes. Mr. Naudin's experiments have shown, for example, that +artichoke spirits, which could not be utilized by the old processes, +give through hydrogenation an alcohol equal to that derived from Indian +corn.--_La Nature_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLASTIC CARBON FOR BATTERIES. + + +Max Nitsche-Niesky recommends the following in _Neueste Erfindung_.: +Good coke is ground and mixed with coal-tar to a stiff dough and pressed +into moulds made of iron and brass. After drying for a few days in a +closed place, it is heated in a furnace where it is protected from the +direct flames and burned, feebly at first, then strongly, the fire being +gradually raised to white heat which is maintained for 6 or 8 hours. The +fire is then permitted to slowly go down, and when perfectly cold the +carbon is taken out of the furnace. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT STUDIES ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ALKALOIDS. + +By SAMUEL P. SADTLER, Ph.D. + +[Footnote: Introductory lecture, Course of 1883-84, Philadelphia College +of Pharmacy.] + + +The sciences of to-day present, as might be expected, a very different +aspect from the same branches of knowledge as they appeared fifty or +sixty years ago. It is not merely that the mass of observations in most +of these lines of study has enormously increased during this interval. +Were that all, the change could hardly be considered as an unmixed +benefit, because of the increased difficulty of assimilation of this +additional matter. Many would be the contradictions in the observations +and hopeless would be the task of bringing order out of such a chaos. +The advance in the several branches of knowledge has been largely one +resulting from improved methods of study, rather than one following +simply from diligence in the application of the old ways. + +Let us turn to chemistry for our illustration of this. The chemistry of +the last century and the early decades of this was largely a descriptive +science, such as the natural history branches, zoology, and botany are +still in great part. Reasonably exact mineral analyses were made, it is +true, but the laws of chemical combination and the fundamental +conceptions of atoms and molecules had not been as yet generally +established. Now, this want of comprehensive views of chemical +reactions, their why and wherefore, was bad enough as it affected the +study of inorganic and metallic compounds, but what must have been the +conditions for studying the complex compounds of carbon, so widely +spread in the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Their number is so enormous +that, in the absence of any established relationships, not much more +than a mere enumeration was possible for the student of this branch of +chemistry. It is only within the last twenty years that chemists have +attained to any comprehensive views at all in the domain of organic +chemistry. It has been found possible to gradually range most carbon +compounds under two categories, either as marsh-gas or as benzol +derivatives, as fatty compounds or as aromatic compounds. To do this, +methods of analysis very different from those used in mineral chemistry +had to be applied. The mere finding out of percentage composition tells +us little or nothing about an organic compound. What the elements are +that compose the compound is not to be found out. That can be told +beforehand with almost absolute certainty. What is wanted is to know how +the atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen are linked together, +for, strange to say, these differences of groupings, which may be found +to exist between these three or four elements, endow the compounds with +radically different properties and serve us as a basis of +classification. + +The development of this part of chemistry, therefore, required very +different methods of research. Instead of at once destroying a compound +in order to learn of what elements it was composed, we submit it to a +course of treatment with reagents, which take it apart very gradually, +or modify it in the production of some related substance. In this way, +we are enabled to establish its relations with well defined classes and +to put it in its proper place. Of equal importance with the analytical +method of study, however, is the synthetical. This method of research, +as applied to organic compounds, embodies in it the highest triumphs of +modern chemistry. It has been most fruitful of results, both theoretical +and practical. Within recent years, hundreds of the products of +vegetable and animal life have been built up from simpler compounds. +Thousands of valuable dye-colors and other compounds used in the arts +attest its practical value. It may, therefore, seem anomalous when I say +that one of the most important of all the classes of organic compounds +has not shared in this advance. The alkaloids, that most important class +from a medical and pharmaceutical point of view, have until quite +recently been defined in the books simply as "vegetable bases, +containing nitrogen." Whether they were marsh-gas or benzol derivatives +was not made out; how the four elements, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and +nitrogen, were grouped together in them was absolutely a thing unknown. +Chemists all admitted two things--first, that their constitution was +very complex, and, second, that the synthesis of any of the more +important medicinal alkaloids would be an eminently desirable thing to +effect from every point of view. Within the last five years, however, +quite considerable progress has been made in arriving at a clearer +understanding of these most important compounds, and I shall offer to +your attention this evening a brief statement of what has been done and +what seems likely to be accomplished in the near future. + +It was early recognized that the alkaloids were complex amines or +ammonia derivatives. The more or less strongly marked basic character of +these bodies, the presence of nitrogen as an essential element, and, +above all, the analogy shown to ammonia in the way these bases united +with acids to form salts, not by replacement of the hydrogen of the +acid, but by direct addition of acid and base, pointed unmistakably to +this constitution. But with this granted, the simplest alkaloid +formulas, those of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, and nicotine, +C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, still showed that the amine molecule contained quite +complex groups of carbon and hydrogen atoms, and the great majority of +the alkaloids--the non-volatile ones--contained groups in which the +three elements, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, all entered. Hence the +difficulty in acquiring a knowledge of the molecular structure of those +alkaloids at all comparable with that attained in the case of other +organic compounds. Of course synthesis could not be applied until +analysis had revealed something of the molecular grouping of these +compounds, so the action of different classes of reagents was tried upon +the alkaloids. Before summarizing the results of this study of the +decomposition and alteration products of the alkaloids, a brief +reference to a related class of organic compounds will be of assistance +to those unfamiliar with recent researches in this field. + +It is well known that in coal-tar is found a series of ammonia-like +bases, aniline or amido-benzol, toluidine or amido-toluol, and xylidine +or amido-xylol, which are utilized practically in the manufacture of the +so-called aniline dye-colors. It is perhaps not so well known that there +are other series of bases found there too. The first of these is the +pyridine series, including _pyridine_, C_{5}H_{5}N, _picoline_ +(methyl-pyridine), C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), _lutidine_ (dimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{5}N(CH_{3})_{2}, and _collidine_ (trimethyl-pyridine), +C_{5}H_{2}N(CH_{3})_{3}. This series is also found in relatively larger +proportion in what is known as Dippel's oil, the product of the dry +distillation of bones. + +The second series is the quinoline series, including _quinoline_, +C_{9}H_{7}N, _lepidine_ (methyl-quinoline), C_{10}H_{9}N, and +_cryptidine_ (dimethyl-quinoline), C_{11}H_{11}N. The two compounds +which give name to these series, pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N, and quinoline, +C_{9}H_{7}N, respectively, bear to each other a relation analogous to +that existing between benzol, C_{6}H_{6}, and naphthalene, C_{10}H_{8}; +and the theory generally accepted by those chemists who have been +occupying themselves with these bases and their derivatives is that +pyridine is simply benzol, in which an atom of nitrogen replaces the +triad group, CH, and quinoline, the naphthalene molecule with a similar +change. Indeed, Ladenberg has recently succeeded in obtaining benzol as +an alteration product from pyridine, in certain reactions. Moreover, +from methyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{4}N(CH_{3}), would be derived an acid know +as pyridine-carboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), just as benzoic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}COOH, is derived from methyl-benzol, C_{6}H_{5}CH_{3}, and +from dimethyl-pyridine, C_{5}H_{3}N(CH_{3})_{2}, an acid known as +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}, just as phthalic +acid, C_{6}H_{4}(COOH)_{2}, is derived from dimethyl-benzol, +C_{6}H_{4}(CH_{3})_{2}. The same thing applies to quinoline as compared +to naphthalene. + +We may now look at the question of the decomposing effect of reagents +upon the alkaloids. The means which have proved most efficacious in +decomposing these bases are the action of oxidizing and reducing agents, +of bromine, of organic iodides, of concentrated acids and alkalies, and +of heat. + +Taking up the volatile alkaloids, we find with regard to _conine_, +first, that the action of methyl iodide shows it to be a secondary +amine, that is, it restrains only one replaceable hydrogen atom of the +original ammonia molecule. Its formula is therefore C_{8}H_{16}NH. From +conine can be prepared methyl-conine, which also occurs in nature, and +dimethyl-conine. From this latter has been gotten a hydrocarbon, +C_{8}H_{14}, conylene, homologous with acetylene, C_{2}H_{2}. Conine, on +oxidation, yields chiefly butyric acid, but among the products of +oxidation has been found the pyridine carboxylic acid before referred +to. The formula of conine, C_{8}H_{17}N, shows it to be homologous with +piperidine, C_{5}H_{11}N, a derivative of piperine, the alkaloid of +pepper, to be spoken of later; and, just as piperidine is derived from +pyridine by the action of reducing agents, so conine is probably derived +from a propyl-pyridine. The artificial alkaloid paraconine, isomeric +with the natural conine, will be referred to later. + +_Nicotine_, C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, the next simplest in formula of the +alkaloids, is a tertiary base, that is, contains no replaceable hydrogen +atoms in its molecule. It shows very close relations to pyridine. When +nicotine vapor is passed through a red-hot tube, it yields essentially +collidine, and, with this, some pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and gases +such as hydrogen, marsh-gas, and ethylene. Heated with bromine water to +120 deg.C. it decomposes into bromoform, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and +pyridine. When its alcoholic solution is treated with ferricyanide of +potassium it is oxidized to dipyridine, C_{10}H_{10}N_{2}. Potassium +permanganate, chromic or nitric acid oxidises it to nicotinic acid, +C_{6}H_{5}NO_{2}, which is simply pyridine-carboxylic acid, +C_{5}H_{4}N(COOH), and which, distilled over quick-lime, yields +pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. + +Turning now to the non-volatile and oxygenized bases, we take up first +the opium alkaloids. _Morphine_, C_{17}H_{19}NO_{3}, is a tertiary +amine, and appears to contain a hydroxyl group like phenols, to which +class of bodies it has some analogies, as is shown in its reaction with +ferric chloride. Its meythl ester, which can be formed from it, is +_codeine_, one of the accompanying alkaloids of opium. Besides the +methyl derivative, however, others are possible, and several have been +recently prepared, giving rise to a class of artificial alkaloids known +as _codeines_. Morphine, rapidly distilled over zinc dust, yields +phenanthren, trimethyl-amine, pyrrol, pyridine, quinoline, and other +bases. The action of strong hydrocholoric acid upon morphine changes it +into apomorphine, C_{17}H_{17}NO_{2}, by the withdrawal of a molecule of +water. Ferricyanide of potassium and caustic soda solution change +morphine into oxidimorphine, C_{34}H_{36}N_{2}O_{6}. When heated with +strong potassium hydrate, it yields methylamine. + +_Narcotine_, another of the opium alkaloids, when heated with manganese +dioxide and sulphuric acid, is oxidized and splits apart into opianic +acid, C_{10}H_{10}O_{5}, and cotarnine, C_{12}H_{13}NO_{3}. This latter, +by careful oxidation, yields apophyllenic acid, C_{8}H_{7}NO_{4}, and +this, on heating with hydrochloric acid to 240 deg. C., yields +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{9}N(COOH)_{2}. The base cotarnine +also results from the prolonged heating of narcotine with water alone. +In this case, instead of opianic acid, its reduction product meconine, +C_{10}H_{10}O_{4}, is produced. + +_Meconic acid_, C_{7}H_{4}O_{7}, which is found in opium in combination +with the different bases, has also been investigated. By acting upon +meconic acid with ammonia, comenamic acid is formed, and this latter, +when heated with zinc dust, yields pyridine. + +If we go now to the cinchona alkaloids, we meet with exceedingly +interesting results. _Quinine_, C_{20}H_{24}N_{2}O_{2}, when carefully +oxidized with chromic acid or potassium permanganate, yields a series of +products. First is formed quitenine, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O_{4}, a weak +base, then quininic acid, C_{11}H_{9}NO_{3}, then the so-called +oxycinchomeronic acid, C_{8}H_{5}N0_{6}, and finally cinchomeronic acid, +C_{7}H_{6}NO_{4}. Now the two acids last mentioned are simple +substitution products of pyridine, oxycinchomeronic acid being a +pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{2}N(COOH)_{3}, and cinchomeronic +acid, a pyridine-dicarboxylic acid, C_{5}H_{3}N(COOH)_{2}. When +distilled with potassium hydrate, quinine yields quinoline and its +homologues. The alkaloid has been shown to be a tertiary base. + +_Quinidine_ yields with chromic acid the same decomposition products as +quinine. + +_Cinchonine_, C_{19}H_{22}N_{2}O, the second most important alkaloid of +these barks, when oxidized with potassium permanganate, yields cinchonic +acid, which is a quinoline-carboxylic acid, C_{9}H_{6}N(COOH), +cinchomeronic acid, which has just been stated to be a pyridine +dicarboxylic acid, and a pyridine tricarboxylic acid. When cinchonine is +treated with potassium hydrate, it is decomposed into quinoline and a +solid body, which on further treatment yields a liquid base, +C_{7}H_{9}N, which is probably lutidine. It has been found, moreover, +that both tetrahydroquinoline and dihydroquinoline, hydrogen addition +products of quinoline, are present. When cinchonine is distilled with +solid potassium hydrate, it yields pyrrol and bases of both the pyridine +and quinoline series. + +_Cinchonidine_, when heated with potassium hydrate, yields quinoline +also, and with nitric acid the same products as cinchonine. + +_Strychnine_ has been found to be a tertiary amine. When distilled with +potassium hydrate, quinoline is formed. + +_Brucine_ is a tertiary diamine, that is, formed by substitution in a +double ammonia molecule. When distilled with potassium hydrate it yields +quinoline, lutidine, and two isomeric collidines. + +The alkaloid _atropine_ has been quite thoroughly studied with results +of great interest. When heated with baryta-water or hydrochloric acid, +it takes up a molecule of water and is split into tropine, +C_{8}H_{15}NO, and tropic acid, C_{9}H_{10}O_{3}. This latter is +phenyl-oxypropionic acid. Tropine, when heated to 180 deg.C. with +concentrated hydrochloric acid, splits off a molecule of water, and +yields tropidine, C_{8}H_{13}N, a liquid base, with an odor resembling +conine. When this tropidine is heated with an excess of bromine, it +yields dibrompyridine. + +_Piperine_, the alkaloid of pepper, has also been well studied. When +boiled with alcoholic potash solution, it takes up a molecule of water +and splits apart into piperic acid, C_{12}H_{10}O_{4}, and piperidine, +C_{5}H_{11}N. This latter base has been shown to be a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, C_{5}H_{5}N. When heated with concentrated +sulphuric acid, it is oxidized to pyridine. Piperidine hydrochlorate, +also, when heated with excess of bromine to 180 deg. C., yields +dibrompyridine. + +_Sinapine_, the alkaloid which exists as sulphocyanate in white mustard +seed, yields, under the same reaction as that applied to atropine and +piperine, quite different results. When boiled with baryta water, +sinapine decomposes into sinapic acid, C_{11}H_{12}O_{5}, and choline, +C_{5}H_{15}NO_{2}, the latter a well-known constituent of the bile, and +produced also in the decomposition of the lecithin of the brain and yolk +of egg. + +_Cocaine_, the alkaloid of coca leaves, is decomposed by heating with +hydrochloric acid into methyl alcohol, benzoic acid, and a crystalline +base, ecgonine, C_{9}H_{15}NO_{3}. + +_Caffeine_ and _theobromine_ have also quite different relations. +Caffeine, it will be remembered, is the methyl ester of theobromine, and +can be prepared from it. When caffeine is carefully oxidized with +chlorine, it yields dimethyl-alloxan and methyl-urea. Both theobromine +and caffeine are decomposed by heating to 240 deg. C. in sealed tubes with +hydrochloric acid, identical products being obtained. These products are +carbon dioxide, formic acid, ammonia, methyl-amine, and sarcosine, the +last three being of course in combination with the excess of +hydrochloric acid. The artificial preparation of theobromine and +caffeine from xanthine, and guanine also show clearly their relations. + +If, having completed our survey of what has been done in the way of +decomposing the alkaloids by the different classes of reagents, we +review the field, it will be seen that with all the alkaloids mentioned, +except the last four, a more or less immediate connection with the +pyridine and quinoline bases has been indicated. The conviction +accordingly forces itself upon us that, if we want to attack the problem +of building up any of these important alkaloids artificially, we must +turn to these bases as our starting point. + +As already stated, both series occur in coal-tar and the pyridine series +also more abundantly in bone-oil. Pyridine, picoline, lutidine, and +collidine, the first four members of the pyridine series, have, +moreover, all been formed synthetically, although the processes are not +such as would yield the products as cheaply as they can be gotten from +Dippel's oil. Quinoline, the first member of the higher series, had been +made synthetically by several chemists, but by expensive and involved +methods, when Skraup, in 1881, effected its synthesis from nitrobenzol +and glycerin, or still better, a mixture of nitrobenzol and aniline with +glycerin. This process allows of its being made on a commercial scale if +desirable. Shortly after, by an application of the same principle, +Dobner and Miller effected the synthesis of lepidine, the second member +of the quinoline series. + +At the same time that this general agreement to consider these bases as +the starting point in the endeavor to effect the synthesis of the +natural alkaloids had been arrived at by chemists, it was thought well +to look into the question whether these bases and their immediate +derivatives had any therapeutic value of their own. + +Piperidine, the decomposition product of piperine, which we have shown +may be considered to be hexahydropyridine, was examined by Dr. +Kronecker, of Berlin, at the request of Prof. Hofmann, and was found to +have an action upon animals in many respects resembling that of conine. +Prof. Filehne, of Erlangen, who has studied a large number of these +pyridine and quinoline derivatives, found, moreover, that the +hydrochlorate of ethyl-piperidine had a physiological action quite +analogous to that of conine. + +The physiological action of quinoline itself has been studied quite +extensively by Donath and others, and it was found that several of its +salts were quite valuable febrifuges, acting very like quinine, and +capable in cases of being used as a substitute for it. In general, the +hydrogen addition products were found to be more active than the simple +base, an observation entirely in accord with the theory formed by +Wischnegradsky, and by Konigs, as the result of the study of the +decomposition products of the alkaloids, viz., the alkaloids are in +general hydrogen addition products of pyridine and quinoline, or of the +two bases combined. Thus Prof. Filehne found that hydrochlorate of +tetrahydroquinoline was much more energetic in its action than +quinoline, but could not be used on account of a too powerful local +effect. The hydrochlorate of dimethyl-tetrahydroquinoline, which was +distinguished by its strong bitter taste, much resembling that of +quinine, had an effect like that of curare poison. The most decided +febrifuge action, however was found by Prof. Filehne to reside in the +hydrochlorate of oxyhydro-methyl-quinoline, introduced to public notice +by Prof. O. Fischer under the name of "Kairin," and in the acid sulphate +of tetrahydro-methylquinoline, introduced under the name of "Kairolin." +These compounds had a very surprising febrifuge action, without any +unpleasant after effects or local disturbances. + +The most active workers in the field of synthetic formation of the +alkaloids have been Wischnegradsky, of St. Petersburg--who, +unfortunately for science, died at an untimely age in 1880--Koenigs and +Fischer, of Munich, and Ladenburg, of Kiel. The study of the +decomposition products of the cinchona alkaloids especially points quite +distinctly to the probable existence in quinine of a hydrogen addition +product of pyridine, in combination with a methyl-quinoline group. The +many experiments that are now being made to test this and other +questions that suggest themselves, will not long leave us in the dark. +Whether a practical commercial synthesis of quinine will follow is +another matter, but it is within the bounds of possibility, or perhaps +even of probability. + +It must not be supposed that no syntheses of alkaloids have been +effected as yet. By heating butyl-aldehyde with alcoholic ammonia is +formed _paraconine_, an alkaloid isomeric with the natural conine, but +differing in physiological action. By the action of sodium upon pyridine +is produced a compound C_{10}H_{8}N_{2}, known as dipyridyl, and this, +under the influence of nascent hydrogen, takes up six atoms and becomes +_isonicotine_ C_{10}H_{14}N_{2}, a physiologically active alkaloid, +isomeric with the true nicotine. The formation of a series of alkaloids +under the name of _codeines_, by the substitution of other organic +radicals instead of methyl in the codeine reaction, has already been +alluded to. _Atropine_ can be formed by uniting tropine and tropic acid, +the two decomposition products already noted. The latter of these +products is already shown to be capable of synthetical formation, and +the other will no doubt be formed in the same way. The artificial +atropine is identical with the natural alkaloid. Ladenburg has also +formed a series of artificial alkaloids, called _tropeines_, by uniting +the base tropine with different organic acids, as in the case of the +compound of mandelic acid and tropine, known as _homatropine_, an +alkaloid of action similar to atropine, but possessing some decided +advantages in its use. _Piperine_ has also been made by the uniting of +piperidine and piperic acid, and, as piperidine has already been formed +from pyridine, we have here a true synthesis also. Both _theobromine_ +and _caffeine_, its methyl derivative, have been made from xanthine, +which itself can be formed from guanine, a constituent of guano. + +We may conclude from this reference to what has been done in the last +few years, that the reproach mentioned in first speaking of the +alkaloids as a class, that almost nothing was known of their +constitution, will not long remain, and that as their molecular +structure is laid bare in these studies now being made, keen-sighted +chemists will effect their artificial formation. When these most +valuable compounds can be made by exact methods, in a state of entire +purity, and at a cost much below that paid for the present extraction of +them from relatively rare plants, organic chemistry will have placed all +of us under obligations as great as those owing any branch of science, +no matter how practical we call it.--_Amer. Jour. of Pharmacy_. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE TREATMENT OF CONGESTIVE HEADACHE. + +By J. LEONARD CORNING, M.D., New York. + + +If we examine the literature of our theme, we are astounded by the +apparently hopeless confusion in which the whole is involved. Everywhere +attempts at ill-founded generalization are encountered. We are compelled +to admit, after perusing long debates in regard to the relative merits +of various therapeutic measures, that those who were foremost to +disparage the treatment pursued by others were totally ignorant of the +fact that those same symptomatic manifestations which they were +considering might be owing to entirely different causes from similar +conditions described by others. Hence a commensurate modification in +therapy might not only be admissible, but eminently desirable. It is +more especially of recent years that a laudable attempt to differentiate +the various etiological factors involved in different forms of headache +has been made. In 1832 Dr. James Mease, of Philadelphia published a +monograph on "The Cause, Cure, and Prevention of the Sick Headache," +which is substantially a treatise on the dietetics of this particular +form of headache. The work, however, is conspicuously lacking in those +philosophical qualities which are so necessary to a true understanding +of the questions involved. Dr. E.H. Sieveking published in 1854[1] a +most interesting paper on "Chronic and Periodical Headache." The views +therein expressed are remarkable for their succinct and thoroughly +scientific elucidation of the two great physiological principles +involved in the consideration of by far the greater majority of +instances of cephalalgia. I refer namely to the importance ascribed by +this eminent physician to the fluctuations of the blood-stream within +the cranial vault. In speaking of this subject Dr. Sieveking says: +"Nothing is of more importance in reference to the pathology and +therapeutics of the head than clear and well-defined notions on the +physiological subject of the circulation within the cranium; for, among +the various sources of medical skepticism, no one is more puzzling or +more destructive of logical practice than a contradiction between the +doctrine of physiology and the daily practice of medicine." + +[Footnote 1: On Chronic and Periodical Headache, by E.H. Sieveking, +M.D., _Medical Times and Gazette_ London, August 12, 1854.] + +What Dr. Sieveking said in 1854 holds equally good to-day; and, indeed, +the position then taken has received substantial indorsement through the +positive results of more recent experimental physiology. Conspicuous in +this connection are the inductive researches of Durham, Fleming, and +Hammond, touching the modifications in the cerebral circulation during +sleep and wakefulness. By these experiments it has been conclusively +proved that the amount of blood in the brain is decreased during sleep +and increased during wakefulness. More, recently I have had occasion to +confirm the experiments of Fleming in this direction, and have published +the results of those researches in various papers and articles.[1] "What +Hippocrates said of spasm," says Dr. Sieveking, "that it results either +from fullness or emptiness, or, to use more modern terms, from hyperaemia +or anaemia, applies equally to headache; but, to embrace all the causes +of this affection we must add a third element, which, though most +commonly complicating one of the above circumstances, is not necessarily +included in them, namely a change in the constitution of the blood." +While I agree with Dr. Sieveking as regards the importance to be +ascribed to the first two factors--cerebral hyperaemia and anaemia, in the +production of the group of symptoms known as "headache,"--I fail to +perceive why especial prominence should be given to the third condition +mentioned by Dr. Sieveking. Indeed, I am quite unable to imagine how the +periodical, and more especially the intermittent form, of headache is to +be explained by what Dr. Sieveking describes rather ambiguously as a +"change in the constitution of the blood." It is quite evident, +admitting that such a change is capable of producing an amount of +cerebral irritation sufficient to develop well-marked cephalalgia, that +the latter must of necessity be within certain limits continuous. This +is not the case, as the causative factor is constant and not +fluctuating. I am, therefore, not prepared to accept this third +causative factor without question. Nevertheless I am perfectly willing +to admit that other factors besides cerebral hyperaemia and anaemia may +produce the functional variety of headache. There would seem to be ample +ground for ascribing great causative importance to excessive irritation +of the brain plasma itself. Hence those forms of headache which while, +being unaccompanied by any especial circulatory derangements, succeed, +oftentimes, with relentless regularity upon any considerable degree of +mental work. It is not my purpose to discuss the treatment of the +multifarious forms of cephalalgia on this occasion, did time permit. As +regards the so-called "neuralgic" variety I content myself by referring +to the admirable work on "Neuralgia and Kindred Diseases of the Nervous +System," by Dr. John Chapman of London, in which will be found many +interesting facts bearing on the question. Accepting the propositions, +then, that the more adjacent causes of headache are (1) cerebral +hyperaemia, (2) cerebral anaemia, and (3) irritation of the cerebral +plasma itself, let us now consider how these morbid factors are most +scientifically and speedily met at the bedside; and how, more +particularly, those distressing conditions of engorgement, which are so +baneful an item in the causation of a certain form of cephalalgia, are +best overcome. + +[Footnote 1: _Vide_ Carotid Compression and Brain Rest, by J.L. Corning, +M.D. New York: Anson D.F. Randolph & Co.] + +Two years ago I began a series of experiments on epileptics and maniacs, +which involved the application of protracted pressure to the common +carotid artery on both sides. In the course of these experiments the +thought suggested itself that suppression of the carotids might prove a +salutary means of reducing that form of cerebral congestion which is so +prolific a source of headache and vertigo. Accordingly I made a +protracted series of experiments with carotid compression upon those +suffering from congestive headache, and I can only say that I have been +so far pleased with the uniformly good results obtained, that I have +felt it a duty to call the attention of the profession to a procedure +which, for obvious reasons, possesses all the advantages of local +depletion by leeching or cupping, without the manifest disadvantages of +either of these methods. The instruments which I have devised as +substitutes for the primitive procedure of digital compression of the +carotids have already been described in former communications. It is +only necessary to say that the implements in question are of two kinds; +one, the "carotid fork," is an adjustable instrument, which being held +in the hand of the operator permits him to exert any degree of pressure +upon both carotids for any desired length of time. The other instrument, +which I have designated as the "carotid truss," for lack of a better +name, is a circular spring provided with adjustable pads at each +extremity. The spring is placed about the neck of the patient, and by +suitable appliances the pads at the extremities can be placed directly +above the trunks of the two common carotid arteries. By turning the +screws to which the pads are attached the desired amount of pressure can +be applied to the arteries, and the apparatus can be worn for any length +of time by the patient. + +With these instruments I have frequently succeeded in arresting the most +obstinate form of congestive headache in an incredibly short time (on +one occasion in about five minutes). Where, however, the headache is of +manifestly nervous origin and uncomplicated by any especial circulatory +derangements, I have never been able to achieve notable results with +this method. Indeed, pressure upon the carotids is an excellent method +of differentiating the congestive form of headache from the nervous +varieties of head pains. + +Of galvanism this much may be said, that it is one of the most valuable +methods which we possess for treating the form of headache under +consideration, for not only does it cause contraction of the smaller +arteries, but it also exerts a soothing influence upon the plasma of the +brain itself. + +A powerful therapeutic agent, and one which has been more or less +extensively employed in the treatment of various forms of head and +spinal symptoms, is cold. + +A very excellent method of applying both cold and galvanism to the head, +at the same time, is afforded by a species of refrigerating electrode, +designed by myself for this purpose. The apparatus in question consists +of a concave sponge electrode, the concavity of which corresponds to the +convexity of the external aspect of the cranium. Above the electrode is +a chamber of metal or India-rubber, designed to contain ice. The whole +is secured to the head of the patient by a single chin-strap, and +connection established with an ordinary galvanic battery by means of an +appropriate clamp and insulated cord. The indifferent pole is applied +over the sternum or other convenient point. Care should be taken not to +employ too strong currents, as otherwise vertigo and other unpleasant +symptoms may be produced. An application of from five to ten minutes is +usually sufficient to arrest the head-pain. As an additional security it +is well to recommend the patient to take a hot foot-bath, and to remain +as quiet as possible for twelve hours succeeding the treatment. In +hyperaemic headache cupping and blood-letting have been recommended; but +as a rule both procedures are not only unnecessary but positively +inadmissible, as exclusion of the superfluous amount of blood by +compression upon the carotids, followed by a corresponding dilatation of +the peripheral circulation by means of the foot-bath, will almost always +be sufficient to cause a permanent cessation of the symptoms. Among the +internal remedies which may be employed with good effect in certain +cases are aconite, bromide of potassium, and Indian hemp. The inhalation +of from five to ten drops of chloroform is an excellent expedient in +some instances. Chlorodyne, which is nothing more than a mixture of +sedatives, often works well, and indeed frequently excels other +remedies. The regulation of the heart's action is also of very great +importance in these cases, and the physician should have no hesitancy in +resorting to such remedies as digitalis and belladonna for the purpose +of reducing the tension in the domain of the cerebral circulation. As a +matter of course the digestive functions should be carefully looked to; +the bowels should be kept open; and in all cases where there are +indications of a congestive origin, alcohol in all forms should be +absolutely forbidden.--_Med. Record_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE USE OF THE MULLEIN PLANT IN THE TREATMENT OF PULMONARY CONSUMPTION. + +[Footnote: From a paper published in the _British Medical Journal_.] + +By F.J.B. QUINLAN, M.D., M.R.I.A., F.K.Q.C P., Physician to St. +Vincent's Hospital, Dublin. + + +From time immemorial, the _Verbascum thapsus_, or great mullein, has +been a trusted popular remedy, in Ireland, for the treatment of the +above formidable malady. It is a wild plant--most persons would call it +a weed--found in many parts of the United Kingdom; and, according to +Sowerby's _British Botany_, vol. vi., page 110, is "rather sparingly +distributed over England and the south of Scotland." In most parts of +Ireland, however, in addition to growing wild it is carefully cultivated +in gardens, and occasionally on a rather extensive scale; and this is +done wholly and solely in obedience to a steady popular call for the +herb by phthisical sufferers. Constantly, in Irish newspapers, there are +advertisements offering it for sale; and there are, in this city, +pharmaceutical establishments of the first rank in which it can be +bought. Still it does not appear in the Pharmacopoeia; nor, as far as I +know, has its use received the official sanction of the medical +profession. Some friends with whom I talked over the matter at the +Pharmaceutical Conference at Southampton last August, suggested that it +would be desirable to make a therapeutical research into the powers of +this drug, and ascertain by actual experiment its efficacy or otherwise. +Having partially accomplished this, I am anxious to very briefly set +forth what has been done, in order that others may be induced to +co-operate in the work. + +"There are five mulleins, all belonging to the parent order of the +Scrophulariaceae; but the old Irish remedy is the great mullein, or +_Verbascum thapsus_, a faithful delineation of which will be found in +Plate 1, 437, vol. vi., of Sowerby. It is a hardy biennial, with a thick +stalk, from eighteen inches to four feet high, and with very peculiar +large woolly and mucilaginous leaves, and a long flower spike with ugly +yellow and nearly sessile flowers. The leaves are best gathered in late +summer or autumn, shortly before the plant flowers. In former times it +appears to have been rather highly thought of, particularly as a remedy +for diarrhoea; and Dioscorides, Culpepper, and Gerarde favorably allude +to it. + +"Having been furnished with a good supply of fresh mullein from a garden +near this city, where it is extensively grown, I commenced operations. +As it proved useful, subsequent supplies were procured from our +drug-contractor. + +"The old Irish method of administering the mullein is to place an ounce +of dried leaves, or a corresponding quantity of the fresh ones, in a +pint of milk; to boil for ten minutes, and then to strain. This strained +fluid is given warm to the patient, with or without a little sugar. It +is administered twice a day; and the taste of the mixture is bland, +mucilaginous, comforting to the praecordia, and not disagreeable. I +resolved to try this method, and also the watery infusion; and, +moreover, the natural expressed juice fortified with glycerin. This +latter preparation was carefully made for me, from fresh mullein leaves, +by Dr. John Evans, chemist to the Queen and the Prince of Wales. + +"Some phthisical sufferers, of whom there are here, alas! too many, were +now admitted from time to time into St. Vincent's Hospital. They were +admitted in all stages, from an early one to the most advanced. On each +admission the case was carefully examined; the history, symptoms, and +physical signs were exactly noted; and the patient was weighed on a +stage balance with great accuracy. The patient was put as much as +possible on the mullein treatment only. For obvious reasons, no +cod-liver oil, koumiss, or other weight producer was given; the patients +got the diet suitable to such sufferers; and, if the special symptoms +became troublesome, received appropriate treatment. As much as possible, +however, they were left to the mullein--a proceeding which was entirely +satisfactory to themselves. In addition to the admission weighing, they +were carefully weighed every week, and care was taken that this should +be done as nearly as possible on the same day and hour, with the same +clothes, and, in fact, as much as could be under the same conditions. In +securing this the patients anxiously co-operated; and it was frequently +amusing, but sometimes painful, to watch the satisfaction or chagrin +with which the weekly result was received. I must here tender my +acknowledgments to our zealous, attentive, and accurate house surgeon, +Mr. Denis P. Kenna, by whom this important, but tedious, duty was +discharged." + +Dr. Quinlan then refers to several cases, in which the mullein plant has +been tried as a remedy for consumption, and remarks that these cases, +although too few to justify any general conclusion, appear to establish +some useful facts. The mullein plant boiled in milk is liked by the +patients; in watery infusion it is disagreeable, and the succus is still +more so. The hot milk decoction causes a comfortable (what our Gallic +neighbors call _pectorale_) sensation, and when once patients take it +they experience a physiological want, and when the supply was once or +twice interrupted, complained much in consequence. That it eases +phthisical cough there can be no doubt; in fact, some of the patients +scarcely took their cough mixtures at all--an unmixed boon to phthisical +sufferers with delicate stomachs. Its power of checking phthisical +looseness of the bowels was very marked, and experiment proved that this +was not merely due to the well known astringent properties of boiled +milk. It also gave great relief to the dyspnoea. For phthisical night +sweats it is utterly useless; but these can be completely checked by the +hypodermic use of from one-eighteenth to one-fiftieth of a grain of the +atropia sulphate; the smaller dose, if it will answer, being preferable, +as the larger causes dryness of the pharynx, and interferes with ocular +accommodation. In advanced cases, it does not prevent loss of weight, +nor am I aware of anything that will, except koumiss. Dr. Carrick, in +his interesting work on the koumiss treatment of Southern Russia (page +213), says: "I have seen a consumption invalid gain largely in weight, +while the disease was making rapid progress in her lungs, and the +evening temperature rarely fell below 101 deg. Fahr. Until then I considered +that an increase of weight in phthisis pulmonalis was a proof of the +arrest of the malady." If koumiss possesses this power, mullein does +not; but unfortunately, as real koumiss can be made from the milk of the +mare only, and as it does not bear traveling, the consumptive invalid +must go at least to Samara or Southern Russia. In pretubercular and +early cases of pulmonary consumption, mullein appears to have a distinct +weight-increasing power; and I have observed this in several private +cases also. Having no weighings of these latter, however, makes this +statement merely an expression of opinion. In early cases, mullein milk +appears to act very much in the same manner as cod-liver oil; and when +we consider that it is at once cheap and palatable it is certainly worth +a trial. I will continue the research by careful weighings of early +cases; and will further endeavor to ascertain whether the addition of +mullein to the cultivating solution prevents the propagation of the +phthisical bacillus. + + * * * * * + + + + +ACTION OF MINERAL WATERS AND OF HOT WATER UPON THE BILE. + + +Lewaschew and Klikowitch, from experiments upon dogs, conclude that the +use of ordinary alkaline mineral waters was to increase the quantity of +bile and to make it more fluid and watery. This increased flow is +beneficial in clearing out any bile stagnating in the gall-bladder. A +subsequent increase in the quantity of bile indicates a greater flow of +bile into the gall-bladder, and this also is of service in emptying out +any stagnant bile, and restoring the normal condition when this is +disturbed. Artificial solutions of alkaline salts were found to have a +similar action to the natural mineral waters, and, as with them, the +action varies according to the concentration of the solution. +Bicarbonate of sodium has a quicker, more powerful, and more lasting +effect on the composition of the bile than the sulphate of sodium, and +weak solutions than strong ones. Vichy was more efficacious than +Carlsbad water. Hot water was found to have an effect on the bile much +like that of the mineral waters. + + * * * * * + + + + +VIVISECTION. + + +Although Magendie is rightly considered the true initiator of +experimentation upon living beings, the practice of vivisection is as +old as science itself. + +Galien, the physician of Marcus Aurelius (in the second century of the +Christian era), dissected living animals, and yet he is regarded as +having merited his name (_Galenus_, "gentle") from the mildness of his +character. Five centuries before him, under the Ptolemies, Egyptian +experimenters had operated upon condemned persons. So, then, vivisection +is not, as usually thought, a diabolical invention of modern science. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1-5 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +In all ages the necessity has been recognized of operating upon animals +that are nearest allied to man, such as the monkey, the hog, and the +dog, and who share with the king of creation the privilege of eating a +little of everything. Claude Bernard, however, had another way of +looking at things. It is true that he especially made researches into +the general laws of physiology, the secret of the vital functions, and +the operation of the various organic systems that constitute living +matter, but his immediate object was not to furnish weapons for the art +of curing. He left to physicians and surgeons the care of drawing +conclusions from his great work in biology, and of acting experimentally +upon animals allied to man in order to found a rational system of +therapeutics. So he preferred to operate upon beings placed low in the +animal scale--the frog especially, an animal that has rendered him +greater service than even man himself could have done. Cold-blooded +animals offer, moreover, the advantage of being less impressionable than +others, and the experiments to which they are submitted present more +accurate conclusions, since it is not necessary to take so much account +of the victim's restlessness. And then it is necessary in many cases to +choose subjects that possess endurance. The unfortunate frog, so aptly +named "the Job of physiology," becomes resigned to living under most +dreadful conditions, and when, through sheer exhaustion, he has +succumbed, his twitching limbs may still he used as an object of +experimentation for twenty-four hours. Thanks are due to nature for +giving so extraordinary a vitality to the tissues of a modest +batrachian! We owe to it the famous experiment of Galvani that led Volta +to the discovery of the pile and what followed it, the astonishing +conquests of electricity and those more marvelous ones still that are +now in their dawn. Science is much indebted to the frog, and may the +homage that we pay him help to alleviate the sufferings that have been +imposed upon this brave animal! + +[Illustration: Fig. 6-8 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +The simple fact that we have just enunciated pleads loudly enough for +the cause of vivisection to make it useless to defend it. No one, +however, has risen to ask for an absolute proscription of it, but it is +only desired that the abuse of an abominable practice shall be curbed. +Does the abuse exist? That is the question, and it may be answered in +the affirmative. Yes, we do sometimes impose useless sufferings upon +animals. It is a culpable folly, a beastly cruelty, to constantly repeat +barbarous experiments with the object of exhibiting a well known +physical fact, a hundred times verified and always the same, when it +would only be necessary to enunciate it. But this is not the place to +expatiate upon the subject. After proclaiming the utility of +vivisection, we give it as our opinion that the practice of it should be +confined within narrow limits. It is not too much to ask that it be +confined to the privacy of laboratories, with the exclusion of visitors, +and to require from students a diploma guaranteeing their knowledge and +giving a programme of researches to be made. It is useless to seek in +the living what a study of the corpse reveals in all its details. + +[Illustration: Fig. 9-11 APPARATUS USED IN VIVISECTION.] + +And now, after these preliminary remarks, we present herewith a series +of cuts representing the various apparatus used in the practice of +vivisection, which are taken from a recent work by Claude Bernard. Fig. +1 shows the mode of muzzling a dog with a strong cord placed behind an +iron bit. Fig. 2 shows a method of tying a dog. Fig. 3 is a vessel in +which hares or cats are placed in order to anaesthetize them. Fig. 4 +shows the mode of fixing an animal on its side, and Fig. 5 the mode of +fixing him on his back. Fig. 6 shows a dog fixed upon the vivisecting +table, and Fig. 7 a hare secured to the same. Fig. 8 exhibits the +general arrangement of a vivisecting table, properly so called. Fig. 9 +shows (1) an anaesthetizing muzzle applied to a dog, and (2) the +extremity of the apparatus in section. Fig. 10 shows how the muzzle is +applied for anaesthetizing, and gives the details of construction of the +chloroform box. Fig. 11 exhibits the arrangement of the apparatus used +for holding the animal's jaws open upon the vivisecting +table.--_L'Illustration_. + + * * * * * + + + + +INSANITY FROM ALCOHOL. + +[Footnote: Read at the late meeting of the National Association for the +Protection of the Insane and translated for the American Psychological +Journal by Carl Sieler, M.D., of Philadelphia.] + +By A. BAER, M.D., of Berlin, Germany. + + +The benevolent efforts of your society diverge in two different +directions, which have totally different aims and purposes, and which +require different means in order to attain lasting success. Since the +number of insane has increased alarmingly within the last few years, in +all civilized countries, so that the responsibility of the proper charge +of them occupies continually not only the community, but also the State; +and since the public as well as the private asylums are filled almost +before they are finished, it becomes necessary to rid the institutions, +as soon as possible, of those patients which have been cured, as well as +of those which are improved. Patients of this kind are, as early as +possible, returned to the unrestrained enjoyment of liberty with the +expectation that the new scenes and surroundings may have a beneficial +influence, besides having the advantage of relieving the overcrowded +institutions. Unfortunately, however, it has been frequently found that +the hut suddenly restored mental and emotional equilibrium is not of +sufficient stability to withstand the storm of conflicting interests. +Frequently it happens that the but recently discharged patient returns +to the institution, after a short lapse of time, because the "rudder" +(steuer) of his intelligence was soon shattered in the turmoil of life. +How can, for instance, the indigent and poor patient, after his +discharge from the institution in which he has found a shelter and the +proper care, stand up in the struggle for existence and the support of +his family? Is it not to be expected that a large proportion of those +who have been discharged as improved, or even cured, cannot withstand +the ever-moving sea of the outside life and bear up under the turmoil +which constantly stirs mind and soul? + +Starting with the recognition of this fact, societies of benevolent +people have been formed in all countries in which true civilization and +humanity are at work, to diminish or abolish social evils, whose object +is to assist the restored patient who has been discharged from the +institution, at a time when he is most in need of help and assistance. +Switzerland has taken the lead of all countries by her brilliant +example, and there these societies found the greatest encouragement. It +should be looked upon as a good sign of the spirit of modern times, that +the seed of true humanity, with astonishing rapidity, found its way, far +and wide, for the benefit of suffering mankind. Everywhere, in all +European countries, and also on the American continent, has this branch +of a truly noble thought become acclimated, and many societies have been +organized for the purpose of assisting cured insane patients, by aiding +them in obtaining suitable occupations, or by direct donations of money, +etc., with a view of preventing, if possible, a relapse of the disease. +May this portion of the work of your society be an ever-flowing fountain +of joy and satisfaction to your members! + +Of much greater importance is the best portion of your work, namely, +_the prevention of insanity_. It is nevertheless true, and cannot be +doubted, that in all civilized countries insanity increases in a manner +which is out of proportion to the increase of the population. Much +thought has been given to the cause of this phenomenon, and physicians +as well as moralists, national economists as well as philosophers and +philanthropists, have endeavored to fathom the connection between this +fact and the conditions of modern social life. According to all +observations, it is certain that the cause of this phenomenon is not a +single etiological condition, but that it is the sum of a number of +influences which act upon the human race and produce their travages in +the mental and moral life of our patients. The conditions which give +rise to this increase of insanity may be looked for in the manner in +which modern civilization influences mankind, in its development and +culture, in the family and in the school-room, in its views of life and +habits; also in the manner in which civilization forces a man to fight a +heavier and harder battle for pleasure and possessions, power and +knowledge, and causes him to go even beyond his powers of endurance. + +More than even civilization itself, are at fault those pernicious +abnormities, rare monstrosities, which are transmitted from generation +to generation, or are also often newly developed and appear to belong to +our civilization. If we want to prevent the increase of insanity, we +must endeavor to do away with these monstrosities and eccentricities +from our social life which remove mankind more and more, in a pernicious +manner, from its natural development and from the normal conditions of +moral and physical life; we must endeavor to kill these poisonous +offshoots of pseudo civilization, which are the enemies of the normal +existence of man. It is necessary to liberate the individual, as well as +the entire society of modern times, from the potentiated egotism which +spurs man on in overhaste, and in all departments of mental and physical +life, to a feverish activity, and then leads to an early senile decay of +both body and mind; from that terrible materialism which causes the +modern individual in every class of society to find satisfaction in over +excited taste and ingenious luxury. It is necessary to strengthen more +than has been done heretofore the young, by means of their education, in +their physical development, and at the same time to diminish, in proper +proportion, the amount of mental over-exertion; and finally it is +necessary to fight against, to do away with, those habits of modern +society-life which have a pernicious influence upon the physical as well +as the mental and moral organization of man. And of these latter, there +is none so lasting in its effects, none so harmful to the physical as +well as moral life, as the abuse of intoxicating liquors. + +Intemperance is an inexhaustible source of the development and increase +of insanity. It demands our undivided attention, not only on account of +its existing relation, but particularly because intemperance, among all +the factors which aid in the increase of insanity, can best be +diminished, and its influence weakened, through the will of the single +individual, as well as of society as a whole. The relation between +intemperance and insanity is so definite and clear, that it is not +necessary to adduce proofs of this fact. I will not refer to the +writings of the older authors, such as Rush, in America; Hutchison, +Macnish, Carpenter, and others, in England; Huss and Dahl, in Sweden; +Ramaer, in Holland; Esquirol, Pinel Brierre de Boismont, Morel, and +others, in France; Flemming, Jameson, Roller, Griesinger, and others, in +Germany. I could name a much larger number of the greatest modern +authorities on insanity, who are all unanimous in their opinion that the +increase of intemperance (alcoholism) produces a corresponding increase +of insanity. Of especial interest is this fact in those countries in +which the consumption of concentrated alcohol, and particularly in the +form of whiskies distilled from potatoes and corn, has only in later +years become general. Thus Lunier has shown the number of alcoholic +insane increased by ten per cent. in those departments in which more +whisky and less wine is consumed. + +In Italy a similar result has been reached by investigation; and in that +country (according to Kanti, Sormani, Vesay, Rareri, Castiglione, Ferri, +and others) the frequency of insanity caused by the abuse of alcohol +stands in an unmistakable relation to the consumption of alcohol in +certain provinces of Italy. + +In a discussion at one of the meetings (1876) of the London +Medico-Psychological Society, the general opinion of the members was, +that intemperance is the most fruitful source of the increase of +insanity, even when no other etiological element could be found, and +alcohol had to be looked upon as the sole cause of the mental disease. +Maudsley laid especial stress upon the observation, that intemperance, +without hereditary predisposition, was one of the most powerful agencies +in the production of aberration of the mind. Even Beckwith, who could +not coincide with others as to the great importance of intemperance as +an etiological element, says distinctly, that intemperance was, by far, +the most potent of all removable causes of mental disease. + +In comparing the number of drinking saloons in the different provinces +of the kingdom of Prussia with the number of insane, both in public +institutions and in private families, as gleaned from the census report +of 1871, I was enabled to show conclusively, that everywhere, where the +number of drinking places, i.e., the consumption of alcohol, was +greatest, the number of insane was also largest. Without doubt, to my +mind it is in alcohol that we must look for and will find the most +potent cause of the development and spread of mental diseases. + +As is well known, alcohol acts as a disturbing element upon the nerve +centers, even if it has only once been imbibed in excessive quantity. In +consequence of the acute disturbance of circulation and nutrition an +acute intoxication takes place, which may range from a slight excitation +to a complete loss of consciousness. After habitual abuse of alcohol, +the functional disturbances of the brain and spinal cord became constant +and disappear the less, as in the central organs degenerative processes +are more and more developed, processes which lead to congestions and +hemorrhagic effusions in the meninges and in the brain itself, to +softening or hardening, and finally to disappearance of the brain +substance. These degenerations of the nervous system give rise to a +progressive decay of all intellectual and also, more especially, of the +ethical functions, a decay which presents the phenomena of feeble +mindedness, complicated with a large number of sensational and motor +disturbances, and gradually ends in complete idiocy. + +The number of those mental disturbances which are caused by alcohol +intoxication is a very considerable one. We do not err if we assert that +from 20 to 25 per cent. of all mental diseases stand in a direct or +indirect relation to the evil consequences of intemperance in the use of +intoxicating liquors. This is the opinion of a large number of +authorities on mental diseases in all countries. Habitual intemperance +leads to severe (psychical?) lesions (of the nervous system) which may +show themselves in the different forms of insanity, but express +themselves chiefly as mental weakness, not only in persons whose nervous +system was weakened through inherited or acquired defects, but also in +those whose mental organization was intact. In many other cases we see +less complete forms of insanity and more indistinct psychological +disturbances and neuroses, and among the latter epilepsy demands +particular attention. + +An investigation among the patients in the insane department of the +Berlin Charite Hospital, in charge of Prof. Westfahl, which was lately +carried on by Dr. T. Galle (Uber die Beziehunger des Alcoholismus zur +Epilepsie. Inaug. Dissert. 1881, Berlin), showed that among 607 patients +who had entered the ward as epileptics or epileptic insane, 150 = 24.7 +per cent. had been addicted to drink; 133 before, and 17 after the +disease had shown itself; further, that of 1572 patients with delirium +tremens, alcoholism, alcoholic dementia, and ebrietas, 243, or 15.4 per +cent., were epileptic; and that in 221 intemperance was present before +the outbreak of epilepsy; finally, that among 2679 patients which +entered the department in six and a half years, 393, or 18 per cent., +were inebriates and epileptics. Among 128 epileptics which I had +occasion to note in the receiving institute, Plotseurie, 21 per cent. +were drunkards and 20 per cent. were the offspring of intemperate +parents. + +If the list of injuries which intemperance, as we have seen, does +directly to the mental life of man is a very considerable one, the +baneful effect which is produced indirectly, by the intemperance of +parents, upon the mental constitution of their progeny is surely just as +great and disastrous. The children of intemperate parents frequently +become drunkards themselves; they have inherited a degeneration of the +vitiated constitution, and carry the stamp of this degeneration within +themselves. The offspring of drunkards are not only weakly and sickly, +and die early, especially of diseases of the brain, but, as Dahl, Morel, +Howe, Beach, and others have shown, they are frequently born idiotic, or +show early signs of insanity. Under the influence of alcohol, the +individual constitution of the drinker becomes lowered and depraved, +and, according to the law of inheritance, is transmitted through the +progeny to the race. + +Prof. Bollinger, the latest writer on inheritance of disease (Stuttgart, +1882--Cotta--Uber Dererbung von Krankheiten), names alcoholism among the +transient abnormal conditions which, during conception, exert their +influence, so that children of intemperate parents acquire pathological, +and especially neuro-pathological, dispositions. Intemperance, says this +author, in its acute, as well as in its chronic form, causes frequently +pathological changes in the nervous system, and thus may the +pathological differences in children of the same parents be partially +explained. On account of the inheritance of a depraved and pathological +constitution, the children of intemperate parents frequently suffer from +an abnormal psychical organization. As in the progeny of insane, +epileptics, suicides, and criminals, so also among the children of +drunkards, do we see cases of congenital idiocy and imbecility, of +neurasthenia and inebriety, of psychical and somatic degeneracy, also of +depraved morality, of vagrancy and crime. + +Mr. President and Gentlemen: In the light of the enumerated facts, +nobody will dispute that intemperance is a fruitful as well as +inexhaustible source for the increase and development of insanity; and +that every effort toward diminution of the frequency of insanity, toward +the prevention of mental diseases, must be directed against this +widespread evil, intemperance. + +May your noble society succeed in confining this torrent of evil in a +narrower growing bed, and to deliver mankind from a curse which cannot +be too much contended with. + + * * * * * + + + + +PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC. + +[Footnote: Read at the meeting of the Amer. Pharm. Assoc.] + +By J.W. COLCORD. + + +Several articles during the past few months, copied from English +pharmaceutical journals, calling attention to the styptic properties of +plantain leaves--Plantago major--having attracted my attention, I +determined to try a few experiments when opportunity offered. Having a +shiftless neighbor whose yard produced a bountiful crop of the article, +I was easily able to secure an abundant supply for my experiments. +Believing that better results would be obtained from fresh plants than +from dried, I expressed the juice from them by means of an "Enterprise" +mill, obtaining about 16 fluid ounces of juice from 3 pounds of leaves. +The juice was of a light green color, very turbid, evidently caused by a +large amount of chlorophyl. Setting aside 4 ounces of the filtered +liquid for further experimenting, I packed the residue from the press +into a conical glass percolator and exhausted with dilute alcohol, +evaporating the percolate in a water-bath to two ounces, mixing with the +12 ounces of expressed juice and adding 2 ounces of alcohol. This +preparation, which I call a fluid extract, represents virtually equal +parts by weight of the dried plants. It is of a dark brown color with a +marked odor of the recent plant, and so far, after standing three months +undisturbed on my shelves, shows no sign of precipitation. + +My next experiment was a mixture of equal quantities of the expressed +juice with glycerin. At the present time, after standing three months, +the mixture is clear and bright, with no sign of precipitation. This, I +think, promises to be the most efficient preparation, and will prove +valuable as an injection in the treatment of leucorrhoea, hemorrhages, +and similar disorders. + +Experiment number three was made with equal parts of the juice and +alcohol, and number four with three parts of the juice with one part of +alcohol. + +In a short time a precipitate was observed in both samples in about +equal proportions, and was removed about one month after making by +filtering through paper, and neither has shown signs of precipitation +since, and continue bright, clear, light-brown liquids. + +Of their therapeutic value as styptics, I have not had sufficient trial +to form an opinion, although, as far as I can judge, they have proved +satisfactory. While writing this article, a cook from a neighboring +restaurant, with a finger sliced off in a potato slicer, exposing the +bone, came in for treatment. Having bandaged I applied the glycerate, +which soon stopped the profuse bleeding, giving her a small bottle of it +to apply subsequently. I asked her to report to me in two or three days, +and, on reporting, I found a healthy granulation presenting. Its styptic +properties are undoubtedly due to tannic acid, as all the tests I have +been able to make prove this to be the case. The readiness with which it +can be obtained in the summer renders it a valuable adjunct, +undoubtedly, to the materia medica of the country practitioner or +housewife for stopping hemorrhages in simple wounds. + +The bruised leaves applied directly usually prove sufficient for the +purpose; as to whether it will prove sufficiently valuable to add to our +list of pharmaceutical preparations will require longer and more +extended experiment.--_New Remedies_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DANGER FROM FLIES. + + +Dr. Grassi is said (_British Medical Journal_) to have made an +important, and by no means pleasant, discovery in regard to flies. It +was always recognized that these insects might carry the germs of +infection on their wings or feet, but it was not known that they are +capable of taking in at the mouth such objects as the ova of various +worms, and of discharging them again unchanged in their faeces. This +point has now been established, and several striking experiments +illustrate it. Dr. Grassi exposed in his laboratory a plate containing a +great number of the eggs of a human parasite, the _Tricocephalus +dispar_. Some sheets of white paper were placed in the kitchen, which +stands about ten meters from the laboratory. After some hours, the usual +little spots produced by the faeces of flies were found on the paper. +These spots, when examined by the microscope, were found to contain some +of the eggs of the tricocephalus. Some of the flies themselves were then +caught, and their intestines presented large numbers of the ova. Similar +experiments with the ova of the _Oxyuris vermicularis_ and of the +_Toenia solium_ afforded corresponding results. Shortly after the flies +had some mouldy cream, the _Oidium lactis_ was found in their faeces. Dr. +Grassi mentions an innocuous and yet conclusive experiment that every +one can try. Sprinkle a little lycopodium on sweetened water, and +afterward examine the faeces and intestines of the flies; numerous spores +will be found. As flies are by no means particular in choosing either a +place to feed or a place to defecate, often selecting meat or food for +the purpose, a somewhat alarming vision of possible consequences is +raised. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. + + +The erection of the new house for the accommodation of the serpents, +alligators, and other reptiles, which is shown in our illustration, must +be commended as a valuable improvement of the Zoological Society's +establishment in Regent's Park. This building, which has a rather +stately aspect and is of imposing dimensions, constructed of brick and +terracotta, with a roof of glass and iron, stands close to the south +gate of the Gardens, entered from the Broad Walk of the Park. The +visitor, on entering by that gate, should turn immediately to the left +hand, along the narrow path beside the aviary of the Chinese golden +pheasants, and will presently come to the Reptile House, which is too +much concealed from view by some of the sheds for the deer. The spacious +interior, represented in our view, is one of the most agreeable places +in the whole precinct of these gardens, being well aired and lighted, +very nicely paved, and tastefully decorated in pale color, with some +fine tropical plants in tubs on the floor, or in the windows, and in +baskets hanging from the roof. Three oval basins, with substantial +margins of concrete, so formed as to prevent the reptiles crawling over +them, while one basin is further protected by an iron grating, contain +water in which the alligators, the infant crocodiles, and a number of +tortoises, but none of the larger species, make themselves quite at +home. One side of the house, with its windows looking into a pleasant +airy vestibule, is occupied by many small glass cases for the smaller +lizards, with boxes and pots of flowers set between them upon tables, +which present a very attractive exhibition. The other three sides of the +hall, which is nearly square, are entirely devoted to the large wall +cages, with fronts of stout plate glass, in single sheets, rising about +14 feet to the roof, in which the serpents are confined--the huge +pythons, anaconda, and boa constrictor, the poisonous cobras and +rattlesnakes, and others well known to the visitors at these gardens. +Each cage or compartment has a sliding door of iron behind, to which the +keeper has access in a passage running along the back of the wall, and +there are doors also from one compartment to another. The floor is of +smooth slate, and the largest snake has ample space to uncoil itself, or +to climb up the trunks and branches of trees placed there for its +exercise and amusement. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE BABIROUSSA FAMILY.] + + +THE BABIROUSSA. + +We present, on the same page, a few sketches of the babiroussas, a male +and two females, with a young one, recently presented to the society by +Dr. F.H. Bauer. These animals, which are from Celebes, in the Malay +Archipelago, have been placed temporarily in different stalls of the +ostrich house, on the north side of the gardens. The babiroussa is a +species of wild hog, peculiar to the islands of Eastern Asia, and +remarkable, in the male animal, for the extraordinary growth and +direction of the canine teeth. The upper pair of canine teeth, growing +out through the upper jaw, curve backward and upward on the forehead, +having somewhat the aspect of horns; while the lower canine teeth form a +pair of crooked tusks in the under jaw. These teeth may be useful for +defensive fighting, as a guard to the head, but could not serve for +attack. The skull of a babiroussa, with the teeth fully developed, is in +the possession of Mr. Bartlett, the able superintendent of the +Zoological Society's collection.--_Illustrated London News_. + +[Illustration: THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY'S GARDENS. THE NEW REPTILE HOUSE.] + + * * * * * + +Continued from SUPPLEMENT, No. 363, page 5797. + + + + +ON THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY. + +PART IV. + +By NELSON H. DARTON. + + +Montville, Morris County, New Jersey.--This locality is an old one, and +well known to mineralogists. It is outside of the limits prescribed in +introducing this series of paper, but by only a few miles, and being +such an interesting locality, I have included it in the granular +limestone, which occurs in a small isolated ridge in the gneiss within a +space of ten acres, about two miles north of the railroad station of +Montville, on the Boonton Branch of the Delaware, Lackawanna, and +Western Railroad, and is reached by a road running north from about a +mile east of the railroad station. This road branches into two at the +limestone kilns, about a mile from the railroad track, and the left hand +branch is taken, which leads more directly to the quarry, which is on +the right hand, about a mile further on, and quite conspicuous by the +loose rock lying in front of the quarry. It is on the property of a Mr. +John J. Gordon, and produces a very fine limestone for use in the +furnaces and forges in the vicinity, as well as lime for agricultural +purposes, it being the only limestone in the vicinity for fifteen miles. +Between it and its walk of gneiss occur veins of the minerals so +characteristic of the locality, and for which it has become +famous--serpentine, asbestos, phlozopite, gurhofite pyrites, biotite, +aragonite, dolomite, tremolite, and possibly others in lesser quantity. + +_Serpentine_.--All the varieties of this species, and of every color +from nearly white to black, is profusely distributed through the +limestone in the lower or main quarry in veins and pockets. It is +generally soft, translucent, and to be found in masses from a pea to a +cubic foot in size. Much of it is of a pure oil green color, rich and +translucent, making a very fine and attractive looking mineral specimen. +No difficulty need be experienced in producing all the varieties of this +mineral, as much has been removed and may be found in the vicinity of +the quarry, as it is always carefully separated from the limestone as +being useless, and thrown aside, or in some instances, when of peculiar +beauty, sold as specimens. The variety of serpentine known as marmolite, +which is made up of numberless plates of the mineral packed together +similar to mica, but of the green color of the serpentine picolite, or +fibrous serpentine, also frequently occurs of a light grass green color, +and is a very interesting variety. + +In selecting specimens of serpentine, care should be taken to procure +that which is the most translucent, and that holding miniature veins of +asbestos. These are not so plentiful as those of the pure serpentine +alone, but occur in the southern end of the main quarry. The width of +these veins of asbestos is seldom over an inch, but those of even much +less are highly prized as specimens. These veins of asbestos are, in +places, several inches in length, but are generally much broken in +removing them, as their fibrous structure, at right angles to their +length, makes them very fragile, and pure specimens of asbestos can +seldom be found. However, they make much finer specimens when with the +serpentine. Frequently these specimens may be obtained with a layer of +gurhofite above them, and separated by the serpentine; this assortment +is very interesting, revealing to us the manner in which they were +formed, which was by a process termed segregation. + +This gurhofite, called bone +by the quarrymen, occurs in white, dense looking masses, intermingled +with the serpentine, especially in the upper end of the quarry, where +veins six and eight inches in thickness are abundant, and from which +specimens may be readily obtained showing the fibrous structure of the +gurhofite and the association with the serpentine, to which it is found +attached; it is quite different from the limestone in appearance, and +need not be mistaken for it. + +_Phlozopite_.--In a vein near the lower end of the quarry, near the +asbestos locality, occurs large plates of this mineral, which is a +variety of mica, and has all of the characteristics of a pure silvery +white color, and from one by three inches in area to less. It is easily +separable in folia, and cannot be confounded with any of the other +minerals. A huge mass of the veinstone holding abundance of this mineral +is exposed, whence it may be plentifully obtained in excellent crystals. + +_Pyrites_.--White and yellow iron pyrites are abundant in the gneissic +rock adjoining the limestone, and frequently very fine, perfect crystals +may be found handsomely dressed upon the rock. There is no particular +portion of the quarries in which they abound. + +_Biotite_.--This is a variety of mica in small crystals, of a dark brown +color, and quite plentiful in the gneiss inclosing the veins of +limestone. Up in the older quarries it is more abundant; on the north +wall of the vein it is often in very fine specimens, and there even in +large number, in a locality, generally a pocket in the gneiss. + +_Tremolite_ is quite abundant on a large mass of limestone in the +extreme upper quarry, which is a short distance east of the main one, +over a small hill. The tremolite occurs in white crystals, about a +quarter inch in width and from a half to three inches in length. The +crystals are opaque, but very smooth and glistening, lining cavities in +this mass of limestone. It is a variety of hornblende, composed of +silica, lime, and magnesia, with a little alumina. It probably occurs in +places in the vicinity of this block, and in finer specimens, as these +are frequently, when near the surface, much weathered and worn. This is +a characteristic granular limestone mineral, and a very interesting one. +We will again meet it when examining the New York city localities. + +_Aragonite_ occurs in very small masses, of a light yellow color and +fibrous structure, between layers of serpentine. When they are separated +by a small interspace, as it frequently is, the fibers are very large, +coarse, and brittle, and thus do not resemble asbestos, although in some +instances they might be mistaken for picolite, but, distinguished from +it by effervescing on contact with a drop of acid, as it is a carbonate +of lime, and also containing a trace of iron. I have never seen any fine +specimens of it from this locality, but deeper down in the rock it may +occur in greater profusion. + +Dolomite occurs to a limited extent as such; most of it, being in the +form of gurhofite crystals, may be occasionally found with aragonite of +a light pearly gray color and rhombohedral crystals. As before noticed, +Staten Island is the best locality for this species. + +_Calcite_.--In places the limestone is perfectly crystallized, and of a +pure white or other color, when it forms an attractive mineral, and +often worth removing. The limestone of the main quarry, carefully +averaged, was found to have the following chemical composition. + + Lime. 11.09 + Magnesia. 37.94 + Carbonic acid. 30.61 + Silica. 10.22 + Water and loss. 4.90 + Iron and alumina. 5.24 + ------ + 100.00 + +In places it is spotted with the serpentine, and judging from its rough +state resembles "_verde antique_," and at that of a beautiful color; +samples of this should be obtained. + +_Feldspar_.--This mineral occurs very plentfully in the space between +the limestones and gneiss. It is generally of a flesh red color and +often in very perfect crystals, in some instances an inch and a half in +length; as its hardness is 6, it can be readily distinguished from +calcite, which it much resembles, but which has only a hardness of 3, +and dissolves with effervescence in acids. + +A visit to this locality is a delightful manner in which to spend a +holiday or other time of leisure; and as it affords so many interesting +and valuable minerals, it forms a very profitable trip as well. In +reaching it many interesting localities are passed, and if one has an +early start these may all be visited. I will describe a few of these, +which are alike possessors of beautiful scenery and instructing +geological features and not far from the main line of travel. + +Starting from the Erie depot, on the Greenwood Lake road, the first stop +may be at Arlington, about seven miles west of Jersey City. Here a visit +to the Schuyler copper mine may be profitably taken; and as I have +written a full account of this locality in a previous portion of these +articles,[1] I will not reiterate it here, but refer to that paper. The +mine, I might add, is only a mile north of the railroad station, and on +Schuyler Avenue, a short distance north from its junction with the +Jersey City and Paterson turnpike. Coming back to Arlington depot, and +walking on the track for about a quarter of a mile west through the deep +cut, the manner in which the sandstones and shales which constitute so +large a portion of New Jersey are laid and arranged can be seen to great +advantage, this being one of the finest exposures in the formation. At a +point about equidistant from either end is a fault in the layers of +shales and sandstone; this fault is noticeable as a slight irregularity +in the otherwise continuous sides of the cut, and is a point at which +the layers of rock on the east have fallen vertically, the western side +remaining in its original position. This fault has a thrust of only +three feet, but is an instructive example of faults which occur on a +tremendous scale in some of the other formations. It will be noticed +that between the two edges of the separated layers there is a deposit of +a talcky substance, which has been derived from infiltrating waters. +Fissure veins are generally in positions of this kind, formed and filled +in a similar manner, but with the various metallic ores. Passing further +west a short distance we reach the Passaic River, and walk along its +banks for a mile north to the Belleville bridge; at this point is the +intake of the Jersey City water works, with their huge Worthington pumps +and other accessories, which may be conveniently visited. The Passaic +River is then crossed, and the train on the Newark and Paterson road may +be taken for three miles to Avondale, from whence it is two miles east +to the Belleville sandstone quarries, or the bank of the Passaic may be +followed and the quarries reached in an hour from Belleville. Here again +are met the sandstones and shales, besides another and larger fault, and +many interesting features of the sandstone and its quarrying may be +examined. The railroad station having been regained, Paterson is the +next point of interest. The first thing noticeable in approaching the +city are the quarries in the side of the hills to the south, and these +may be visited the first; they are but a short distance southeast of the +station. Here the sandstone will be found in contact with the trap above +and the layers of basalt, trap, tufa, sandstone, shales and +conglomerates are exposed. Regaining the nearest railroad track (the +Boonton branch of the D., L. & W.R.R.), this is followed for some +distance west, when the various strata can be examined in the cut of the +railroad and a fault of nearly sixty feet in the trap; this is noticed +as a depression in the face of the cliff, and it may be seen by the +superposition of the layers of trap and basalt. Where the fault occurs a +short distance further west, there is another smaller fault. A visit to +the Great Falls of the Passaic is a very pleasurable diversion at this +point, and these are about a half mile north of this locality. Here the +arrangement of the trap and sandstones can be again profitably studied, +and the mineralogical localities which I have described in a former one +of these articles[2] examined, not omitting the one at West Paterson, +wherein so much phrenite may be found. Taking the train from West +Paterson to Little Falls, a walk of a few miles south brings us to the +Little Falls, and here is another interesting locality wherein the +contact of the sandstone and trap may be examined and the numerous +additional phenomena studied. A quarry near the Falls is the best point +in which to find these exposures, and from the viaduct crossing the +river an excellent view of the surrounding country may be obtained. +Regaining the train, Montville is soon reached and visited, and after +this, if time sufficient Boonville, two miles west, may be taken in, or +it may be necessary to go there to catch a return train, as but few stop +at Montville. At Boonton there are many interesting features--iron works +furnaces, localities in which fossil remains are found, footprints, +conglomeritic beds, and many other things, of which I will endeavor to +give a detailed account in some other of this series of articles. + +[Footnote 1: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + +[Footnote 2: See SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, No. 363.] + + * * * * * + + + + +DISCOVERY OF ANCIENT CHURCH IN JERUSALEM. + + +An account of the newly discovered church, north of the Damascus Gate, +Jerusalem, appears in the Quarterly Statement of the Palestine +Exploration Fund. The author is Dr. Selah Merrill. The ruin has proved +to be one of great extent, and of special interest. The way in which it +was brought to light is worth recording. In an uneven field, which rose +considerably above the land about it, parts of which appearing, indeed, +like little hillocks, the owner of the soil tried to maintain a +vegetable garden, but the ground was so dry that neither grain nor +vegetables would flourish, and even irrigation did little or no good; +besides, here and there large holes appeared in the ground which could +not be accounted for. At last the owner determined to dig and see what +there was below the surface of his field, and to his surprise he very +soon came upon fine walls and a pavement. The excavations being followed +up have laid bare a church with some of the surrounding buildings. The +amount of _debris_ which had accumulated above the floor of these +buildings was 10 to 20 feet in depth. To remove this mass of earth has +required much time and labor, and the work is not yet completed. The +piece of ground in question has about 60 yards of frontage on the main +road, and extends, so far as the excavations go, about the same distance +back from the road, that is, to the east. + +The church itself is situated on the south side of this plot, and is +very near the street. The ground in front of the church is paved with +fine slabs of stone. The steps by which the church was entered were 5 +feet wide, but the doorway itself was somewhat wider. From the entrance +to the altar step, or platform, the distance is 55 feet, and from that +point to the back of the apse 15 feet 6 inches; the width of the apse is +16 feet 6 inches. The width of the church is 24 feet 6 inches. Nine feet +in front of the altar step a wall has been thrown across the church in a +manner similar to that in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem. This +wall, also those of the church, of which several courses remain, and the +interior of the apse, show that the building was originally painted, and +some of the figures and designs can still be traced. At the southeast +corner of the church, leading from the apse, there is a narrow but well +built passageway to the buildings in the rear. The character of these +buildings is not very evident; certainly they did not stand on a line +with the church, but at an angle of 25 deg. with that line. Between the +church and what appears now to have been the main building in the rear, +there was a passage not over 3 feet wide. The main building in the rear +of the church is 47 feet 6 inches long, but to this must be added 20 +feet more of a special room, which seems to have belonged to it, and +which had a beautiful mosaic pavement. Thus the extreme length from the +entrance of the church to the (present) east side of this mosaic floor +is 140 feet. + +On the west side of this mosaic floor, where it joins the wall of the +main building, there is a threshold of a single stone, 9 feet 6 inches +long, with a step 6 feet 9 inches in the clear. This is considerably +wider, it will be seen, than the steps, and even the entrance of the +church. Several patches of mosaic pavement have been found, but in one +place two or three square yards have been preserved, enough to show that +the work was extremely beautiful. The colored tracings resemble those in +the church on the Mount of Olives, and on one side are the large Greek +letters [Theta][epsilon][omicron][nu]. North of this mosaic floor, and +of the main building which joins it, and running alongside of both, +there is a watercourse or channel cut in the solid rock, which has been +leveled to accommodate the buildings above. This can be traced in an +east and west line for a distance of 37 feet; it is 2 feet 3 inches +deep, 20 inches wide at the top and 12 at the bottom. From about the +middle of the mosaic floor this channel turns a right angle and runs 20 +feet or more to the north; it is possible that it led _from_ the north, +and at the point indicated turned a right angle and ran to the west. +Piles of stones and _debris_ prevent us at present from deciding as to +the length of the channel or where it comes from. In the bank of +_debris_, which rises on the east side of the mosaic floor to a height +of 20 feet, there is, about 6 feet above the floor, a watercourse formed +of cement, running north and south at right angles to the line of the +church and the other buildings, which must have belonged to a much later +period. In fact--and this is an interesting circumstance--the mosaic +pavement appears to extend under and beyond this canal and the mass of +_debris_ which is yet to be removed. + +In the northwest corner of the room, where the mosaic floor is found, +very near the angle (already mentioned) of the rock-cut channel, there +is a tomb about 6 feet below the surface or level of the floor. The tomb +is 10 feet long and 9 feet wide, and is entered by a doorway 26 inches +wide, which is well built, and in the sides of which are grooves for a +door to slide up and down. On the wall of the tomb at the east end there +is a raised Greek cross, 22 inches long and 13 inches wide. One cannot +stand erect in its highest part, but it is to be considered that the +loculi are two-thirds full of _debris_, composed chiefly of decayed +bones and bits of glass. Those in charge of the excavations have not, up +to the present time, allowed the tombs to be cleared out. The loculi are +2 feet in depth. + +What Captain Conder speaks of as "vaults north of the church," turn out +to be the tops of houses. They are four in number, each 75 feet long by +28 feet wide, and faced the street. They were divided (one or two of +them at least) into apartments by means of arches. The lower courses of +the walls, to the height of several feet, are of squared stones, while +the upper portions and the roofs are of rubble work, which was covered +with a heavy coating of plaster. The threshold of one has been exposed, +which is 6 feet in the clear, and the sides of the doorway show +excellent work. + +Among the ruins there are two sections of marble columns, each 33 inches +in diameter. Three large cisterns have been found, two of which were +nearly full of water; the mouths of these, which were closed, were many +feet below the surface of the ground before the excavations began, hence +no one knows how old the water in them may be. Some of the slabs with +which the church was paved were 6 feet long by 21/2 feet wide. In the +church two pieces of cornice were found, each 8 feet in length. One is +entire and quite plain, while the other is broken in the middle. It is +upon this that the figures of Christ and his twelve apostles were +painted. They can still be traced, although exposure has nearly +obliterated the colors. Pottery and a considerable quantity of broken +glass have been found and some small articles in marble of no great +value. The top of a certain block of marble has been formed into a +basin, and a hole drilled the entire length of the block for the water +to run off. + +South of the mosaic floor and of the east end of the main building there +is a large underground chamber with seven openings (each the size of a +man's body) to the surface. The chamber is 12 feet wide and nearly 20 +feet long, but the depth is not yet ascertained, owing to the +accumulation of _debris_ on the bottom. On the west and north sides a +wall of solid rock appears to a depth of 6 feet, showing that the +chamber was excavated in part at least in the solid rock. The use of +this chamber does not appear evident, unless it may have been a store +room. The place within the city shown as "Peter's Prison" consists of a +similar chamber (not dug in the solid rock, however), with similar +openings in the ceiling or roof. The ruins extend underground some +distance to the east of the mosaic floor, and efforts are being made to +purchase the land in that direction, in order to allow of the +excavations being extended there. It is almost equally certain that the +buildings extended to the south and southeast of the present plat of +ground. But the owners of the land are jealous, and everybody is +superstitious; consequently, excavations must be abandoned, or move with +aggravating slowness. + +Dr. Selah Merrill, in a note describing a late visit, says that the west +wall of what he called the "main building," toward the apse of the +church, has been removed and the floor cleared, exposing a fine +pavement. This pavement, the threshold before mentioned, and the mosaic +floor all belong to one period, and to a structure very much older than +the date of the "main building." It puzzled the doctor, because the +threshold west of the mosaic floor was not square with the east wall of +the "main buildings," but the reason is now clear. Captain Conder says +of this church with such of the ruins about it as were exposed when he +was there, that "the whole is evidently of the Crusading period." As +regards the church itself, this is not clear, and the mosaic floor +especially may belong to a time many centuries previous to that era. At +the south side of the floor of the "main building" a new mouth to the +largest cistern has been discovered; over the mouth there is a thick +stone 5 feet in diameter. This was eight sided, and was built against +the wall, so that five sides are exposed. The stone was cut in such a +way as to leave on two of its sides small brackets shaped like the two +halves of the utensil called a "tunnel." It may be of interest to state +that this piece of land was offered for sale a few years since, and for +a long time went a begging for a purchaser; at last it was sold for 40 +Napoleons. During the present year it has passed into the hands of the +French for 2,000 Napoleons. + + * * * * * + + + + +DAMMARA AUSTRALIS + + +One of the noblest evergreen trees in that noblest of collections of +such plants contained in the Temperate House at Kew, is the subject of +the present note. Some months since cones were observed to be forming on +this tree, and a representation of which we are now enabled, through the +courtesy of Mrs. Dyer, to lay before our readers. We are not aware +whether the tree has previously produced cones at Kew, though we have +the impression that such is the case; at any rate it has done so +elsewhere, as recorded in the _Flore des Serres_, 1856, p. 75, but +fertile seed was not yielded, owing to the absence of pollen. + +In this country the tree is only valuable for its massive aspect and +richly colored thick evergreen leaves, borne on successive tiers of +branches, which render it specially suitable for the decoration of +winter gardens, corridors, and such like situations, where no great +amount of heat is required. In the northern island of New Zealand, +however, it is quite another matter, for there, where it is known as the +Kauri Pine, it furnishes the most valuable of timbers, as may be judged +from the fact that the trunk of the tree attains a height of from 50 to +100 feet clear of the branches; moreover, it yields a gum resin like +copal, which exudes from the trunk, and which is sometimes found below +ground in the vicinity of the trees, thus giving the clew to the real +nature of amber and other similar substances. + +[Illustration: THE KAURI PINE.--DAMMARA AUSTRALIS.] + +The timber is of slow growth, especially valuable for the construction +of masts of ships, its durability, strength, and elasticity rendering it +particularly suitable for this purpose, and Laslett speaks of it as one +of the best woods for working that the carpenter can take in hand, and +recommends its use for the decks of yachts, for cabin panels, for +joiner's work generally, or for ornamental purposes. Owing to the +difficulty and expense of working the forests, and the great distance, +comparatively little of it comes to this country.--_The London +Gardeners' Chronicle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOW TO SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANT TREES. + + +Many think it cheaper and better to take up large trees from the woods, +and transplant them to their grounds or to the road-side, than to buy +nursery trees. As a rule, such trees die; they fail because proper +precautions have not been taken. In digging up a tree, all the roots +outside of a circle a few feet in diameter are cut off, and the tree is +reset with its full head of branches. Whoever has seen trees in the +forest that were upturned by a tornado, must have been struck by the +manner in which the roots run very near to the surface, and to a great +distance. When the roots of these trees are cut off at two or three feet +from the trunk, few or no fibrous or feeding roots are left; and if the +mass of tops is left, the expansion of the buds in the spring will not +be responded to by a supply of sap from the roots, and death must +follow. If such trees have the tops completely removed, leaving only a +bare pole, they will usually grow when transplanted. The tree is little +more than an immense cutting; but there are roots enough left to meet +the demand of the few shoots that start from the top, and growth above +and below ground is well balanced. + +We have seen maples, elms, and basswood trees, fifteen feet or more +high, transplanted in this manner, without failure. Some trees treated +in this manner were planted in our neighborhood about ten years ago. +They have now as fine heads as one would wish, and show no signs of +former rough treatment. Trees in pastures, or on the edge of the woods, +are better furnished with roots. These should be prepared for +transplanting by digging down to the roots, and cutting off all that +extended beyond the desired distance. This will cause the formation of +fibrous roots near the tree. It will be safer to take two years for the +operation, cutting half of the roots each year. Such trees may be +removed in safety, especially if a good share of the top is removed at +transplanting--_American Agriculturist_. + + * * * * * + +A CATALOGUE, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +The Scientific American Supplement. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. 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