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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:08 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 04:36:08 -0700 |
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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/11164-0.txt b/11164-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a19c181 --- /dev/null +++ b/11164-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3651 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 11164 *** + +ROUGH AND TUMBLE ENGINEERING + +By James H. Maggard + + + +PREFACE_______ + +In placing this book before the public the author wishes it understood +that it is not his intention to produce a scientific work on +engineering. Such a book would be valuable only to engineers of large +stationary engines. In a nice engine room nice theories and scientific +calculations are practical. This book is intended for engineers of farm +and traction engines, "rough and tumble engineers," who have everything +in their favor today, and tomorrow are in mud holes, who with the same +engine do eight horse work one day and sixteen horse work the next day. +Reader, the author has had all these experiences and you will have them, +but don't get discouraged. You can get through them to your entire +satisfaction. + +Don't conclude that all you are to do is to read this book. It will not +make an engineer of you. But read it carefully, use good judgment and +common sense, do as it tells you, and my word for it, in one month, you, +for all practical purposes, will be a better engineer than four-fifths +of the so-called engineers today, who think what they don't know would +not make much of a book. Don't deceive yourself with the idea that what +you get out of this will be merely "book learning." What is said in this +will be plain, unvarnished, practical facts. It is not the author's +intention to use any scientific terms, but plain, everyday field terms. +There will be a number of things you will not find in this book, but +nothing will be left out that would be of practical value to you. You +will not find any geometrical figures made up of circles, curves, +angles, letters and figures in a vain effort to make you understand the +principle of an eccentric. While it is all very nice to know these +things, it is not necessary, and the putting of them in this book would +defeat the very object for which it was intended. Be content with being +a good, practical, everyday engineer, and all these things will come in +time. + + +INTRODUCTORY ________ + + +If you have not read the preface on the preceding pages, turn back and +read it. You will see that we have stated there that we will use no +scientific terms, but plain every day talk. It is presumed by us that +there will be more young men, wishing to become good engineers, read +this work than old engineers. We will, therefore, be all the more plain +and say as little as possible that will tend to confuse the learner, and +what we do say will be said in the same language that we would use if we +were in the field, instructing you how to handle your engine. So if the +more experienced engineer thinks we might have gone further in some +certain points, he will please remember that by so doing we might +confuse the less experienced, and thereby cover up the very point we +tried to make. And yet it is not to be supposed that we will endeavor to +make an engineer out of a man who never saw an engine. It is, therefore, +not necessary to tell the learner how an engine is made or what it looks +like. We are not trying to teach you how to build an engine, but rather +how to handle one after it is built; how to know when it is in proper +shape and how to let it alone when it is in shape. We will suppose that +you already know as much as an ordinary water boy, and just here we will +say that we have seen water haulers that were more capable of handling +the engine for which they were hauling water, than the engineer, and the +engineer would not have made a good water boy, for the reason that he +was lazy, and we want the reader to stick a pin here, and if he has any +symptoms of that complaint, don't undertake to run an engine, for a lazy +engineer will spoil a good engine, if by no other means than getting it +in the habit of loafing. + + +PART FIRST ______ + +In order to get the learner started, it is reasonable to suppose that +the engine he is to run is in good running order. It would not be fair +to put the green boy onto an old dilapidated, worn-out engine, for he +might have to learn too fast, in order to get the engine running in good +shape. He might have to learn so fast that he would get the big head, +or have no head at all, by the time he got through with it. And I don't +know but that a boy without a head is about as good as an engineer with +the big head. We will, therefore, suppose that his engine is in good +running order. By good running order we mean that it is all there, and +in its proper place, and that with from ten to twenty pounds of steam, +the engine will start off at a good lively pace. And let us say here, +(remember that we are talking of the lone engine, no load considered,) +that if you are starting a new engine and it starts off nice and easy +with twenty pounds, you can make up your mind that you have an engine +that is going to be nice to handle and give you but little, if any, +trouble. But if it should require fifty or sixty pounds to start it, +you want to keep your eyes open, something is tight; but don't take it +to pieces. You might get more pieces than you would know what to do +with. Oil the bearings freely and put your engine in motion and run it +carefully for a while and see if you don't find something getting warm. +If you do, stop and loosen up a very little and start it up again. If +it still heats, loosen about the same as before, and you will find that +it will soon be all right. But remember to loosen but very little at a +time, for a box or journal will heat from being too loose as quickly as +from being too tight, and you will make trouble for yourself, for, +inexperienced as you are, you don't know whether it is too loose or too +tight, and if you have found a warm box, don't let that box take all of +your attention, but keep an eye on all other bearings. Remember that we +are not threshing yet, we just run the engine out of shed, (and for the +sake of the engine and the young engineer, we hope that it did not stand +out all winter) and are getting in shape for a good fall's run. In the +meantime, to find out if anything heats, you can try your pumps, but to +help you along, we will suppose that your pump, or injector, as the case +may be, works all right. + +Now suppose we go back where we started this new engine that was slow to +start with less than fifty pounds, and when it did start, we watched it +carefully and found after oiling thoroughly that nothing heated as far +as we could see. So we conclude that the trouble must be in the +cylinder. Well, what next? Must we take off the cylinder head and look +for the trouble? Oh, no, not by any means. The trouble is not serious. +The rings are a little tight, which is no serious fault. Keep them well +oiled and in a day or two ten pounds will start the empty engine in good +shape. If you are starting an engine that has been run, the above +instructions are not necessary, but if it is a new one these precautions +are not out of the way, and a great deal of the trouble caused in +starting a new engine, can be avoided if these precautions are observed. + +It is not uncommon for a hot box to be caused from a coal cinder +dropping in the box in shipment, and before starting a new engine, clean +out the boxes thoroughly, which can be done by taking off the caps, or +top box, and wiping the journal clean with an oily rag or waste, and +every engineer should supply himself with this very necessary article, +especially if he is the kind of an engineer who intends to keep his +engine clean. + +The engine should be run slowly and carefully for a while, to give a +chance to find out if anything is going to heat, before putting on any +load. + +Now if your engine is all right, you can run the pressure up to the +point of blowing off, which is from one hundred to one hundred and ten +pounds. Most new pop valves, or safety valves, are set at this +pressure. I would advise you to fire to this point, to see that your +safety is all right. It is not uncommon for a new pop to stick, and as +the steam runs up it is well to try it, by pulling the relief lever. If, +on letting it go, it stops the escaping, steam at once, it is all right. +If, however, the steam continues to escape, the valve sticks in the +chamber. Usually a slight tap with a wrench or a hammer will stop it at +once, but never get excited over escaping steam, and perhaps here is as +good a place as any to say to you, don't get excited over anything. As +long as you have plenty of water, and know you have, there is no danger. + +The young engineer will most likely wonder why we have not said +something about the danger of explosions. We did not start to write +about explosions. That is just what we don't want to have anything to +do with. But, you say, is there no danger of a boiler exploding? Yes. +But if you wish to explode your boiler you must treat it very +differently from the way we advise. We have just stated, that as long +as you have plenty of water, and know you have, there is no danger. +Well, how are you to know? This is not a difficult thing to know, +provided your boiler is fitted with the proper appliances, and all +builders of any prominence, at this date, fit their boilers with from +two to four try-cocks, and a glass gauge. The boiler is tapped in from +two to four places for the try-cocks, the location of the cocks ranging +from a line on a level with the crown sheet, or top of fire box, to +eight inches above, depending somewhat on the amount of water space +above the crown sheet, as this space differs very materially in +different makes of the same sized boiler. The boiler is also tapped on +or near the level of crown sheet, to receive the lower water glass cock +and directly above this, for the top cock. The space between this shows +the safe variation of the water. Don't let the water get above the top +of the glass, for if you are running your engine at hard work, you may +knock out a cylinder head, and don't let it get below the lower gauge, +or you may get your head knocked off. + +Now the glass gauge is put on for your convenience, as you can determine +the location of the water as correctly by this as if you are looking +directly into the boiler, provided, the glass gauge is in perfect order. +But as there are a number of ways in which it may become disarranged or +unreliable, we want to impress on your mind that you, must not depend on +it entirely. We will give these causes further on. You are not only +provided with the glass gauge, but with the try-cocks. These cocks are +located so that the upper and lower cock is on or near the level with +the lower and upper end of the glass gauge. With another try-cock about +on a level with the center of glass gauge, or in other words, if the +water stands about the center of glass it will at the same time show at +the cock when tried. Now we will suppose that your glass gauge is in +perfect condition and the water shows two inches in the glass. You now +try the lower cock, and find plenty of water; you will then try the next +upper cock and get steam. Now as the lower cock is located below the +water line, shown by the glass, and the second cock above this line, you +not only see the water line by the glass, but you have a way of proving +it. Should the water be within two inches of the top of glass you again +have the line between two cocks and can also prove it. Now you can know +for a certainty, where the water stands in the boiler, and we repeat +when you know this, there is nothing to fear from this source, and as a +properly constructed boiler never explodes, except from low water or +high pressure, and as we have already cautioned you about your safety +valve, you have nothing to fear, provided you have made up your mind to +follow these instructions, and unless you can do this, let your job to +one who can. Well, you say you will do as we have directed, we will +then go back to the gauges. Don't depend on your glass gauge alone, for +several reasons. One is, if you depend on the glass entirely, the +try-cocks become limed up and are useless, solely because they are +not used. + +Some time ago the writer was standing near a traction engine, when the +engineer, (I guess I must call him that) asked me to stay with the +engine a few minutes. I consented. After he had been gone a short time +I thought I would look after the water. It showed about two inches in +the glass, which was all right, but as I have advised you, I proposed to +know that it was there and thought I would prove it by trying the cocks. +But on attempting to try them I found them limed up solid. Had I been +hunting an engineer, that fellow would not have secured the job. +Suppose that before I had looked at the glass, it had bursted, which it +is liable to do any time. I would have shut the gauge cocks off as soon +as possible to stop the escaping steam and water. Then I would have +tried the cocks to find where the water was in the boiler. I would have +been in a bad boat, not knowing whether I had water or not. Shortly +after this the fellow that was helping the engine run (I guess I will +put it that way) came back. I asked him what the trouble was with his +try cocks. He said, "Oh, I don't bother with them." I asked him what he +would do if his glass should break. His reply was, "Oh, that won't +break." Now just such an engineer as that spoils many a good engine, and +then blames it on the manufacturer. Now this is one good reason why you +are not to depend entirely on the glass gauge. Another equally as good +reason is, that your glass may fool you, for you see the try-cocks may +lime up, so may your glass gauge cocks, but you say you use them. You +use them by looking at them. You are not letting the steam or water +escape from them every few minutes and thereby cutting the lime away, as +is the case with try-cocks. Now you want to know how you are to keep +them open. Well, that is easy. Shut off the top gauge and open the +drain cock at bottom of gauge cock. This allows the water and steam to +flow out of the lower cock. Then after allowing it to escape a few +seconds, shut off the lower gauge and open the top one, and allow it to +blow about the same time. Then shut the drain cock and open both gauge +cocks and you will see the water seek its level, and you can rest +assured that it is reliable. This little operation I want you to +perform every day you run an engine. It will prevent you from thinking +you have water. I don't want you to think so. I intend that you shall +know it. You remember we said, if you know you have water, you are +safe, and every one around you will be safe. + +Now here is something I want you to remember. Never be guilty of going +to your engine in the morning and building a fire simply because you see +water in the glass. We could give you the names of a score of men who +have ruined their engines by doing this very thing. You, as a matter of +course, want to know why this can do any harm. It could not, if the +water in the boiler was as high as it shows in the glass, but it is not +always there, and that is what causes the trouble. Well, if it showed +in the glass, why was it not there? You probably have lived long enough +in the world to know that there are a great many boys in it, and it +seems to be second nature with them to turn everything on an engine that +is possible to turn. All glass gauge cocks are fitted with a small hand +wheel. The small boy sees this about the first thing and he begins to +turn it, and he generally turns as long as it turns easy, and when it +stops he will try the other one, and when it stops he has done the +mischief, by shutting the water off from the boiler, and all the water +that was in the glass remains there. You may have stopped work with an +ordinary gauge of water, and as water expands when heated, it also +contracts when it becomes cool. Water will also simmer away, if there +is any fire left in the fire box, especially if there should be any vent +or leak in the boiler, and the water may by morning have dropped to as +much as an inch below the crown sheet. You approach the engine and on +looking at the glass, see two or three inches of water. Should you +start a fire without investigating any further, you will have done the +damage, while if you try the gauge cocks first you will discover that +some one has tampered with the engine. The boy did the mischief through +no malicious motives, but we regret to say that there are people in this +world who are mean enough to do this very thing, and not stop at what +the boy did unconsciously, but after shutting the water in the gauge for +the purpose of deceiving you, they then go to the blow-off cock and let +enough water out to insure a dry crown sheet. While I detest a human +being guilty of such a dastardly trick, I have no sympathy to waste on +an engineer who can be caught in this way. So, if by this time you have +made up your mind never to build a fire until you know where the water +is, you will never be fooled and will never have to explain an accident +by saying, "I thought I had plenty of water." You may be fooled in +another way. You are aware that when a boiler is fired up or in other +words has a steam pressure on, the air is excluded, so when the boiler +cools down, the steam condenses and becomes water again, hence the space +which was occupied by steam now when cold becomes a vacuum. + +Now should your boiler be in perfect shape, we mean perfectly tight, +your throttle equally as tight, your pump or injector in perfect +condition and you were to' leave your engine with the hose in the tank, +and the supply globe to your pump open, you will find on returning to +your engine in the morning that the boiler will be nearly if not quite +full of water. I have heard engineers say that someone had been +tampering with their engines and storm around about it, while the facts +were that the supply being open the water simply flowed in from +atmospheric pressure, in order to fill the space made vacant by the +condensed steam. You will find further on that all check valves are +arranged to prevent any flowing out from the boiler, but nothing to +prevent water flowing in. Such an occurrence will do no harm but the +knowing how it was done may prevent your giving yourself away. A good +authority on steam boilers, says: "All explosions come either from poor +material, poor workmanship, too high pressure, or a too low gauge of +water." Now to protect yourself from the first two causes, buy your +engine from some factory having a reputation for doing good work and for +using good material. The last two causes depend very much on yourself, +if you are running your own engine. If not, then see that you have an +engineer who knows when his safety valve is in good shape and who knows +when he has plenty of water, or knows enough to pull his fire, when for +some reason, the water should become low. If poor material and poor +workmanship were unknown and carelessness in engineers were unknown, +such a thing as a boiler explosion would also be unknown. + +You no doubt have made up your mind by this time that I have no use for +a careless engineer, and let me add right here, that if you are inclined +to be careless, forgetful,(they both mean about the same thing,) you are +a mighty poor risk for an insurance company, but on the other hand if +you are careful and attentive to business, you are as safe a risk as any +one, and your success and the durability and life of your engine depends +entirely upon you, and it is not worth your while to try to shift the +responsibility of an accident to your engine upon some one else. + +If you should go away from your engine and leave it with the water boy, +or anyone who might be handy, or leave it alone, as is often done, and +something goes wrong with the engine, you are at fault. You had no +business to leave it, but you say you had to go to the separator and +help fix something there. At the separator is not your place. It is +not our intention to tell you how to run both ends of an outfit. We +could not tell you if we wanted to. If the men at the separator can't +handle it, get some one or get your boss to get some one who can. Your +place is at the engine. If your engine is running nicely, there is all +the more reason why you should stay by it, as that is the way to keep it +running nicely. I have seen twenty dollars damage done to the separator +and two days time lost all because the engineer was as near the +separator as he was to the engine when a root went into the cylinder. +Stay with your engine, and if anything goes wrong at the separator, you +are ready to stop and stop quickly, and if you are signalled to start +you are ready to start at once You are therefore making time for your +employer or for yourself and to make time while running a threshing +outfit, means to make money. There are engineers running engines today +who waste time enough every day to pay their wages. + +There is one thing that may be a little difficult to learn, and that is +to let your engine alone when it is all right. I once gave a young +fellow a recommendation to a farmer who wanted an engineer, and +afterward noticed that when I happened around he immediately picked up a +wrench and commenced to loosen up first one thing and then another. If +that engineer ever loses that recommendation he will be out of a job, if +his getting one depends on my giving him another. I wish to say to the +learner that that is not the way to run an engine. Whenever I happen to +go around an engine, (and I never lose an opportunity) and see an +engineer watching his engine, (now don't understand me to mean standing +and gazing at it,) I conclude that he knows his business. What I mean +by watching an engine is, every few minutes let your eye wander over the +engine and you will be surprised to see how quickly you will detect +anything out of place. So when I see an engineer watching his engine +closely while running, I am most certain to see another commendable +feature in a good engineer, and that is, when he stops his engine he +will pick up a greasy rag and go over his engine carefully, wiping every +working part, watching or looking carefully at every point that he +touches. If a nut is working loose he finds it, if a bearing is hot he +finds it. If any part of his engine has been cutting, he finds it. He +picked up, a greasy rag instead of a wrench, for the engineer that +understands his business and attends to it never picks up a wrench +unless he has something to do with it. The good engineer took a greasy +rag and while he was using it to clean his engine, he was at the same +time carefully examining every part. His main object was to see that +everything was all right. If he had found a nut loose or any part out +of place, then he would have taken his wrench, for he had use for it. + +Now what a contrast there is between this engineer and a poor one, and +unfortunately there are hundreds of poor engineers running portable and +traction engines. You will find a poor engineer very willing to talk. +This is bad habit number one. He cannot talk and have his mind on his +work. Beginners must not forget this. When I tell you how to fire an +engine you will understand how important it is, The poor engineer is +very apt to ask an outsider to stay at his engine while he goes to the +separator to talk. This is bad habit number two. Even if the outsider +is a good engineer, he does not know whether the pump is throwing more +water than is being used or whether it is throwing less. He can only +ascertain this by watching the column of water in the glass, and he +hardly knows whether to throw in fuel or not. He don't want the steam +to go down and he don't know at what pressure the pop valve will blow +off. There may be a box or journal that has been giving the engineer +trouble and the outsider knows nothing about it. There are a dozen +other good reasons why bad habit number two is very bad. + +If you will watch the poor engineer when he stops his engine, he will, +if he does anything, pick up a wrench, go around to the wrist pin, +strike the key a little crack, draw a nut or peck away at something +else, and can't see anything for grease and dirt. When he starts up, ten +to one the wrist pin heats and he stops and loosens it up and then it +knocks. Now if he had picked up a rag instead of a wrench, he would not +have hit that key but he would have run his hand over it and if he had +found it all right, he would have let it alone, and would have gone over +the balance of the engine and when he started up again his engine would +have looked better for the wiping it got and would have run just as well +as before he stopped it. Now you will understand why a good engineer +wears out more rags than wrenches, while a poor one wears out more +wrenches than rags. Never bother an engine until it bothers you. If +you do, you will make lots of grief for yourself. + +I have mentioned the bad habits of a poor engineer so that you may avoid +them. If you carefully avoid all the bad habits connected with the +running of an engine, you will be certain to fall into good habits and +will become a good engineer. + +TINKERING ENGINEERS + +After carelessness, meddling with an engine comes next in the list of +bad habits. The tinkering engineer never knows whether his engine is in +good shape or not, and the chances are that if he should get it in good +shape he would not know enough to let it alone. If anything does +actually get wrong with your engine, do not be afraid to take hold of +it, for something must be done, and you are the one to do it, but before +you do anything be certain that you know what is wrong. For instance, +should the valve become disarranged on the valve stem or in any other +way, do not try to remedy the trouble by changing the eccentric, or if +the eccentric slips do not go to the valve to mend the trouble. I am +well aware that among young engineers the impression prevails that a +valve is a wonderful piece of mechanism liable to kick out of place and +play smash generally. Now let me tell you right here that a valve (I +mean the ordinary slide valve, such as is used on traction and portable +engines), is one of the simplest parts of an engine, and you are not to +lose any sleep about it, so be patient until I am ready to introduce you +to this part of your work. You have a perfect right to know what is +wrong with the engine. The trouble may not be so serious and it is +evident to you that the engine is not running just as nicely as it +should. Now, if your engine runs irregularly, that is if it runs up to +a higher speed than you want, and then runs down, you are likely to say +at once, "Oh I know what the trouble is, it is the governor." Well, +suppose it is, what are you going to do about it, are you going to shut +down at once and go to tinkering with it? No, don't do that, stay close +to the throttle valve and watch the governor closely. Keep your eye on +the governor stem, and when the engine starts off on one of its high +speed tilts, you will see the stem go down through the stuffing box and +then stop and stick in one place until the engine slows down below its +regular speed, and it then lets loose and goes up quickly and your +engine lopes off again. You have now located the trouble. It is in the +stuffing box around the little brass rod or governor stem. The packing +has become dry and by loosening it up and applying oil you may remedy +the trouble until such time as you can repack it with fresh packing. +Candle wick is as good for this purpose as anything you can use. + +But if the governor does not act as I have described and the stem seems +to be perfectly free and easy in the box, and the governor still acts +queerly, starting off and running fast for a few seconds, and then +suddenly concluding to take it easy and away goes the engine again, see +if the governor belt is all right, and if it is, it would be well for +you to stop and see if a wheel is not loose. It might be either the +little belt wheel or one of the little cog wheels. If you find these +are all right, examine the spool on the crank shaft from which the +governor is run and you will probably find it loose. If the engine has +been run for any length of time, you will always find the trouble in one +of these places, but if it is a new one the governor valve might fit a +little tight in the valve chamber and you may have to take it out and +use a little emery paper to take off the rough projections on the valve. +Never use a file on this valve if you can get emery paper, and I would +advise you to always have some of it with you. It will often come +handy. Now if the engine should start off at a lively gait and continue +to run still faster, you must stop at once. The trouble this time is +surely in the governor. If the belt is all right, examine the jam nuts +on the top of the governor valve stem. You will probably find that these +nuts have worked loose and the rod is working up, which will increase +the speed of the engine. If these are all right, you will find that +either a pulley or a little cog wheel is loose. A quick eye will locate +the trouble before you have time to stop. If the belt is loose, the +governor will lag while the engine will run away. If the wheel is +loose, the governor will most likely stop and the engine will go on a +tear. If the jam nut has worked loose, the governor will run as usual, +except that it will increase its speed as the speed of the engine is +increased. Now any of these little things may happen and are likely to. +None of them are serious, provided you take my advice, and remain near +the engine. Now if you are thirty or forty feet away from the engine +and the governor belt slips, or gets unlaced, or the pulley gets off, +about the first thing the engine would do would be to jump out of the +belt and by the time you get to it, it will be having a mighty lively +time all alone. This might happen once and do no harm, and it might +happen again and do a great deal of damage, and you are being paid to +run the engine and you must stay by it. The governor is not a difficult +thing to handle, but it requires your attention. + +Now if I should drop the governor, you might say that I had not given +you any instructions about how to regulate it to speed. I really do not +know whether it is worth while to say much about it, for governors are +of different designs and are necessarily differently arranged for +regulating, but to help young learners I will take the Waters governors +which I think the most generally used on threshing and farm engines. +You will find on the upper end of the valve or governor stem two little +brass nuts. The upper one is a thumb nut and is made fast to the stem. +The second nut is a loose jam nut. To increase the speed of the engine +loosen this jam nut and take hold of the thumb nut and turn it back +slowly, watching the motion of your engine all the while. When you have +obtained the speed you require, run the thumb nut down as tight as you +can with your fingers. Never use a wrench on these nuts. To slow or +slacken the speed, loosen the jam nut as before, except that you must +run it up a few turns, then taking hold of the thumb nut, turn down +slowly until you have the speed required, when you again set the thumb +nut secure. In regulating the speed, be careful not to press down on +the stem when turning, as this will make the engine run a little slower +than it will after the pressure of your hand is removed. + +If at any time your engine refuses to start with an open throttle, +notice your governor stem, and you will find that it has been screwed +down as far as it will go. This frequently happens with a new engine, +the stem having been screwed down for its protection in transportation. + +In traveling through timber with an engine, be very careful not to let +any over-hanging limbs come in contact with the governor. + +Now I think what I have said regarding this particular governor will +enable you to handle any one you may come in contact with, as they are +all very much alike in these respects. It is not my intention to take +time and space to describe a governor in detail. If you will follow the +instructions I have given you the governor will attend to the rest. + + +PART SECOND ________ + +WATER SUPPLY + +If you want to be a successful engineer it is necessary to know all +about the pump. I have no doubt that many who read this book, cannot +tell why the old wooden pump (from which he has pumped water ever since +he was tall enough to reach the handle) will pump water simply because +he works the handle up and down. If you don't know this I have quite a +task on my hands, for you must not attempt to run an engine until you +know the principle of the pump. If you do understand the old town pump, +I will not have much trouble with you, for while there is no old style +wooden pump used on the engine, the same principles are used in the +cross head pump. Do not imagine that a cross head pump means something +to be dreaded. It is only a simple lift and force pump, driven from the +cross head. That is where it gets its name and it don't mean that you +are to get cross at it if it don't work, for nine times out of ten the +fault will be yours. Now I am well aware that all engines do not have +cross head pumps and with all respect to the builders of engines who do +not use them, I am inclined to think that all standard farm engines +ought to have a cross head pump, because it is the most simple and is +the most economical, and if properly constructed, is the most reliable. + +A cross head pump consists of a pump barrel, a plunger, one vertical +check valve and two horizontal check valves, a globe valve and one stop +cock, with more or less piping. We will now locate each of these parts +and will then note the part that each performs in the process of feeding +the boiler. + +You will find all, or most pump barrels, located under the cylinder of +the engine. It is placed here for several reasons. It is out of the +way. It is a convenient place from which to connect it to the cross +head by which it is driven. On some engines it is located on the top or +at the side of the cylinder and will work equally well. The plunger is +connected with the cross head and in direct line with the pump barrel, +and plays back and forth in the barrel. The vertical check valve is +placed between the pump and the water supply. It is not absolutely +necessary that the first check be a vertical one, but a check of some +kind must be so placed. As the water is lifted up to the boiler it is +more convenient to use a vertical check at this point. Just ahead and a +few inches from the pump barrel is a horizontal check valve. Following +the course of the water toward the point where it enters the boiler, you +will find another check valve. This is called a "hot water check." just +below this check, or between it and where the water enters the boiler, +you will find a stop cock or it may be a globe valve. They both answer +the same purpose. I will tell you further on why a stop cock is +preferable to a globe valve. While the cross head pumps may differ as +to location and arrangement, you will find that they all require the +parts described and that the checks are so placed that they bear the +same relation to each other. No fewer parts can be used in a pump +required to lift water and force it against steam pressure. More check +valves may be used, but it would not do to use less. Each has its work +to do, and the failure of one defeats all the others. The pump barrel +is a hollow cylinder, the chamber being large enough to admit the +plunger which varies in size from 5/8 of an inch to I inch in diameter, +depending upon the size of the boiler to be supplied. The barrel is +usually a few inches longer than the stroke of the engine, and is +provided at the cross head end with a stuffing box and nut. At the +discharge end it is tapped out to admit of piping to conduct water from +the pump. At the same end and at the extreme end of the travel of the +plunger it is tapped for a second pipe through which the water from the +supply reaches the pump barrel. The plunger is usually made of steel and +turned down to fit snug in the chamber, and is long enough to play the +full stroke of engine between the stuffing box and point of supply and +to connect with the driver on the cross head. Now, we will take it for +granted, that, to begin with, the pump is in good order, and we will +start it up stroke at a time and watch its work. Now, if everything be +in good order, we should have good water and a good hard rubber suction +hose attached to the supply pipe just under the globe valve. When we +start the pump we must open the little pet cock between the two +horizontal check valves. The globe valve must be open so as to let the +water in. A check valve, whether it is vertical or horizontal, will +allow water to pass through it one way only, if it is in good working +order. If the water will pass through both ways, it is of no account. +Now, the engine starts on the outward stroke and draws the-plunger out +of the chamber. This leaves a space in the barrel which must be filled. +Air cannot get into it, because the pump is in perfect order, neither +can the air get to it through the hose, as it is in the water, so that +the pressure on the outside of the water causes it to flow up through +the pipes through the first check valve and into the pump barrel, and +fills the space, and if the engine has a I2-inch stroke, and the plunger +is I inch in diameter, we have a column of water in the pump I2 inches +long and I inch in diameter. + +The engine has now reached its outward stroke and starts back. The +plunger comes back with it and takes the space occupied by the water, +which must get out of the way for the plunger. The water came up +through the first check valve, but it can't get back that way as we have +stated. There is another check valve just ahead, and as the plunger +travels back it drives the water through this second check. When the +plunger reaches the end of the backward stroke, it has driven the water +all out. It then starts forward again, but the water which has been +driven through the second check cannot get back and this space must +again be filled from supply, and the plunger continues to force more +water through the second check, taking four or five strokes of the +plunger to fill the pipes between the second check valve and the hot +water check valve. If the gauge shows I00 pounds of steam, the hot +water check is held shut by I00 pounds pressure, and when the space +between the check valves is filled with water, the next stroke of the +plunger will force the water through the hot water check valve, which is +held shut by the I00 pounds steam pressure so that the pump must force +the water against this hot water check valve with a power greater than +I00 pounds pressure. If the pump is in good condition, the plunger does +its work and the water is forced through into the boiler. + +A clear sharp click of the valves at each stroke of the plunger is +certain evidence that the pump is working well. + +The small drain cock between the horizontal checks is placed there to +assist in starting the pump, to tell when the pump is working and to +drain the water off to prevent freezing. When the pump is started to +work and this drain cock is opened, and the hot water in the pipes +drained off, the globe valve is then opened, and after a few strokes of +the plunger, the water will begin to flow out through the drain cock, +which is then closed, and you may be reasonably certain that the pump is +working all right. If at any time you are in doubt as to whether the +pump is forcing the water through the pipes, you can easily ascertain by +opening this drain cock. It will always discharge cold water when the +pump is working. Another way to tell if the pump is working, is by +placing your hand on the first two check valves. If they are cold, the +pump is working all right, but if they are warm, the cold water is not +being forced through them. + + +A stop cock should be used next to boiler, as you ascertain whether it +is open or shut by merely looking at it, while the globe valve can be +closed by some meddlesome party and you would not discover it, and would +burst some part of your pump by forcing water against it. + +PART THIRD _________ + +It is very important when the pump fails to work to ascertain what the +trouble is. If it should stop suddenly, examine the tank and ascertain +if you have any water. If you have sufficient water, it may be that +there is air in the pump chamber, and the only way that it can get in is +through the stuffing box around the plunger, if the pipes are all tight. +Give this stuffing nut a turn, and if the pump starts off all right, you +have found the trouble, and it would be well to re-pack the pump the +first chance you get. + +If the trouble is not in the stuffing box, go to the tank and see if +there is anything over the screen or strainer at the end of the hose. +If there is not, take hold of the hose and you can tell if there is any +suction. Then ascertain if the water flows in and then out of the hose +again. You can tell this by holding your hand loosely over the end of +the hose. If you find that it draws the water in and then forces it out +again, the trouble is with the first check valve. There is something +under it which prevents its shutting down. If, however, you find that +there is no suction at the end of hose examine the second check. If +there should be something under it, it would prevent the pump working, +because the pump forces the water through it; and, as the plunger starts +back, if the check fails to hold, the water flows back and fills the +pump barrel again and there would be no suction. + +The trouble may, however, be in the hot water check, and it can always +be told whether it is in the second check or hot water check by opening +the little drain cock. If the water which goes out through it is cold, +the trouble is in the second check; but, if hot water and steam are +blown out through this little drain cock, the trouble is in the hot +water check, or the one next to the boiler. This check must never be +tampered with without first turning the stop cock between this check and +the boiler. The valve can then be taken out and the obstruction +removed. Be very careful never to take out the hot water check without +closing the stop cock, for if you do you will get badly scalded; and +never start the pump without opening this valve, for if you do, it will +burst the pump. + +The obstruction under the valves is sometimes hard to find. A young man +in southern Iowa got badly fooled by a little pebble about the size of a +pea, which got into the pipe, and when he started his pump the pebble +would be forced up under the check and let the water back. When he took +the check out the pebble was not there, for it had dropped back into the +pipe. You will see that it is necessary to make a careful examinations +and not get mad, pick up a wrench and whack away at the check valve, +bruising it so that it will not work. Remember that it would work if it +could, and make up your mind to find out why, it don't work. A few years +ago I was called several miles to see an engine on which the pump would +not work. The engine had been idle for two days and the engineer had +been trying all that time to make the pump work. I took the cap off of +the horizontal check, just forward of the pump barrel, and took the +valve out and discovered that the check was reversed. I told the +engineer that if he would put the check in so that the water could get +through, he would have no more trouble. This fellow had lost his head. +He was completely rattled. He insisted that "the valve had always been +on that way," although the engine had been run two years. + +Now the facts in this case were as follows: The old check valve in place +of the one referred to had been one known as a stem valve, or floating +valve. This stem by some means, had broken off but it did not prevent +the valve from working. The stem, however, worked forward till it +reached the hot water check, and lodged under the valve, which prevented +this check from working and his pump refused to work, the engineer soon +found where the stem had broken off, and instead of looking for the +stem, sent to town for a new check, after putting this on the pump now +refused to work for two reasons. One was, he had not removed the broken +stem from the hot water check, and another was, that the new check was +in wrong end to. After wasting another hour or two he finally found +and-removed the stem from the hot water check, but his pump still +refused to work. And then as the boys say, "he laid down," and when I +called his attention to the new valve being in wrong, he was so +completely rattled that he made use of the above expression. + +There are other causes that would prevent the pump working besides lack +of packing and obstructions under the valves. The valve may stick. +When it is raised to allow the water to flow through, it may stick in +the valve chamber and refuse to settle back in the seat. This may be +caused by a little rough place in the chamber, or a little projection on +the valve, and can generally be remedied by tapping the under side of +check with a wrench or hammer. Do not strike it so hard as to bruise +the check, but simply tap it. If this don't remedy the trouble, take +the valve out, bore a hole in a board about I/2 inch deep and large +enough to permit the valve to be turned. Drop a little emery dust in +this hole. If you haven't any emery dust, scrape some grit from a +common whetstone. If you have no whetstone, put some fine sand or +gritty soil in the hole, put the valve on top of it, put your brace on +the valve and turn it vigorously for a few minutes, and you will remove +all roughness. + +Constant use may sometimes make a burr on the valve which will cause it +to stick. Put it through the above course and it will be as good as +new. If this little process was generally known, a great deal of +trouble and annoyance could be avoided. + +It will not be necessary to describe other styles of pumps. If you know +how to run the cross head pump, you can run any of the others. Some +engines have cross head pump only. Others have an independent pump. +Others have an injector, or inspirator, and some have both cross head +pump and injector. I think a farm engine should be supplied with both. + +It is neither wise nor necessary to go into a detailed description of an +injector. The young reader will be likely to become convinced if an +injector works for five minutes, it will continue to work, if the +conditions remain the same. If the water in the tank does not become +heated, and no foreign substance is permitted to enter the injector, +there is nothing to prevent its working properly as long as the +conditions are within the range of a good injector. It is a fact that +with all injectors as the vertical distance the injector lifts is +increased, it requires a greater steam pressure to start the injector, +and the highest steam pressure at which the injector will work is +greatly decreased. If the feed water is heated, a greater steam +pressure is required to start the injector and it will not work with as +high steam pressure. The capacity of an injector is always decreased as +the lift is increased, or the feed water heated. To obtain the most +economical results the proper sized injector must be used. When the +exact quantity of water consumed per hour is known it can be easily +determined from the capacities given in the price lists which sized +injector must be selected. + +An injector must always be selected having a maximum capacity in excess +of the water consumed. If the exact amount of water consumed per hour +is not known, and cannot be easily determined, the proper size can be +approximately determined from the nominal H. P. of the boiler. The +usual custom has been to allow 7 I/2 gallons of water per hour, which is +a safe rule for the ordinary type of boiler. + +WHAT A GOOD INJECTOR OUGHT TO DO. + +With cold feed water, a good injector with a two foot lift ought to +start with 25 pounds pressure and work up to I50 pounds. With 8 foot +lift, ought to start at 30 pounds and work up to I30. With feed water +heated to I00 degrees Fahrenheit it should start with the same lift, +that is, will say 2 foot, at 26 and work Up to I20, and at 8, from 33 up +to I00. You will see by this that conditions, consisting of variation of +temperature in the feed water and different lifts, change the efficiency +of your injector very materially, and the water can soon get beyond the +ability of your injector to work at all. The above refers more +particularly to the single tube injector. The double tube injector +under the same conditions as above should work from I4 pounds to 250, +and from I5 to 2I0, but as this injector is not generally used on farm +engines you will most likely not meet with it very often. + +The injector should not be placed too near the boiler, as the heat from +it will make it difficult to start the injector each time after it has +been standing idle. + +If the injector is so hot that it will not lift the cold water, there is +no way of cooling it except by applying the water on the outside. This +is most effectively done by covering the injector with a cloth and +pouring water over the cloth. If, after the injector has become cool, +it still refuses to work, you may be sure that there is some obstruction +in it that must be removed. This can be done by taking off the cap, or +plug-nut, and running a fine wire through the cone valve or cylinder +valve. The automatic injector requires only the manipulation of the +steam valve to start it. There are other makes that require, first: that +the injector be given steam and then the water. To start an injector +requires some little tact, (and you will discover that tact is the +handiest tools you can have to make you a good engineer). To start an +injector of the Pemberthy type; first give it sufficient steam to lift +the water, allowing the water to escape at overflow for a moment or long +enough to cool the injector, then with a quick turn shut off and open up +the supply which requires merely a twist of the wrist. + +If the injector fails to take hold at once don't get ruffled but repeat +the above move a few times and you will soon start it, and if you have +tact, (it is only another word for natural ability) you will need no +further instructions to start your injector. But remember that no +injector can work coal cinders or chaf and that all joints must be air +tight. Don't forget this. + +It is now time to give some attention to the heater. While the heater +is no part of the pump, it is connected with it and does its work +between the two horizontal check valves. Its purpose is to heat the +water before it passes into the boiler. The water on its way from the +pump to the boiler is forced through a coil of pipes around which the +exhaust steam passes on its way from the cylinder to the exhaust nozzle +in the smokestack. + +The heaters are made in several different designs, but it is not +necessary to describe all of them, as they require little attention and +they all answer the same purpose. The most of them are made by the use +of a hollow bedplate with steam fitted heads or plates. The water pipe +passes through the plate at the end of the heater into the hollow +chamber, and a coil of pipes is formed, and the pipe then passes back +through the head or plate to the hot water check valve and into the +boiler. + +The steam enters the cylinder from the boiler, varying in degrees of +heat from 300 to 500. After acting on the piston head, it is exhausted +directly into the chamber or hollow bed-plate through which the pipes +pass. The water, when it enters the heater, is as cold as when it left +the tank, but the steam which surrounds the pipes has lost but little of +its heat, and by the time the water passes through the coil of pipes it +is heated to nearly boiling point and can be introduced into the boiler +with little tendency to reduce the steam. This use of the exhaust steam +is economical, as it saves fuel, and it would be injurious to pump cold +water directly into a hot boiler. + +If your engine is fitted with both cross head pump and injector, you use +the injector for pumping water when the engine is not running. The +injector heats the water almost as hot as the heater. If your engine is +running and doing no work, use your injector and stop the pump, for, +while the engine is running light, the small amount of exhaust steam is +not sufficient to heat the water and the pressure will be reduced +rapidly. You will understand, therefore, that the injector is intended +principally for an emergency rather than for general use. It should +always be kept in order, for, should the pump refuse to work, you have +only to start your injector and use it until such time as you can remedy +the trouble. + + +We have now explained how you get your water supply. You understand that +you must have water first and then fire. Be sure that you have the +water supply first. + +THE BLOWER + +The blower is an appliance for creating artificial draught and consists +of a small pipe leading from some point above the water line into the +smoke stack, directly over the tubes, and should extend to the center of +stack and terminate with a nozzle pointing directly to top and center of +stack; this pipe is fitted with a globe valve. When it is required to +rush your fire, you can do so by opening this globe and allowing the +steam to escape into the stack. The force of the steam tends to drive +the air out of the stack and the smoke box, this creates a strong +draught. But you say, "What if I have no steam?" Well, then don't blow, +and be patient till you have enough to create a draught; and it has been +my experience that there is nothing gained by putting on the blower +before having fifteen pounds of steam, as less pressure than this will +create but little draught and the steam will escape about as fast as it +is being generated. Be patient and don't be everlastingly punching at +the fire. Get your fuel in good shape in fire box and shut the door and +go about your business and let the fire burn. + +Must the blower be used while working the engine. No. The exhaust steam +which escapes into the stack, does exactly what we stated the blower +does, and if it is necessary to use the blower in order to keep up +steam, you can conclude that your engine is in bad shape, and yet there +are times when the blower is necessary, even when your engine is in the +best of condition. For instance, when you have poor fuel and are +working your engine very light, the exhaust steam may not be sufficient +to create enough draught for poor coal, or wet or green wood. But if +you are working your engine hard the blower should never be used; if you +have bad fuel and it is necessary to stop your engine you will find it +very convenient to put on the blower slightly, in order to hold your +steam and keep the fire lively until you start again. + +It will be a good plan for you to take a look at the nozzle on blower +now and then, to see that it does not become limed up and to see that it +is not turned to the side so that it directs the steam to the side of +stack. Should it do this, you will be using the steam and getting but +little, if any, benefit. It will also be well for you to remember that +you can create too much draught as well as too little; too much draught +will consume your fuel and produce but little steam. + + +A GOOD FIREMAN. + +What constitutes a good fireman? You no doubt have heard this +expression: "Where there is so much smoke, there must be some fire." +Well, that is true, but a good fireman don't make much smoke. We are +speaking of firing with coal, now. If I can see the smoke ten miles +from a threshing engine, I can tell what kind of a fireman is running +the engine; and if there is a continuous cloud of black smoke being +thrown out of the smokestack, I make up my mind that the engineer is +having all he can do to keep the steam up, and also conclude that there +will not be much coal left by the time he gets through with the job; +while on the other hand, should I see at regular intervals a cloud of +smoke going up, and lasting for a few moments, and for the next few +moments see nothing, then I conclude that the engineer of that engine +knows his business, and that he is not working hard; he has plenty of +steam all the time, and has coal left when he is through. So let us go +and see what makes this difference and learn a valuable lesson. We will +first go to the engine that is making such a smoke, and we will find +that the engineer has a big coal shovel just small enough to allow it to +enter the fire door. You will see the engineer throw in about two, or +perhaps three shovels of coal and as a matter of course, we will see a +volume of black smoke issuing from the stack; the engineer stands +leaning on his shovel watching the steam gauge, and he finds that the +steam don't run up very fast, and about the time the coal gets hot +enough to consume the smoke, we will see him drop his shovel, pick up a +poker, throw open the fire door and commence a vigorous punching and +digging at the fire. This starts the black smoke again, and about this +time we will see him down on his knees with his poker, punching at the +underside of the grate bars, about the time he is through with this +operation the smoke is coming out less dense, and he thinks it time to +throw in more coal, and he does it. Now this is kept up all day, and +you must not read this and say it is overdrawn, for it is not, and you +can see it every day, and the engineer that fires in this way, works +hard, burns a great amount of coal, and is afraid all the time that the +steam will run down on him. + +Before leaving him let us take a look at his firebox, and we will see +that it is full of coal, at least up to the level of the door. We will +also see quite a pile of ashes under the ash pan. You can better +understand the disadvantage of this way of firing after we visit the +next man. I think a good way to know how to do a thing, is to know +also, how not to do it. + +Well, we will now go across to the man who is making but little smoke, +and making that at regular intervals. We will be likely to find that he +has only a little hand shovel. He picks this up, takes up a small +amount of coal, opens the fire door and spreads the coal nicely over the +grates; does this quickly and shuts the door; for a minute black smoke +is thrown out, but only for a minute. Why? Because he only threw in +enough to replenish the fire, and not to choke it in the least, and in a +minute the heat is great enough to consume all the smoke before it +reaches the stack, and as smoke is unconsumed fuel, he gains that much +if he can consume it. We will see this engineer standing around for the +next few minutes perfectly, at ease. He is not in the least afraid of +his steam going down. At the end of three to five minutes, owing to the +amount of work he is doing, you will see him pick up his little shovel +and throw in a little coal; he does exactly as he did before, and if we +stay there for an hour we will not see him pick up a poker. We will +look in at his firebox, and we will see what is called a "thin fire," +but every part of the firebox is hot. We will see but a small pile of +ashes under the engine and he is not working hard. + +If you happen to be thinking of buying an engine, you will say that this +last fellow "has a dandy engine." "That is the kind of an engine I +want," when the facts in the case may be that the first man may have a +better engine, but don't know how to fire it. Now, don't you see how +important it is that you know how to fire an engine? I am aware that +some big coal wasters will say, "It is easy to talk about firing with a +little hand shovel, but just get out in the field as we do and get some +of the kind of fuel we have to burn, and see how you get along." Well, I +am aware that you will have some bad coal. It is much better to handle +bad coal in a good way than to handle good coal in a bad way. Learn to +handle your fuel in the proper way and you will be a good fireman. +Don't get careless and then blame the coal for what is your own fault. +Be careful about this, you might give yourself away. I have seen +engineers make a big kick about the fuel and claim that it was no good, +when some other fellow would take hold of the engine and have no trouble +whatever. Now, this is what I call a clean give away on the kicker. + +Don't allow any one to be a better fireman than yourself. You will see a +good fireman do exactly as I have stated. He fires often, always keeps +a level fire, never allows the coal to get up to the lower tubes, always +puts in coal before the steam begins to drop, keeps the fire door open +as little as possible, preventing any cold air from striking the tubes, +which will not only check the steam, but is injurious to the boiler. + +It is no small matter to know just how to handle your dampers; don't +allow too much of an opening here. You will keep a much more even fire +by keeping the damper down, just allowing draught enough to allow free +combustion; more than this is a waste of heat. + +Get all out of the coal you can, and save all you get. Learn the little +points that half the engineers never think of. + + +WOOD + +You will find wood quite different in some respects, but the good points +you have learned will be useful now. Fire quick and often, but unlike +coal, you must keep your fire box full. Place your wood as loosely as +possible. I mean by this, place in all directions to allow the draft to +pass freely through it. Keep adding a couple sticks as fast as there is +room for it; don't disturb the under sticks. Use short wood and fire +close to the door. When firing with wood I would advise you to keep +your screen down. There is much more danger of setting fire with wood +than with coal. + +If you are in a dangerous place, owing to the wind and the surroundings, +don't hesitate to state your fears to the man for whom you are +threshing. He is not supposed to know the danger as well as you, and +if, after your advice, he says go ahead, you have placed the +responsibility on him; but even after you have done this, it sometimes +shows a good head to refuse to fire with wood, especially when you are +required to fire with old rails, which is a common fuel in a timbered +country. While they make a hot fire in a firebox, they sometimes start +a hot one outside of it. It is part of your business to be as careful as +you can. What I mean is take reasonable precaution, in looking after +the screen in stack. If it burns out get a new one. With reasonable +diligence and care, you will never set anything on fire, while on the +other hand, a careless engineer may do quite a lot of damage. + +There is fire about an engine, and you are provided with the proper +appliances to control it. See that you do it. + +WHY GRATES BURN OUT + +Grates burn through carelessness. You may as well make up your mind to +this at the start. You never saw grate bars burn out with a clean ash +box. They can only be burned by allowing the ashes to accumulate under +them till they exclude the air when the bars at once become red hot. +The first thing, they do is to warp, and if the ashes are not removed at +once, the grate bar will burn off. Carelessness is neglecting something +which is a part of your business, and as part of it is to keep your ash +box clean, it certainly is carelessness if you neglect it. Your coal +may melt and run down on the bars, but if the cold air can get to the +grates, the only damage this will do is to form a clinker on the top of +grates, and shut off your draught. When you find that you have this +kind of coal you will want to look after these clinkers. + +Now if you should have good success in keeping steam, keep improving on +what you know, and if you run on 1000 pounds of coal today, try and do +it with 900 tomorrow. That is the kind of stuff a good fireman is made +of. + +But don't conclude that you can do the same amount of work each day in +the week on the same amount of fuel, even should it be of the same kind. +You will that with all your care and skill, your engine will differ very +materially both as to the amount of fuel and water that it will require, +though the conditions may apparently be the same. + +This may be as good a time as any to say to you, remember that a blast +of cold air against the tubes is a bad thing, so be careful about your +firedoor; open it as little as, possible; when you want to throw in +fuel, don't open the door, and then go a rod away after a shovel of +coal; and I will say here that I have seen this thing done by men who +flattered themselves that they were about at the top in the matter of +running an engine. That kind of treatment will ruin the best boiler in +existence. I don't mean that once or twice will do it, but to keep it +up will do it. Get your shovel of coal and when you are ready to throw +it in, open the door quickly and close it at once. Make it one of your +habits to do this, and you will never think of doing it in any other +way. If it becomes necessary to stop your engine with a hot fire and a +high pressure of steam, don't throw your door open, but drop your damper +and open the smoke box door. + +If, however, you only expect to stop a minute or two, drop your damper, +and start your injector if you have one. If you have none, get one. + +An independent boiler feeder is a very nice thing, if constructed on the +proper principles. You can't have your boiler too well equipped in this +particular. + +PART FOUR. _______ + +A boiler should be kept clean, outside and inside. Outside for your own +credit, and inside for the credit of the manufacturers. A dirty boiler +requires hard firing, takes lots of fuel, and is unsatisfactory in every +way. + +The best way to keep it clean is not to let it get dirty. The place to +begin work, is with your "water boy," pursuade him to be very careful of +the water he brings you, if you can't succeed in this, ask him to +resign. + +I have seen a water-hauler back into a stream, and then dip the water +from the lowerside of tank, the muddy water always goes down stream and +the wheels stir up the mud; and your bright water hauler dips it into +the tank. While if he had dipped it from the upper side he would have +gotten clear water. However, the days of dipping water are past, but a +water boy that will do as I have stated is just as liable to throw his +hose into the muddy water or lower side of tank as on the upper side, +where it is clear. See that he keeps his tank clean. We have seen +tanks with one-half inch of mud in the bottom. We know that there are +times when you are compelled to use muddy water, but as soon as it is +possible to get clear water make him wash out his tank, and don't let +him haul it around till the boiler gets it all. + +Allow me just here to tell you how to construct a good tank for a +traction engine. You can make the dimensions to suit yourself, but +across the front end and about two feet back fit a partition or second +head; in the center of this head and about an inch from the bottom bore +a two inch hole. Place a screen over this hole on the side next the +rear, and on the other side, or side next front end, put a valve. You +can construct the valve in this way: Take a piece of thick leather, +about four inches long, and two and a half inches wide; fit a block of +wood (a large bung answers the purpose nicely) on one end, trimming the +leather around one side of the wood, then nail the long part of the +valve just above the hole, so that the valve will fit nicely over the +hole in partition. When properly constructed, this valve will allow the +water to flow into the front end of tank, but will prevent its running +back. So, when you are on the road with part of a tank of water, and +start down hill, this front part fills full of water, and when you start +up hill, it can not get back, and your pumps will work as well as if you +had a full tank of water, without this arrangement you cannot get your +pumps to work well in going up a steep hill with anything less than a +full tank. Now, this may be considered a little out of the engineer's +duty, but it will save lots of annoyance if he has his tank supplied +with this little appliance, which is simple but does the business. + +A boiler should be washed out and not blown out, I believe I am safe in +saying that more than half the engineers of threshing engines today +depend on the "blowing out" process to clean their boilers. I don't +intend to tell you to do anything without giving my reasons. We will +take a hot boiler, for instance; say, 50 pounds steam. We will, of +course, take out the fire. It is not supposed that anyone will attempt +to blow out the water with any fire in the firebox. We will, after +removing the fire, open the blow-off valve, which will be found at the +bottom or lowest water point. The water is forced out very rapidly with +this pressure, and the last thing that comes out is the steam. This +steam keeps the entire boiler hot till everything is blown out, and the +result is that all the dirt, sediment and lime is baked solid on the +tubes and side of firebox. But you say you know enough to not blow off +at 50 pounds pressure. Well, we will say 5 pounds, then. You will admit +that the boiler is not cold by any means, even at only 5 pounds, and if +you know enough not to blow off at 50 pounds, you certainly know that at +5 pounds pressure the damage is not entirely avoided. As long as the +iron is hot, the dirt will dry out quickly, and by the time the boiler +is cold enough to force cold water through it safely, the mud is dry and +adheres closely to the iron. Some of the foreign matter will be blown +out, but you will find it a difficult matter to wash out what sticks to +the hot iron. + +I am aware that some engineers claim that the boiler should be blown out +at about 5 pounds or I0 pounds pressure, but I believe in taking the +common sense view. They will advise you to blow out at a low pressure, +and then, as soon as the boiler is cool enough, to wash it thoroughly. + +Now, if you must wait till the boiler is cool before washing, why not +let it cool with the water in it? Then, when you let the water out, +your work is easy, and the moment you begin to force water through it, +you will see the dirty water flowing out at the man or hand hole. The +dirt is soft and washes very easily; but, if it had dried on the inside +of boiler while you were waiting for it to cool, you would find it very +difficult to wash off. . + +You say I said to force the water through the boiler, and to do this you +must use a force pump. No engineer ought to attempt to run an engine +without a force pump. It is one of the necessities. You say, can't you +wash out a boiler without a force pump? Oh, yes! You can do it just +like some people do business. But I started out to tell you how to keep +your boiler clean, and the way to do it is to wash it out, and the way +to wash it out is with a good force pump. There are a number of good +pumps made, especially for threshing engines. They are fitted to the +tank for lifting water for filling, and are fitted with a discharge hose +and nozzle. + +You will find at the bottom of boiler one or two hand hole plates-if +your boiler has a water bottom-if not, they will be found at the bottom +of sides of firebox. Take out these hand hole plates. You will also +find another plate near the top, on firebox end of boiler; take this +out, then open up smoke box door and you will find another hand hole +plate or plug near lower row of tubes; take this out, and you are ready +for your water works, and you want to use them vigorously; don't throw +in a few buckets of water, but continue to direct the nozzle to every +part of the boiler, and don't stop as long as there is any muddy water +flowing at the bottom hand holes. This is the way to clean your boiler, +and don't think that you can be a success as an engineer without this +process, and once a week is none too often. If you want satisfactory +results from your engine, you must keep a clean boiler, and to keep it +clean requires care and labor. If you neglect it you can expect +trouble. If you blow out your boiler hot, or if the mud and slush bakes +on the tubes, there is soon a scale formed on the tubes, which decreases +the boiler's evaporating capacity. You, therefore, in order to make +sufficient amount of steam, must increase the amount of fuel, which of +itself is a source of expense, to say nothing of extra labor and the +danger of causing the tubes to leak from the increased heat you must +produce in the firebox in order to make steam sufficient to do the work. + +You must not expect economy of fuel, and keep a dirty boiler, and don't +condemn a boiler because of hard firing until you know it is clean, and +don't say it is clean when it can be shown to be half full of mud. + +SCALE + +Advertisements say that certain compounds will prevent scale on boilers, +and I think they tell the truth, as far as they go; but they don't say +what the result may be on iron. I will not advise the use of any of +these preparations, for several reasons. In the first place, certain +chemicals will successfully remove the scale formed by water charged +with bicarbonate of lime, and have no effect on water charged with +sulphate of lime. Some kinds of bark-summac, logwood, etc.,-are +sufficient to remove the scale from water charged with magnesia or +carbonate of lime, but they are injurious to the iron owing to the +tannic acid with which they are charged. Vinegar, rotten apples, slop, +etc., owing to their containing acetic acid, will remove scale, but this +is even more injurious to the iron than the barks. Alkalies of any +kind, such as soda, will be found good in water containing sulphate of +lime, by converting it into a carbonate and thereby forming a soft +scale, which is easily washed out; but these have their objections, for, +when used to excess, they cause foaming. + +Petroleum is not a bad thing in water where sulphate of lime prevails; +but you should use only the refined, as crude oil sometimes helps to +form a very injurious scale. Carbonate of soda and corn-starch have been +recommended as a scale preventative, and I am inclined to think they are +as good as anything, but as we are out in the country most of the time I +can tell you of a simple little thing that will answer the same purpose, +and can usually be had with little trouble. Every Monday morning just +dump a hatful of potatoes into your boiler, and Saturday night wash the +boiler out, as I have already suggested, and when the fall's run is over +there will not be much scale in the boiler. + + +CLEAN FLUES. + +We have been urging you to keep your boiler clean. Now, to get the best +results from your fuel, it will also be necessary to keep your flues +clean; as soot and ashes are non-conductors of heat, you will find it +very difficult to get up steam with a coating of soot in your tubes. +Most factories furnish with each engine a flue cleaner and rod. This +cleaner should be made to fit the tubes snug, and should be forced +through each separate tube every morning before building a fire. Some +engineers never touch their flues with a cleaner, but when they choke +the exhaust sufficiently to create such a draught as to clean the flues, +they are working the engine at a great disadvantage, besides being much +more liable to pull the fire out at the top of smokestack. If it were +not necessary to create draught by reducing your exhaust nozzle, your +engine would run much nicer and be much more powerful if your nozzle was +not reduced at all. However, you must reduce it sufficiently to give +draught, but don't impair the power by making the engine clean its own +flues. I think ninety per cent of the fires started by. traction +engines can be traced to the engineer having his engine choked at the +exhaust nozzle. This is dangerous for the reason that the excessive +draught created throws fire out at the stack. It cuts the power of the +engine by creating back pressure. We will illustrate this: Suppose you +close the exhaust entirely, and the engine would not turn itself. If +this is true, you can readily understand that partly closing it will +weaken it to a certain extent. So, remember that the nozzle has +something to do with the power of the engine, and you can see why the +fellow that makes his engine clean its own flues is not the brightest +engineer in the world. + +While it is not my intention to encourage the foolish habit of pulling +engines, to see which is the best puller, should you get into this kind +of a test, you will show the other fellow a trick by dropping the +exhaust nozzle off entirely, and no one need know it. Your engine will +not appear to be making any effort, either, in making the pull. Many a +test has been won more through the shrewdness of the operator than the +superiority of the engine. + +The knowing of this little trick may also help you out of a bad hole +some time when you want a little extra power. And this brings us to the +point to which I want you to pay special attention. The majority of +engineers, when they want a little extra power, give the safety valve a +twist. + +Now, I have already told you to carry a good head of steam, anywhere +from 100 to 120 pounds of steam is good pressure and is plenty, and if +you have your valve set to blow off at 115, let it be there; and don't +screw it down every time you want more power, for if you do you will +soon have it up to I25, and should you want more steam at some other +time you will find yourself screwing it down again, and what was really +intended for a safety valve loses all its virtue as a safety, as far as +you and those around you are concerned. If you know you have a good +boiler you are safe in setting it at I25 pounds, provided you are +determined to not set it up to any higher pressure. But my advice to +you is that if your engine won't do the work required of it at 115 +pounds, you had best do what you can with it until you can get a larger +one. + +A safety valve is exactly what its name implies, and there should be a +heavy penalty for anyone taking that power away from it. + +If you refuse to set your safety down at any time, it does not imply +that you are afraid of your boiler, but rather you understand your +business and realize your responsibility. + +I stated before what you should do with the safety valve in starting a +new engine. You should also attend to this part of it every few days. +See that it does not become slow to work. You should note the pressure +every time it blows off; you know where it ought to blow off, so don't +allow it to stick or hold the steam beyond this pressure. If you are +careful about this, there is no danger about it sticking some time when +you don't happen to be watching the gauge. The steam gauge will tell +you when the pop ought to blow off, and you want to see that it does it. + + +PART FIVE _______ + +STEAM GAUGE + +Some engineers call a steam gauge a "clock." I suppose they do this +because they think it tells them when it is time to throw in coal, and +when it is time to quit, and when it is time for the safety valve to +blow off. If that is what they think a steam gauge is for, I can tell +them that it is time for them to learn differently. + +It is true that in a certain sense it does tell the engineer when to do +certain things, but not as a clock would tell the time of day. The +office of a steam gauge is to enable you to read the pressure on your +boiler at all times, the same as a scale will enable you to determine +the weight of any object. + +As this is the duty of the steam gauge, it is necessary that it be +absolutely correct. By the use of an unreliable gauge you may become +thoroughly bewildered, and in reality know nothing of what pressure you +are carrying. + +This will occur in about this way: Your steam gauge becomes weak, and if +your safety is set at I00 pounds, it will show I00 or even more before +the pop allows the steam to escape; or if the gauge becomes clogged, the +pop may blow off when the gauge only shows go pounds or less. This +latter is really more dangerous than the former. As you would most +naturally conclude that your safety was getting weak, and about the +first thing you would do would be to screw it down so that the gauge +would show I00 before the pop would blow off, when in fact you would +have I00 or more. + +So you can see at once how important it is that your gauge and safety +should work exactly together, and there is but one way to make certain +of this, and that is to test your steam gauge. If you know the steam +gauge is correct, you can make your safety valve agree with it; but +never try to make it do it till you know the gauge is reliable. + +HOW TO TEST A STEAM GAUGE + +Take it off, and take it to some shop where there is a steam boiler in +active use; have the engineer attach your gauge where it will receive +the direct pressure, and if it shows the same as his gauge, it is +reasonable to suppose that your gauge is correct. If the engineer to +whom you take your gauge should say he thinks his gauge is weak, or a +little strong, then go somewhere else. I have already told you that I +did not want you to think anything about your engine-I want you to know +it. However, should you find that your gauge shows when tested with +another gauge, that it is weak, or unreliable in any way, you want to +repair it at once, and the safest way is to get a new one; and yet I +would advise you first to examine it and see if you cannot discover the +trouble. It frequently happens that the pointer becomes loosened on the +journal or spindle, which attaches it to the mechanism that operates it. +If this is the trouble, it is easily remedied, but should the trouble +prove to be in the spring, or the delicate mechanism, it would be much +more satisfactory to get a new one. + +In selecting a new gauge you will be better satisfied with a gauge +having a double spring or tube, as they are less liable to freeze or +become strained from a high pressure, and the double spring will not +allow the needle or pointer to vibrate when subject to a shock or sudden +increase of pressure, as with the single spring. A careful engineer +will have nothing to do with a defective steam gauge or an unreliable +safety valve. Some steam gauges are provided with a seal, and as long +as this seal is not broken the factory will make it good. + +FUSIBLE PLUG + +We have told you about a safety valve, we will now have something to say +of a safety plug. A safety, or fusible plug, is a hollow brass plug or +bolt, screwed into the top crown sheet. The hole through the plug being +filled with some soft metal that will fuse at a much less temperature +than is required to burn iron. The heat from the firebox will have no +effect on this fusible plug as long as the crown sheet is covered with +water, but the moment that the water level falls below the top of the +crown sheet, thereby exposing the plug, this soft metal is melted and +runs out, allows the steam to rush down through the opening in the lug, +putting out the fire and preventing any injury to the boiler. This all +sounds very nice, but I am free to confess that I am not an advocate of +a fusible plug. After telling you to never allow the water to get low, +and then to say there is something to even make this allowable, sounds +very much like the preacher who told his boy "never to go fishing on +Sunday, but if he did go, to be sure and bring home the fish." I would +have no objection to the safety plug if the engineer did not know it was +there. I am aware that some states require that all engines be fitted +with a fusible plug. I do not question their good intentions, but I do +question their good judgment. It seems to me the are granting a license +to carelessness. For instance, an engineer is running with a low gauge +of water, owing possibly to the tank being delayed longer than usual, he +knows the water is getting low, but he says to himself, "well, if the +water gets too low I will only blow out the plug," and so he continues +to run until the tank arrives. If the plug holds, he at once begins to +pump in cold water, and most likely does it on a very hot sheet, which +of itself, is something he never should do; and if the plug does blow +out he is delayed a couple of hours, at least, before he can put in a +new plug and get up steam again. Now suppose he had not had a soft plug +(as they are sometimes called). He would have stopped before he had low +water. He would not even have had a hot crown sheet, and would only +have lost the time he waited on the tank. This is not a fancied +circumstance by any means, for it happens every day. The engineer +running an engine with a safety plug seldom stops for a load of water +until he blows out the plug. It frequently happens that a fusible plug +becomes corroded to such an extent that it will stand a heat sufficient +to burn the iron. This is my greatest objection to it. The engineer +continues to rely on it for safety, the same as if it were in perfect +order, and the ultimate result is he burns or cracks his crown sheet. I +have already stated that I have no objection to the plug, if the +engineer did not know it was there, so if you must use one, attend to +it, and every time you clean your boiler scrape the upper or water end +of the plug with a knife, and be careful to remove any corrosive matter +that may have collected on it, and then treat your boiler exactly as +though there was no such a thing as a safety plug in it. A safety plug +was not designed to let you run with any lower gauge of water. It is +placed there to prevent injury to the boiler, in case of an accident or +when, by some means, you might be deceived in your gauge of water, or if +by mistake, a fire was started without any water in the boiler. + +Should the plug melt out, it is necessary to replace it at once, or as +soon as the heat will permit you to do so. It might be a saving of time +to have an extra plug always ready, then all you have to do is to remove +the melted one by unscrewing it from the crown sheet and screwing the +extra one in. But if you have no extra plug you must remove the first +one and refill it with babbitt. You can do this by filling one end of +the plug with wet clay and pouring the metal into the other end, and +then pounding it down smooth to prevent any leaking. This done, you can +screw the plug back into its place. + +If you should have two plugs, as soon as you have melted out one replace +it with the new one, and refill the other at your earliest convenience. +By the time you have replaced a fusible plug a few times in a hot boiler +you will conclude it is better to keep water over your crown sheet. + +LEAKY FLUES + +What makes flues leak? I asked this question once, and the answer was +that the flues were not large enough to fill up the hole in flue sheet. +This struck me as being funny at first, but on second thought I +concluded it was about correct. Flues may leak from several causes, but +usually it can be traced to the carelessness of some one. You may have +noticed before this that I am inclined to blame a great many things to +carelessness. Well, by the time you have run an engine a year or two +you will conclude that I am not unjust in my suspicions. I do not blame +engineers for everything, but I do say that they are responsible for a +great many things which they endeavor to shift on to the manufacturer. +If the flues in a new boiler leak, it is evident that they were slighted +by the boiler-maker; but should they run a season or part of a season +before leaking, then it would indicate that the boiler-maker did his +duty, but the engineer did not do his. He has been building too hot a +fire to begin with, or has, been letting his fire door stand open; or he +may have overtaxed his boiler; or else he has been blowing out his +boiler when too hot; or has at some time blown out with some fire in +firebox. Now, any one of these things, repeated a few times, will make +the best of them leak. You have been advised already not to do these +things, and if you do them, or any one of them, I want to know what +better word there is to express it than "carelessness." + +There are other things that will make your flues leak. Pumping cold +water into a boiler with a low gauge of water will do it, if it does +nothing more serious. Pouring cold water into a hot boiler will do it. +For instance, if for any reason you should blow out your boiler while in +the field, and as you might be in a hurry to get to work, you would not +let the iron cool, before beginning to refill. I have seen an engineer +pour water into a boiler as soon as the escaping steam would admit it. +The flues cannot stand such treatment, as they are thinner than the +shell or flue sheet, and therefore cool much quicker, and in contracting +are drawn from the flue sheet, and as a matter of course must leak. A +flue, when once started to leak, seldom stops without being set up, and +one leaky flue will start others, and what are you going to do about it? +Are you going to send to a boiler shop and get a boilermaker to come out +and fix them and pay him from forty to sixty cents an hour for doing it? +I don't know but that you must the first time, but if you are going to +make a business of making your flues leak, you had best learn how to do +it yourself. You can do it if you are not too big to get into the fire +door. You should provide yourself with a flue expander and a calking +tool, with a machinist's hammer, (not too heavy). Take into the firebox +with you a piece of clean waste with which you will wipe off the ends of +the flues and flue sheet to remove any soot or ashes that may have +collected around them. After this is done you will force the expander +into the flues driving it well up, in order to bring the shoulder of +expander up snug against the head of the flue. Then drive the tapering +pin into the expander. By driving the pin in too far you may spread the +flue sufficient to crack it or you are more liable, by expanding too +hard, to spread the hole in flue sheet and thereby loosen other flues. +You must be careful about this. When you think you have expanded +sufficient, hit the pin a side blow in order to loosen it, and turn the +expander about one-quarter of a turn, and drive it up as before; loosen +up and continue to turn as before until you have made the entire circle +of flues. Then remove the expander, and you are ready for your header +or calking tool. It is best to expand all the flues that are leaking +before beginning with the header. + +The header is used by placing the gauge or guide end within the flue, +and with your light hammer the flue can be calked or beaded down against +the flue sheet. Be careful to use your hammer lightly, so as not to +bruise the flues or sheet. When you have gone over all the expanded +flues in this way, you, (if you have been careful) will not only have a +good job, but will conclude that you are somewhat of an expert at it. I +never saw a man go into a firebox and stop the leak but that he came out +well pleased with himself. The fact that a firebox is no pleasant +workshop may have had something to do with it. If your flues have been +leaking badly, and you have expanded them, it would be well to test your +boiler with cold water pressure to make sure that you have a good job. + +How are you going to test your boiler? If you can attach to a hydrant, +do so, and when you have given your boiler all the pressure you want, +you can then examine your flues carefully, and should you find any +seeping of water, you can use your beader lightly untill such leaks are +stopped. If the waterworks will not afford you sufficient pressure, you +can bring it up to the required pressure, by attaching a hydraulic pump +or a good force pump. + +In testing for the purpose of ascertaining if you have a good job on +your flues, it is not necessary to put on any greater cold water +pressure than you are in the habit of carrying. For instance, if your +safety valve is set at one hundred and ten pounds, this pressure of cold +water will be sufficient to test the flues. + +Now, suppose you are out in the field and want to test your flues. Of +course you have no hydrant to attach to, and you happen not to have a +force pump, it would seem you were in bad shape to test your boiler with +cold water. Well, you can do it by proceeding in this way: When you +have expanded and beaded all the flues that were leaking, you will then +close the throttle tight, take off the safety valve (as this is +generally attached at the highest point) and fill the boiler full, as it +is absolutely necessary that all the space in the boiler should be +filled with cold water. Then screw the safety valve back in its place. +You will then get back in the firebox with your tools and have someone +place a small sheaf of wheat or oat straw under the firebox or under +waist of boiler if open firebox, and set fire to it. The expansive +force of the water caused by the heat from the burning straw will +produce pressure desired. You should know, however, that your safety is +in perfect order. When the water begins to escape at the safety valve, +you can readily see if you have expanded your flues sufficiently to keep +them from leaking. + +This makes a very nice and steady pressure, and although the pressure is +caused by heat, it is a cold water pressure, as the water is not heated +beyond one or two degrees. This mode of testing, however, cannot be +applied in very cold weather, as water has no expansive force five +degrees above or five degrees below the freezing point. + +These tests, however, are only for the purpose of trying your flues and +are not intended to ascertain the efficiency or strength of your boiler. +When this is required, I would advise you to get an expert to do it, as +the best test for this is the hammer test, and only an expert should +attempt it. + + + +PART SIX ________ + +Any young engineer who will make use of what he has read will never get +his engine into much trouble. Manufacturers of farm engines to-day make +a specialty of this class of goods, as they endeavor to build them as +simple and of as few parts as possible. They do this well knowing that, +as a rule, they must be run by men who cannot take a course in practical +engineering. If each one of the many thousands of engines that are +turned out every year had to have a practical engineer to run it, it +would be better to be an engineer than to own the engine; and +manufacturers knowing this, they therefore make their engines as simple +and with as little liability to get out of order as possible. The +simplest form of an engine, however, requires of the operator a certain +amount of brains and a willingness to do that which he knows should be +done; and if you will follow the instructions you have already received, +you can run your engine as successfully as any one can wish as long as +your engine is in order, and, as I have just stated, it is not liable to +get out of order, except from constant wear, and this wear will appear +in the boxes, journals and valve. The brasses on wrist pin and +cross-head will probably require your first and most careful attention, +and of these two the wrist or crank box will require the most; and what +is true of one is true of both boxes. It is, therefore, not necessary +to take up both boxes in instructing you how to handle them. We will +take up the box most likely to require your attention. This is the +wrist box. You will find this box in two parts or halves. In a new +engine you will find that these two halves do not meet on the wrist pin +by at least one-eighth of an inch. They are brought up to the pin by +means of a wedge-shaped key. (I am speaking now of the most common form +of wrist boxes. If your engine should not have this key, it will have +something which serves the same purpose.) As the brasses wear you can +take up this wear by forcing the key down, which brings the two halves +nearer together. You can continue to gradually take up this wear until +you have brought them together. You will then see that it is necessary +to do something, in order to take up any more wear, and this "something" +is to take out the brasses and file about one-sixteenth of an inch off +of each brass. This will allow you another eighth of an inch to take up +in wear. + +Now here is a nice little problem for you to solve and I want you to +solve it to your own satisfaction, and when you do, you will thoroughly +understand it, and to understand it is to never allow it to get you into +trouble. We started out by saying that in a new engine you would most +likely find about one-eighth of an inch between the brasses, and we said +you would finally get these brasses, or halves together, and would have +to take them out and file them. Now we have taken up one-eighth of an +inch and the result is, we have lengthened our pitman just one-sixteenth +of an inch; or in other words, the center of wrist pin and the center of +cross-head are just one-sixteenth of an inch further apart than they +were before any wear had taken place, and the piston head has +one-sixteenth of an inch more clearance at one end, and one-sixteenth of +an inch less at the other end than it had before. Now if we take out the +boxes and file them so we have, another eighth of an inch, by the time +we have taken up this wear, we will then have this distance doubled, and +we will soon have the piston head striking the end of the cylinder, and +besides, the engine will not run as smooth as it did. Half of the wear +comes off of each half, and the half next to the key is brought up to +the wrist pin because of the tapering key, while the outside half +remains in one place. You must therefore place back of this half a thin +piece of sheet copper, or a piece of tin will do. Now suppose our boxes +had one-eighth of an inch for wear. When we have taken up this much we +must put in one-sixteenth of an inch backing (as it is called), for we +have reduced the outside half by just that amount. We have also reduced +the front half the same, but as we have said, the tapering key brings +this half up to its place. + +Now we think we have made this clear enough and we will leave this and +go back to the key again. You must remember that we stated that the key +was tapering or a wedged shape, and as a wedge, is equally as powerful +as a screw, and you must bear in mind that a slight tap will bring these +two boxes up tight against the wrist pin. Young engineers experience +more trouble with this box than with any other part of the engine, and +all because they do not know how to manage it. You should be very +careful not to get your box too tight, and don't imagine that every time +there is a little knock about your engine that you can stop it by +driving the key down a little more. This is a great mistake that many, +and even old engineers make. I at one time seen a wrist pin and boxes +ruined by the engineer trying to stop a knock that came from a loose +fly-wheel. It is a fact, and one that has never been satisfactorily +explained, that a knock coming from almost any part of an engine will +appear to be in the wrist. So bear this in mind and don't allow +yourself to be deceived in this way, and never try to stop a knock until +you have first located the trouble beyond a doubt. + +When it becomes necessary to key up your brasses, you will find it a +good safe way to loosen up the set screw which holds the key, then drive +it down till you are satisfied you have it tight. Then drive it back +again and then with your fist drive the key down as far as you can. You +may consider this a peculiar kind of a hammer, but your boxes will +rarely ever heat after being keyed in this manner. + +KNOCK IN ENGINES + +What makes an engine knock or pound? A loose pillow block box is a good +"knocker." The pillow block is a box next crank or disc wheel. This box +is usually fitted with set bolts and jam nuts. You must also be careful +not to set this up too tight, remembering always that a box when too +tight begins to heat and this expands the journal, causing greater +friction. A slight turn of a set bolt one way or the other may be +sufficient to cool a box that may be running hot, or to heat one that +may be running cool. A hot box from neglect of oiling can be cooled by +supplying oil, provided it has not already commenced to cut. If it +shows any sign of cutting, the only safe way is to remove the box and +clean it thoroughly. + +Loose eccentric yokes will make a knock in an engine, and it may appear +to be in the wrist. You will find packing between the two halves of the +yoke. Take out a thin sheet of this packing, but don't take out too +much, as you are liable then to get them too tight and they may stick +and cause your eccentrics to slip. We will have more to say about the +slipping of the eccentrics. + +The piston rod loose in cross-head will make a knock, which also appears +in the wrist, but it is not there. Tighten the piston and you will stop +it. The piston rod may be keyed in cross head, or it may be held in +place by a nut. The key is less liable to get loose, but should it work +loose a few times it may be necessary to replace it with a new one. And +this is one of the things that cause a bad break when it works out or +gets loose. If it gets loose it may not come out, but it will not stand +the strain very long in this condition, and will break, allowing the +piston to come out of cross head, and you are certain to knock out one +cylinder head and possibly both of them. The nut will do the same thing +if allowed to come off. So this is one of the connections that will +claim your attention once in a while, but if you train your ear to +detect any unusual noise you will discover it as soon as it gives the +least in either key or nut. + +The cross-head loose in the guides will make it knock. If the +cross-head is not provided for taking up this wear, you can take off the +guides and file them enough to allow them to come up to the cross-head, +but it is much better to have them planed off, which insures the guides +coming up square against the cross-head and thus prevent any heating or +cutting. + +A loose fly-wheel will most likely puzzle you more than anything else to +find the knock. So remember this. The wheel may apparently be tight, +but should the key be the least bit narrow for the groove in shaft, it +will make your engine bump very similar to that caused by too much or +too little "lead." + +LEAD + +What is lead? Lead is space or opening of port on steam end of +cylinder, when engine is on dead center. (Dead center is the two points +of disc or crank wheel at which the crank pin is in direct line with +piston and at which no amount of steam will start the engine.) Different +makes of engines differ to such an extent that it is impossible to give +any rule or any definite amount of lead for an engine. For instance, an +engine with a port six inches long and one-half inch wide would require +much less lead than one with a port four inches long and one inch wide. +Suppose I should say one-sixteenth of an inch was the proper lead. In +one engine you would have an opening one-sixteenth of an inch wide and +six inches long and in the other you would have one-sixteenth of an inch +wide and four inches long; so you can readily see that it is impossible +to give the amount of lead for an engine without knowing the piston +area, length of port, speed, etc. Lead allows live steam to enter the +cylinder just ahead of the piston at the point of finishing the stroke, +and forms a "cushion," and enables the engine to pass the center without +a jar. Too much lead is a source of weakness to an engine, as it allows +the steam to enter the cylinder too soon and forms a back pressure and +tends to prevent the engine from passing the center. It will, +therefore, make your engine bump, and make it very difficult to hold the +packing in stuffing box. + +Insufficient lead will not allow enough steam to enter the cylinder +ahead of piston to afford cushion enough to stop the inertia, and the +result will be that your engine will pound on the wrist pin. You most +likely have concluded by this time that "lead" is no small factor in the +smooth running of an engine, and you, as a matter of course, will want +to know how you are to obtain the proper lead. Well don't worry +yourself. Your engine is not going to have too much lead today and not +enough tomorrow. If your engine was properly set up in the first place +the lead will be all right, and continue to afford the proper lead as +long as the valve has not been disturbed from its original position; and +this brings us to the most important duty of an engineer as far as the +engine is concerned, viz: Setting the Valve. + +SETTING A VALVE. + +The proper and accurate setting of a valve on a steam engine is one of +the most important duties that you will have to perform, as it requires +a nicety of calculation and a mechanical accuracy. And when we remember +also, that this is another one of the things for which no uniform rule +can be adopted, owing to the many circumstances which go to make an +engine so different under different conditions, we find it very +difficult to give you the light on this part of your duty which we would +wish to. We, however, hope to make it so clear to you that by the aid +of the engine before you, you can readily understand the conditions and +principles which control the valve in the particular engine which you +may have under your management. + +The power and economy of an engine depends largely on the accurate +operation of its valve. It is, therefore, necessary that you know how +to reset it, should it become necessary to do so. + +An authority says, "Bring your engine to a dead center and then adjust +your valve to the proper lead." This is all right as far as it goes, but +how are you to find the dead center. I know that it is a common custom +in the field to bring the engine to a center by the use of the eye. You +may have a good eye, but it is not good enough to depend on for the +accurate setting of a valve. + +HOW TO FIND THE DEAD CENTER + +First, provide yourself with a "tram." This you can do by taking a 1/4 +inch iron rod, about 18 inches long, and bend about two inches of one +end to a sharp angle. Then sharpen both ends to a nice sharp point. +Now, fasten securely a block of hard wood somewhere near the face of the +fly wheel, so that when the straight end of your tram is placed at a +definite point in the block the other, or hook end, will reach the crown +of fly wheel. + +Be certain that the block cannot move from its place, and be careful to +place the tram at exactly the same point on the block at each time you +bring the tram into use. You are now ready to proceed to find the dead +center, and in doing this remember to turn the fly wheel always in the +same direction. Now, turn your engine over till it nears one of the +centers, but not quite to it. You will then, by the aid of a +straight-edge make a clear and distinct mark across the guides and cross +head. Now, go around to the fly wheel and place the straight end of the +tram at same point on the block, and with the hook end make a mark +across the crown or center of face of fly wheel; now turn your engine +past the center and on to the point at which the line on cross head is +exactly in line with the lines on guides. Now, place your tram in the +same place as before, and make another mark across the crown of fly +wheel. By the use of dividers find the exact center between the two +marks made on fly wheel; mark this point with a center punch. Now, +bring the fly wheel to the point at which the tram, when placed at its +proper place on block, the hook end, or point, will touch this punch +mark, and you will have one of the exact dead centers. + +Now, turn the engine over till it nears the other center, and proceed +exactly as before, remembering always to place the straight end of tram +exactly in same place in block, and you will find both dead centers as +accurately as if you had all the fine tools of an engine builder. + +You are now ready to proceed with the setting of your valve, and as you +have both dead centers to work from you ought to be able to do it, as +you do not have to depend on your eye to find them, and by the use of +the tram You turn your engine to exactly the same point every time you +wish to get a center. + +Now remove the cap on steam chest, bring your engine to a dead center +and give your valve the necessary amount of lead on the steam end. Now, +we have already stated that we could not give you the proper amount of +lead for an engine. It is presumed that the maker of your engine knew +the amount best adapted to this engine, and you can ascertain his idea +of this by first allowing, we will say, about 1/16 of an inch. Now +bring your engine to the other center, and if the lead at the other end +is less than 1/16, then you must conclude that he intended to allow less +than 1/16, but should it show more than this, then it is evident that he +intended more than I/I16 lead; but in either case you must adjust your +valve so as to divide the space, in order to secure the same lead when +on either center. In the absence of any better tool to ascertain if the +lead is the same, make a tapering wooden wedge of soft wood, turn the +engine to a center and force the wedge in the opening made by the valve +hard enough to mark the wood; then turn to the next center, and if the +wedge enters the same distance, you are correct; if not, adjust till it +does, and when you have it set at the proper place you had best mark it +by taking a sharp cold chisel and place it so that it will cut into the +hub of eccentric and in the shaft; then hit it a smart blow with a +hammer. This should be done after you have set the set screws in +eccentric down solid on the shaft. Then, at any time should your +eccentric slip, you have only to bring it back to the chisel mark and +fasten it, and you are ready to go ahead again. + +This is for a plain or single eccentric engine. A double or reversible +engine, however, is somewhat more difficult to handle in setting the +valve. Not that the valve itself is any different from a plain engine, +but from the fact that the link may confuse you, and while the link may +be in position to run the engine one way you may be endeavoring to set +the valve to run it the other way. + +The proper way to proceed with this kind of an engine is to bring the +reverse lever to a position to run the engine forward, then proceed to +set your valve the same as on a plain engine. When you have it at the +proper place, tighten just enough to keep from slipping, then bring your +reverse lever to the reverse position and bring your engine to the +center. If it shows the same lead for the reverse motion you are then +ready to tighten your eccentrics securely, and they should be marked as +before. + +You may imagine that you will have this to do often. Well don't be +scared about it. You may run an engine a long time, and never have to +set a valve. I have heard these windy engineers (you have seen them), +say that they had to go and set Mr. A's or Mr. B's valve, when the facts +were, if they did anything, it was simply to bring the eccentrics back +to their original position. They happened to know that most all engines +are plainly marked at the factory, and all there was to do was to bring +the eccentrics back to these marks and fasten them, and the valve was +set. The slipping of the eccentrics is about the only cause for a valve +working badly. You should therefore keep all grease and dirt away from +these marks; keep the set screws well tightened, and notice them +frequently to see that they do not slip. Should they slip a I/I6 part +of an inch, a well educated ear can detect it in the exhaust. Should +they slip a part of a turn as they will some times, the engine may stop +instantly, or it may cut a few peculiar circles for a minute or two, but +don't get excited, look to the eccentrics at once for the trouble. + +Your engine may however act very queer some time, and you may find the +eccentrics in their proper place. Then you must go into the steam chest +for the trouble. The valves in different engines are fastened on valve +rod in different ways. Some are held in place by jam nuts; a nut may +have worked loose, causing lost motion on the valve. This will make +your engine work badly. Other engines hold their valve by a clamp and +pin. This pin may work out, and when it does, your engine will stop, +very quickly to. + +If you thoroughly understand the working of the steam, you can readily +detect any defect in your cylinder or steam chest, by the use of your +cylinder cocks. Suppose we try them once. Turn your engine on the +forward center, now open the cocks and give the engine the steam +pressure. If the steam blows out at the forward cock we know that we +have sufficient lead. Now turn back to the back center, and give it +steam again; if it blows out the same at this cock, we can conclude that +our valve is in its proper position. Now reverse the engine and do the +same thing; if the cocks act the same, we know we are right. Suppose +the steam blows out of one cock all right, and when we bring the engine +to the other center no steam escapes from this cock, then we know that +something is wrong with the valve, and if the eccentrics are in their +proper position the trouble must be in the steam chest, and if we open +it up we will find the valve has become loosened on the rod. Again +suppose we put the engine on a center, and on giving it steam, we find +the steam blowing out at both cocks. + +Now what is the trouble, for no engine in perfect shape will allow the +steam to blow out of both cocks at the same time. It is one of two +things, and it is difficult to tell. Either the cylinder rings leak and +allow the steam to blow through, or else the valve is cut on the seat, +and allows the steam to blow over. Either of these two causes is bad, +as it not only weakens your engine, but is a great waste of fuel and +water. The way to determine which of the two causes this, is to take +off the cylinder head, turn engine on forward center and open throttle +slightly. If the steam is seen to blow out of the port at open end of +cylinder, then the trouble is in the valve, but if not, you will see it +blowing through from forward end of cylinder, and the trouble is in the +cylinder rings. + +What is the remedy? Well, if the "rings" are the trouble, a new set +will most likely remedy it should they be of the automatic or +self-setting pattern, but should they be of the spring or adjusting +pattern, you can take out the head and set the rings out to stop this +blowing. As most all engines now are using the self-setting rings, you +will most likely require a new set. + +If the trouble is in the valve or steam chest, you had best take it off +and have the valve seat planed down, and the valve seated to it. This +is the safest and best way. Never attempt to dress a valve down, you +are most certain to make a bad job of it. + +And yet I don't like the idea of advising you not to do a thing that can +be done, for I do like an engineer who does not run to the shop for +every little trouble. However, unless you have the proper tools you had +best not attempt it. The only safe way is to scrape them down, for if +your valve is cut, you will find the valve seat is cut equally as bad, +and they must both be scraped to a perfect fit. Provide yourself with a +piece of flat steel, very hard, 3x4 inches by about I/8 inch, with a +perfect straight edge. With this scrape the valve and seat to a perfect +flat surface, It will be a slower process than scraping wood with a +piece of glass, but you can do it. Never use a chisel or a file on a +valve. + + +LUBRICATING OIL + +What is oil? + +Oil is a coating for a journal, or in other words is a lining between +bearings. + +Did you ever stop long enough to ask yourself the question? I doubt it. +A great many people buy something to use on their engine, because it is +called oil. Now if the object in using oil is to keep a lining between +the bearings, is it not reasonable that you use something that will +adhere to that which it is to line or cover? + +Gasoline will cover a journal for a minute or two, and oil a grade +better would last a few minutes longer. Still another grade would do +some better. Now if you are running your own engine, buy the best oil +you can buy. You will find it very poor economy to buy cheap oil, and +if you are not posted, you may pay price enough, but get a very poor +article. + +If you are running an engine for some one else, make it part of your +contract that you are furnished with a good oil. You can not keep an +engine in good shape with a cheap oil. You say "you are going to keep +your engine clean and bright." Not if you must use a poor oil. + +Poor oil is largely responsible for the fast going out of use of the +link reverse among the makers of traction engines. While I think it +very doubtful if this "reverse motion" can be equalled by any of the +late devices. Its construction is such as to require the best grade of +cylinder oil, and without this it is very unsatisfactory, (not because +the valves of other valve-motions will do with a poorer grade of oil) +but because its construction is such that as soon as the valve becomes +dry it causes the link to jump and pound, and very soon requires +repairing. While the construction of various other devices are such, +that while the valve may be equally as dry it does not show the want of +oil so clearly as the old style link. Yet as a fact I care not what the +valve motion may be, it requires a good grade of oil. + +You may ask "how am I to know when I am getting a good grade of oil." +The best way is to ascertain a good brand of oil then use that and +nothing else. + +We are not selling oil, or advertising oil. However before I get +through I propose to give you the name of a good brand of cylinder oil, +a good engine oil as well as good articles of various attachments, which +cut no small figure in the success you may have in running an engine. + +It is not an uncommon thing for an engineer (I don't like to call him an +engineer either) to fill his sight feed lubricator with ordinary engine +oil, and then wonder why his cylinder squeaks. The reason is that this +grade of oil cannot stand the heat in the cylinder or steam chest. + +If you are carrying 90 pounds of steam you have about 320 degrees of +heat in your cylinder, with I20 to I25 pounds you will have about 350 +degrees of heat, and in order to lubricate your valve and valve-seat, +and also the cylinder surface, you must use an oil, that will not only +stand this heat but considerable more so that it will have some staying +qualities. + +Then if you are using a good quality of oil and your link or reverse +begins to knock, it is because some part of it wants attention, and you +must look after it. And here is where I want to insist that you teach +your ear to be your guide. You ought to be able to detect the slightest +sound that is unnatural to your engine. Your eyes may be deceived, but a +well trained ear can not be fooled. + +I was once invited by an engineer to come out and see how nice his +engine was running. I went, and found that the engine itself was +running very smooth, in fact almost noiseless, but he looked very much +disappointed when I asked him why he was doing all his work with one end +of cylinder. He asked me what I meant, and I had some difficulty in +getting him to detect the difference in the exhaust of the two ends, in +fact the engine was only making one exhaust to a revolution. He was one +of those engineers who never discovered anything wrong until he could +see it. Did you know that there are people in the world whose mental +capacity can only grasp one idea at a time. That is when their minds +are on any one object or principle they can not see or observe anything +else. That was the case with this engineer, his mind had been +thoroughly occupied in getting all the reciprocating (moving) parts +perfectly adjusted, and if the exhaust had made all sorts of peculiar +noises, he would not have discovered it. + +The one idead man will not make a successful engineer. The good engineer +can stand by and at a glance take in the entire engine, from tank to top +of smoke stack. He has the faculty of noting mentally, what he sees, +and what he hears, and by combining the results of the two, he is +enabled to size up the condition of the engine at a glance. This, +however, only come with experience, and verges on expertness. And if +you wish to be an expert, learn to be observing. + +It is getting very common among engineers to use "hard grease" on the +crank pin and main journals, and it will very soon be used exclusively. +With a good grade of grease your crank will not heat near so quickly as +with oil and your engine will be much easier to keep clean; and if you +are going to be an engineer be a neat one, keep your engine clean and +keep yourself clean. You say you can't do that; but you can at least +keep yourself respectable. You will most certainly keep your engine +looking as though it had an engineer. Keep a good bunch of waste handy, +and when it is necessary to wipe your hands use the waste and not your +overalls, and when you go in to a nice dinner the cook will not say +after you go out, "Look here where that dirty engineer sat." Now boys, +these are things worth heeding. I have actually known threshing crews +to lose good customers simply because of their dirty clothes. The women +kicked and they had a right to kick. But to return to hard grease and +suitable cups for same. + +In attaching these grease cups on boxes not previously arranged for +them, it would be well for you to know how to do it properly. You will +remove the journal, take a gouge and cut a clean groove across the box, +starting in at one corner, about I/8 of an inch from the point of box +and cut diagonally across coming out at the opposite corner on the other +end of box. Then start at the opposite corner and run through as +before, crossing the first groove in the center of box. Groove both +halves of box the same, being careful not to cut out at either end, as +this will allow the grease to escape from box and cause unnecessary +waste. The chimming or packing in box should be cut so as to touch the +journal at both ends of box, but not in the center or between these two +points. So, when the top box is brought down tight, this will form +another reservoir for the grease. If the box is not tapped directly in +the center for cup, it will be necessary to cut other grooves from where +it is tapped into the grooves already made. A box prepared in his way +will require but little attention if you use good grease. + + + +A HOT BOX + +You will sometimes get a hot box. What is the best remedy? Well, I +might name you a dozen, and if I did you would most likely never have +one on hand when it was wanted. So will only give you one, and that is +white lead and oil, and I want you to provide yourself with a can of +this useful article. And should a journal or box get hot on your hands +and refuse to cool with the usual methods, remove the cup, and after +mixing a portion of the lead with oil, put a heavy coat of it on the +journal, put back the cup and your journal will cool off very quickly. +Be careful to keep all grit or dust out of your can of lead. Look after +this part of it yourself. It is your business. + + +PART SEVEN ________ + +Before taking up the handling of a Traction Engine, we want to tell you +of a number of things you are likely to do which you ought not to do. + +Don't open the throttle too quickly, or you may throw the drive belt +off, and are also more apt to raise the water and start priming. + +Don't attempt to start the engine with the cylinder cocks closed, but +make it a habit to open them when you stop; this will always insure your +cylinder being free from water on starting. + +Don't talk too much while on duty. + +Don't pull the ashes out of ash pan unless you have a bucket of water +handy. + +Don't start the pump when you know you have low water. + +Don't let it get low. + +Don't let your engine get dirty. + +Don't say you can't keep it clean. + +Don't leave your engine at night till you have covered it up. + +Don't let the exhaust nozzle lime up, and don't allow lime to collect +where the water enters the boiler, or you may split a heater pipe or +knock the top off of a check valve. + +Don't leave your engine in cold weather without first draining all +pipes. + +Don't disconnect your engine with a leaky throttle. + +Don't allow the steam to vary more than I0 or I5 pounds while at work. + +Don't allow anyone to fool with your engine. + +Don't try any foolish experiments on your engine. + +Don't run an old boiler without first having it thoroughly tested. + +Don't stop when descending a steep grade. + +Don't pull through a stockyard without first closing the damper tight. + +Don't pull onto a strange bridge without first examining it. + +Don't run any risk on a bad bridge. + + +A TRACTION ENGINE ON THE ROAD + +You may know all about an engine. You may be able to build one, and yet +run a traction in the ditch the first jump. + +It is a fact that some men never can become good operators of a traction +engine, and I can't give you the reason why any more than you can tell +why one man can handle a pair of horses better than another man who has +had the same advantages. And yet if you do ditch your engine a few +times, don't conclude that you can never handle a traction. + +If you are going to run a traction engine I would advise you to use your +best efforts to become an expert at it. For the expert will hook up to +his load and get out of the neighborhood while the awkward fellow is +getting his engine around ready to hook up. + +The expert will line up to the separator the first time, while the other +fellow will back and twist around for half an hour, and then not have a +good job. + +Now don't make the fatal mistake of thinking that the fellow is an +expert who jumps up on his engine and jerks the throttle open and yanks +it around backward and forward, reversing with a snap, and makes it +stand-up on its hind wheels. + +If you want to be an expert you must begin with the throttle, therein +lies the secret of the real expert. He feels the power of his engine +through the throttle. He opens it just enough to do what he wants it to +do. He therefore has complete control of his engine. The fellow who +backs his engine up to the separator with an open throttle and must +reverse it to keep from running into and breaking something, is running +his engine on his muscle and is entitled to small pay. + +The expert brings his engine back under full control, and stops it +exactly where he wants it. He handles his engine with his head and +should be paid accordingly. He never makes a false move, loses no time, +breaks nothing, makes no unnecessary noise, does not get the water all +stirred up in the boiler, hooks up and moves out in the same quiet +manner, and the onlookers think he could pull two such loads, and say he +has a great engine, while the engineer of muscle would back up and jerk +his engine around a half dozen times before he could make the coupling, +then with a jerk and a snort he yanks the separator out of the holes, +and the onlookers think he has about all he can pull. + +Now these are facts, and they cannot be put too strong, and if you are +going to depend on your muscle to run your engine, don't ask any more +money than you would get at any other day labor. + +You are not expected to become an expert all at once. Three things are +essential to be able to handle a traction engine as it should be +handled. + +First, a thorough knowledge of the throttle. I don't mean that you +should simply know how to pull it open and shut it. Any boy can do that. +But I mean that you should be a good judge of the amount of power it +will require to do what you may wish to do, and then give it the amount +of throttle that it will require and no more. To illustrate this I will +give an instance. + +An expert was called a long distance to see an engine that the operator +said would not pull its load over the hills he had to travel. + +The first pull he had to make after the expert arrived was up the worst +hill he had. When he approached the grade he threw off the governor +belt, opened the throttle as wide as he could get it, and made a run for +the hill. The result was, that he lifted the water and choked the +engine down before he was half way up. He stepped off with the remark, +"That is the way the thing does." The expert then locked the hind wheels +of the separator with a timber, and without raising the pressure a +pound, pulled it over the hill. He gave it just throttle enough to pull +the load, and made no effort to hurry ii, and still had power to spare. + +A locomotive engineer makes a run for a hill in order that the momentum +of his train will help carry him over. It is not so with a traction and +its load; the momentum that you get don't push very hard. + +The engineer who don't know how to throttle his engine never knows what +it will do, and therefore has but little confidence in it; while the +engineer who has a thorough knowledge of the throttle and uses it, +always has power to spare and has perfect confidence in his engine. He +knows exactly what he can do and what he cannot do. + +The second thing for you to know is to get onto the tricks of the steer +wheel. This will come to you naturally, and it is not necessary for me +to spend much time on it. All new beginners make the mistakes of turning +the wheel too often. Remember this-that every extra turn to the right +requires two turns to the left, and every extra turn to the left +requires two more to the right; especially is this the care if your +engine is fast on the road. + +The third thing for you to learn, is to keep your eyes on the front +wheels of your engine, and not be looking back to see if your load in +coming. + +In making a difficult turn you will find it very much to your advantage +to go slow, as it gives you much better control of your front wheels, +and it is not a bad plan for a beginner to continue to go slow till he +has perfect confidence in his ability to handle the steer wheel as it +may keep you out of some bad scrapes. + +How about getting into a hole? Well, you are not interested half as +much in knowing how to get into a hole as You are in knowing how to get +out. An engineer never shows the stuff he is made of to such good +advantage as when he gets into a hole; and he is sure to get there, for +one of the traits of a traction engine is its natural ability to find a +soft place in the ground. + +Head work will get you out of a bad place quicker than all the steam you +can get in your boiler. Never allow the drivers to turn without doing +some good. If you are in a hole, and you are able to turn your wheels, +you are not stuck; but don't allow your wheels to slip, it only lets you +in deeper. If your wheels can't get a footing, you want to give them +something to hold to. Most smart engineers will tell you that the best +thing is a heavy chain. That is true. So are gold dollars the best +things to buy bread with, but you have not always got the gold dollars, +neither have you always got the chain. Old hay or straw is a good +thing; old rails or timber of any kind. The engineer with a head spends +more time trying to give his wheels a hold than he does trying to pull +out, while the one without a head spends more time trying to pull out +than he does trying to secure a footing, and the result is, that the +first fellow generally gets out the first attempt, while the other +fellow is lucky if he gets out the first half day. + +If you have one wheel perfectly secure, don't spoil it by starting your +engine till you have the other just as secure. + +If you get into a place where your engine is unable to turn its wheels, +then your are stuck, and the only thing for you to do is to lighten your +load or dig out. But under all circumstances your engine should be +given the benefit of your judgment. + +All traction engines to be practical must of a necessity, be reversible. +To accomplish this, the link with the double eccentric is the one most +generally used, although various other devices are used with more or +less success. As they all accomplish the same purpose it is not +necessary for us to discuss the merits or demerits of either. + +The main object is to enable the operator to run his engine either +backward or forward at will, but the link is also a great cause of +economy, as it enables the engineer to use the steam more or less +expansively, as he may use more or less power, and, especially is this +true, while the engine is on the road, as the power required may vary in +going a short distance, anywhere from nothing in going down hill, to the +full power of your engine in going up. + +By using steam expansively, we mean the cutting off of the steam from +the cylinder, when the piston has traveled a certain part of its stroke. +The earlier in the stroke this is accomplished the more benefit you get +of the expansive force of the steam. + +The reverse on traction engines is usually arranged to cut off at I/4, +I/2 or 3/4. To illustrate what is meant by "cutting off" at I/4, I/2 or +3/4, we will suppose the engine has a I2 inch stroke. The piston begins +its stroke at the end of cylinder, and is driven by live steam through +an open port, 3 inches or one quarter of the stroke, when the port is +closed by the valve shutting the steam from the cylinder, and the piston +is driven the remaining 9 inches of its stroke by the expansive force of +the steam. By cutting off at I/2 we mean that the piston is driven half +its stroke or 6 inches by live steam, and by the expansion of the steam +the remaining 6 inches; by 3/4 we mean that live steam is used 9 inches +before cutting off, and expansively the remaining 3 inches of stroke. + +Here is something for you to remember: "The earlier in the stroke you +cut off the greater the economy, but less the power; the later you cut +off the less the economy and greater the power." + +Suppose we go into this a little farther. If you are carrying I00 +pounds pressure and cut off at I/4, you can readily see the economy of +fuel and water, for the steam is only allowed to enter the cylinder +during I/4 of its stroke; but by reason of this, you only get an average +pressure on the piston head of 59 pounds throughout the stroke. But if +this is sufficient to do the work, why not take advantage of it and +thereby save your fuel and water? Now, with the same pressure as before, +and cutting off at I/2, you have an average pressure on piston head of +84 pounds, a loss of 50 per cent in economy and a gain of 42 per cent in +power. Cutting of at 3/4 gives you an average pressure of 96 pounds +throughout the stroke. A loss on cutting off at I/4 of 75 per cent in +economy, and a gain of nearly 63 per cent in power. This shows that the +most available point at which to work steam expansively is at I/4, as +the percentage of increase of power does not equal the percentage of +loss in economy. The nearer you bring the reverse lever to center of +quadrant, the earlier will the valve cut the steam and the less will be +the average pressure, while the farther away from the center the later +in the stroke will the valve cut the steam, and the greater the average +pressure, and, consequently, the greater the power. We have seen +engineers drop the reverse back in the last notch in order to make a +hard pull, and were unable to tell why they did so. + +Now, as far as doing the work is concerned, it is not absolutely +necessary that you know this; but if you do know it, you are more likely +to profit by it and thereby get the best results out of your engine. +And as this is our object, we want you to know it, and be benefitted by +the knowledge. Suppose you are on the road with your engine and load, +and you have a stretch of nice road. You are carrying a good head of +steam and running with lever back in the corner or lower notch. Now +your engine will travel along its regular speed, and say you run a mile +this way and fire twice in making it. You now ought to be able to turn +around and go back on the same road with one fire by simply hooking the +lever up as short as it will allow to do the work. Your engine will +make the same time with half the fuel and water, simply because you +utilize the expansive force of the steam instead of using the live steam +from boiler. A great many good engines are condemned and said to use +too much fuel, and all because the engineer takes no pains to utilize +the steam to the best advantage. + +I have already advised you to carry a "high pressure;" by a high +pressure I mean any where from I00 to I25 lbs. I have done this +expecting you to use the steam expansively whenever possible, and the +expansive force of steam increases very rapidly after you have reached +70 lbs. Steam at 80 lbs. used expansively will do nine times the work +of steam at 25 lbs. Note the difference. Pressure 3 I-5 times greater. +Work performed, 9 times greater. I give you these facts trusting that +you will take advantage of them, and if your engine at I00 or I00 lbs. +will do your work cutting off at I/4, don't allow it to cut off at I/2. +If cutting off at I/2 will do the work, don't allow it to cut off at +3/4, and the result will be that you will do the work with the least +possible amount of fuel, and no one will have any reason to find fault +with you or your engine. + +Now we have given you the three points which are absolutely necessary to +the successful handling of a traction engine, We went through it with +you when running as a stationary; then we gave you the pointers-to be +observed when running as a traction or road engine. We have also given +you hints on economy, and if you do not already know too much to follow +our advice, you can go into the field with an engine and have no fears +as to the results. + + + +How about bad bridges? + +Well, a bad bridge is a bad thing, and you cannot be too careful. When +you have questionable bridges to cross over, you should provide yourself +with good hard-wood planks. If you can have them sawed to order have +them 3 inches in the center and tapering to 2 inches at the ends. You +should have two of these about 16 feet long, and two 2x12 planks about 8 +feet long. The short ones for culverts, and for helping with the longer +ones in crossing longer bridges. + +An engine should never be allowed to drop from a set of planks down onto +the floor of bridge. This is why I advocate four planks. Don't +hesitate to use the plank. You had better plank a dozen bridges that +don't need it than to attempt to cross one that does need it. You will +also find it very convenient to carry at least 50 feet of good heavy +rope. Don't attempt to pull across a doubtful bridge with the separator +or tank hooked directly to the engine. It is dangerous. Here is where +you want the rope. An engine should be run across a bad bridge very +slowly and carefully, and not allowed to jerk. In extreme cases it is +better to run across by hand; don't do this but once; get after the road +supervisors. + + +SAND. + +An engineer wants a sufficient amount of "sand," but he don't want it in +the road. However, you will find it there and it is the meanest road +you will have to travel. A bad sand road requires considerable sleight +of hand on the part of the engineer if he wishes to pull much of a load +through it. You will find it to your advantage to keep your engine as +straight as possible, as you are not so liable to start one wheel to +slipping any sooner than the other. Never attempt to "wiggle" through a +sand bar, and don't try to hurry through; be satisfied with going slow, +just so you are going. An engine will stand a certain speed through +sand, and the moment you attempt to increase that speed, you break its +footing, and then you are gone. In a case of this kind, a few bundles +of hay is about the best thing you can use under your drivers in order +to get started again. But don't loose your temper; it won't help the +sand any. + +Now no doubt the reader wonders why I have said nothing about compound +engines. Well in the first place, it is not necessary to assist you in +your work, and if you can handle the single cylinder engine, you can +handle the compound. + +The question as to the advantage of a compound engine is, or would be an +interesting one if we cared to discuss it. + +The compound traction engine has come into use within the past few +years, and I am inclined to think more for sort of a novelty or talking +point rather than to produce a better engine. There is no question but +that there is a great advantage in the compound engine, for stationary +and marine engines. + +In a compound engine the steam first enters the small or high pressure +cylinder and is then exhausted into the large or low pressure cylinder, +where the expansive force is all obtained. + +Two cylinders are used because we can get better results from high +pressure in the use of two cylinders of different areas than by using +but one cylinder, or simple engine. + +That there is a gain in a high pressure, can be shown very easily: + +For instance, 100 pounds of coal will raise a certain amount of water +from 60 degrees, to 5 pounds steam pressure, and 102.9 pounds would +raise the same water to 80 pounds, and 104.4 would raise it to 160 +pounds, and this 160 pounds would produce a large increase of power over +the 80 pounds at a very slight increase of fuel. The compound engine +will furnish the same number of horse power, with less fuel than the +simple engine, but only when they are run at the full load all the time. + +If, however, the load fluctuates and should the load be light for any +considerable part of the day, they will waste the fuel instead of saving +it over the simple engine. + +No engine can be subjected to more variation of loads than the traction +engine, and as the above are facts the reader can draw his own +conclusions. + +FRICTION CLUTCH + +The friction clutch is now used almost exclusively for engaging the +engine with the propelling gearing of the traction drivers, and it will +most likely give you more trouble than any one thing on your engine, +from the fact that to be satisfactory they require a nicety of +adjustment, that is very difficult to attain, a half turn of the +expansion bolt one way or the other may make your clutch work very +nicely, or very unsatisfactory, and you can only learn this by carefully +adjusting of friction shoes, until you learn just how much clearance +they will stand when lever is out, in order to hold sufficient when +lever is thrown in. If your clutch fails to hold, or sticks, it is not +the fault of the clutch, it is not adjusted properly. And you may have +it correct today and tomorrow it will need readjustment, caused by the +wear in the shoes; you will have to learn the clutch by patience and +experience. + +But I want to say to you that the friction clutch is a source of abuse +to many a good engineer, because the engineer uses no judgment in its +use. + +A certain writer on engineering makes use of the following, and gives me +credit: "Sometimes you may come to an obstacle in the road, over which +your engine refuses to go, you may perhaps get over it in this way, +throw the clutch-lever so as to disconnect the road wheels, let the +engine get up to full speed and then throw the clutch level back so as to +connect the road wheels." Now I don't thank any one for giving me credit +for saying any such thing. That kind of thing is the hight of abuse of +an engine. + +I am aware that when the friction clutch first came into use, their +representatives made a great talk on that sort of thing to the green +buyer. But the good engineer knows better than to treat his engine that +way. + +Never attempt to pull your loads over a steep hill without being certain +that your clutch is in good shape, and if you have any doubts about it +put in the tight gear pin. Most all engines have both the friction and +the tight gear pin. The pin is much the safer in a hilly country, and +if you have learned the secret of the throttle you can handle just as +big load with the pin as with the clutch, and will never tear your +gearing off or lose the stud bolts in boiler. + +The following may assist you in determining or arriving at some idea of +the amount of power you are supplying with your engine: + +For instance, a I inch belt of the standard grade with the proper +tention, neither too tight or too loose, running at a. maximum spead of +800 ft. a minute will transmit one horse power, running 1600 ft. 2 horse +power and 2400 ft. 3 horse power. A 2 inch belt, at the same speed, +twice the power. + +Now if you know the circumference of your fly wheel, the number of +revolutions your engine is making and the width of belt, you can figure +very nearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your +belt. For instance, we will say your fly wheel is 40 inches in diameter +or 10.5 feet nearly in circumference and your engine was running 225 +revolutions a minute, your belt would be traveling 225 x 10.5 feet = +2362.5 feet or very nearly 2400 ft. and if I inch of belt would transmit +3 H. P. running this speed, a 6 inch belt would transmit 18 H.P., a 7 +inch belt, 21 H.P., an 8 inch belt 24 H.P., and so on. With the above +as a basis for figuring you can satisfy yourself as to the power you are +furnishing. To get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly as it +hugs the pulley closer, and will last much longer. + +SOMETHING ABOUT SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS + +All such lubricators feed oil through the drop-nipple by hydrostatic +pressure; that is, the water of condensation in the condenser and its +pipe being elevated above the oil magazine forces the oil out of the +latter by just so much pressure as the column of water is higher than +the exit or outlet of oil-nipple. The higher the column of water the +more positive will the oil feeds. As soon as the oil drop leaves the +nipple it ceases to be actuated by the hydrostatic pressure, and rises +through the water in the sight-glass merely by the difference of its +specific gravity, as compared with water and then passes off through the +ducts provided to the parts to be lubricated. + +For stationary engines the double connection is preferable, and should +always be connected to the live steam pipe above the throttle. The +discharge arm should always be long enough (4 to 6 inches) to insure the +oil magazine and condenser from getting too hot, otherwise it will not +condense fast enough to give continuous feed of oil. For traction or +road engines the single connection is used. These can be connected to +live steam pipe or directly to steam chest. + +In a general way it may be stated that certain precaution must be taken +to insure the satisfactory operation of all sight-feed lubricators. Use +only the best of oil, one gallon of which is worth five gallons of cheap +stuff and do far better service, as inferior grades not only clog the +lubricator but chokes the ducts and blurs the sight-glass, etc., and the +refuse of such oil will accumulate in the cylinder sufficiently to cause +damage and loss of power, far exceeding the difference in cost of good +oil over the cheap grades. + +After attaching a lubricator, all valves should be opened wide and live +steam blown through the outer vents for a few minutes to insure the +openings clean and free. Then follow the usual directions given with +all lubricators. Be particular in getting your lubricator attached so +it will stand perfectly plum, in order that the drop can pass up through +the glass without touching the sides, and keep the drop-nipple clean, be +particular to drain in cold weather. + +Now, I am about to leave you alone with your engine, just as I have left +any number of young engineers after spending a day with them in the +field and on the road. And I never left one, that I had not already +made up my mind fully, as to what kind of an engineer he would make. + + + +TWO WAYS OF READING __________ + + +Now there are two ways to read this book, and if I know just how you had +read it I could tell you in a minute whether to take hold of an engine +or leave it alone. If you have read it one way, you are most likely to +say "it is no trick to run an engine." If you have read it the other way +you will say, "It is no trouble to learn how to run an engine." Now this +fellow will make an engineer, and will be a good one. He has read it +carefully, noting the drift of my advice. Has discovered that the +engineer is not expected to build an engine, or to improve it after it +has been built. Has recognized the fact that the principle thing is to +attend to his own business and let other people attend to theirs. That +a monkey wrench is a tool to be left in the tool box till he knows he +needs it. That muscle is a good thing to have but not necessary to the +successful engineer. That an engineer with a bunch of waste in his hand +is a better recommendation than an "engineer license." That good common +sense, and a cool head is the very best tools he can have. Has learned +that carelessness will get him into trouble, and that to "forget" costs +money. + +Now the fellow who said "It is no trick to run an engine," read this +book another way. He did not see the little points. He was hunting for +big theories, scientific theories, something he could not understand, +and didn't find them. He expected to find some bright scheme to prevent +a boiler from exploding, didn't notice the simple little statement, +"keep water in it," that was too commonplace to notice. He was looking +for cuts, diagrams, geometrical figures, theories for constructing +engines and boilers and all that sort of thing and didn't find them. +Hence "It is no trick to run an engine." + +If this has been your idea of "Rough and Tumble Engineering" forget all +about your theory, and go back and read it over and remember the little +suggestions and don't expect this book to teach you how to build an +engine. We didn't start out to teach you anything of the kind. That is +a business of itself. A good engineer gets better money than the man +who builds them. Read it as if you wanted to know how to run an engine +and not how to build one. + +Study the following questions and answers carefully. Don't learn them +like you would a piece of poetry, but study them, see if they are +practical; make yourself thoroughly acquainted with the rule for +measuring the horse-power of an engine; make yourself so familiar with +it that you could figure any engine without referring to the book. Don't +stop at this, learn to figure the heating surface in any boiler. It +will enable you to satisfy yourself whether you are working your boiler +or engine too hard or what it ought to be capable of doing. + +SOME THINGS TO KNOW + +Q. What is fire? +A. Fire is the rapid combustion or consuming of organic +matter. + +Q. What is water? +A. Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In weight +88 9-I0 parts oxygen to II I-I0 hydrogen. It has its maximum +density at 39 degrees Fahr., changes to steam at 2I2 degrees, +and to ice at 32 degrees. + +Q. What is smoke? +A. It is unconsumed carbon finely divided escaping into +open air. + +Q. Is excessive smoke a waste of fuel? +A. Yes. + +Q. How will you prevent it +A. Keep a thin fire, and admit cold air sufficient to insure +perfect combustion. + +Q. What is low water as applied to a boiler? +A. It is when the water is insufficient to cover all parts +exposed to the flames. + +Q. What is the first thing to do on discovering that you have +low water? +A. Pull out the fire. + +Q. Would it be safe to open the safety valve at such time? +A. No. + +Q. Why not? +A. It would relieve the pressure on the water which being +allowed to flow over the excessive hot iron would flash into +steam, and might cause an explosion. + +Q. Why do boilers sometimes explode just on the point of +starting the engine? +A. Because starting the engine has the same effect as +opening the safety valve. + +Q. Are there any circumstances under which an engineer is +justified in allowing the water to get low? +A. No. + +Q. Why do they sometimes do it? +A. From carelessness or ignorance. + +Q. May not an engineer be deceived in the gauge of water? +A. Yes. + +Q. Is he to be blamed under such circumstances? +A. Yes. + +Q. Why? +A. Because if he is deceived by it it shows he has neglected +something. + +Q. What is meant by "Priming." +A. It is the passing of water in visible quantities into the +cylinder with the steam. + +Q. What would you consider the first duty of an engineer on +discovering that the water was foaming or priming +A. Open the cylinder cocks at once, and throttle the steam. + +Q. Why would you do this? +A. Open the cocks to enable the water to escape, and throttle +the steam so that the water would settle. + +Q. Is foaming the same as priming? +A. Yes and no. + +Q. How do you make that out? +A. A boiler may foam without priming, but it can't prime +without first foaming.. + +Q. Where will you first discover that the water is foaming? +A. It will appear in the glass gauge, the glass will have a +milky appearance and the water will seem to be running down +from the top, There will be a snapping or cracking in the +cylinder as quick as priming begins. + +Q. What causes a boiler to foam? +A. There are a number of causes. It may come from faulty +construction of boiler; it may have insufficient steam room. It +may be, and usually is, from the use of bad water, muddy or +stagnant water, or water containing any soapy substance. + +Q. What would you do after being bothered in this way? +A. Clean out the-boiler and get better water if possible. + +Q. How would you manage your pumps while the water was +foaming. +A. Keep them running full. + +Q. Why? +A. In order to make up for the extra amount of water going +out with the steam. + +Q. What is "cushion?" +A. Cushion is steam retained or admitted in front of the +piston head at the finish of stroke, or when the engine is on +"center." + +Q. What is it for? +A. It helps to overcome the "inertia" and momentum of the +reciprocating parts of the engine, and enables the engine to +pass the center without a jar. + +Q. How would you increase the cushion in an engine? +A. By increasing the lead. + +Q. What is lead? +A. It is the amount of opening the port shows on steam end +of cylinder when the engine is on dead center. + +Q. Is there any rule for giving an engine the proper lead? +A. No. + +Q. Why not? +A. Owing to their variation in construction, speed, etc. + +Q. What would you consider the proper amount of lead, +generally. +A. From I/32 to I/I6. + +Q. What is "lap?" +A. It is the distance the valve overlaps the steam ports when +in mid position. + +Q. What is lap for? +A. In order that the steam may be worked expansively. + +Q. When does expansion occur in a cylinder? +A. During the time between which the port closes and the +point at which the exhaust opens. + +Q. What would be the effect on an engine if the exhaust +opened too soon? +A. It would greatly lessen the power of the engine. + +Q. What effect would too much lead have. +A. It would also weaken the engine, as the steam would +enter before the piston had reached the end of the stroke, and +would tend to prevent it passing the center. + +Q. What is the stroke of an engine? +A. It is the distance the piston travels in the cylinder. + +Q. How do you find the speed of a piston per minute? +A. Double the stroke and multiply it by the number of +revolutions a minuet. Thus an engine with a 12 inch stroke +would travel 24 inches, or 2 feet, at a revolution. If it made +200 revolutions a minute, the travel of piston would be 400 feet +a minute. + +Q. What is considered a horse power as applied to an +engine? +A. It is power sufficient to lift 33,000 pounds one foot high +in one minute. + +Q. What is the indicated horse power of an engine? +A. It is the actual work done by the steam in the +cylinder as shown by an indicator. + +Q. What is the actual horse power? +A. It is the power actually given off by the driving belt and +pulley. + +Q. How would you find the horse power of an engine? +A. Multiply the area of the piston by the average +pressure, less 5; multiply this product by the number of feet the +piston travels per minute; divide the product by 33,000; the +result will be horse power of the engine. + +Q. How will you find the area of piston? +A. Square the diameter of piston and multiply it by .7854. + +Q. What do you mean by squaring the diameter? +A. Multiplying it by itself. If a cylinder is 6 inches in +diameter, 36 multiplied by .7854, gives the area in square +inches. + +Q. What do you mean by average pressure? +A. If the pressure on boiler is 60 pounds, and the engine is +cutting off at 1/2 stroke, the pressure for the full stroke would +be 50 pounds. + +Q. Why do you say less 5 pounds? +A. To allow for friction and condensation. + +Q. What is the power of a 7 x 10 engine, running 200 +revolutions, cutting off at 1/2 stroke with 60 pounds steam? +A. 7 x 7 = 49 x .7854 = 38.4846. The average pressure of +60 pounds would be 50 pounds less 5 = 45 pounds; 38-4846 x +45 = 1731.8070 x .333 1/3, (the number of feet the piston +travels per minute) 577,269.0000 by 33,000=17 1/2 horse +power. + +Q. What is a high pressure engine? +A. It is an engine using steam at a high pressure and +exhausting into the open air. + +Q. What is a low pressure engine? +A. It is one using steam at a low pressure and exhausting +into a condenser, producing a vacuum, the piston being under +steam pressure on one side and vacuum on the other. + +Q. What class of engines are farm engines? +A. They are high pressure. + +Q. Why? +A. They are less complicated and less expensive. + +Q. What is the most economical pressure to carry on high +pressure engine? +A. From 90 to 110 pounds. + +Q. Why is high pressure more economical than low +pressure? +A. Because the loss is greater in low pressure owing to the +atmospheric pressure. With 45 pounds steam the pressure +from the atmosphere is 15 pounds, or 1/3, leaving only 30 +pounds of effective power; while with 90 pounds the +atmospheric pressure is only 1-6 of the boiler pressure. + +Q. Does it require any more fuel to carry I00 pounds than it +does to carry 60 pounds? +A. It don't require quite as much. + +Q. If that is the case why not increase the pressure beyond +this and save more fuel? +A. Because we would soon pass the point of safety in a +boiler, and the result would be the loss of life and property. + +Q. What do you consider a safe working pressure on a +boiler? +A. That depends entirely on its diameter. While a boiler of +30 inches in diameter 3/8 inch iron would carry I40 pounds, a +boiler of the same thickness 80 inches in diameter would have +a safe working pressure of only 50 pounds, which shows that +the safe working pressure decreases very rapidly as we increase +the diameter of boiler. This is the safe working pressure for +single riveted boilers of this diameter. To find the safe +working pressure of a double riveted boiler of same diameter +multiply the safe pressure of the single riveted by 70, and +divide by 56, will give a safe pressure of a double riveted +boiler. + +Q. Why is a steel boiler superior to an iron boiler? +A. Because it is much lighter and stronger. + +Q. Does boiler plate become stronger or weaker as it +becomes heated? +A. It becomes tougher or stronger as it is heated, till it +reaches a temperature Of 550 degrees when it rapidly +decreases its power of resistance as it is heated beyond this +temperature. + +Q. How do you account for this? +A. Because after you pass the maximum temperature +of 550 degrees, the more you raise the temperature the nearer +you approach its fusing point when its tenacity or resisting +power is nothing. + +Q. What is the degree of heat necessary to fuse iron? +A. 2912 degrees. + +Q. Steel? +A. 2532 degrees. + +Q. What class of boilers are generally used in a threshing +engine? +A. The flue boiler and the tubular boiler. + +Q. About what amount of heating and grate surface is +required per horse power in a flue boiler. +A. About 15 square feet of heating surface and 3/4 square +feet of grate surface. + +Q. What would you consider a fair evaporation in a flue +boiler? +A. Six pounds of water to I pound of coal. + +Q. How do these dimensions compare in a tubular boiler. +A. A tubular boiler will require I/4 less grate surface, and +will evaporate about 8 pounds of water to I pound of coal. + +Q. Which do you consider the most available? +A. The tubular boiler. + +Q. Why? +A. It is more economical and is less liable to "collapse?" + +Q. What do you mean by "collapse?" +A. It is a crushing in of a flue by external pressure. + +Q. Is a tube of a large diameter more liable to collapse than +one of small diameter? +A. Yes. + +Q. Why? +A. Because its power of resistance is much less than a tube +of small diameter. + +Q. Is the pressure on the shell of a boiler the same as on the +tubes? +A. No. + +Q. What is the difference? +A. The shell of boiler has a tearing or internal pressure +while the tubes have a crushing or external pressure. + +Q. What causes an explosion? +A. An explosion occurs generally from low water, allowing +the iron to become overheated and thereby weakened and +unable to withstand the pressure. + +Q. What is a "burst?" +A. It is that which occurs when through any defect the water +and steam are allowed to escape freely without further injury +to boiler. + +Q. What is the best way to prevent an explosion or burst? +A. (I) Never go beyond a safe working pressure. (2) Keep +the boiler clean and in good repair. (3) Keep the safety valves +in good shape and the water at its proper height. + +Q. What is the first thing to do on going to your engine in +the morning? +A. See that the water is at its proper level. + +Q. What is the proper level? +A. Up to the second gauge. + +Q. When should you test or try the pop valve? +A. As soon as there is a sufficient pressure. + +Q. How would you start your engine after it had been +standing over night? +A. Slowly. + +Q. Why? +A. In order to allow the cylinder to become hot, and that the +water or condensed steam may escape without injury to the +cylinder. + +Q. What is the last thing to do at night? +A. See that there is plenty of water in boiler, and if the +weather is cold drain all pipes. + +Q. What care should be taken of the fusable plug? +A. Keep it scraped clean, and not allow it to become +corroded on top. + +Q. What is a fusible plug? +A. It is a hollow cast plug screwed into the crown sheet or +top of fire box, and having the hollow or center filled with lead +or babbit. + +Q. Is such a plug a protection to a boiler? +A. It is if kept in proper condition. + +Q. Can you explain the principle of the fusible or soft plug +as it is sometimes called? +A. It is placed directly over the fire, and should the water +fall below the crown sheet the lead fuses or melts and allows +the steam to flow down on top of the fire, destroys the heat and +prevents the burning of crown sheet. + +Q. Why don't the lead fuse with water over it? +A. Because the water absorbs the heat and prevents it +reaching the fusing point. + +Q. What is the fusing point of lead? +A. 618 degrees. + +Q. Is there any objection to the soft plug? +A. There is, in the hands of some engineers. + +Q. Why? +A. It relieves him of the fear of a dry crown sheet, and gives +him an apparent excuse for low water. + +Q. Is this a real or legitimate objection? +A. It is not. + +Q. What are the two distinct classes of boilers? +A. The externally and internally fired boilers. + +Q. Which is the most economical? +A. The internally fired boiler. + +Q. Why? +A. Because the fuel is all consumed in close contact with the +sides of furnace and the loss from radiation is less than in the +externally fired. + +Q. To what class does the farm or traction engine belong? +A. To the internally fired. + +Q. How would you find the H.P. of such a boiler? +A. Multiply in inches the circumference or square of +furnace, by its length, then multiply, the circumference of one +tube by its total length, and this product by the number of +tubes also taking into account the surface in tube sheet, add +these products together and divide by I44, this will give you +the number of square feet of heating surface in boiler. Divide +this by 14 or 15 which will give the H.P. of boiler. + +Q. Why do you say 14 or 15? +A. Because some claim that it requires 14 feet of heating +surface to the H.P. and others 15. +To give you my personal opinion I believe that any of the +standard engines today with good coal and properly handled, +will and are producing 1 H.P. for as low as every 10 feet of +surface. But to be on the safe side it is well to divide by 15 to +get the H.P. of your boiler, when good and bad fuel is +considered. + +Q. How would you find the approximate weight of a boiler +by measurement? +A. Find the number of square feet in surface of boiler and +fire box, and as a sheet of boiler iron or steel 1/16 of an inch +thick, and one foot square, weighs 2.52 pounds, would +multiply the number of square feet by 2.52 and this product by +the number of 16ths or thickness of boiler sheet, which would +give the approximate, or very near the weight of the boiler. + +Q. What would you recognize as points in a good engineer. +A. A good engineer keeps his engine clean, washes the +boiler whenever he thinks it needs it. Never meddles with his +engine, and allows no one else to do so. +Goes about his work quietly, and is always in his place, +only talks when necessary, never hammers or bruises any part +of his engine, allows no packing to become baked or burnt in +the stuffing box or glands, renews them as quick as they show +that they require it. +Never neglects to oil, and then uses no more than is +necessary. +He carries a good gauge of water and a uniform pressure +of steam. He allows no unusual noise about his engine to +escape his notice he has taught his ear to be his guide. +When a job is about finished you will see him cleaning +his ash pan, getting his tools together, a good fire in fire box, +in fact all ready to go, and he looses no time after the belt is +thrown off. He hooks up to his load quietly, and is the first +man ready to go. + +*Q. When the piston head is in the exact center of cylinder, is +the engine on the quarter? +*A. It is supposed to be, but is not. + +*Q. Why not? +A. The angularity of the rod prevents it reaching the quarter. + +*Q. Then when the engine is on the exact quarter what +position does the piston head occupy? +A. It is nearest the end next to crank. + +Q. If this is the case, which end of cylinder is supposed to be +the stronger? +A. The opposite end, or end furtherest from crank. + +Q. Why? +A. Because this end gets the benefit of the most travel, and +as it makes it in the same time, it must travel faster. + +*Q. At what part of the cylinder does the piston head reach +the greatest speed? +A. At and near the center. + +*Q. Why? +Figure this out for yourself. +*Note. The above few questions are given for the purpose of getting +you to notice the little peculiarities of the crank engine, and are not +to be taken into consideration in the operation of the same. + +Q. If you were on the road and should discover that you had +low water, what would you do? +A. I would drop my load and hunt a high place for the front +end of my engine, and would do it quickly to. + +Q. If by some accident the front end of your engine should drop +down allowing the water to expose the crown sheet, what +would you do? +A. If I had a heavy and hot fire, would shovel dirt into the +fire and smother it out. + +Q. Why would you prefer this to drawing the fire? +A. Because it would reduce the heat at once, instead of +increasing it for a few minutes while drawing out the hot bed of +coals, which is a very unpleasant job. + +Q. Would you ever throw water in the fire box? +A. No. It might crack the side sheets, and would most +certainly start the flues. + +Q. You say, in finding low water while on the road, you +would run your engine with the front end on high ground. Why +would you do this? +A. In order that the water would raise over the crown sheet, +and thus make it safe to pump up the water. + +Q. While your engine was in this shape would you not +expose the front end of flues'? +A. Yes, but as the engine would not be working this would +do no damage. + +Q. If you were running in a hilly country how would you +manage the boiler as regards water? +A. Would carry as high as the engine would allow, without +priming. + +Q. Suppose you had a heavy load or about all you could +handle, and should approach a long steep hill, what condition +should the water and fire be to give you the most advantage? +A. A moderately low gauge of water and a very hot fire. + +Q. Why a moderately low gauge of water? +A. Because the engine would not be so liable to draw the +water or prime in making the hard pull. + +Q. Why a very hot fire? +A. So I could start the pumps full without impairing or +cutting the pressure. + +Q. When would you start your pump? +A. As soon as fairly started up the hill. + +Q. Why? +A. As most hills have two sides, I would start them full in +order to have a safe gauge to go down, without stoping to pump +up. + +Q. What would a careful engineer do before starting to pull +a load over a steep hill? +A. He would examine his clutch, or gear pin. + +Q. How would you proceed to figure the road speed of +traction. +A. Would first determine the circumference of driver, then +ascertain how many revolutions the engine made to one of the +drivers. Multiply the number of revolutions the engine makes +per minute by 60, this will give the number of revolutions of +engine per hour. Divide this by the number of revolutions the +engine makes to the drivers once, and this will give you the +number of revolutions the drivers will make in one hour, and +multiplying this by the circumference of driver in feet, and it +will tell you how many feet your engine is traveling per hour, +and this divided by 5280, the number of feet in a mile, would +tell you just what speed your engine would make on the road. + + + +THINGS HANDY FOR THE ENGINEER +____________ + +The first edition of this work brought me a great many letters asking +where certain articles could be procured, what I would recommend, etc. +These questions required attention and as the writers had bought and +paid for their book it was due them that they get the benefit of my +experience, as nothing is so discouraging to the young engineer as to be +continually annoyed by unreliable and inferior fittings used more or +less on all engines. I have gone over my letter file and every article +asked for will be taken up in the order, showing the relative importance +of each article in the minds of engineers. For instance, more letters +reached me asking for a good brand of oil than any other one article. +Then comes injectors, lubricators have third place, and so on down the +list. Now without any intention of advertising anybody's goods I will +give you the benefit of my years of experience and will be very careful +not to mention or recommend anything which is not strictly first class, +at least so in my opinion, and as good as can be had in its class, yet +in saying that these articles are good does not say that others are not +equally as good. I am simply anticipating the numerous letters I +otherwise would receive and am answering them in a lump bunch. If you +have no occasion to procure any of these articles, the naming of them +will do no harm, but should you want one or more you will make no +mistake in any one of them. + +OIL + +As I have stated, more engineers asked for a good brand of oil than for +any other one article and I will answer this with less satisfaction to +myself than any other for this reason: You may know what you want, but +you do not always get what you call for. Oil is one of those things that +cannot be branded, the barrel can, but then it can be filled with the +cheapest stuff on the market. If you can get Capital Cylinder Oil your +valve will give you no trouble. If you call for this particular brand +and it does not give you satisfaction don't blame me or the oil, go +after the dealer; he did not give you what you called for. The same can +be said of Renown Engine Oil. If you can always have this oil you will +have no fault to find with its wearing qualities, and it will not gum on +your engine, but as I have said, you may call for it and get something +else. If your valve or cylinder is giving you any trouble and you have +not perfect confidence in the dealer from whom you usually get your +cylinder oil send direct to The Standard Oil Company for some Capital +Cylinder Oil and you will get an oil that will go through your cylinder +and come out the exhaust and still have some staying qualities to it. +The trouble with so much of the so called cylinder oil is that it is so +light that the moment it strikes the extreme heat in the steam chest it +vaporizes and goes through the cylinder in the form of vapor and the +valve and cylinder are getting no oil, although you are going through +all the necessary means to oil them. + +It is somewhat difficult to get a young engineer to understand why the +cylinder requires one grade of oil and the engine another. This is only +necessary as a matter of economy, cylinder or valve oil will do very +well on the engine, but engine oil will not do for the cylinder. And as +a less expensive oil will do for the engine we therefore use two grades +of oil. + +Engine oil however should be but little lower in quality than the +cylinder oil, owing to the proximity of the bearings to the boiler, they +are at all times more or less heated, and require a much heavier oil +than a journal subject only to the heat of its own friction. The Renown +Engine Oil has the peculiarity of body or lasting qualities combined +with the fact that it does not gum on the hot iron and allows the engine +to be wiped clean. + + + +INJECTORS + +The next in the list of inquiries was for a reliable injector. I was +not surprised at this for up to a few years ago there were a great many +engines running throughout the country with only the independent or +cross-head pump, and engineers wishing to adopt the injector naturally +want the best, while others had injectors more or less unsatisfactory. +In replying to these letters I recommend one of three or four different +makes (all of which I had found satisfactory) with a request that the +party asking for same should write to me if the injector proved +unsatisfactory in any way. Of all the letters received, I never got one +stating any objection to either the Penberthy or the Metropolitan. This +fact has led me to think that probably my reputation as a judge of a +good article was safer by sticking to the two named, which I shall do +until I know there is something better. This does not mean that there +are not other good injectors, but I am telling you what I know to be +good, and not what may be good. The fact that I never received a single +complaint from either of them was evidence to me that the makers of +these two injectors are very careful not to allow any slighting of the +work. They therefore get out no defective injectors. The Penberthy is +made by The Penberthy Injector Co., of Detroit, Mich., and the +Metropolitan by The Hayden & Derby Mfg. Co., New York, N. Y. + + + +SIGHT FEED LUBRICATOR + +These come next in the long list of inquiries and wishing to satisfy +myself as to the relative superiority of various cylinder Lubricators, I +resorted to the same method as persued in regard to injectors. This +method is very satisfactory to me from the fact that it gives us the +actual experience of a class of engineers who have all conditions with +which to contend, and especially the unfavorable conditions. I have +possibly written more letters in answer to such questions as: "Why my +Lubricator does this or that; and why it don't do so and so?" than of +any other one part of an engine, (as a Sight Feed Lubricator might in +this day be considered a part of an engine.) Of all the queries and +objections made of the many Lubricators, there are two showing the least +trouble to the operator. There are the Wm. Powell Sight Feed Lubricator +(class "A") especially adapted to traction and road engines owing to the +sight-glass being of large diameter, which prevents the drop touching +the side of glass, while the engine is making steep grades and rough +uneven roads, made by The Wm. Powell Co., Cincinnati, O., and for sale +by any good jobbing house, and the Detroit Lubricator made by the +Detroit Lubricator Co., of Detroit, Mich. I have never received a +legitimate objection to either of these two Lubricators, but I received +the same query concerning both, and this objection, if it may be called +such, is so clearly no fault of the construction or principle of the +Lubricator that I have concluded that they are among if not actually the +best sight feed Lubricator on the market to-day. The query referred to +was: "Why does my glass fill with oil?" Now the answer to this is so +simple and so clearly no fault of the Lubricator that I am entirely +satisfied that by recommending either of these Lubricators you will get +value received; and here is a good place to answer the above query. If +you have run a threshing engine a season or part of a season you have +learned that it is much easier to get a poor grade of oil than a good +one, yet your Lubricator will do this at times even with best of oil, +and the reason is due to the condition of the feed nozzle at the bottom +of the feed glass. The surface around the needle point in the nozzle +becomes coated or rough from sediment from the oil. This coating allows +the drop to adhere to it until it becomes too large to pass up through +the glass without striking the sides and the glass becomes blurred and +has the appearance of being full of oil, so in a measure to obviate this +Powell's Lubricators are fitted with 3/4 glasses-being of large internal +diameter. The permanent remedy however is to take out the glass and +clean the nozzle with waste or a rag, rubbing the points smooth and +clean. The drop will then release itself at a moderate size and pass up +through the glass without any danger of striking the sides. However, if +the Lubricator is on crooked it may do this same thing. The remedy is +very simple-straighten it up. While talking of the various appliances +for oiling your engine you will pardon me if I say that I think every +traction engine ought to be supplied with an oil pump as you will find +it very convenient for a traction engine especially on the road. For +instance, should the engine prime to any great extent your cylinder will +require more oil for a few minutes than your sight feed will supply, and +here is where, your little pump will help you out. Either the Detroit +or Powell people make as good an article of this kind as you can find +anywhere, and can furnish you either the glass or metal body. + +Hard Grease and a good Cup come next. In my trips over various parts of +the country I visit a great many engineers and find a great part of them +using hard grease and I also find the quality varying all the way from +the very best down to the cheapest grade of axle grease. The Badger Oil +I think is the best that can be procured for this purpose, and while I +do not know just who makes it, you will probably have but little trouble +in finding it, and if you are looking for a first class automatic cup +for your wrist pin or crank box get the Wm. Powell Cup from any jobbing +supply house. + +These people also make a very neat little attachment for their Class "A" +Lubricator which is a decided convenience for the engineer, and is +called a "Filler." It consists of a second reservoir or cup, of about +the same capacity of the reservoir of Lubricator, thus doubling the +capacity. It is attached at the filling plug, and is supplied with a +fine strainer, which catches all dirt, and grit, allowing only clear oil +to enter the lubricator, and by properly manipulating the little +shut-off valve the strainer can be removed and cleaned and the cup +refilled without disturbing the working of the Lubricator. This little +attachment will soon be in general use. + + +BOILER FEEDERS + +Injectors have a dangerous rival in the Moore Steam Pump or boiler +feeder for traction engines, and the reason this little pump is not in +more general use is the fact that among the oldest methods for feeding a +boiler is the independent steam pump and they were always unsatisfactory +from the fact that they were a steam engine within themselves, having a +crank or disc, flywheel, eccentric, eccentric yoke, valve, valve stem, +crosshead, slides, and all the reciprocating parts of a complete engine. +Being necessarily very small, these parts of course are very frail and +delicate, were easily broken or damaged by the rough usage to which they +were subjected while bumping around over rough roads on a traction +engine. The Moore Pump, manufactured by The Union Steam Pump Company, +of Battle Creek, Mich., is a complete departure from the old steam +engine pump, and if you take any interest in any of the novel ways in +which steam can be utilized send to them for a circular and sectional +cuts and you can spend several hours very profitably in determining just +how the direct pressure from the boiler can be made to drive the piston +head the full stroke of cylinder, open exhaust port, shift the valve +open steam port and drive the piston back again and repeat the operation +as long as the boiler pressure is allowed to reach the pump and yet have +no connection whatever with any of the reciprocating parts of the pump, +and at the same time lift and force water into the boiler in any +quantity desired. + +Another novel feature in this "little boiler feeder" is that after the +steam has acted on the cylinder it can be exhausted directly into the +feed water, thus utilizing all its heat to warm the water before +entering the boiler. Now it required a certain number of heat units to +produce this steam which after doing its work gives back all its heat +again to the feed water and it would be a very interesting problem for +some of the young engineers, as well as the old ones, to determine just +what loss if any is sustained in this manner of supplying a boiler. If +you are thinking of trying an independent pump, don't be afraid of this +one. I take particular pride in recommending anything that I have tried +myself, and know to be as recommended. + +And a boiler feeder of this kind has all the advantage of the injector, +as it will supply the boiler without running the engine, and it has the +advantage over the injector, in not being so delicate, and will work +water that can not be handled by the best of injectors. + +We have very frequently had this question put to us: "Ought I to grease +my gearing?" If I said "yes," I had an argument on my hands at once. If +I said "no," some one would disagree just as quickly, and how shall I +answer it to the satisfaction of most engineers of a traction engine? + +I always say what I have to say and stay by it until I am convinced of +the error. Now some of you will smile when I say that the only thing +for gear where there is dust, is "Mica Axle Grease." And you smile +because you don't know what it is made of, but think it some common +grease named for some old saint, but that is not the case. If these +people who make this lubricant would give it another name, and get it +introduced among engineers, nothing else would be used. You have seen +it advertised for years as an axle grease and think that is all it is +good for; and there is where you make a mistake. It is made of a +combination of solid lubricant and ground or pulverized mica, that is +where it gets its name, and nothing can equal mica as a lubricant if you +could apply it to your gear; and to do this it has been combined with a +heavy grease. This in being applied to the gear retains the small +particles of mica, which soon imbed themselves in every little abrasion +or rough place in the gearing, and the surface quickly becomes hard and +smooth throughout the entire face of the engaging gear, and your gear +will run quiet, and if your gearing is not out of line will stop cutting +if applied in time. + +It will run dry and dust will not collect on the surface of your cogs, +and after a coating is once formed it should never be disturbed by +scraping the face of the gear, and a very little added from time to time +will keep your gear in fine shape. Its name is against it and if the +makers would take a tumble to themselves and call it "Mica Oil" or some +catchy name and get it introduced among the users of tight gearing, they +would sell just as much axle grease and all the grease for gearings. + + +FORCE FEED OILER + +Force feed oiler come next on the list. This is something not generally +understood by engineers of traction and farm engines, and accounts for +it being so far down the list. But we think it will come into general +use within a few years, as an oiler of this kind forces the oil instead +of depending on gravity. + +The Acorn Brass Works of Chicago make a very unique and successful +little oiler which forces a small portion of oil in a spray into the +valve and cylinder, and repeats the operation at each stroke of the +engine, and is so arranged that it stops automatically as soon as the +oil is out of the reservoir; and at once calls the attention of the +engineer to the fact, and it can be regulated to throw any quantity of +oil desired. Is made for any size or make of engine. + + +SPEEDER + +One of the little things, that every engineer ought to have is a Motion +counter or speeder. Of course, you can count the revolutions of your +engine, but you frequently want to know the speed of the driven pulley, +cylinder for instance: When you know the exact size of engine pulley and +your cylinder pulley, and the exact speed of your engine, and there was +no such thing as the slipping of drive belt, you could figure the speed +of your cylinder, but by knowing this and then applying the speeder, you +can determine the loss by comparing the figured speed with the actual +speed shown by the speeder. If you have a good speeder you can make +good use of it every day you run machinery. If you want one you want +the best and there is nothing better than the one made by The Tabor +Manufacturing Co., of Philadelphia, Pa. We use no other. You will see +their advertisement in the American Thresherman. + +SPARK ARRESTER + +But one article in the entire list did I find to be sectional, and that +was for a spark arrester. These inquiries were all without exception +from the wooded country, that is, from a section where it is cheaper to +burn wood than coal. There is nothing strange that parties running +engines in these sections should ask for a spark arrester, as builders +of this class of engines usually supply their engines with a "smoke +stack", with little or no reference to safety from fire. This being +recognized by some genius in one of our wooded states who has profited +by it and has produced a "smoke stack" which is also a "spark arrester." +This stack is a success in every sense of the word, and is made for any +and all styles of farm and saw mill engines. It is made by the South +Bend Spark Arrester Co., of South Bend, Indiana, and if you are running +an engine and firing with wood or straw, don't run too much risk for the +engineer usually comes in for a big share of the blame if a fire is +started from the engine. And as the above company make a specialty of +this particular article, you will get something reliable if you are in a +section where you need it. + + +LIFTING JACK + +Next comes enquiries for a good lifting Jack. + +This would indicate that the boys had been getting their engine in a +hole, but there are a great many times when a good Jack comes handy, and +it will save its cost many times every season. + +Too many engineers forget that when he is fooling around that he is the +only one losing time. The facts are the entire crew are doing nothing, +besides the outfit is making no money unless running. + +You want to equip yourself with any tool that will save time. + +The Barth Mfg, Co., of Milwaukee, make a Jack especially adapted to this +particular work, and every engine should have a "mascot" in the shape of +a lifting Jack. + +Now before dropping the subject of "handy things for an engineer," I +want to say to the engineer who takes pride in his work, that if you +would enjoy a touch of high life in engineering, persuade your boss, if +you have one, to get you a Fuller Tender made by the Parson's Band +Cutter and Feeder Co., Newton, Iowa, and attach to your engine. It may +look a little expensive, but a luxury usually costs something and by +having one you will do away with a great deal of the rough and tumble +part of an engineers life. + +And if you want to keep yourself posted as to what is being done by +other threshermen throughout the world, read some good "Threshermen's +Home journal." The American Thresherman for instance is the "warmest +baby in the bunch." And if anything new under the sun comes out you will +find it in the pages of this bright and newsy journal. Keep to the +front in your business. Your business is as much a business as any other +profession, and while it may not be quite as remunerative as a R. R. +attorney, or the president of a life insurance company it is just as +honorable, and a good engineer is appreciated by his employer just as +much as a good man in any other business. A good engineer can not only +always have a job, but he can select his work. That is if there is any +choice of engines in a neighborhood the best man gets it. + + +SOMETHING ABOUT PRESSURE _________ + +Now before bringing this somewhat lengthy lecture to a close, (for I +consider it a mere lecture, a talk with the boys) I want to say +something more about pressure. You notice that I have not advocated a +very high pressure; I have not gone beyond 125 lbs. and yet you know and +I know that very much higher pressure is being carried wherever the +traction engine is used, and I want to say that a very high pressure is +no gauge or guarantee of the intelligence of the engineer. The less a +reckless individual knows about steam the higher pressure he will carry. +A good engineer is never afraid of his engine without a good reason, and +then he refuses to run it. He knows something of the enormous pressure +in the boiler, while the reckless fellow never thinks of any pressure +beyond the I00 or I40 pounds that his gauge shows. He says, "'O! +That,' that aint much of a pressure, that boiler is good for 200 +pounds." It has never dawned on his mind (if he has one) that that I40 +pounds mean I40 pounds on every square inch in that boiler shell, and +I40 on each square inch of tube sheets. Not only this but every square +inch in the shell is subjected to two times this pressure as the boiler +has two sides or in other words, each square inch has a corresponding +opposite square inch, and the seam of shell must sustain this pressure, +and as a single riveted boiler only affords 62 per cent of the strength +of solid iron. It is something that every engineer ought to consider. +He ought to be able to thoroughly appreciate this almost inconceivable +pressure. How many engineers are today running 18 and 20 horse power +engines that realizes that a boiler of this diameter is not capable of +sustaining the pressure he had been accustomed to carry in his little 26 +or 30 inch boiler? On page 114 You will get some idea of the difference +in safe working pressure of boilers, of different diameters. On the +other hand this is not intended to make you timid or afraid of your +engine, as there is nothing to be afraid of if you realize what you are +handling, and try to comprehend the fact that your steam gauge +represents less than one 1-1000 part of the power you have under your +management. You never had this put to you in this light before, did +you? + +If you thoroughly appreciate this fact and will try to comprehend this +power confined in your boiler by noting the pressure, or power exerted +by your cylinder through the small supply pipe, you will soon be an +engineer who will only carry a safe and economical pressure, and if +there comes a time when it is necessary to carry a higher pressure, you +will be an engineer who will set the pop back again, when or as soon as +this extra pressure is not necessary. + +If I can get you to comprehend this power proposition no student of +"Rough and Tumble Engineering" will ever blow up a boiler. + +When I started out to talk engine to you I stated plainly that this book +would not be filled up with scientific theories, that while they were +very nice they would do no good in this work. Now I am aware that I +could have made a book four times as large as this and if I had, it +would not be as valuable to the beginner as it is now. + +From the fact that there is not a problem or a question contained in it +that any one who has a common school education can not solve or answer +without referring to any textbooks The very best engineer in the country +need not know any more than he will find in these pages. Yet I don't +advise you to stop here, go to the top if you have the time and +opportunity. Should I have taken up each step theoretically and given +forms, tables, rules and demonstrations, the young engineer would have +become discouraged and would never have read it through. He would have +become discouraged because he could not understand it. Now to illustrate +what I mean, we will go a little deeper and then still deeper, and you +will begin to appreciate the simple way of putting the things which you +as a plain engineer are interested in. + +For example on page 114 we talked about the safe working pressure of +different sized boilers. It was most likely natural for you to say "How +do I find the safe working pressure?" Well, to find the safe working +pressure of a boiler it is first necessary to find the total pressure +necessary to burst the boiler. It requires about twice as much pressure +to tear the ends out of a boiler as it does to burst the shell, and as +the weakest point is the basis for determining the safe pressure, we +will make use of the shell only. + +We will take for example a steel boiler 32 inches in diameter and 6 ft. +long, 3/8 in. thick, tensile strength 60,000 lbs. The total pressure +required to burst this shell would be the area exposed times the +pressure. The thickness multiplied by the length then by 2 (as there +are two sides) then by the tensile strength equals the bursting +pressure: 3/8 x 72 X 2 x 60,000 = 3,240,000 the total bursting pressure +and the pressure per square inch required to burst the shell is found by +dividing the total bursting pressure 3,240,000 pounds by the diameter +times the length 3,240,000 / (32 x 72) = 1406 lbs. + +It would require 1406 lbs. per square inch to burst this shell if it +were solid, that is if it had no seam, a single seam affords 62 per cent +of the strength of shell, 1406 x .62 = 871 lbs. to burst the seam if +single riveted; add 20 per cent if double riveted. + +To determine the safe working pressure divide the bursting pressure of +the weakest place by the factor of safety. The United States Government +use a factor of 6 for single riveted and add 20 per cent for double +riveted, 871 / 6 = 145 lbs. the safe working pressure of this particular +boiler, if single riveted and 145 + 20 per cent=174 double riveted. + +Now suppose you take a boiler the same length and of the same material, +but 80 inches in diameter. The bursting pressure would be 3,240,000 / +(80 x 72) = 560 lbs., and the safe working pressure would be 560 / 6 = +93 lbs. + +You will see by this that the diameter has much to do with the safe +working pressure, also the diameter and different lengths makes a +difference in working pressure. + +Now all of this is nice for you to know, and it may start you on a +higher course, it will not make you handle your engine any better, but +it may convince you that there is something to learn. + +Suppose we give you a little touch of rules, and formula in boiler +making. + +For instance you want to know the percent of strength of single riveted +and double riveted as compared to solid iron. Some very simple rules, +or formula, are applicable. + +Find the percent of strength to the solid iron in a single-riveted seam, +1/4 inch plate, 5/8 inch rivet, pitched or spaced 2 inch centers. First +reduce all to decimal form, as it simplifies the calculation; 1/4=.25 +and 5/8 inch rivets will require 11/16 inch hole, this hole is supposed +to be filled by the rivet, after driving, consequently this diameter is +used in the calculation, 11/16 inches=.6875. + +First find the percent of strength of the sheet. + + P-D + ----- +The formula is P = percent. + +P = the pitch, D = the diameter of the rivet hole, percent = +percent of strength of the solid iron. + + 2 -.6875 + -------- +Substituting values, 2 = .66. +Now of course you understand all about that, but it is Greek to some +people. + + +So you see I have no apologies to make for following out my plain +comprehensive talk, have not confused you, or lead you to believe that +it requires a great amount of study to become an engineer. I mean a +practical engineer, not a mechanical engineer. I just touch mechanical +engineering to show you that that is something else. If you are made of +the proper stuff you can get enough out of this little book to make you +as good an engineer as ever pulled a throttle on a traction engine. But +this is no novel. Go back and read it again, and ever time you read it +you will find something you had not noticed before. + + + + INDEX + ----- + +PART FIRST PAGE + Tinkering Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . 5 +PART SECOND + Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 +PART THIRD + What a Good Injector Ought to Do . . . 45 + The Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 + A Good Fireman . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 + Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 + Why Grates Burn Out . . . . . . . . . . 57 +PART FOUR + Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 + Clean Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 +PART FIVE + Steam Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 + How to Test a Steam Gauge . . . . . . . 74 + Fusible Plug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 + Leaky Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 +PART SIX + Knock in Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 + Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 + Setting a Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 + How to Find the Dead Center . . . . . . 95 + Lubricating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 + A Hot Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 +PART SEVEN + A Traction Engine on the Road . . . . . 111 + Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 + Friction Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 + Something About Sight-Feed Lubricators 132 + Two Ways of Reading . . . . . . . . . . 137 + Some Things to Know . . . . . . . . . . 139 + Things Handy for an Engineer . . . . . 159 + Something About Pressure . . . . . . . . 184 + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Rough and Tumble Engineering, by James H. 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Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe4b304 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #11164 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11164) diff --git a/old/11164.txt b/old/11164.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..085ea04 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/11164.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4069 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Rough and Tumble Engineering, by James H. Maggard + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Rough and Tumble Engineering + +Author: James H. Maggard + +Release Date: February 19, 2004 [EBook #11164] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ROUGH AND TUMBLE ENGINEERING *** + + + + + + + + + +ROUGH AND TUMBLE ENGINEERING + +By James H. Maggard + + + +PREFACE_______ + +In placing this book before the public the author wishes it understood +that it is not his intention to produce a scientific work on +engineering. Such a book would be valuable only to engineers of large +stationary engines. In a nice engine room nice theories and scientific +calculations are practical. This book is intended for engineers of farm +and traction engines, "rough and tumble engineers," who have everything +in their favor today, and tomorrow are in mud holes, who with the same +engine do eight horse work one day and sixteen horse work the next day. +Reader, the author has had all these experiences and you will have them, +but don't get discouraged. You can get through them to your entire +satisfaction. + +Don't conclude that all you are to do is to read this book. It will not +make an engineer of you. But read it carefully, use good judgment and +common sense, do as it tells you, and my word for it, in one month, you, +for all practical purposes, will be a better engineer than four-fifths +of the so-called engineers today, who think what they don't know would +not make much of a book. Don't deceive yourself with the idea that what +you get out of this will be merely "book learning." What is said in this +will be plain, unvarnished, practical facts. It is not the author's +intention to use any scientific terms, but plain, everyday field terms. +There will be a number of things you will not find in this book, but +nothing will be left out that would be of practical value to you. You +will not find any geometrical figures made up of circles, curves, +angles, letters and figures in a vain effort to make you understand the +principle of an eccentric. While it is all very nice to know these +things, it is not necessary, and the putting of them in this book would +defeat the very object for which it was intended. Be content with being +a good, practical, everyday engineer, and all these things will come in +time. + + +INTRODUCTORY ________ + + +If you have not read the preface on the preceding pages, turn back and +read it. You will see that we have stated there that we will use no +scientific terms, but plain every day talk. It is presumed by us that +there will be more young men, wishing to become good engineers, read +this work than old engineers. We will, therefore, be all the more plain +and say as little as possible that will tend to confuse the learner, and +what we do say will be said in the same language that we would use if we +were in the field, instructing you how to handle your engine. So if the +more experienced engineer thinks we might have gone further in some +certain points, he will please remember that by so doing we might +confuse the less experienced, and thereby cover up the very point we +tried to make. And yet it is not to be supposed that we will endeavor to +make an engineer out of a man who never saw an engine. It is, therefore, +not necessary to tell the learner how an engine is made or what it looks +like. We are not trying to teach you how to build an engine, but rather +how to handle one after it is built; how to know when it is in proper +shape and how to let it alone when it is in shape. We will suppose that +you already know as much as an ordinary water boy, and just here we will +say that we have seen water haulers that were more capable of handling +the engine for which they were hauling water, than the engineer, and the +engineer would not have made a good water boy, for the reason that he +was lazy, and we want the reader to stick a pin here, and if he has any +symptoms of that complaint, don't undertake to run an engine, for a lazy +engineer will spoil a good engine, if by no other means than getting it +in the habit of loafing. + + +PART FIRST ______ + +In order to get the learner started, it is reasonable to suppose that +the engine he is to run is in good running order. It would not be fair +to put the green boy onto an old dilapidated, worn-out engine, for he +might have to learn too fast, in order to get the engine running in good +shape. He might have to learn so fast that he would get the big head, +or have no head at all, by the time he got through with it. And I don't +know but that a boy without a head is about as good as an engineer with +the big head. We will, therefore, suppose that his engine is in good +running order. By good running order we mean that it is all there, and +in its proper place, and that with from ten to twenty pounds of steam, +the engine will start off at a good lively pace. And let us say here, +(remember that we are talking of the lone engine, no load considered,) +that if you are starting a new engine and it starts off nice and easy +with twenty pounds, you can make up your mind that you have an engine +that is going to be nice to handle and give you but little, if any, +trouble. But if it should require fifty or sixty pounds to start it, +you want to keep your eyes open, something is tight; but don't take it +to pieces. You might get more pieces than you would know what to do +with. Oil the bearings freely and put your engine in motion and run it +carefully for a while and see if you don't find something getting warm. +If you do, stop and loosen up a very little and start it up again. If +it still heats, loosen about the same as before, and you will find that +it will soon be all right. But remember to loosen but very little at a +time, for a box or journal will heat from being too loose as quickly as +from being too tight, and you will make trouble for yourself, for, +inexperienced as you are, you don't know whether it is too loose or too +tight, and if you have found a warm box, don't let that box take all of +your attention, but keep an eye on all other bearings. Remember that we +are not threshing yet, we just run the engine out of shed, (and for the +sake of the engine and the young engineer, we hope that it did not stand +out all winter) and are getting in shape for a good fall's run. In the +meantime, to find out if anything heats, you can try your pumps, but to +help you along, we will suppose that your pump, or injector, as the case +may be, works all right. + +Now suppose we go back where we started this new engine that was slow to +start with less than fifty pounds, and when it did start, we watched it +carefully and found after oiling thoroughly that nothing heated as far +as we could see. So we conclude that the trouble must be in the +cylinder. Well, what next? Must we take off the cylinder head and look +for the trouble? Oh, no, not by any means. The trouble is not serious. +The rings are a little tight, which is no serious fault. Keep them well +oiled and in a day or two ten pounds will start the empty engine in good +shape. If you are starting an engine that has been run, the above +instructions are not necessary, but if it is a new one these precautions +are not out of the way, and a great deal of the trouble caused in +starting a new engine, can be avoided if these precautions are observed. + +It is not uncommon for a hot box to be caused from a coal cinder +dropping in the box in shipment, and before starting a new engine, clean +out the boxes thoroughly, which can be done by taking off the caps, or +top box, and wiping the journal clean with an oily rag or waste, and +every engineer should supply himself with this very necessary article, +especially if he is the kind of an engineer who intends to keep his +engine clean. + +The engine should be run slowly and carefully for a while, to give a +chance to find out if anything is going to heat, before putting on any +load. + +Now if your engine is all right, you can run the pressure up to the +point of blowing off, which is from one hundred to one hundred and ten +pounds. Most new pop valves, or safety valves, are set at this +pressure. I would advise you to fire to this point, to see that your +safety is all right. It is not uncommon for a new pop to stick, and as +the steam runs up it is well to try it, by pulling the relief lever. If, +on letting it go, it stops the escaping, steam at once, it is all right. +If, however, the steam continues to escape, the valve sticks in the +chamber. Usually a slight tap with a wrench or a hammer will stop it at +once, but never get excited over escaping steam, and perhaps here is as +good a place as any to say to you, don't get excited over anything. As +long as you have plenty of water, and know you have, there is no danger. + +The young engineer will most likely wonder why we have not said +something about the danger of explosions. We did not start to write +about explosions. That is just what we don't want to have anything to +do with. But, you say, is there no danger of a boiler exploding? Yes. +But if you wish to explode your boiler you must treat it very +differently from the way we advise. We have just stated, that as long +as you have plenty of water, and know you have, there is no danger. +Well, how are you to know? This is not a difficult thing to know, +provided your boiler is fitted with the proper appliances, and all +builders of any prominence, at this date, fit their boilers with from +two to four try-cocks, and a glass gauge. The boiler is tapped in from +two to four places for the try-cocks, the location of the cocks ranging +from a line on a level with the crown sheet, or top of fire box, to +eight inches above, depending somewhat on the amount of water space +above the crown sheet, as this space differs very materially in +different makes of the same sized boiler. The boiler is also tapped on +or near the level of crown sheet, to receive the lower water glass cock +and directly above this, for the top cock. The space between this shows +the safe variation of the water. Don't let the water get above the top +of the glass, for if you are running your engine at hard work, you may +knock out a cylinder head, and don't let it get below the lower gauge, +or you may get your head knocked off. + +Now the glass gauge is put on for your convenience, as you can determine +the location of the water as correctly by this as if you are looking +directly into the boiler, provided, the glass gauge is in perfect order. +But as there are a number of ways in which it may become disarranged or +unreliable, we want to impress on your mind that you, must not depend on +it entirely. We will give these causes further on. You are not only +provided with the glass gauge, but with the try-cocks. These cocks are +located so that the upper and lower cock is on or near the level with +the lower and upper end of the glass gauge. With another try-cock about +on a level with the center of glass gauge, or in other words, if the +water stands about the center of glass it will at the same time show at +the cock when tried. Now we will suppose that your glass gauge is in +perfect condition and the water shows two inches in the glass. You now +try the lower cock, and find plenty of water; you will then try the next +upper cock and get steam. Now as the lower cock is located below the +water line, shown by the glass, and the second cock above this line, you +not only see the water line by the glass, but you have a way of proving +it. Should the water be within two inches of the top of glass you again +have the line between two cocks and can also prove it. Now you can know +for a certainty, where the water stands in the boiler, and we repeat +when you know this, there is nothing to fear from this source, and as a +properly constructed boiler never explodes, except from low water or +high pressure, and as we have already cautioned you about your safety +valve, you have nothing to fear, provided you have made up your mind to +follow these instructions, and unless you can do this, let your job to +one who can. Well, you say you will do as we have directed, we will +then go back to the gauges. Don't depend on your glass gauge alone, for +several reasons. One is, if you depend on the glass entirely, the +try-cocks become limed up and are useless, solely because they are +not used. + +Some time ago the writer was standing near a traction engine, when the +engineer, (I guess I must call him that) asked me to stay with the +engine a few minutes. I consented. After he had been gone a short time +I thought I would look after the water. It showed about two inches in +the glass, which was all right, but as I have advised you, I proposed to +know that it was there and thought I would prove it by trying the cocks. +But on attempting to try them I found them limed up solid. Had I been +hunting an engineer, that fellow would not have secured the job. +Suppose that before I had looked at the glass, it had bursted, which it +is liable to do any time. I would have shut the gauge cocks off as soon +as possible to stop the escaping steam and water. Then I would have +tried the cocks to find where the water was in the boiler. I would have +been in a bad boat, not knowing whether I had water or not. Shortly +after this the fellow that was helping the engine run (I guess I will +put it that way) came back. I asked him what the trouble was with his +try cocks. He said, "Oh, I don't bother with them." I asked him what he +would do if his glass should break. His reply was, "Oh, that won't +break." Now just such an engineer as that spoils many a good engine, and +then blames it on the manufacturer. Now this is one good reason why you +are not to depend entirely on the glass gauge. Another equally as good +reason is, that your glass may fool you, for you see the try-cocks may +lime up, so may your glass gauge cocks, but you say you use them. You +use them by looking at them. You are not letting the steam or water +escape from them every few minutes and thereby cutting the lime away, as +is the case with try-cocks. Now you want to know how you are to keep +them open. Well, that is easy. Shut off the top gauge and open the +drain cock at bottom of gauge cock. This allows the water and steam to +flow out of the lower cock. Then after allowing it to escape a few +seconds, shut off the lower gauge and open the top one, and allow it to +blow about the same time. Then shut the drain cock and open both gauge +cocks and you will see the water seek its level, and you can rest +assured that it is reliable. This little operation I want you to +perform every day you run an engine. It will prevent you from thinking +you have water. I don't want you to think so. I intend that you shall +know it. You remember we said, if you know you have water, you are +safe, and every one around you will be safe. + +Now here is something I want you to remember. Never be guilty of going +to your engine in the morning and building a fire simply because you see +water in the glass. We could give you the names of a score of men who +have ruined their engines by doing this very thing. You, as a matter of +course, want to know why this can do any harm. It could not, if the +water in the boiler was as high as it shows in the glass, but it is not +always there, and that is what causes the trouble. Well, if it showed +in the glass, why was it not there? You probably have lived long enough +in the world to know that there are a great many boys in it, and it +seems to be second nature with them to turn everything on an engine that +is possible to turn. All glass gauge cocks are fitted with a small hand +wheel. The small boy sees this about the first thing and he begins to +turn it, and he generally turns as long as it turns easy, and when it +stops he will try the other one, and when it stops he has done the +mischief, by shutting the water off from the boiler, and all the water +that was in the glass remains there. You may have stopped work with an +ordinary gauge of water, and as water expands when heated, it also +contracts when it becomes cool. Water will also simmer away, if there +is any fire left in the fire box, especially if there should be any vent +or leak in the boiler, and the water may by morning have dropped to as +much as an inch below the crown sheet. You approach the engine and on +looking at the glass, see two or three inches of water. Should you +start a fire without investigating any further, you will have done the +damage, while if you try the gauge cocks first you will discover that +some one has tampered with the engine. The boy did the mischief through +no malicious motives, but we regret to say that there are people in this +world who are mean enough to do this very thing, and not stop at what +the boy did unconsciously, but after shutting the water in the gauge for +the purpose of deceiving you, they then go to the blow-off cock and let +enough water out to insure a dry crown sheet. While I detest a human +being guilty of such a dastardly trick, I have no sympathy to waste on +an engineer who can be caught in this way. So, if by this time you have +made up your mind never to build a fire until you know where the water +is, you will never be fooled and will never have to explain an accident +by saying, "I thought I had plenty of water." You may be fooled in +another way. You are aware that when a boiler is fired up or in other +words has a steam pressure on, the air is excluded, so when the boiler +cools down, the steam condenses and becomes water again, hence the space +which was occupied by steam now when cold becomes a vacuum. + +Now should your boiler be in perfect shape, we mean perfectly tight, +your throttle equally as tight, your pump or injector in perfect +condition and you were to' leave your engine with the hose in the tank, +and the supply globe to your pump open, you will find on returning to +your engine in the morning that the boiler will be nearly if not quite +full of water. I have heard engineers say that someone had been +tampering with their engines and storm around about it, while the facts +were that the supply being open the water simply flowed in from +atmospheric pressure, in order to fill the space made vacant by the +condensed steam. You will find further on that all check valves are +arranged to prevent any flowing out from the boiler, but nothing to +prevent water flowing in. Such an occurrence will do no harm but the +knowing how it was done may prevent your giving yourself away. A good +authority on steam boilers, says: "All explosions come either from poor +material, poor workmanship, too high pressure, or a too low gauge of +water." Now to protect yourself from the first two causes, buy your +engine from some factory having a reputation for doing good work and for +using good material. The last two causes depend very much on yourself, +if you are running your own engine. If not, then see that you have an +engineer who knows when his safety valve is in good shape and who knows +when he has plenty of water, or knows enough to pull his fire, when for +some reason, the water should become low. If poor material and poor +workmanship were unknown and carelessness in engineers were unknown, +such a thing as a boiler explosion would also be unknown. + +You no doubt have made up your mind by this time that I have no use for +a careless engineer, and let me add right here, that if you are inclined +to be careless, forgetful,(they both mean about the same thing,) you are +a mighty poor risk for an insurance company, but on the other hand if +you are careful and attentive to business, you are as safe a risk as any +one, and your success and the durability and life of your engine depends +entirely upon you, and it is not worth your while to try to shift the +responsibility of an accident to your engine upon some one else. + +If you should go away from your engine and leave it with the water boy, +or anyone who might be handy, or leave it alone, as is often done, and +something goes wrong with the engine, you are at fault. You had no +business to leave it, but you say you had to go to the separator and +help fix something there. At the separator is not your place. It is +not our intention to tell you how to run both ends of an outfit. We +could not tell you if we wanted to. If the men at the separator can't +handle it, get some one or get your boss to get some one who can. Your +place is at the engine. If your engine is running nicely, there is all +the more reason why you should stay by it, as that is the way to keep it +running nicely. I have seen twenty dollars damage done to the separator +and two days time lost all because the engineer was as near the +separator as he was to the engine when a root went into the cylinder. +Stay with your engine, and if anything goes wrong at the separator, you +are ready to stop and stop quickly, and if you are signalled to start +you are ready to start at once You are therefore making time for your +employer or for yourself and to make time while running a threshing +outfit, means to make money. There are engineers running engines today +who waste time enough every day to pay their wages. + +There is one thing that may be a little difficult to learn, and that is +to let your engine alone when it is all right. I once gave a young +fellow a recommendation to a farmer who wanted an engineer, and +afterward noticed that when I happened around he immediately picked up a +wrench and commenced to loosen up first one thing and then another. If +that engineer ever loses that recommendation he will be out of a job, if +his getting one depends on my giving him another. I wish to say to the +learner that that is not the way to run an engine. Whenever I happen to +go around an engine, (and I never lose an opportunity) and see an +engineer watching his engine, (now don't understand me to mean standing +and gazing at it,) I conclude that he knows his business. What I mean +by watching an engine is, every few minutes let your eye wander over the +engine and you will be surprised to see how quickly you will detect +anything out of place. So when I see an engineer watching his engine +closely while running, I am most certain to see another commendable +feature in a good engineer, and that is, when he stops his engine he +will pick up a greasy rag and go over his engine carefully, wiping every +working part, watching or looking carefully at every point that he +touches. If a nut is working loose he finds it, if a bearing is hot he +finds it. If any part of his engine has been cutting, he finds it. He +picked up, a greasy rag instead of a wrench, for the engineer that +understands his business and attends to it never picks up a wrench +unless he has something to do with it. The good engineer took a greasy +rag and while he was using it to clean his engine, he was at the same +time carefully examining every part. His main object was to see that +everything was all right. If he had found a nut loose or any part out +of place, then he would have taken his wrench, for he had use for it. + +Now what a contrast there is between this engineer and a poor one, and +unfortunately there are hundreds of poor engineers running portable and +traction engines. You will find a poor engineer very willing to talk. +This is bad habit number one. He cannot talk and have his mind on his +work. Beginners must not forget this. When I tell you how to fire an +engine you will understand how important it is, The poor engineer is +very apt to ask an outsider to stay at his engine while he goes to the +separator to talk. This is bad habit number two. Even if the outsider +is a good engineer, he does not know whether the pump is throwing more +water than is being used or whether it is throwing less. He can only +ascertain this by watching the column of water in the glass, and he +hardly knows whether to throw in fuel or not. He don't want the steam +to go down and he don't know at what pressure the pop valve will blow +off. There may be a box or journal that has been giving the engineer +trouble and the outsider knows nothing about it. There are a dozen +other good reasons why bad habit number two is very bad. + +If you will watch the poor engineer when he stops his engine, he will, +if he does anything, pick up a wrench, go around to the wrist pin, +strike the key a little crack, draw a nut or peck away at something +else, and can't see anything for grease and dirt. When he starts up, ten +to one the wrist pin heats and he stops and loosens it up and then it +knocks. Now if he had picked up a rag instead of a wrench, he would not +have hit that key but he would have run his hand over it and if he had +found it all right, he would have let it alone, and would have gone over +the balance of the engine and when he started up again his engine would +have looked better for the wiping it got and would have run just as well +as before he stopped it. Now you will understand why a good engineer +wears out more rags than wrenches, while a poor one wears out more +wrenches than rags. Never bother an engine until it bothers you. If +you do, you will make lots of grief for yourself. + +I have mentioned the bad habits of a poor engineer so that you may avoid +them. If you carefully avoid all the bad habits connected with the +running of an engine, you will be certain to fall into good habits and +will become a good engineer. + +TINKERING ENGINEERS + +After carelessness, meddling with an engine comes next in the list of +bad habits. The tinkering engineer never knows whether his engine is in +good shape or not, and the chances are that if he should get it in good +shape he would not know enough to let it alone. If anything does +actually get wrong with your engine, do not be afraid to take hold of +it, for something must be done, and you are the one to do it, but before +you do anything be certain that you know what is wrong. For instance, +should the valve become disarranged on the valve stem or in any other +way, do not try to remedy the trouble by changing the eccentric, or if +the eccentric slips do not go to the valve to mend the trouble. I am +well aware that among young engineers the impression prevails that a +valve is a wonderful piece of mechanism liable to kick out of place and +play smash generally. Now let me tell you right here that a valve (I +mean the ordinary slide valve, such as is used on traction and portable +engines), is one of the simplest parts of an engine, and you are not to +lose any sleep about it, so be patient until I am ready to introduce you +to this part of your work. You have a perfect right to know what is +wrong with the engine. The trouble may not be so serious and it is +evident to you that the engine is not running just as nicely as it +should. Now, if your engine runs irregularly, that is if it runs up to +a higher speed than you want, and then runs down, you are likely to say +at once, "Oh I know what the trouble is, it is the governor." Well, +suppose it is, what are you going to do about it, are you going to shut +down at once and go to tinkering with it? No, don't do that, stay close +to the throttle valve and watch the governor closely. Keep your eye on +the governor stem, and when the engine starts off on one of its high +speed tilts, you will see the stem go down through the stuffing box and +then stop and stick in one place until the engine slows down below its +regular speed, and it then lets loose and goes up quickly and your +engine lopes off again. You have now located the trouble. It is in the +stuffing box around the little brass rod or governor stem. The packing +has become dry and by loosening it up and applying oil you may remedy +the trouble until such time as you can repack it with fresh packing. +Candle wick is as good for this purpose as anything you can use. + +But if the governor does not act as I have described and the stem seems +to be perfectly free and easy in the box, and the governor still acts +queerly, starting off and running fast for a few seconds, and then +suddenly concluding to take it easy and away goes the engine again, see +if the governor belt is all right, and if it is, it would be well for +you to stop and see if a wheel is not loose. It might be either the +little belt wheel or one of the little cog wheels. If you find these +are all right, examine the spool on the crank shaft from which the +governor is run and you will probably find it loose. If the engine has +been run for any length of time, you will always find the trouble in one +of these places, but if it is a new one the governor valve might fit a +little tight in the valve chamber and you may have to take it out and +use a little emery paper to take off the rough projections on the valve. +Never use a file on this valve if you can get emery paper, and I would +advise you to always have some of it with you. It will often come +handy. Now if the engine should start off at a lively gait and continue +to run still faster, you must stop at once. The trouble this time is +surely in the governor. If the belt is all right, examine the jam nuts +on the top of the governor valve stem. You will probably find that these +nuts have worked loose and the rod is working up, which will increase +the speed of the engine. If these are all right, you will find that +either a pulley or a little cog wheel is loose. A quick eye will locate +the trouble before you have time to stop. If the belt is loose, the +governor will lag while the engine will run away. If the wheel is +loose, the governor will most likely stop and the engine will go on a +tear. If the jam nut has worked loose, the governor will run as usual, +except that it will increase its speed as the speed of the engine is +increased. Now any of these little things may happen and are likely to. +None of them are serious, provided you take my advice, and remain near +the engine. Now if you are thirty or forty feet away from the engine +and the governor belt slips, or gets unlaced, or the pulley gets off, +about the first thing the engine would do would be to jump out of the +belt and by the time you get to it, it will be having a mighty lively +time all alone. This might happen once and do no harm, and it might +happen again and do a great deal of damage, and you are being paid to +run the engine and you must stay by it. The governor is not a difficult +thing to handle, but it requires your attention. + +Now if I should drop the governor, you might say that I had not given +you any instructions about how to regulate it to speed. I really do not +know whether it is worth while to say much about it, for governors are +of different designs and are necessarily differently arranged for +regulating, but to help young learners I will take the Waters governors +which I think the most generally used on threshing and farm engines. +You will find on the upper end of the valve or governor stem two little +brass nuts. The upper one is a thumb nut and is made fast to the stem. +The second nut is a loose jam nut. To increase the speed of the engine +loosen this jam nut and take hold of the thumb nut and turn it back +slowly, watching the motion of your engine all the while. When you have +obtained the speed you require, run the thumb nut down as tight as you +can with your fingers. Never use a wrench on these nuts. To slow or +slacken the speed, loosen the jam nut as before, except that you must +run it up a few turns, then taking hold of the thumb nut, turn down +slowly until you have the speed required, when you again set the thumb +nut secure. In regulating the speed, be careful not to press down on +the stem when turning, as this will make the engine run a little slower +than it will after the pressure of your hand is removed. + +If at any time your engine refuses to start with an open throttle, +notice your governor stem, and you will find that it has been screwed +down as far as it will go. This frequently happens with a new engine, +the stem having been screwed down for its protection in transportation. + +In traveling through timber with an engine, be very careful not to let +any over-hanging limbs come in contact with the governor. + +Now I think what I have said regarding this particular governor will +enable you to handle any one you may come in contact with, as they are +all very much alike in these respects. It is not my intention to take +time and space to describe a governor in detail. If you will follow the +instructions I have given you the governor will attend to the rest. + + +PART SECOND ________ + +WATER SUPPLY + +If you want to be a successful engineer it is necessary to know all +about the pump. I have no doubt that many who read this book, cannot +tell why the old wooden pump (from which he has pumped water ever since +he was tall enough to reach the handle) will pump water simply because +he works the handle up and down. If you don't know this I have quite a +task on my hands, for you must not attempt to run an engine until you +know the principle of the pump. If you do understand the old town pump, +I will not have much trouble with you, for while there is no old style +wooden pump used on the engine, the same principles are used in the +cross head pump. Do not imagine that a cross head pump means something +to be dreaded. It is only a simple lift and force pump, driven from the +cross head. That is where it gets its name and it don't mean that you +are to get cross at it if it don't work, for nine times out of ten the +fault will be yours. Now I am well aware that all engines do not have +cross head pumps and with all respect to the builders of engines who do +not use them, I am inclined to think that all standard farm engines +ought to have a cross head pump, because it is the most simple and is +the most economical, and if properly constructed, is the most reliable. + +A cross head pump consists of a pump barrel, a plunger, one vertical +check valve and two horizontal check valves, a globe valve and one stop +cock, with more or less piping. We will now locate each of these parts +and will then note the part that each performs in the process of feeding +the boiler. + +You will find all, or most pump barrels, located under the cylinder of +the engine. It is placed here for several reasons. It is out of the +way. It is a convenient place from which to connect it to the cross +head by which it is driven. On some engines it is located on the top or +at the side of the cylinder and will work equally well. The plunger is +connected with the cross head and in direct line with the pump barrel, +and plays back and forth in the barrel. The vertical check valve is +placed between the pump and the water supply. It is not absolutely +necessary that the first check be a vertical one, but a check of some +kind must be so placed. As the water is lifted up to the boiler it is +more convenient to use a vertical check at this point. Just ahead and a +few inches from the pump barrel is a horizontal check valve. Following +the course of the water toward the point where it enters the boiler, you +will find another check valve. This is called a "hot water check." just +below this check, or between it and where the water enters the boiler, +you will find a stop cock or it may be a globe valve. They both answer +the same purpose. I will tell you further on why a stop cock is +preferable to a globe valve. While the cross head pumps may differ as +to location and arrangement, you will find that they all require the +parts described and that the checks are so placed that they bear the +same relation to each other. No fewer parts can be used in a pump +required to lift water and force it against steam pressure. More check +valves may be used, but it would not do to use less. Each has its work +to do, and the failure of one defeats all the others. The pump barrel +is a hollow cylinder, the chamber being large enough to admit the +plunger which varies in size from 5/8 of an inch to I inch in diameter, +depending upon the size of the boiler to be supplied. The barrel is +usually a few inches longer than the stroke of the engine, and is +provided at the cross head end with a stuffing box and nut. At the +discharge end it is tapped out to admit of piping to conduct water from +the pump. At the same end and at the extreme end of the travel of the +plunger it is tapped for a second pipe through which the water from the +supply reaches the pump barrel. The plunger is usually made of steel and +turned down to fit snug in the chamber, and is long enough to play the +full stroke of engine between the stuffing box and point of supply and +to connect with the driver on the cross head. Now, we will take it for +granted, that, to begin with, the pump is in good order, and we will +start it up stroke at a time and watch its work. Now, if everything be +in good order, we should have good water and a good hard rubber suction +hose attached to the supply pipe just under the globe valve. When we +start the pump we must open the little pet cock between the two +horizontal check valves. The globe valve must be open so as to let the +water in. A check valve, whether it is vertical or horizontal, will +allow water to pass through it one way only, if it is in good working +order. If the water will pass through both ways, it is of no account. +Now, the engine starts on the outward stroke and draws the-plunger out +of the chamber. This leaves a space in the barrel which must be filled. +Air cannot get into it, because the pump is in perfect order, neither +can the air get to it through the hose, as it is in the water, so that +the pressure on the outside of the water causes it to flow up through +the pipes through the first check valve and into the pump barrel, and +fills the space, and if the engine has a I2-inch stroke, and the plunger +is I inch in diameter, we have a column of water in the pump I2 inches +long and I inch in diameter. + +The engine has now reached its outward stroke and starts back. The +plunger comes back with it and takes the space occupied by the water, +which must get out of the way for the plunger. The water came up +through the first check valve, but it can't get back that way as we have +stated. There is another check valve just ahead, and as the plunger +travels back it drives the water through this second check. When the +plunger reaches the end of the backward stroke, it has driven the water +all out. It then starts forward again, but the water which has been +driven through the second check cannot get back and this space must +again be filled from supply, and the plunger continues to force more +water through the second check, taking four or five strokes of the +plunger to fill the pipes between the second check valve and the hot +water check valve. If the gauge shows I00 pounds of steam, the hot +water check is held shut by I00 pounds pressure, and when the space +between the check valves is filled with water, the next stroke of the +plunger will force the water through the hot water check valve, which is +held shut by the I00 pounds steam pressure so that the pump must force +the water against this hot water check valve with a power greater than +I00 pounds pressure. If the pump is in good condition, the plunger does +its work and the water is forced through into the boiler. + +A clear sharp click of the valves at each stroke of the plunger is +certain evidence that the pump is working well. + +The small drain cock between the horizontal checks is placed there to +assist in starting the pump, to tell when the pump is working and to +drain the water off to prevent freezing. When the pump is started to +work and this drain cock is opened, and the hot water in the pipes +drained off, the globe valve is then opened, and after a few strokes of +the plunger, the water will begin to flow out through the drain cock, +which is then closed, and you may be reasonably certain that the pump is +working all right. If at any time you are in doubt as to whether the +pump is forcing the water through the pipes, you can easily ascertain by +opening this drain cock. It will always discharge cold water when the +pump is working. Another way to tell if the pump is working, is by +placing your hand on the first two check valves. If they are cold, the +pump is working all right, but if they are warm, the cold water is not +being forced through them. + + +A stop cock should be used next to boiler, as you ascertain whether it +is open or shut by merely looking at it, while the globe valve can be +closed by some meddlesome party and you would not discover it, and would +burst some part of your pump by forcing water against it. + +PART THIRD _________ + +It is very important when the pump fails to work to ascertain what the +trouble is. If it should stop suddenly, examine the tank and ascertain +if you have any water. If you have sufficient water, it may be that +there is air in the pump chamber, and the only way that it can get in is +through the stuffing box around the plunger, if the pipes are all tight. +Give this stuffing nut a turn, and if the pump starts off all right, you +have found the trouble, and it would be well to re-pack the pump the +first chance you get. + +If the trouble is not in the stuffing box, go to the tank and see if +there is anything over the screen or strainer at the end of the hose. +If there is not, take hold of the hose and you can tell if there is any +suction. Then ascertain if the water flows in and then out of the hose +again. You can tell this by holding your hand loosely over the end of +the hose. If you find that it draws the water in and then forces it out +again, the trouble is with the first check valve. There is something +under it which prevents its shutting down. If, however, you find that +there is no suction at the end of hose examine the second check. If +there should be something under it, it would prevent the pump working, +because the pump forces the water through it; and, as the plunger starts +back, if the check fails to hold, the water flows back and fills the +pump barrel again and there would be no suction. + +The trouble may, however, be in the hot water check, and it can always +be told whether it is in the second check or hot water check by opening +the little drain cock. If the water which goes out through it is cold, +the trouble is in the second check; but, if hot water and steam are +blown out through this little drain cock, the trouble is in the hot +water check, or the one next to the boiler. This check must never be +tampered with without first turning the stop cock between this check and +the boiler. The valve can then be taken out and the obstruction +removed. Be very careful never to take out the hot water check without +closing the stop cock, for if you do you will get badly scalded; and +never start the pump without opening this valve, for if you do, it will +burst the pump. + +The obstruction under the valves is sometimes hard to find. A young man +in southern Iowa got badly fooled by a little pebble about the size of a +pea, which got into the pipe, and when he started his pump the pebble +would be forced up under the check and let the water back. When he took +the check out the pebble was not there, for it had dropped back into the +pipe. You will see that it is necessary to make a careful examinations +and not get mad, pick up a wrench and whack away at the check valve, +bruising it so that it will not work. Remember that it would work if it +could, and make up your mind to find out why, it don't work. A few years +ago I was called several miles to see an engine on which the pump would +not work. The engine had been idle for two days and the engineer had +been trying all that time to make the pump work. I took the cap off of +the horizontal check, just forward of the pump barrel, and took the +valve out and discovered that the check was reversed. I told the +engineer that if he would put the check in so that the water could get +through, he would have no more trouble. This fellow had lost his head. +He was completely rattled. He insisted that "the valve had always been +on that way," although the engine had been run two years. + +Now the facts in this case were as follows: The old check valve in place +of the one referred to had been one known as a stem valve, or floating +valve. This stem by some means, had broken off but it did not prevent +the valve from working. The stem, however, worked forward till it +reached the hot water check, and lodged under the valve, which prevented +this check from working and his pump refused to work, the engineer soon +found where the stem had broken off, and instead of looking for the +stem, sent to town for a new check, after putting this on the pump now +refused to work for two reasons. One was, he had not removed the broken +stem from the hot water check, and another was, that the new check was +in wrong end to. After wasting another hour or two he finally found +and-removed the stem from the hot water check, but his pump still +refused to work. And then as the boys say, "he laid down," and when I +called his attention to the new valve being in wrong, he was so +completely rattled that he made use of the above expression. + +There are other causes that would prevent the pump working besides lack +of packing and obstructions under the valves. The valve may stick. +When it is raised to allow the water to flow through, it may stick in +the valve chamber and refuse to settle back in the seat. This may be +caused by a little rough place in the chamber, or a little projection on +the valve, and can generally be remedied by tapping the under side of +check with a wrench or hammer. Do not strike it so hard as to bruise +the check, but simply tap it. If this don't remedy the trouble, take +the valve out, bore a hole in a board about I/2 inch deep and large +enough to permit the valve to be turned. Drop a little emery dust in +this hole. If you haven't any emery dust, scrape some grit from a +common whetstone. If you have no whetstone, put some fine sand or +gritty soil in the hole, put the valve on top of it, put your brace on +the valve and turn it vigorously for a few minutes, and you will remove +all roughness. + +Constant use may sometimes make a burr on the valve which will cause it +to stick. Put it through the above course and it will be as good as +new. If this little process was generally known, a great deal of +trouble and annoyance could be avoided. + +It will not be necessary to describe other styles of pumps. If you know +how to run the cross head pump, you can run any of the others. Some +engines have cross head pump only. Others have an independent pump. +Others have an injector, or inspirator, and some have both cross head +pump and injector. I think a farm engine should be supplied with both. + +It is neither wise nor necessary to go into a detailed description of an +injector. The young reader will be likely to become convinced if an +injector works for five minutes, it will continue to work, if the +conditions remain the same. If the water in the tank does not become +heated, and no foreign substance is permitted to enter the injector, +there is nothing to prevent its working properly as long as the +conditions are within the range of a good injector. It is a fact that +with all injectors as the vertical distance the injector lifts is +increased, it requires a greater steam pressure to start the injector, +and the highest steam pressure at which the injector will work is +greatly decreased. If the feed water is heated, a greater steam +pressure is required to start the injector and it will not work with as +high steam pressure. The capacity of an injector is always decreased as +the lift is increased, or the feed water heated. To obtain the most +economical results the proper sized injector must be used. When the +exact quantity of water consumed per hour is known it can be easily +determined from the capacities given in the price lists which sized +injector must be selected. + +An injector must always be selected having a maximum capacity in excess +of the water consumed. If the exact amount of water consumed per hour +is not known, and cannot be easily determined, the proper size can be +approximately determined from the nominal H. P. of the boiler. The +usual custom has been to allow 7 I/2 gallons of water per hour, which is +a safe rule for the ordinary type of boiler. + +WHAT A GOOD INJECTOR OUGHT TO DO. + +With cold feed water, a good injector with a two foot lift ought to +start with 25 pounds pressure and work up to I50 pounds. With 8 foot +lift, ought to start at 30 pounds and work up to I30. With feed water +heated to I00 degrees Fahrenheit it should start with the same lift, +that is, will say 2 foot, at 26 and work Up to I20, and at 8, from 33 up +to I00. You will see by this that conditions, consisting of variation of +temperature in the feed water and different lifts, change the efficiency +of your injector very materially, and the water can soon get beyond the +ability of your injector to work at all. The above refers more +particularly to the single tube injector. The double tube injector +under the same conditions as above should work from I4 pounds to 250, +and from I5 to 2I0, but as this injector is not generally used on farm +engines you will most likely not meet with it very often. + +The injector should not be placed too near the boiler, as the heat from +it will make it difficult to start the injector each time after it has +been standing idle. + +If the injector is so hot that it will not lift the cold water, there is +no way of cooling it except by applying the water on the outside. This +is most effectively done by covering the injector with a cloth and +pouring water over the cloth. If, after the injector has become cool, +it still refuses to work, you may be sure that there is some obstruction +in it that must be removed. This can be done by taking off the cap, or +plug-nut, and running a fine wire through the cone valve or cylinder +valve. The automatic injector requires only the manipulation of the +steam valve to start it. There are other makes that require, first: that +the injector be given steam and then the water. To start an injector +requires some little tact, (and you will discover that tact is the +handiest tools you can have to make you a good engineer). To start an +injector of the Pemberthy type; first give it sufficient steam to lift +the water, allowing the water to escape at overflow for a moment or long +enough to cool the injector, then with a quick turn shut off and open up +the supply which requires merely a twist of the wrist. + +If the injector fails to take hold at once don't get ruffled but repeat +the above move a few times and you will soon start it, and if you have +tact, (it is only another word for natural ability) you will need no +further instructions to start your injector. But remember that no +injector can work coal cinders or chaf and that all joints must be air +tight. Don't forget this. + +It is now time to give some attention to the heater. While the heater +is no part of the pump, it is connected with it and does its work +between the two horizontal check valves. Its purpose is to heat the +water before it passes into the boiler. The water on its way from the +pump to the boiler is forced through a coil of pipes around which the +exhaust steam passes on its way from the cylinder to the exhaust nozzle +in the smokestack. + +The heaters are made in several different designs, but it is not +necessary to describe all of them, as they require little attention and +they all answer the same purpose. The most of them are made by the use +of a hollow bedplate with steam fitted heads or plates. The water pipe +passes through the plate at the end of the heater into the hollow +chamber, and a coil of pipes is formed, and the pipe then passes back +through the head or plate to the hot water check valve and into the +boiler. + +The steam enters the cylinder from the boiler, varying in degrees of +heat from 300 to 500. After acting on the piston head, it is exhausted +directly into the chamber or hollow bed-plate through which the pipes +pass. The water, when it enters the heater, is as cold as when it left +the tank, but the steam which surrounds the pipes has lost but little of +its heat, and by the time the water passes through the coil of pipes it +is heated to nearly boiling point and can be introduced into the boiler +with little tendency to reduce the steam. This use of the exhaust steam +is economical, as it saves fuel, and it would be injurious to pump cold +water directly into a hot boiler. + +If your engine is fitted with both cross head pump and injector, you use +the injector for pumping water when the engine is not running. The +injector heats the water almost as hot as the heater. If your engine is +running and doing no work, use your injector and stop the pump, for, +while the engine is running light, the small amount of exhaust steam is +not sufficient to heat the water and the pressure will be reduced +rapidly. You will understand, therefore, that the injector is intended +principally for an emergency rather than for general use. It should +always be kept in order, for, should the pump refuse to work, you have +only to start your injector and use it until such time as you can remedy +the trouble. + + +We have now explained how you get your water supply. You understand that +you must have water first and then fire. Be sure that you have the +water supply first. + +THE BLOWER + +The blower is an appliance for creating artificial draught and consists +of a small pipe leading from some point above the water line into the +smoke stack, directly over the tubes, and should extend to the center of +stack and terminate with a nozzle pointing directly to top and center of +stack; this pipe is fitted with a globe valve. When it is required to +rush your fire, you can do so by opening this globe and allowing the +steam to escape into the stack. The force of the steam tends to drive +the air out of the stack and the smoke box, this creates a strong +draught. But you say, "What if I have no steam?" Well, then don't blow, +and be patient till you have enough to create a draught; and it has been +my experience that there is nothing gained by putting on the blower +before having fifteen pounds of steam, as less pressure than this will +create but little draught and the steam will escape about as fast as it +is being generated. Be patient and don't be everlastingly punching at +the fire. Get your fuel in good shape in fire box and shut the door and +go about your business and let the fire burn. + +Must the blower be used while working the engine. No. The exhaust steam +which escapes into the stack, does exactly what we stated the blower +does, and if it is necessary to use the blower in order to keep up +steam, you can conclude that your engine is in bad shape, and yet there +are times when the blower is necessary, even when your engine is in the +best of condition. For instance, when you have poor fuel and are +working your engine very light, the exhaust steam may not be sufficient +to create enough draught for poor coal, or wet or green wood. But if +you are working your engine hard the blower should never be used; if you +have bad fuel and it is necessary to stop your engine you will find it +very convenient to put on the blower slightly, in order to hold your +steam and keep the fire lively until you start again. + +It will be a good plan for you to take a look at the nozzle on blower +now and then, to see that it does not become limed up and to see that it +is not turned to the side so that it directs the steam to the side of +stack. Should it do this, you will be using the steam and getting but +little, if any, benefit. It will also be well for you to remember that +you can create too much draught as well as too little; too much draught +will consume your fuel and produce but little steam. + + +A GOOD FIREMAN. + +What constitutes a good fireman? You no doubt have heard this +expression: "Where there is so much smoke, there must be some fire." +Well, that is true, but a good fireman don't make much smoke. We are +speaking of firing with coal, now. If I can see the smoke ten miles +from a threshing engine, I can tell what kind of a fireman is running +the engine; and if there is a continuous cloud of black smoke being +thrown out of the smokestack, I make up my mind that the engineer is +having all he can do to keep the steam up, and also conclude that there +will not be much coal left by the time he gets through with the job; +while on the other hand, should I see at regular intervals a cloud of +smoke going up, and lasting for a few moments, and for the next few +moments see nothing, then I conclude that the engineer of that engine +knows his business, and that he is not working hard; he has plenty of +steam all the time, and has coal left when he is through. So let us go +and see what makes this difference and learn a valuable lesson. We will +first go to the engine that is making such a smoke, and we will find +that the engineer has a big coal shovel just small enough to allow it to +enter the fire door. You will see the engineer throw in about two, or +perhaps three shovels of coal and as a matter of course, we will see a +volume of black smoke issuing from the stack; the engineer stands +leaning on his shovel watching the steam gauge, and he finds that the +steam don't run up very fast, and about the time the coal gets hot +enough to consume the smoke, we will see him drop his shovel, pick up a +poker, throw open the fire door and commence a vigorous punching and +digging at the fire. This starts the black smoke again, and about this +time we will see him down on his knees with his poker, punching at the +underside of the grate bars, about the time he is through with this +operation the smoke is coming out less dense, and he thinks it time to +throw in more coal, and he does it. Now this is kept up all day, and +you must not read this and say it is overdrawn, for it is not, and you +can see it every day, and the engineer that fires in this way, works +hard, burns a great amount of coal, and is afraid all the time that the +steam will run down on him. + +Before leaving him let us take a look at his firebox, and we will see +that it is full of coal, at least up to the level of the door. We will +also see quite a pile of ashes under the ash pan. You can better +understand the disadvantage of this way of firing after we visit the +next man. I think a good way to know how to do a thing, is to know +also, how not to do it. + +Well, we will now go across to the man who is making but little smoke, +and making that at regular intervals. We will be likely to find that he +has only a little hand shovel. He picks this up, takes up a small +amount of coal, opens the fire door and spreads the coal nicely over the +grates; does this quickly and shuts the door; for a minute black smoke +is thrown out, but only for a minute. Why? Because he only threw in +enough to replenish the fire, and not to choke it in the least, and in a +minute the heat is great enough to consume all the smoke before it +reaches the stack, and as smoke is unconsumed fuel, he gains that much +if he can consume it. We will see this engineer standing around for the +next few minutes perfectly, at ease. He is not in the least afraid of +his steam going down. At the end of three to five minutes, owing to the +amount of work he is doing, you will see him pick up his little shovel +and throw in a little coal; he does exactly as he did before, and if we +stay there for an hour we will not see him pick up a poker. We will +look in at his firebox, and we will see what is called a "thin fire," +but every part of the firebox is hot. We will see but a small pile of +ashes under the engine and he is not working hard. + +If you happen to be thinking of buying an engine, you will say that this +last fellow "has a dandy engine." "That is the kind of an engine I +want," when the facts in the case may be that the first man may have a +better engine, but don't know how to fire it. Now, don't you see how +important it is that you know how to fire an engine? I am aware that +some big coal wasters will say, "It is easy to talk about firing with a +little hand shovel, but just get out in the field as we do and get some +of the kind of fuel we have to burn, and see how you get along." Well, I +am aware that you will have some bad coal. It is much better to handle +bad coal in a good way than to handle good coal in a bad way. Learn to +handle your fuel in the proper way and you will be a good fireman. +Don't get careless and then blame the coal for what is your own fault. +Be careful about this, you might give yourself away. I have seen +engineers make a big kick about the fuel and claim that it was no good, +when some other fellow would take hold of the engine and have no trouble +whatever. Now, this is what I call a clean give away on the kicker. + +Don't allow any one to be a better fireman than yourself. You will see a +good fireman do exactly as I have stated. He fires often, always keeps +a level fire, never allows the coal to get up to the lower tubes, always +puts in coal before the steam begins to drop, keeps the fire door open +as little as possible, preventing any cold air from striking the tubes, +which will not only check the steam, but is injurious to the boiler. + +It is no small matter to know just how to handle your dampers; don't +allow too much of an opening here. You will keep a much more even fire +by keeping the damper down, just allowing draught enough to allow free +combustion; more than this is a waste of heat. + +Get all out of the coal you can, and save all you get. Learn the little +points that half the engineers never think of. + + +WOOD + +You will find wood quite different in some respects, but the good points +you have learned will be useful now. Fire quick and often, but unlike +coal, you must keep your fire box full. Place your wood as loosely as +possible. I mean by this, place in all directions to allow the draft to +pass freely through it. Keep adding a couple sticks as fast as there is +room for it; don't disturb the under sticks. Use short wood and fire +close to the door. When firing with wood I would advise you to keep +your screen down. There is much more danger of setting fire with wood +than with coal. + +If you are in a dangerous place, owing to the wind and the surroundings, +don't hesitate to state your fears to the man for whom you are +threshing. He is not supposed to know the danger as well as you, and +if, after your advice, he says go ahead, you have placed the +responsibility on him; but even after you have done this, it sometimes +shows a good head to refuse to fire with wood, especially when you are +required to fire with old rails, which is a common fuel in a timbered +country. While they make a hot fire in a firebox, they sometimes start +a hot one outside of it. It is part of your business to be as careful as +you can. What I mean is take reasonable precaution, in looking after +the screen in stack. If it burns out get a new one. With reasonable +diligence and care, you will never set anything on fire, while on the +other hand, a careless engineer may do quite a lot of damage. + +There is fire about an engine, and you are provided with the proper +appliances to control it. See that you do it. + +WHY GRATES BURN OUT + +Grates burn through carelessness. You may as well make up your mind to +this at the start. You never saw grate bars burn out with a clean ash +box. They can only be burned by allowing the ashes to accumulate under +them till they exclude the air when the bars at once become red hot. +The first thing, they do is to warp, and if the ashes are not removed at +once, the grate bar will burn off. Carelessness is neglecting something +which is a part of your business, and as part of it is to keep your ash +box clean, it certainly is carelessness if you neglect it. Your coal +may melt and run down on the bars, but if the cold air can get to the +grates, the only damage this will do is to form a clinker on the top of +grates, and shut off your draught. When you find that you have this +kind of coal you will want to look after these clinkers. + +Now if you should have good success in keeping steam, keep improving on +what you know, and if you run on 1000 pounds of coal today, try and do +it with 900 tomorrow. That is the kind of stuff a good fireman is made +of. + +But don't conclude that you can do the same amount of work each day in +the week on the same amount of fuel, even should it be of the same kind. +You will that with all your care and skill, your engine will differ very +materially both as to the amount of fuel and water that it will require, +though the conditions may apparently be the same. + +This may be as good a time as any to say to you, remember that a blast +of cold air against the tubes is a bad thing, so be careful about your +firedoor; open it as little as, possible; when you want to throw in +fuel, don't open the door, and then go a rod away after a shovel of +coal; and I will say here that I have seen this thing done by men who +flattered themselves that they were about at the top in the matter of +running an engine. That kind of treatment will ruin the best boiler in +existence. I don't mean that once or twice will do it, but to keep it +up will do it. Get your shovel of coal and when you are ready to throw +it in, open the door quickly and close it at once. Make it one of your +habits to do this, and you will never think of doing it in any other +way. If it becomes necessary to stop your engine with a hot fire and a +high pressure of steam, don't throw your door open, but drop your damper +and open the smoke box door. + +If, however, you only expect to stop a minute or two, drop your damper, +and start your injector if you have one. If you have none, get one. + +An independent boiler feeder is a very nice thing, if constructed on the +proper principles. You can't have your boiler too well equipped in this +particular. + +PART FOUR. _______ + +A boiler should be kept clean, outside and inside. Outside for your own +credit, and inside for the credit of the manufacturers. A dirty boiler +requires hard firing, takes lots of fuel, and is unsatisfactory in every +way. + +The best way to keep it clean is not to let it get dirty. The place to +begin work, is with your "water boy," pursuade him to be very careful of +the water he brings you, if you can't succeed in this, ask him to +resign. + +I have seen a water-hauler back into a stream, and then dip the water +from the lowerside of tank, the muddy water always goes down stream and +the wheels stir up the mud; and your bright water hauler dips it into +the tank. While if he had dipped it from the upper side he would have +gotten clear water. However, the days of dipping water are past, but a +water boy that will do as I have stated is just as liable to throw his +hose into the muddy water or lower side of tank as on the upper side, +where it is clear. See that he keeps his tank clean. We have seen +tanks with one-half inch of mud in the bottom. We know that there are +times when you are compelled to use muddy water, but as soon as it is +possible to get clear water make him wash out his tank, and don't let +him haul it around till the boiler gets it all. + +Allow me just here to tell you how to construct a good tank for a +traction engine. You can make the dimensions to suit yourself, but +across the front end and about two feet back fit a partition or second +head; in the center of this head and about an inch from the bottom bore +a two inch hole. Place a screen over this hole on the side next the +rear, and on the other side, or side next front end, put a valve. You +can construct the valve in this way: Take a piece of thick leather, +about four inches long, and two and a half inches wide; fit a block of +wood (a large bung answers the purpose nicely) on one end, trimming the +leather around one side of the wood, then nail the long part of the +valve just above the hole, so that the valve will fit nicely over the +hole in partition. When properly constructed, this valve will allow the +water to flow into the front end of tank, but will prevent its running +back. So, when you are on the road with part of a tank of water, and +start down hill, this front part fills full of water, and when you start +up hill, it can not get back, and your pumps will work as well as if you +had a full tank of water, without this arrangement you cannot get your +pumps to work well in going up a steep hill with anything less than a +full tank. Now, this may be considered a little out of the engineer's +duty, but it will save lots of annoyance if he has his tank supplied +with this little appliance, which is simple but does the business. + +A boiler should be washed out and not blown out, I believe I am safe in +saying that more than half the engineers of threshing engines today +depend on the "blowing out" process to clean their boilers. I don't +intend to tell you to do anything without giving my reasons. We will +take a hot boiler, for instance; say, 50 pounds steam. We will, of +course, take out the fire. It is not supposed that anyone will attempt +to blow out the water with any fire in the firebox. We will, after +removing the fire, open the blow-off valve, which will be found at the +bottom or lowest water point. The water is forced out very rapidly with +this pressure, and the last thing that comes out is the steam. This +steam keeps the entire boiler hot till everything is blown out, and the +result is that all the dirt, sediment and lime is baked solid on the +tubes and side of firebox. But you say you know enough to not blow off +at 50 pounds pressure. Well, we will say 5 pounds, then. You will admit +that the boiler is not cold by any means, even at only 5 pounds, and if +you know enough not to blow off at 50 pounds, you certainly know that at +5 pounds pressure the damage is not entirely avoided. As long as the +iron is hot, the dirt will dry out quickly, and by the time the boiler +is cold enough to force cold water through it safely, the mud is dry and +adheres closely to the iron. Some of the foreign matter will be blown +out, but you will find it a difficult matter to wash out what sticks to +the hot iron. + +I am aware that some engineers claim that the boiler should be blown out +at about 5 pounds or I0 pounds pressure, but I believe in taking the +common sense view. They will advise you to blow out at a low pressure, +and then, as soon as the boiler is cool enough, to wash it thoroughly. + +Now, if you must wait till the boiler is cool before washing, why not +let it cool with the water in it? Then, when you let the water out, +your work is easy, and the moment you begin to force water through it, +you will see the dirty water flowing out at the man or hand hole. The +dirt is soft and washes very easily; but, if it had dried on the inside +of boiler while you were waiting for it to cool, you would find it very +difficult to wash off. . + +You say I said to force the water through the boiler, and to do this you +must use a force pump. No engineer ought to attempt to run an engine +without a force pump. It is one of the necessities. You say, can't you +wash out a boiler without a force pump? Oh, yes! You can do it just +like some people do business. But I started out to tell you how to keep +your boiler clean, and the way to do it is to wash it out, and the way +to wash it out is with a good force pump. There are a number of good +pumps made, especially for threshing engines. They are fitted to the +tank for lifting water for filling, and are fitted with a discharge hose +and nozzle. + +You will find at the bottom of boiler one or two hand hole plates-if +your boiler has a water bottom-if not, they will be found at the bottom +of sides of firebox. Take out these hand hole plates. You will also +find another plate near the top, on firebox end of boiler; take this +out, then open up smoke box door and you will find another hand hole +plate or plug near lower row of tubes; take this out, and you are ready +for your water works, and you want to use them vigorously; don't throw +in a few buckets of water, but continue to direct the nozzle to every +part of the boiler, and don't stop as long as there is any muddy water +flowing at the bottom hand holes. This is the way to clean your boiler, +and don't think that you can be a success as an engineer without this +process, and once a week is none too often. If you want satisfactory +results from your engine, you must keep a clean boiler, and to keep it +clean requires care and labor. If you neglect it you can expect +trouble. If you blow out your boiler hot, or if the mud and slush bakes +on the tubes, there is soon a scale formed on the tubes, which decreases +the boiler's evaporating capacity. You, therefore, in order to make +sufficient amount of steam, must increase the amount of fuel, which of +itself is a source of expense, to say nothing of extra labor and the +danger of causing the tubes to leak from the increased heat you must +produce in the firebox in order to make steam sufficient to do the work. + +You must not expect economy of fuel, and keep a dirty boiler, and don't +condemn a boiler because of hard firing until you know it is clean, and +don't say it is clean when it can be shown to be half full of mud. + +SCALE + +Advertisements say that certain compounds will prevent scale on boilers, +and I think they tell the truth, as far as they go; but they don't say +what the result may be on iron. I will not advise the use of any of +these preparations, for several reasons. In the first place, certain +chemicals will successfully remove the scale formed by water charged +with bicarbonate of lime, and have no effect on water charged with +sulphate of lime. Some kinds of bark-summac, logwood, etc.,-are +sufficient to remove the scale from water charged with magnesia or +carbonate of lime, but they are injurious to the iron owing to the +tannic acid with which they are charged. Vinegar, rotten apples, slop, +etc., owing to their containing acetic acid, will remove scale, but this +is even more injurious to the iron than the barks. Alkalies of any +kind, such as soda, will be found good in water containing sulphate of +lime, by converting it into a carbonate and thereby forming a soft +scale, which is easily washed out; but these have their objections, for, +when used to excess, they cause foaming. + +Petroleum is not a bad thing in water where sulphate of lime prevails; +but you should use only the refined, as crude oil sometimes helps to +form a very injurious scale. Carbonate of soda and corn-starch have been +recommended as a scale preventative, and I am inclined to think they are +as good as anything, but as we are out in the country most of the time I +can tell you of a simple little thing that will answer the same purpose, +and can usually be had with little trouble. Every Monday morning just +dump a hatful of potatoes into your boiler, and Saturday night wash the +boiler out, as I have already suggested, and when the fall's run is over +there will not be much scale in the boiler. + + +CLEAN FLUES. + +We have been urging you to keep your boiler clean. Now, to get the best +results from your fuel, it will also be necessary to keep your flues +clean; as soot and ashes are non-conductors of heat, you will find it +very difficult to get up steam with a coating of soot in your tubes. +Most factories furnish with each engine a flue cleaner and rod. This +cleaner should be made to fit the tubes snug, and should be forced +through each separate tube every morning before building a fire. Some +engineers never touch their flues with a cleaner, but when they choke +the exhaust sufficiently to create such a draught as to clean the flues, +they are working the engine at a great disadvantage, besides being much +more liable to pull the fire out at the top of smokestack. If it were +not necessary to create draught by reducing your exhaust nozzle, your +engine would run much nicer and be much more powerful if your nozzle was +not reduced at all. However, you must reduce it sufficiently to give +draught, but don't impair the power by making the engine clean its own +flues. I think ninety per cent of the fires started by. traction +engines can be traced to the engineer having his engine choked at the +exhaust nozzle. This is dangerous for the reason that the excessive +draught created throws fire out at the stack. It cuts the power of the +engine by creating back pressure. We will illustrate this: Suppose you +close the exhaust entirely, and the engine would not turn itself. If +this is true, you can readily understand that partly closing it will +weaken it to a certain extent. So, remember that the nozzle has +something to do with the power of the engine, and you can see why the +fellow that makes his engine clean its own flues is not the brightest +engineer in the world. + +While it is not my intention to encourage the foolish habit of pulling +engines, to see which is the best puller, should you get into this kind +of a test, you will show the other fellow a trick by dropping the +exhaust nozzle off entirely, and no one need know it. Your engine will +not appear to be making any effort, either, in making the pull. Many a +test has been won more through the shrewdness of the operator than the +superiority of the engine. + +The knowing of this little trick may also help you out of a bad hole +some time when you want a little extra power. And this brings us to the +point to which I want you to pay special attention. The majority of +engineers, when they want a little extra power, give the safety valve a +twist. + +Now, I have already told you to carry a good head of steam, anywhere +from 100 to 120 pounds of steam is good pressure and is plenty, and if +you have your valve set to blow off at 115, let it be there; and don't +screw it down every time you want more power, for if you do you will +soon have it up to I25, and should you want more steam at some other +time you will find yourself screwing it down again, and what was really +intended for a safety valve loses all its virtue as a safety, as far as +you and those around you are concerned. If you know you have a good +boiler you are safe in setting it at I25 pounds, provided you are +determined to not set it up to any higher pressure. But my advice to +you is that if your engine won't do the work required of it at 115 +pounds, you had best do what you can with it until you can get a larger +one. + +A safety valve is exactly what its name implies, and there should be a +heavy penalty for anyone taking that power away from it. + +If you refuse to set your safety down at any time, it does not imply +that you are afraid of your boiler, but rather you understand your +business and realize your responsibility. + +I stated before what you should do with the safety valve in starting a +new engine. You should also attend to this part of it every few days. +See that it does not become slow to work. You should note the pressure +every time it blows off; you know where it ought to blow off, so don't +allow it to stick or hold the steam beyond this pressure. If you are +careful about this, there is no danger about it sticking some time when +you don't happen to be watching the gauge. The steam gauge will tell +you when the pop ought to blow off, and you want to see that it does it. + + +PART FIVE _______ + +STEAM GAUGE + +Some engineers call a steam gauge a "clock." I suppose they do this +because they think it tells them when it is time to throw in coal, and +when it is time to quit, and when it is time for the safety valve to +blow off. If that is what they think a steam gauge is for, I can tell +them that it is time for them to learn differently. + +It is true that in a certain sense it does tell the engineer when to do +certain things, but not as a clock would tell the time of day. The +office of a steam gauge is to enable you to read the pressure on your +boiler at all times, the same as a scale will enable you to determine +the weight of any object. + +As this is the duty of the steam gauge, it is necessary that it be +absolutely correct. By the use of an unreliable gauge you may become +thoroughly bewildered, and in reality know nothing of what pressure you +are carrying. + +This will occur in about this way: Your steam gauge becomes weak, and if +your safety is set at I00 pounds, it will show I00 or even more before +the pop allows the steam to escape; or if the gauge becomes clogged, the +pop may blow off when the gauge only shows go pounds or less. This +latter is really more dangerous than the former. As you would most +naturally conclude that your safety was getting weak, and about the +first thing you would do would be to screw it down so that the gauge +would show I00 before the pop would blow off, when in fact you would +have I00 or more. + +So you can see at once how important it is that your gauge and safety +should work exactly together, and there is but one way to make certain +of this, and that is to test your steam gauge. If you know the steam +gauge is correct, you can make your safety valve agree with it; but +never try to make it do it till you know the gauge is reliable. + +HOW TO TEST A STEAM GAUGE + +Take it off, and take it to some shop where there is a steam boiler in +active use; have the engineer attach your gauge where it will receive +the direct pressure, and if it shows the same as his gauge, it is +reasonable to suppose that your gauge is correct. If the engineer to +whom you take your gauge should say he thinks his gauge is weak, or a +little strong, then go somewhere else. I have already told you that I +did not want you to think anything about your engine-I want you to know +it. However, should you find that your gauge shows when tested with +another gauge, that it is weak, or unreliable in any way, you want to +repair it at once, and the safest way is to get a new one; and yet I +would advise you first to examine it and see if you cannot discover the +trouble. It frequently happens that the pointer becomes loosened on the +journal or spindle, which attaches it to the mechanism that operates it. +If this is the trouble, it is easily remedied, but should the trouble +prove to be in the spring, or the delicate mechanism, it would be much +more satisfactory to get a new one. + +In selecting a new gauge you will be better satisfied with a gauge +having a double spring or tube, as they are less liable to freeze or +become strained from a high pressure, and the double spring will not +allow the needle or pointer to vibrate when subject to a shock or sudden +increase of pressure, as with the single spring. A careful engineer +will have nothing to do with a defective steam gauge or an unreliable +safety valve. Some steam gauges are provided with a seal, and as long +as this seal is not broken the factory will make it good. + +FUSIBLE PLUG + +We have told you about a safety valve, we will now have something to say +of a safety plug. A safety, or fusible plug, is a hollow brass plug or +bolt, screwed into the top crown sheet. The hole through the plug being +filled with some soft metal that will fuse at a much less temperature +than is required to burn iron. The heat from the firebox will have no +effect on this fusible plug as long as the crown sheet is covered with +water, but the moment that the water level falls below the top of the +crown sheet, thereby exposing the plug, this soft metal is melted and +runs out, allows the steam to rush down through the opening in the lug, +putting out the fire and preventing any injury to the boiler. This all +sounds very nice, but I am free to confess that I am not an advocate of +a fusible plug. After telling you to never allow the water to get low, +and then to say there is something to even make this allowable, sounds +very much like the preacher who told his boy "never to go fishing on +Sunday, but if he did go, to be sure and bring home the fish." I would +have no objection to the safety plug if the engineer did not know it was +there. I am aware that some states require that all engines be fitted +with a fusible plug. I do not question their good intentions, but I do +question their good judgment. It seems to me the are granting a license +to carelessness. For instance, an engineer is running with a low gauge +of water, owing possibly to the tank being delayed longer than usual, he +knows the water is getting low, but he says to himself, "well, if the +water gets too low I will only blow out the plug," and so he continues +to run until the tank arrives. If the plug holds, he at once begins to +pump in cold water, and most likely does it on a very hot sheet, which +of itself, is something he never should do; and if the plug does blow +out he is delayed a couple of hours, at least, before he can put in a +new plug and get up steam again. Now suppose he had not had a soft plug +(as they are sometimes called). He would have stopped before he had low +water. He would not even have had a hot crown sheet, and would only +have lost the time he waited on the tank. This is not a fancied +circumstance by any means, for it happens every day. The engineer +running an engine with a safety plug seldom stops for a load of water +until he blows out the plug. It frequently happens that a fusible plug +becomes corroded to such an extent that it will stand a heat sufficient +to burn the iron. This is my greatest objection to it. The engineer +continues to rely on it for safety, the same as if it were in perfect +order, and the ultimate result is he burns or cracks his crown sheet. I +have already stated that I have no objection to the plug, if the +engineer did not know it was there, so if you must use one, attend to +it, and every time you clean your boiler scrape the upper or water end +of the plug with a knife, and be careful to remove any corrosive matter +that may have collected on it, and then treat your boiler exactly as +though there was no such a thing as a safety plug in it. A safety plug +was not designed to let you run with any lower gauge of water. It is +placed there to prevent injury to the boiler, in case of an accident or +when, by some means, you might be deceived in your gauge of water, or if +by mistake, a fire was started without any water in the boiler. + +Should the plug melt out, it is necessary to replace it at once, or as +soon as the heat will permit you to do so. It might be a saving of time +to have an extra plug always ready, then all you have to do is to remove +the melted one by unscrewing it from the crown sheet and screwing the +extra one in. But if you have no extra plug you must remove the first +one and refill it with babbitt. You can do this by filling one end of +the plug with wet clay and pouring the metal into the other end, and +then pounding it down smooth to prevent any leaking. This done, you can +screw the plug back into its place. + +If you should have two plugs, as soon as you have melted out one replace +it with the new one, and refill the other at your earliest convenience. +By the time you have replaced a fusible plug a few times in a hot boiler +you will conclude it is better to keep water over your crown sheet. + +LEAKY FLUES + +What makes flues leak? I asked this question once, and the answer was +that the flues were not large enough to fill up the hole in flue sheet. +This struck me as being funny at first, but on second thought I +concluded it was about correct. Flues may leak from several causes, but +usually it can be traced to the carelessness of some one. You may have +noticed before this that I am inclined to blame a great many things to +carelessness. Well, by the time you have run an engine a year or two +you will conclude that I am not unjust in my suspicions. I do not blame +engineers for everything, but I do say that they are responsible for a +great many things which they endeavor to shift on to the manufacturer. +If the flues in a new boiler leak, it is evident that they were slighted +by the boiler-maker; but should they run a season or part of a season +before leaking, then it would indicate that the boiler-maker did his +duty, but the engineer did not do his. He has been building too hot a +fire to begin with, or has, been letting his fire door stand open; or he +may have overtaxed his boiler; or else he has been blowing out his +boiler when too hot; or has at some time blown out with some fire in +firebox. Now, any one of these things, repeated a few times, will make +the best of them leak. You have been advised already not to do these +things, and if you do them, or any one of them, I want to know what +better word there is to express it than "carelessness." + +There are other things that will make your flues leak. Pumping cold +water into a boiler with a low gauge of water will do it, if it does +nothing more serious. Pouring cold water into a hot boiler will do it. +For instance, if for any reason you should blow out your boiler while in +the field, and as you might be in a hurry to get to work, you would not +let the iron cool, before beginning to refill. I have seen an engineer +pour water into a boiler as soon as the escaping steam would admit it. +The flues cannot stand such treatment, as they are thinner than the +shell or flue sheet, and therefore cool much quicker, and in contracting +are drawn from the flue sheet, and as a matter of course must leak. A +flue, when once started to leak, seldom stops without being set up, and +one leaky flue will start others, and what are you going to do about it? +Are you going to send to a boiler shop and get a boilermaker to come out +and fix them and pay him from forty to sixty cents an hour for doing it? +I don't know but that you must the first time, but if you are going to +make a business of making your flues leak, you had best learn how to do +it yourself. You can do it if you are not too big to get into the fire +door. You should provide yourself with a flue expander and a calking +tool, with a machinist's hammer, (not too heavy). Take into the firebox +with you a piece of clean waste with which you will wipe off the ends of +the flues and flue sheet to remove any soot or ashes that may have +collected around them. After this is done you will force the expander +into the flues driving it well up, in order to bring the shoulder of +expander up snug against the head of the flue. Then drive the tapering +pin into the expander. By driving the pin in too far you may spread the +flue sufficient to crack it or you are more liable, by expanding too +hard, to spread the hole in flue sheet and thereby loosen other flues. +You must be careful about this. When you think you have expanded +sufficient, hit the pin a side blow in order to loosen it, and turn the +expander about one-quarter of a turn, and drive it up as before; loosen +up and continue to turn as before until you have made the entire circle +of flues. Then remove the expander, and you are ready for your header +or calking tool. It is best to expand all the flues that are leaking +before beginning with the header. + +The header is used by placing the gauge or guide end within the flue, +and with your light hammer the flue can be calked or beaded down against +the flue sheet. Be careful to use your hammer lightly, so as not to +bruise the flues or sheet. When you have gone over all the expanded +flues in this way, you, (if you have been careful) will not only have a +good job, but will conclude that you are somewhat of an expert at it. I +never saw a man go into a firebox and stop the leak but that he came out +well pleased with himself. The fact that a firebox is no pleasant +workshop may have had something to do with it. If your flues have been +leaking badly, and you have expanded them, it would be well to test your +boiler with cold water pressure to make sure that you have a good job. + +How are you going to test your boiler? If you can attach to a hydrant, +do so, and when you have given your boiler all the pressure you want, +you can then examine your flues carefully, and should you find any +seeping of water, you can use your beader lightly untill such leaks are +stopped. If the waterworks will not afford you sufficient pressure, you +can bring it up to the required pressure, by attaching a hydraulic pump +or a good force pump. + +In testing for the purpose of ascertaining if you have a good job on +your flues, it is not necessary to put on any greater cold water +pressure than you are in the habit of carrying. For instance, if your +safety valve is set at one hundred and ten pounds, this pressure of cold +water will be sufficient to test the flues. + +Now, suppose you are out in the field and want to test your flues. Of +course you have no hydrant to attach to, and you happen not to have a +force pump, it would seem you were in bad shape to test your boiler with +cold water. Well, you can do it by proceeding in this way: When you +have expanded and beaded all the flues that were leaking, you will then +close the throttle tight, take off the safety valve (as this is +generally attached at the highest point) and fill the boiler full, as it +is absolutely necessary that all the space in the boiler should be +filled with cold water. Then screw the safety valve back in its place. +You will then get back in the firebox with your tools and have someone +place a small sheaf of wheat or oat straw under the firebox or under +waist of boiler if open firebox, and set fire to it. The expansive +force of the water caused by the heat from the burning straw will +produce pressure desired. You should know, however, that your safety is +in perfect order. When the water begins to escape at the safety valve, +you can readily see if you have expanded your flues sufficiently to keep +them from leaking. + +This makes a very nice and steady pressure, and although the pressure is +caused by heat, it is a cold water pressure, as the water is not heated +beyond one or two degrees. This mode of testing, however, cannot be +applied in very cold weather, as water has no expansive force five +degrees above or five degrees below the freezing point. + +These tests, however, are only for the purpose of trying your flues and +are not intended to ascertain the efficiency or strength of your boiler. +When this is required, I would advise you to get an expert to do it, as +the best test for this is the hammer test, and only an expert should +attempt it. + + + +PART SIX ________ + +Any young engineer who will make use of what he has read will never get +his engine into much trouble. Manufacturers of farm engines to-day make +a specialty of this class of goods, as they endeavor to build them as +simple and of as few parts as possible. They do this well knowing that, +as a rule, they must be run by men who cannot take a course in practical +engineering. If each one of the many thousands of engines that are +turned out every year had to have a practical engineer to run it, it +would be better to be an engineer than to own the engine; and +manufacturers knowing this, they therefore make their engines as simple +and with as little liability to get out of order as possible. The +simplest form of an engine, however, requires of the operator a certain +amount of brains and a willingness to do that which he knows should be +done; and if you will follow the instructions you have already received, +you can run your engine as successfully as any one can wish as long as +your engine is in order, and, as I have just stated, it is not liable to +get out of order, except from constant wear, and this wear will appear +in the boxes, journals and valve. The brasses on wrist pin and +cross-head will probably require your first and most careful attention, +and of these two the wrist or crank box will require the most; and what +is true of one is true of both boxes. It is, therefore, not necessary +to take up both boxes in instructing you how to handle them. We will +take up the box most likely to require your attention. This is the +wrist box. You will find this box in two parts or halves. In a new +engine you will find that these two halves do not meet on the wrist pin +by at least one-eighth of an inch. They are brought up to the pin by +means of a wedge-shaped key. (I am speaking now of the most common form +of wrist boxes. If your engine should not have this key, it will have +something which serves the same purpose.) As the brasses wear you can +take up this wear by forcing the key down, which brings the two halves +nearer together. You can continue to gradually take up this wear until +you have brought them together. You will then see that it is necessary +to do something, in order to take up any more wear, and this "something" +is to take out the brasses and file about one-sixteenth of an inch off +of each brass. This will allow you another eighth of an inch to take up +in wear. + +Now here is a nice little problem for you to solve and I want you to +solve it to your own satisfaction, and when you do, you will thoroughly +understand it, and to understand it is to never allow it to get you into +trouble. We started out by saying that in a new engine you would most +likely find about one-eighth of an inch between the brasses, and we said +you would finally get these brasses, or halves together, and would have +to take them out and file them. Now we have taken up one-eighth of an +inch and the result is, we have lengthened our pitman just one-sixteenth +of an inch; or in other words, the center of wrist pin and the center of +cross-head are just one-sixteenth of an inch further apart than they +were before any wear had taken place, and the piston head has +one-sixteenth of an inch more clearance at one end, and one-sixteenth of +an inch less at the other end than it had before. Now if we take out the +boxes and file them so we have, another eighth of an inch, by the time +we have taken up this wear, we will then have this distance doubled, and +we will soon have the piston head striking the end of the cylinder, and +besides, the engine will not run as smooth as it did. Half of the wear +comes off of each half, and the half next to the key is brought up to +the wrist pin because of the tapering key, while the outside half +remains in one place. You must therefore place back of this half a thin +piece of sheet copper, or a piece of tin will do. Now suppose our boxes +had one-eighth of an inch for wear. When we have taken up this much we +must put in one-sixteenth of an inch backing (as it is called), for we +have reduced the outside half by just that amount. We have also reduced +the front half the same, but as we have said, the tapering key brings +this half up to its place. + +Now we think we have made this clear enough and we will leave this and +go back to the key again. You must remember that we stated that the key +was tapering or a wedged shape, and as a wedge, is equally as powerful +as a screw, and you must bear in mind that a slight tap will bring these +two boxes up tight against the wrist pin. Young engineers experience +more trouble with this box than with any other part of the engine, and +all because they do not know how to manage it. You should be very +careful not to get your box too tight, and don't imagine that every time +there is a little knock about your engine that you can stop it by +driving the key down a little more. This is a great mistake that many, +and even old engineers make. I at one time seen a wrist pin and boxes +ruined by the engineer trying to stop a knock that came from a loose +fly-wheel. It is a fact, and one that has never been satisfactorily +explained, that a knock coming from almost any part of an engine will +appear to be in the wrist. So bear this in mind and don't allow +yourself to be deceived in this way, and never try to stop a knock until +you have first located the trouble beyond a doubt. + +When it becomes necessary to key up your brasses, you will find it a +good safe way to loosen up the set screw which holds the key, then drive +it down till you are satisfied you have it tight. Then drive it back +again and then with your fist drive the key down as far as you can. You +may consider this a peculiar kind of a hammer, but your boxes will +rarely ever heat after being keyed in this manner. + +KNOCK IN ENGINES + +What makes an engine knock or pound? A loose pillow block box is a good +"knocker." The pillow block is a box next crank or disc wheel. This box +is usually fitted with set bolts and jam nuts. You must also be careful +not to set this up too tight, remembering always that a box when too +tight begins to heat and this expands the journal, causing greater +friction. A slight turn of a set bolt one way or the other may be +sufficient to cool a box that may be running hot, or to heat one that +may be running cool. A hot box from neglect of oiling can be cooled by +supplying oil, provided it has not already commenced to cut. If it +shows any sign of cutting, the only safe way is to remove the box and +clean it thoroughly. + +Loose eccentric yokes will make a knock in an engine, and it may appear +to be in the wrist. You will find packing between the two halves of the +yoke. Take out a thin sheet of this packing, but don't take out too +much, as you are liable then to get them too tight and they may stick +and cause your eccentrics to slip. We will have more to say about the +slipping of the eccentrics. + +The piston rod loose in cross-head will make a knock, which also appears +in the wrist, but it is not there. Tighten the piston and you will stop +it. The piston rod may be keyed in cross head, or it may be held in +place by a nut. The key is less liable to get loose, but should it work +loose a few times it may be necessary to replace it with a new one. And +this is one of the things that cause a bad break when it works out or +gets loose. If it gets loose it may not come out, but it will not stand +the strain very long in this condition, and will break, allowing the +piston to come out of cross head, and you are certain to knock out one +cylinder head and possibly both of them. The nut will do the same thing +if allowed to come off. So this is one of the connections that will +claim your attention once in a while, but if you train your ear to +detect any unusual noise you will discover it as soon as it gives the +least in either key or nut. + +The cross-head loose in the guides will make it knock. If the +cross-head is not provided for taking up this wear, you can take off the +guides and file them enough to allow them to come up to the cross-head, +but it is much better to have them planed off, which insures the guides +coming up square against the cross-head and thus prevent any heating or +cutting. + +A loose fly-wheel will most likely puzzle you more than anything else to +find the knock. So remember this. The wheel may apparently be tight, +but should the key be the least bit narrow for the groove in shaft, it +will make your engine bump very similar to that caused by too much or +too little "lead." + +LEAD + +What is lead? Lead is space or opening of port on steam end of +cylinder, when engine is on dead center. (Dead center is the two points +of disc or crank wheel at which the crank pin is in direct line with +piston and at which no amount of steam will start the engine.) Different +makes of engines differ to such an extent that it is impossible to give +any rule or any definite amount of lead for an engine. For instance, an +engine with a port six inches long and one-half inch wide would require +much less lead than one with a port four inches long and one inch wide. +Suppose I should say one-sixteenth of an inch was the proper lead. In +one engine you would have an opening one-sixteenth of an inch wide and +six inches long and in the other you would have one-sixteenth of an inch +wide and four inches long; so you can readily see that it is impossible +to give the amount of lead for an engine without knowing the piston +area, length of port, speed, etc. Lead allows live steam to enter the +cylinder just ahead of the piston at the point of finishing the stroke, +and forms a "cushion," and enables the engine to pass the center without +a jar. Too much lead is a source of weakness to an engine, as it allows +the steam to enter the cylinder too soon and forms a back pressure and +tends to prevent the engine from passing the center. It will, +therefore, make your engine bump, and make it very difficult to hold the +packing in stuffing box. + +Insufficient lead will not allow enough steam to enter the cylinder +ahead of piston to afford cushion enough to stop the inertia, and the +result will be that your engine will pound on the wrist pin. You most +likely have concluded by this time that "lead" is no small factor in the +smooth running of an engine, and you, as a matter of course, will want +to know how you are to obtain the proper lead. Well don't worry +yourself. Your engine is not going to have too much lead today and not +enough tomorrow. If your engine was properly set up in the first place +the lead will be all right, and continue to afford the proper lead as +long as the valve has not been disturbed from its original position; and +this brings us to the most important duty of an engineer as far as the +engine is concerned, viz: Setting the Valve. + +SETTING A VALVE. + +The proper and accurate setting of a valve on a steam engine is one of +the most important duties that you will have to perform, as it requires +a nicety of calculation and a mechanical accuracy. And when we remember +also, that this is another one of the things for which no uniform rule +can be adopted, owing to the many circumstances which go to make an +engine so different under different conditions, we find it very +difficult to give you the light on this part of your duty which we would +wish to. We, however, hope to make it so clear to you that by the aid +of the engine before you, you can readily understand the conditions and +principles which control the valve in the particular engine which you +may have under your management. + +The power and economy of an engine depends largely on the accurate +operation of its valve. It is, therefore, necessary that you know how +to reset it, should it become necessary to do so. + +An authority says, "Bring your engine to a dead center and then adjust +your valve to the proper lead." This is all right as far as it goes, but +how are you to find the dead center. I know that it is a common custom +in the field to bring the engine to a center by the use of the eye. You +may have a good eye, but it is not good enough to depend on for the +accurate setting of a valve. + +HOW TO FIND THE DEAD CENTER + +First, provide yourself with a "tram." This you can do by taking a 1/4 +inch iron rod, about 18 inches long, and bend about two inches of one +end to a sharp angle. Then sharpen both ends to a nice sharp point. +Now, fasten securely a block of hard wood somewhere near the face of the +fly wheel, so that when the straight end of your tram is placed at a +definite point in the block the other, or hook end, will reach the crown +of fly wheel. + +Be certain that the block cannot move from its place, and be careful to +place the tram at exactly the same point on the block at each time you +bring the tram into use. You are now ready to proceed to find the dead +center, and in doing this remember to turn the fly wheel always in the +same direction. Now, turn your engine over till it nears one of the +centers, but not quite to it. You will then, by the aid of a +straight-edge make a clear and distinct mark across the guides and cross +head. Now, go around to the fly wheel and place the straight end of the +tram at same point on the block, and with the hook end make a mark +across the crown or center of face of fly wheel; now turn your engine +past the center and on to the point at which the line on cross head is +exactly in line with the lines on guides. Now, place your tram in the +same place as before, and make another mark across the crown of fly +wheel. By the use of dividers find the exact center between the two +marks made on fly wheel; mark this point with a center punch. Now, +bring the fly wheel to the point at which the tram, when placed at its +proper place on block, the hook end, or point, will touch this punch +mark, and you will have one of the exact dead centers. + +Now, turn the engine over till it nears the other center, and proceed +exactly as before, remembering always to place the straight end of tram +exactly in same place in block, and you will find both dead centers as +accurately as if you had all the fine tools of an engine builder. + +You are now ready to proceed with the setting of your valve, and as you +have both dead centers to work from you ought to be able to do it, as +you do not have to depend on your eye to find them, and by the use of +the tram You turn your engine to exactly the same point every time you +wish to get a center. + +Now remove the cap on steam chest, bring your engine to a dead center +and give your valve the necessary amount of lead on the steam end. Now, +we have already stated that we could not give you the proper amount of +lead for an engine. It is presumed that the maker of your engine knew +the amount best adapted to this engine, and you can ascertain his idea +of this by first allowing, we will say, about 1/16 of an inch. Now +bring your engine to the other center, and if the lead at the other end +is less than 1/16, then you must conclude that he intended to allow less +than 1/16, but should it show more than this, then it is evident that he +intended more than I/I16 lead; but in either case you must adjust your +valve so as to divide the space, in order to secure the same lead when +on either center. In the absence of any better tool to ascertain if the +lead is the same, make a tapering wooden wedge of soft wood, turn the +engine to a center and force the wedge in the opening made by the valve +hard enough to mark the wood; then turn to the next center, and if the +wedge enters the same distance, you are correct; if not, adjust till it +does, and when you have it set at the proper place you had best mark it +by taking a sharp cold chisel and place it so that it will cut into the +hub of eccentric and in the shaft; then hit it a smart blow with a +hammer. This should be done after you have set the set screws in +eccentric down solid on the shaft. Then, at any time should your +eccentric slip, you have only to bring it back to the chisel mark and +fasten it, and you are ready to go ahead again. + +This is for a plain or single eccentric engine. A double or reversible +engine, however, is somewhat more difficult to handle in setting the +valve. Not that the valve itself is any different from a plain engine, +but from the fact that the link may confuse you, and while the link may +be in position to run the engine one way you may be endeavoring to set +the valve to run it the other way. + +The proper way to proceed with this kind of an engine is to bring the +reverse lever to a position to run the engine forward, then proceed to +set your valve the same as on a plain engine. When you have it at the +proper place, tighten just enough to keep from slipping, then bring your +reverse lever to the reverse position and bring your engine to the +center. If it shows the same lead for the reverse motion you are then +ready to tighten your eccentrics securely, and they should be marked as +before. + +You may imagine that you will have this to do often. Well don't be +scared about it. You may run an engine a long time, and never have to +set a valve. I have heard these windy engineers (you have seen them), +say that they had to go and set Mr. A's or Mr. B's valve, when the facts +were, if they did anything, it was simply to bring the eccentrics back +to their original position. They happened to know that most all engines +are plainly marked at the factory, and all there was to do was to bring +the eccentrics back to these marks and fasten them, and the valve was +set. The slipping of the eccentrics is about the only cause for a valve +working badly. You should therefore keep all grease and dirt away from +these marks; keep the set screws well tightened, and notice them +frequently to see that they do not slip. Should they slip a I/I6 part +of an inch, a well educated ear can detect it in the exhaust. Should +they slip a part of a turn as they will some times, the engine may stop +instantly, or it may cut a few peculiar circles for a minute or two, but +don't get excited, look to the eccentrics at once for the trouble. + +Your engine may however act very queer some time, and you may find the +eccentrics in their proper place. Then you must go into the steam chest +for the trouble. The valves in different engines are fastened on valve +rod in different ways. Some are held in place by jam nuts; a nut may +have worked loose, causing lost motion on the valve. This will make +your engine work badly. Other engines hold their valve by a clamp and +pin. This pin may work out, and when it does, your engine will stop, +very quickly to. + +If you thoroughly understand the working of the steam, you can readily +detect any defect in your cylinder or steam chest, by the use of your +cylinder cocks. Suppose we try them once. Turn your engine on the +forward center, now open the cocks and give the engine the steam +pressure. If the steam blows out at the forward cock we know that we +have sufficient lead. Now turn back to the back center, and give it +steam again; if it blows out the same at this cock, we can conclude that +our valve is in its proper position. Now reverse the engine and do the +same thing; if the cocks act the same, we know we are right. Suppose +the steam blows out of one cock all right, and when we bring the engine +to the other center no steam escapes from this cock, then we know that +something is wrong with the valve, and if the eccentrics are in their +proper position the trouble must be in the steam chest, and if we open +it up we will find the valve has become loosened on the rod. Again +suppose we put the engine on a center, and on giving it steam, we find +the steam blowing out at both cocks. + +Now what is the trouble, for no engine in perfect shape will allow the +steam to blow out of both cocks at the same time. It is one of two +things, and it is difficult to tell. Either the cylinder rings leak and +allow the steam to blow through, or else the valve is cut on the seat, +and allows the steam to blow over. Either of these two causes is bad, +as it not only weakens your engine, but is a great waste of fuel and +water. The way to determine which of the two causes this, is to take +off the cylinder head, turn engine on forward center and open throttle +slightly. If the steam is seen to blow out of the port at open end of +cylinder, then the trouble is in the valve, but if not, you will see it +blowing through from forward end of cylinder, and the trouble is in the +cylinder rings. + +What is the remedy? Well, if the "rings" are the trouble, a new set +will most likely remedy it should they be of the automatic or +self-setting pattern, but should they be of the spring or adjusting +pattern, you can take out the head and set the rings out to stop this +blowing. As most all engines now are using the self-setting rings, you +will most likely require a new set. + +If the trouble is in the valve or steam chest, you had best take it off +and have the valve seat planed down, and the valve seated to it. This +is the safest and best way. Never attempt to dress a valve down, you +are most certain to make a bad job of it. + +And yet I don't like the idea of advising you not to do a thing that can +be done, for I do like an engineer who does not run to the shop for +every little trouble. However, unless you have the proper tools you had +best not attempt it. The only safe way is to scrape them down, for if +your valve is cut, you will find the valve seat is cut equally as bad, +and they must both be scraped to a perfect fit. Provide yourself with a +piece of flat steel, very hard, 3x4 inches by about I/8 inch, with a +perfect straight edge. With this scrape the valve and seat to a perfect +flat surface, It will be a slower process than scraping wood with a +piece of glass, but you can do it. Never use a chisel or a file on a +valve. + + +LUBRICATING OIL + +What is oil? + +Oil is a coating for a journal, or in other words is a lining between +bearings. + +Did you ever stop long enough to ask yourself the question? I doubt it. +A great many people buy something to use on their engine, because it is +called oil. Now if the object in using oil is to keep a lining between +the bearings, is it not reasonable that you use something that will +adhere to that which it is to line or cover? + +Gasoline will cover a journal for a minute or two, and oil a grade +better would last a few minutes longer. Still another grade would do +some better. Now if you are running your own engine, buy the best oil +you can buy. You will find it very poor economy to buy cheap oil, and +if you are not posted, you may pay price enough, but get a very poor +article. + +If you are running an engine for some one else, make it part of your +contract that you are furnished with a good oil. You can not keep an +engine in good shape with a cheap oil. You say "you are going to keep +your engine clean and bright." Not if you must use a poor oil. + +Poor oil is largely responsible for the fast going out of use of the +link reverse among the makers of traction engines. While I think it +very doubtful if this "reverse motion" can be equalled by any of the +late devices. Its construction is such as to require the best grade of +cylinder oil, and without this it is very unsatisfactory, (not because +the valves of other valve-motions will do with a poorer grade of oil) +but because its construction is such that as soon as the valve becomes +dry it causes the link to jump and pound, and very soon requires +repairing. While the construction of various other devices are such, +that while the valve may be equally as dry it does not show the want of +oil so clearly as the old style link. Yet as a fact I care not what the +valve motion may be, it requires a good grade of oil. + +You may ask "how am I to know when I am getting a good grade of oil." +The best way is to ascertain a good brand of oil then use that and +nothing else. + +We are not selling oil, or advertising oil. However before I get +through I propose to give you the name of a good brand of cylinder oil, +a good engine oil as well as good articles of various attachments, which +cut no small figure in the success you may have in running an engine. + +It is not an uncommon thing for an engineer (I don't like to call him an +engineer either) to fill his sight feed lubricator with ordinary engine +oil, and then wonder why his cylinder squeaks. The reason is that this +grade of oil cannot stand the heat in the cylinder or steam chest. + +If you are carrying 90 pounds of steam you have about 320 degrees of +heat in your cylinder, with I20 to I25 pounds you will have about 350 +degrees of heat, and in order to lubricate your valve and valve-seat, +and also the cylinder surface, you must use an oil, that will not only +stand this heat but considerable more so that it will have some staying +qualities. + +Then if you are using a good quality of oil and your link or reverse +begins to knock, it is because some part of it wants attention, and you +must look after it. And here is where I want to insist that you teach +your ear to be your guide. You ought to be able to detect the slightest +sound that is unnatural to your engine. Your eyes may be deceived, but a +well trained ear can not be fooled. + +I was once invited by an engineer to come out and see how nice his +engine was running. I went, and found that the engine itself was +running very smooth, in fact almost noiseless, but he looked very much +disappointed when I asked him why he was doing all his work with one end +of cylinder. He asked me what I meant, and I had some difficulty in +getting him to detect the difference in the exhaust of the two ends, in +fact the engine was only making one exhaust to a revolution. He was one +of those engineers who never discovered anything wrong until he could +see it. Did you know that there are people in the world whose mental +capacity can only grasp one idea at a time. That is when their minds +are on any one object or principle they can not see or observe anything +else. That was the case with this engineer, his mind had been +thoroughly occupied in getting all the reciprocating (moving) parts +perfectly adjusted, and if the exhaust had made all sorts of peculiar +noises, he would not have discovered it. + +The one idead man will not make a successful engineer. The good engineer +can stand by and at a glance take in the entire engine, from tank to top +of smoke stack. He has the faculty of noting mentally, what he sees, +and what he hears, and by combining the results of the two, he is +enabled to size up the condition of the engine at a glance. This, +however, only come with experience, and verges on expertness. And if +you wish to be an expert, learn to be observing. + +It is getting very common among engineers to use "hard grease" on the +crank pin and main journals, and it will very soon be used exclusively. +With a good grade of grease your crank will not heat near so quickly as +with oil and your engine will be much easier to keep clean; and if you +are going to be an engineer be a neat one, keep your engine clean and +keep yourself clean. You say you can't do that; but you can at least +keep yourself respectable. You will most certainly keep your engine +looking as though it had an engineer. Keep a good bunch of waste handy, +and when it is necessary to wipe your hands use the waste and not your +overalls, and when you go in to a nice dinner the cook will not say +after you go out, "Look here where that dirty engineer sat." Now boys, +these are things worth heeding. I have actually known threshing crews +to lose good customers simply because of their dirty clothes. The women +kicked and they had a right to kick. But to return to hard grease and +suitable cups for same. + +In attaching these grease cups on boxes not previously arranged for +them, it would be well for you to know how to do it properly. You will +remove the journal, take a gouge and cut a clean groove across the box, +starting in at one corner, about I/8 of an inch from the point of box +and cut diagonally across coming out at the opposite corner on the other +end of box. Then start at the opposite corner and run through as +before, crossing the first groove in the center of box. Groove both +halves of box the same, being careful not to cut out at either end, as +this will allow the grease to escape from box and cause unnecessary +waste. The chimming or packing in box should be cut so as to touch the +journal at both ends of box, but not in the center or between these two +points. So, when the top box is brought down tight, this will form +another reservoir for the grease. If the box is not tapped directly in +the center for cup, it will be necessary to cut other grooves from where +it is tapped into the grooves already made. A box prepared in his way +will require but little attention if you use good grease. + + + +A HOT BOX + +You will sometimes get a hot box. What is the best remedy? Well, I +might name you a dozen, and if I did you would most likely never have +one on hand when it was wanted. So will only give you one, and that is +white lead and oil, and I want you to provide yourself with a can of +this useful article. And should a journal or box get hot on your hands +and refuse to cool with the usual methods, remove the cup, and after +mixing a portion of the lead with oil, put a heavy coat of it on the +journal, put back the cup and your journal will cool off very quickly. +Be careful to keep all grit or dust out of your can of lead. Look after +this part of it yourself. It is your business. + + +PART SEVEN ________ + +Before taking up the handling of a Traction Engine, we want to tell you +of a number of things you are likely to do which you ought not to do. + +Don't open the throttle too quickly, or you may throw the drive belt +off, and are also more apt to raise the water and start priming. + +Don't attempt to start the engine with the cylinder cocks closed, but +make it a habit to open them when you stop; this will always insure your +cylinder being free from water on starting. + +Don't talk too much while on duty. + +Don't pull the ashes out of ash pan unless you have a bucket of water +handy. + +Don't start the pump when you know you have low water. + +Don't let it get low. + +Don't let your engine get dirty. + +Don't say you can't keep it clean. + +Don't leave your engine at night till you have covered it up. + +Don't let the exhaust nozzle lime up, and don't allow lime to collect +where the water enters the boiler, or you may split a heater pipe or +knock the top off of a check valve. + +Don't leave your engine in cold weather without first draining all +pipes. + +Don't disconnect your engine with a leaky throttle. + +Don't allow the steam to vary more than I0 or I5 pounds while at work. + +Don't allow anyone to fool with your engine. + +Don't try any foolish experiments on your engine. + +Don't run an old boiler without first having it thoroughly tested. + +Don't stop when descending a steep grade. + +Don't pull through a stockyard without first closing the damper tight. + +Don't pull onto a strange bridge without first examining it. + +Don't run any risk on a bad bridge. + + +A TRACTION ENGINE ON THE ROAD + +You may know all about an engine. You may be able to build one, and yet +run a traction in the ditch the first jump. + +It is a fact that some men never can become good operators of a traction +engine, and I can't give you the reason why any more than you can tell +why one man can handle a pair of horses better than another man who has +had the same advantages. And yet if you do ditch your engine a few +times, don't conclude that you can never handle a traction. + +If you are going to run a traction engine I would advise you to use your +best efforts to become an expert at it. For the expert will hook up to +his load and get out of the neighborhood while the awkward fellow is +getting his engine around ready to hook up. + +The expert will line up to the separator the first time, while the other +fellow will back and twist around for half an hour, and then not have a +good job. + +Now don't make the fatal mistake of thinking that the fellow is an +expert who jumps up on his engine and jerks the throttle open and yanks +it around backward and forward, reversing with a snap, and makes it +stand-up on its hind wheels. + +If you want to be an expert you must begin with the throttle, therein +lies the secret of the real expert. He feels the power of his engine +through the throttle. He opens it just enough to do what he wants it to +do. He therefore has complete control of his engine. The fellow who +backs his engine up to the separator with an open throttle and must +reverse it to keep from running into and breaking something, is running +his engine on his muscle and is entitled to small pay. + +The expert brings his engine back under full control, and stops it +exactly where he wants it. He handles his engine with his head and +should be paid accordingly. He never makes a false move, loses no time, +breaks nothing, makes no unnecessary noise, does not get the water all +stirred up in the boiler, hooks up and moves out in the same quiet +manner, and the onlookers think he could pull two such loads, and say he +has a great engine, while the engineer of muscle would back up and jerk +his engine around a half dozen times before he could make the coupling, +then with a jerk and a snort he yanks the separator out of the holes, +and the onlookers think he has about all he can pull. + +Now these are facts, and they cannot be put too strong, and if you are +going to depend on your muscle to run your engine, don't ask any more +money than you would get at any other day labor. + +You are not expected to become an expert all at once. Three things are +essential to be able to handle a traction engine as it should be +handled. + +First, a thorough knowledge of the throttle. I don't mean that you +should simply know how to pull it open and shut it. Any boy can do that. +But I mean that you should be a good judge of the amount of power it +will require to do what you may wish to do, and then give it the amount +of throttle that it will require and no more. To illustrate this I will +give an instance. + +An expert was called a long distance to see an engine that the operator +said would not pull its load over the hills he had to travel. + +The first pull he had to make after the expert arrived was up the worst +hill he had. When he approached the grade he threw off the governor +belt, opened the throttle as wide as he could get it, and made a run for +the hill. The result was, that he lifted the water and choked the +engine down before he was half way up. He stepped off with the remark, +"That is the way the thing does." The expert then locked the hind wheels +of the separator with a timber, and without raising the pressure a +pound, pulled it over the hill. He gave it just throttle enough to pull +the load, and made no effort to hurry ii, and still had power to spare. + +A locomotive engineer makes a run for a hill in order that the momentum +of his train will help carry him over. It is not so with a traction and +its load; the momentum that you get don't push very hard. + +The engineer who don't know how to throttle his engine never knows what +it will do, and therefore has but little confidence in it; while the +engineer who has a thorough knowledge of the throttle and uses it, +always has power to spare and has perfect confidence in his engine. He +knows exactly what he can do and what he cannot do. + +The second thing for you to know is to get onto the tricks of the steer +wheel. This will come to you naturally, and it is not necessary for me +to spend much time on it. All new beginners make the mistakes of turning +the wheel too often. Remember this-that every extra turn to the right +requires two turns to the left, and every extra turn to the left +requires two more to the right; especially is this the care if your +engine is fast on the road. + +The third thing for you to learn, is to keep your eyes on the front +wheels of your engine, and not be looking back to see if your load in +coming. + +In making a difficult turn you will find it very much to your advantage +to go slow, as it gives you much better control of your front wheels, +and it is not a bad plan for a beginner to continue to go slow till he +has perfect confidence in his ability to handle the steer wheel as it +may keep you out of some bad scrapes. + +How about getting into a hole? Well, you are not interested half as +much in knowing how to get into a hole as You are in knowing how to get +out. An engineer never shows the stuff he is made of to such good +advantage as when he gets into a hole; and he is sure to get there, for +one of the traits of a traction engine is its natural ability to find a +soft place in the ground. + +Head work will get you out of a bad place quicker than all the steam you +can get in your boiler. Never allow the drivers to turn without doing +some good. If you are in a hole, and you are able to turn your wheels, +you are not stuck; but don't allow your wheels to slip, it only lets you +in deeper. If your wheels can't get a footing, you want to give them +something to hold to. Most smart engineers will tell you that the best +thing is a heavy chain. That is true. So are gold dollars the best +things to buy bread with, but you have not always got the gold dollars, +neither have you always got the chain. Old hay or straw is a good +thing; old rails or timber of any kind. The engineer with a head spends +more time trying to give his wheels a hold than he does trying to pull +out, while the one without a head spends more time trying to pull out +than he does trying to secure a footing, and the result is, that the +first fellow generally gets out the first attempt, while the other +fellow is lucky if he gets out the first half day. + +If you have one wheel perfectly secure, don't spoil it by starting your +engine till you have the other just as secure. + +If you get into a place where your engine is unable to turn its wheels, +then your are stuck, and the only thing for you to do is to lighten your +load or dig out. But under all circumstances your engine should be +given the benefit of your judgment. + +All traction engines to be practical must of a necessity, be reversible. +To accomplish this, the link with the double eccentric is the one most +generally used, although various other devices are used with more or +less success. As they all accomplish the same purpose it is not +necessary for us to discuss the merits or demerits of either. + +The main object is to enable the operator to run his engine either +backward or forward at will, but the link is also a great cause of +economy, as it enables the engineer to use the steam more or less +expansively, as he may use more or less power, and, especially is this +true, while the engine is on the road, as the power required may vary in +going a short distance, anywhere from nothing in going down hill, to the +full power of your engine in going up. + +By using steam expansively, we mean the cutting off of the steam from +the cylinder, when the piston has traveled a certain part of its stroke. +The earlier in the stroke this is accomplished the more benefit you get +of the expansive force of the steam. + +The reverse on traction engines is usually arranged to cut off at I/4, +I/2 or 3/4. To illustrate what is meant by "cutting off" at I/4, I/2 or +3/4, we will suppose the engine has a I2 inch stroke. The piston begins +its stroke at the end of cylinder, and is driven by live steam through +an open port, 3 inches or one quarter of the stroke, when the port is +closed by the valve shutting the steam from the cylinder, and the piston +is driven the remaining 9 inches of its stroke by the expansive force of +the steam. By cutting off at I/2 we mean that the piston is driven half +its stroke or 6 inches by live steam, and by the expansion of the steam +the remaining 6 inches; by 3/4 we mean that live steam is used 9 inches +before cutting off, and expansively the remaining 3 inches of stroke. + +Here is something for you to remember: "The earlier in the stroke you +cut off the greater the economy, but less the power; the later you cut +off the less the economy and greater the power." + +Suppose we go into this a little farther. If you are carrying I00 +pounds pressure and cut off at I/4, you can readily see the economy of +fuel and water, for the steam is only allowed to enter the cylinder +during I/4 of its stroke; but by reason of this, you only get an average +pressure on the piston head of 59 pounds throughout the stroke. But if +this is sufficient to do the work, why not take advantage of it and +thereby save your fuel and water? Now, with the same pressure as before, +and cutting off at I/2, you have an average pressure on piston head of +84 pounds, a loss of 50 per cent in economy and a gain of 42 per cent in +power. Cutting of at 3/4 gives you an average pressure of 96 pounds +throughout the stroke. A loss on cutting off at I/4 of 75 per cent in +economy, and a gain of nearly 63 per cent in power. This shows that the +most available point at which to work steam expansively is at I/4, as +the percentage of increase of power does not equal the percentage of +loss in economy. The nearer you bring the reverse lever to center of +quadrant, the earlier will the valve cut the steam and the less will be +the average pressure, while the farther away from the center the later +in the stroke will the valve cut the steam, and the greater the average +pressure, and, consequently, the greater the power. We have seen +engineers drop the reverse back in the last notch in order to make a +hard pull, and were unable to tell why they did so. + +Now, as far as doing the work is concerned, it is not absolutely +necessary that you know this; but if you do know it, you are more likely +to profit by it and thereby get the best results out of your engine. +And as this is our object, we want you to know it, and be benefitted by +the knowledge. Suppose you are on the road with your engine and load, +and you have a stretch of nice road. You are carrying a good head of +steam and running with lever back in the corner or lower notch. Now +your engine will travel along its regular speed, and say you run a mile +this way and fire twice in making it. You now ought to be able to turn +around and go back on the same road with one fire by simply hooking the +lever up as short as it will allow to do the work. Your engine will +make the same time with half the fuel and water, simply because you +utilize the expansive force of the steam instead of using the live steam +from boiler. A great many good engines are condemned and said to use +too much fuel, and all because the engineer takes no pains to utilize +the steam to the best advantage. + +I have already advised you to carry a "high pressure;" by a high +pressure I mean any where from I00 to I25 lbs. I have done this +expecting you to use the steam expansively whenever possible, and the +expansive force of steam increases very rapidly after you have reached +70 lbs. Steam at 80 lbs. used expansively will do nine times the work +of steam at 25 lbs. Note the difference. Pressure 3 I-5 times greater. +Work performed, 9 times greater. I give you these facts trusting that +you will take advantage of them, and if your engine at I00 or I00 lbs. +will do your work cutting off at I/4, don't allow it to cut off at I/2. +If cutting off at I/2 will do the work, don't allow it to cut off at +3/4, and the result will be that you will do the work with the least +possible amount of fuel, and no one will have any reason to find fault +with you or your engine. + +Now we have given you the three points which are absolutely necessary to +the successful handling of a traction engine, We went through it with +you when running as a stationary; then we gave you the pointers-to be +observed when running as a traction or road engine. We have also given +you hints on economy, and if you do not already know too much to follow +our advice, you can go into the field with an engine and have no fears +as to the results. + + + +How about bad bridges? + +Well, a bad bridge is a bad thing, and you cannot be too careful. When +you have questionable bridges to cross over, you should provide yourself +with good hard-wood planks. If you can have them sawed to order have +them 3 inches in the center and tapering to 2 inches at the ends. You +should have two of these about 16 feet long, and two 2x12 planks about 8 +feet long. The short ones for culverts, and for helping with the longer +ones in crossing longer bridges. + +An engine should never be allowed to drop from a set of planks down onto +the floor of bridge. This is why I advocate four planks. Don't +hesitate to use the plank. You had better plank a dozen bridges that +don't need it than to attempt to cross one that does need it. You will +also find it very convenient to carry at least 50 feet of good heavy +rope. Don't attempt to pull across a doubtful bridge with the separator +or tank hooked directly to the engine. It is dangerous. Here is where +you want the rope. An engine should be run across a bad bridge very +slowly and carefully, and not allowed to jerk. In extreme cases it is +better to run across by hand; don't do this but once; get after the road +supervisors. + + +SAND. + +An engineer wants a sufficient amount of "sand," but he don't want it in +the road. However, you will find it there and it is the meanest road +you will have to travel. A bad sand road requires considerable sleight +of hand on the part of the engineer if he wishes to pull much of a load +through it. You will find it to your advantage to keep your engine as +straight as possible, as you are not so liable to start one wheel to +slipping any sooner than the other. Never attempt to "wiggle" through a +sand bar, and don't try to hurry through; be satisfied with going slow, +just so you are going. An engine will stand a certain speed through +sand, and the moment you attempt to increase that speed, you break its +footing, and then you are gone. In a case of this kind, a few bundles +of hay is about the best thing you can use under your drivers in order +to get started again. But don't loose your temper; it won't help the +sand any. + +Now no doubt the reader wonders why I have said nothing about compound +engines. Well in the first place, it is not necessary to assist you in +your work, and if you can handle the single cylinder engine, you can +handle the compound. + +The question as to the advantage of a compound engine is, or would be an +interesting one if we cared to discuss it. + +The compound traction engine has come into use within the past few +years, and I am inclined to think more for sort of a novelty or talking +point rather than to produce a better engine. There is no question but +that there is a great advantage in the compound engine, for stationary +and marine engines. + +In a compound engine the steam first enters the small or high pressure +cylinder and is then exhausted into the large or low pressure cylinder, +where the expansive force is all obtained. + +Two cylinders are used because we can get better results from high +pressure in the use of two cylinders of different areas than by using +but one cylinder, or simple engine. + +That there is a gain in a high pressure, can be shown very easily: + +For instance, 100 pounds of coal will raise a certain amount of water +from 60 degrees, to 5 pounds steam pressure, and 102.9 pounds would +raise the same water to 80 pounds, and 104.4 would raise it to 160 +pounds, and this 160 pounds would produce a large increase of power over +the 80 pounds at a very slight increase of fuel. The compound engine +will furnish the same number of horse power, with less fuel than the +simple engine, but only when they are run at the full load all the time. + +If, however, the load fluctuates and should the load be light for any +considerable part of the day, they will waste the fuel instead of saving +it over the simple engine. + +No engine can be subjected to more variation of loads than the traction +engine, and as the above are facts the reader can draw his own +conclusions. + +FRICTION CLUTCH + +The friction clutch is now used almost exclusively for engaging the +engine with the propelling gearing of the traction drivers, and it will +most likely give you more trouble than any one thing on your engine, +from the fact that to be satisfactory they require a nicety of +adjustment, that is very difficult to attain, a half turn of the +expansion bolt one way or the other may make your clutch work very +nicely, or very unsatisfactory, and you can only learn this by carefully +adjusting of friction shoes, until you learn just how much clearance +they will stand when lever is out, in order to hold sufficient when +lever is thrown in. If your clutch fails to hold, or sticks, it is not +the fault of the clutch, it is not adjusted properly. And you may have +it correct today and tomorrow it will need readjustment, caused by the +wear in the shoes; you will have to learn the clutch by patience and +experience. + +But I want to say to you that the friction clutch is a source of abuse +to many a good engineer, because the engineer uses no judgment in its +use. + +A certain writer on engineering makes use of the following, and gives me +credit: "Sometimes you may come to an obstacle in the road, over which +your engine refuses to go, you may perhaps get over it in this way, +throw the clutch-lever so as to disconnect the road wheels, let the +engine get up to full speed and then throw the clutch level back so as to +connect the road wheels." Now I don't thank any one for giving me credit +for saying any such thing. That kind of thing is the hight of abuse of +an engine. + +I am aware that when the friction clutch first came into use, their +representatives made a great talk on that sort of thing to the green +buyer. But the good engineer knows better than to treat his engine that +way. + +Never attempt to pull your loads over a steep hill without being certain +that your clutch is in good shape, and if you have any doubts about it +put in the tight gear pin. Most all engines have both the friction and +the tight gear pin. The pin is much the safer in a hilly country, and +if you have learned the secret of the throttle you can handle just as +big load with the pin as with the clutch, and will never tear your +gearing off or lose the stud bolts in boiler. + +The following may assist you in determining or arriving at some idea of +the amount of power you are supplying with your engine: + +For instance, a I inch belt of the standard grade with the proper +tention, neither too tight or too loose, running at a. maximum spead of +800 ft. a minute will transmit one horse power, running 1600 ft. 2 horse +power and 2400 ft. 3 horse power. A 2 inch belt, at the same speed, +twice the power. + +Now if you know the circumference of your fly wheel, the number of +revolutions your engine is making and the width of belt, you can figure +very nearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your +belt. For instance, we will say your fly wheel is 40 inches in diameter +or 10.5 feet nearly in circumference and your engine was running 225 +revolutions a minute, your belt would be traveling 225 x 10.5 feet = +2362.5 feet or very nearly 2400 ft. and if I inch of belt would transmit +3 H. P. running this speed, a 6 inch belt would transmit 18 H.P., a 7 +inch belt, 21 H.P., an 8 inch belt 24 H.P., and so on. With the above +as a basis for figuring you can satisfy yourself as to the power you are +furnishing. To get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly as it +hugs the pulley closer, and will last much longer. + +SOMETHING ABOUT SIGHT-FEED LUBRICATORS + +All such lubricators feed oil through the drop-nipple by hydrostatic +pressure; that is, the water of condensation in the condenser and its +pipe being elevated above the oil magazine forces the oil out of the +latter by just so much pressure as the column of water is higher than +the exit or outlet of oil-nipple. The higher the column of water the +more positive will the oil feeds. As soon as the oil drop leaves the +nipple it ceases to be actuated by the hydrostatic pressure, and rises +through the water in the sight-glass merely by the difference of its +specific gravity, as compared with water and then passes off through the +ducts provided to the parts to be lubricated. + +For stationary engines the double connection is preferable, and should +always be connected to the live steam pipe above the throttle. The +discharge arm should always be long enough (4 to 6 inches) to insure the +oil magazine and condenser from getting too hot, otherwise it will not +condense fast enough to give continuous feed of oil. For traction or +road engines the single connection is used. These can be connected to +live steam pipe or directly to steam chest. + +In a general way it may be stated that certain precaution must be taken +to insure the satisfactory operation of all sight-feed lubricators. Use +only the best of oil, one gallon of which is worth five gallons of cheap +stuff and do far better service, as inferior grades not only clog the +lubricator but chokes the ducts and blurs the sight-glass, etc., and the +refuse of such oil will accumulate in the cylinder sufficiently to cause +damage and loss of power, far exceeding the difference in cost of good +oil over the cheap grades. + +After attaching a lubricator, all valves should be opened wide and live +steam blown through the outer vents for a few minutes to insure the +openings clean and free. Then follow the usual directions given with +all lubricators. Be particular in getting your lubricator attached so +it will stand perfectly plum, in order that the drop can pass up through +the glass without touching the sides, and keep the drop-nipple clean, be +particular to drain in cold weather. + +Now, I am about to leave you alone with your engine, just as I have left +any number of young engineers after spending a day with them in the +field and on the road. And I never left one, that I had not already +made up my mind fully, as to what kind of an engineer he would make. + + + +TWO WAYS OF READING __________ + + +Now there are two ways to read this book, and if I know just how you had +read it I could tell you in a minute whether to take hold of an engine +or leave it alone. If you have read it one way, you are most likely to +say "it is no trick to run an engine." If you have read it the other way +you will say, "It is no trouble to learn how to run an engine." Now this +fellow will make an engineer, and will be a good one. He has read it +carefully, noting the drift of my advice. Has discovered that the +engineer is not expected to build an engine, or to improve it after it +has been built. Has recognized the fact that the principle thing is to +attend to his own business and let other people attend to theirs. That +a monkey wrench is a tool to be left in the tool box till he knows he +needs it. That muscle is a good thing to have but not necessary to the +successful engineer. That an engineer with a bunch of waste in his hand +is a better recommendation than an "engineer license." That good common +sense, and a cool head is the very best tools he can have. Has learned +that carelessness will get him into trouble, and that to "forget" costs +money. + +Now the fellow who said "It is no trick to run an engine," read this +book another way. He did not see the little points. He was hunting for +big theories, scientific theories, something he could not understand, +and didn't find them. He expected to find some bright scheme to prevent +a boiler from exploding, didn't notice the simple little statement, +"keep water in it," that was too commonplace to notice. He was looking +for cuts, diagrams, geometrical figures, theories for constructing +engines and boilers and all that sort of thing and didn't find them. +Hence "It is no trick to run an engine." + +If this has been your idea of "Rough and Tumble Engineering" forget all +about your theory, and go back and read it over and remember the little +suggestions and don't expect this book to teach you how to build an +engine. We didn't start out to teach you anything of the kind. That is +a business of itself. A good engineer gets better money than the man +who builds them. Read it as if you wanted to know how to run an engine +and not how to build one. + +Study the following questions and answers carefully. Don't learn them +like you would a piece of poetry, but study them, see if they are +practical; make yourself thoroughly acquainted with the rule for +measuring the horse-power of an engine; make yourself so familiar with +it that you could figure any engine without referring to the book. Don't +stop at this, learn to figure the heating surface in any boiler. It +will enable you to satisfy yourself whether you are working your boiler +or engine too hard or what it ought to be capable of doing. + +SOME THINGS TO KNOW + +Q. What is fire? +A. Fire is the rapid combustion or consuming of organic +matter. + +Q. What is water? +A. Water is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. In weight +88 9-I0 parts oxygen to II I-I0 hydrogen. It has its maximum +density at 39 degrees Fahr., changes to steam at 2I2 degrees, +and to ice at 32 degrees. + +Q. What is smoke? +A. It is unconsumed carbon finely divided escaping into +open air. + +Q. Is excessive smoke a waste of fuel? +A. Yes. + +Q. How will you prevent it +A. Keep a thin fire, and admit cold air sufficient to insure +perfect combustion. + +Q. What is low water as applied to a boiler? +A. It is when the water is insufficient to cover all parts +exposed to the flames. + +Q. What is the first thing to do on discovering that you have +low water? +A. Pull out the fire. + +Q. Would it be safe to open the safety valve at such time? +A. No. + +Q. Why not? +A. It would relieve the pressure on the water which being +allowed to flow over the excessive hot iron would flash into +steam, and might cause an explosion. + +Q. Why do boilers sometimes explode just on the point of +starting the engine? +A. Because starting the engine has the same effect as +opening the safety valve. + +Q. Are there any circumstances under which an engineer is +justified in allowing the water to get low? +A. No. + +Q. Why do they sometimes do it? +A. From carelessness or ignorance. + +Q. May not an engineer be deceived in the gauge of water? +A. Yes. + +Q. Is he to be blamed under such circumstances? +A. Yes. + +Q. Why? +A. Because if he is deceived by it it shows he has neglected +something. + +Q. What is meant by "Priming." +A. It is the passing of water in visible quantities into the +cylinder with the steam. + +Q. What would you consider the first duty of an engineer on +discovering that the water was foaming or priming +A. Open the cylinder cocks at once, and throttle the steam. + +Q. Why would you do this? +A. Open the cocks to enable the water to escape, and throttle +the steam so that the water would settle. + +Q. Is foaming the same as priming? +A. Yes and no. + +Q. How do you make that out? +A. A boiler may foam without priming, but it can't prime +without first foaming.. + +Q. Where will you first discover that the water is foaming? +A. It will appear in the glass gauge, the glass will have a +milky appearance and the water will seem to be running down +from the top, There will be a snapping or cracking in the +cylinder as quick as priming begins. + +Q. What causes a boiler to foam? +A. There are a number of causes. It may come from faulty +construction of boiler; it may have insufficient steam room. It +may be, and usually is, from the use of bad water, muddy or +stagnant water, or water containing any soapy substance. + +Q. What would you do after being bothered in this way? +A. Clean out the-boiler and get better water if possible. + +Q. How would you manage your pumps while the water was +foaming. +A. Keep them running full. + +Q. Why? +A. In order to make up for the extra amount of water going +out with the steam. + +Q. What is "cushion?" +A. Cushion is steam retained or admitted in front of the +piston head at the finish of stroke, or when the engine is on +"center." + +Q. What is it for? +A. It helps to overcome the "inertia" and momentum of the +reciprocating parts of the engine, and enables the engine to +pass the center without a jar. + +Q. How would you increase the cushion in an engine? +A. By increasing the lead. + +Q. What is lead? +A. It is the amount of opening the port shows on steam end +of cylinder when the engine is on dead center. + +Q. Is there any rule for giving an engine the proper lead? +A. No. + +Q. Why not? +A. Owing to their variation in construction, speed, etc. + +Q. What would you consider the proper amount of lead, +generally. +A. From I/32 to I/I6. + +Q. What is "lap?" +A. It is the distance the valve overlaps the steam ports when +in mid position. + +Q. What is lap for? +A. In order that the steam may be worked expansively. + +Q. When does expansion occur in a cylinder? +A. During the time between which the port closes and the +point at which the exhaust opens. + +Q. What would be the effect on an engine if the exhaust +opened too soon? +A. It would greatly lessen the power of the engine. + +Q. What effect would too much lead have. +A. It would also weaken the engine, as the steam would +enter before the piston had reached the end of the stroke, and +would tend to prevent it passing the center. + +Q. What is the stroke of an engine? +A. It is the distance the piston travels in the cylinder. + +Q. How do you find the speed of a piston per minute? +A. Double the stroke and multiply it by the number of +revolutions a minuet. Thus an engine with a 12 inch stroke +would travel 24 inches, or 2 feet, at a revolution. If it made +200 revolutions a minute, the travel of piston would be 400 feet +a minute. + +Q. What is considered a horse power as applied to an +engine? +A. It is power sufficient to lift 33,000 pounds one foot high +in one minute. + +Q. What is the indicated horse power of an engine? +A. It is the actual work done by the steam in the +cylinder as shown by an indicator. + +Q. What is the actual horse power? +A. It is the power actually given off by the driving belt and +pulley. + +Q. How would you find the horse power of an engine? +A. Multiply the area of the piston by the average +pressure, less 5; multiply this product by the number of feet the +piston travels per minute; divide the product by 33,000; the +result will be horse power of the engine. + +Q. How will you find the area of piston? +A. Square the diameter of piston and multiply it by .7854. + +Q. What do you mean by squaring the diameter? +A. Multiplying it by itself. If a cylinder is 6 inches in +diameter, 36 multiplied by .7854, gives the area in square +inches. + +Q. What do you mean by average pressure? +A. If the pressure on boiler is 60 pounds, and the engine is +cutting off at 1/2 stroke, the pressure for the full stroke would +be 50 pounds. + +Q. Why do you say less 5 pounds? +A. To allow for friction and condensation. + +Q. What is the power of a 7 x 10 engine, running 200 +revolutions, cutting off at 1/2 stroke with 60 pounds steam? +A. 7 x 7 = 49 x .7854 = 38.4846. The average pressure of +60 pounds would be 50 pounds less 5 = 45 pounds; 38-4846 x +45 = 1731.8070 x .333 1/3, (the number of feet the piston +travels per minute) 577,269.0000 by 33,000=17 1/2 horse +power. + +Q. What is a high pressure engine? +A. It is an engine using steam at a high pressure and +exhausting into the open air. + +Q. What is a low pressure engine? +A. It is one using steam at a low pressure and exhausting +into a condenser, producing a vacuum, the piston being under +steam pressure on one side and vacuum on the other. + +Q. What class of engines are farm engines? +A. They are high pressure. + +Q. Why? +A. They are less complicated and less expensive. + +Q. What is the most economical pressure to carry on high +pressure engine? +A. From 90 to 110 pounds. + +Q. Why is high pressure more economical than low +pressure? +A. Because the loss is greater in low pressure owing to the +atmospheric pressure. With 45 pounds steam the pressure +from the atmosphere is 15 pounds, or 1/3, leaving only 30 +pounds of effective power; while with 90 pounds the +atmospheric pressure is only 1-6 of the boiler pressure. + +Q. Does it require any more fuel to carry I00 pounds than it +does to carry 60 pounds? +A. It don't require quite as much. + +Q. If that is the case why not increase the pressure beyond +this and save more fuel? +A. Because we would soon pass the point of safety in a +boiler, and the result would be the loss of life and property. + +Q. What do you consider a safe working pressure on a +boiler? +A. That depends entirely on its diameter. While a boiler of +30 inches in diameter 3/8 inch iron would carry I40 pounds, a +boiler of the same thickness 80 inches in diameter would have +a safe working pressure of only 50 pounds, which shows that +the safe working pressure decreases very rapidly as we increase +the diameter of boiler. This is the safe working pressure for +single riveted boilers of this diameter. To find the safe +working pressure of a double riveted boiler of same diameter +multiply the safe pressure of the single riveted by 70, and +divide by 56, will give a safe pressure of a double riveted +boiler. + +Q. Why is a steel boiler superior to an iron boiler? +A. Because it is much lighter and stronger. + +Q. Does boiler plate become stronger or weaker as it +becomes heated? +A. It becomes tougher or stronger as it is heated, till it +reaches a temperature Of 550 degrees when it rapidly +decreases its power of resistance as it is heated beyond this +temperature. + +Q. How do you account for this? +A. Because after you pass the maximum temperature +of 550 degrees, the more you raise the temperature the nearer +you approach its fusing point when its tenacity or resisting +power is nothing. + +Q. What is the degree of heat necessary to fuse iron? +A. 2912 degrees. + +Q. Steel? +A. 2532 degrees. + +Q. What class of boilers are generally used in a threshing +engine? +A. The flue boiler and the tubular boiler. + +Q. About what amount of heating and grate surface is +required per horse power in a flue boiler. +A. About 15 square feet of heating surface and 3/4 square +feet of grate surface. + +Q. What would you consider a fair evaporation in a flue +boiler? +A. Six pounds of water to I pound of coal. + +Q. How do these dimensions compare in a tubular boiler. +A. A tubular boiler will require I/4 less grate surface, and +will evaporate about 8 pounds of water to I pound of coal. + +Q. Which do you consider the most available? +A. The tubular boiler. + +Q. Why? +A. It is more economical and is less liable to "collapse?" + +Q. What do you mean by "collapse?" +A. It is a crushing in of a flue by external pressure. + +Q. Is a tube of a large diameter more liable to collapse than +one of small diameter? +A. Yes. + +Q. Why? +A. Because its power of resistance is much less than a tube +of small diameter. + +Q. Is the pressure on the shell of a boiler the same as on the +tubes? +A. No. + +Q. What is the difference? +A. The shell of boiler has a tearing or internal pressure +while the tubes have a crushing or external pressure. + +Q. What causes an explosion? +A. An explosion occurs generally from low water, allowing +the iron to become overheated and thereby weakened and +unable to withstand the pressure. + +Q. What is a "burst?" +A. It is that which occurs when through any defect the water +and steam are allowed to escape freely without further injury +to boiler. + +Q. What is the best way to prevent an explosion or burst? +A. (I) Never go beyond a safe working pressure. (2) Keep +the boiler clean and in good repair. (3) Keep the safety valves +in good shape and the water at its proper height. + +Q. What is the first thing to do on going to your engine in +the morning? +A. See that the water is at its proper level. + +Q. What is the proper level? +A. Up to the second gauge. + +Q. When should you test or try the pop valve? +A. As soon as there is a sufficient pressure. + +Q. How would you start your engine after it had been +standing over night? +A. Slowly. + +Q. Why? +A. In order to allow the cylinder to become hot, and that the +water or condensed steam may escape without injury to the +cylinder. + +Q. What is the last thing to do at night? +A. See that there is plenty of water in boiler, and if the +weather is cold drain all pipes. + +Q. What care should be taken of the fusable plug? +A. Keep it scraped clean, and not allow it to become +corroded on top. + +Q. What is a fusible plug? +A. It is a hollow cast plug screwed into the crown sheet or +top of fire box, and having the hollow or center filled with lead +or babbit. + +Q. Is such a plug a protection to a boiler? +A. It is if kept in proper condition. + +Q. Can you explain the principle of the fusible or soft plug +as it is sometimes called? +A. It is placed directly over the fire, and should the water +fall below the crown sheet the lead fuses or melts and allows +the steam to flow down on top of the fire, destroys the heat and +prevents the burning of crown sheet. + +Q. Why don't the lead fuse with water over it? +A. Because the water absorbs the heat and prevents it +reaching the fusing point. + +Q. What is the fusing point of lead? +A. 618 degrees. + +Q. Is there any objection to the soft plug? +A. There is, in the hands of some engineers. + +Q. Why? +A. It relieves him of the fear of a dry crown sheet, and gives +him an apparent excuse for low water. + +Q. Is this a real or legitimate objection? +A. It is not. + +Q. What are the two distinct classes of boilers? +A. The externally and internally fired boilers. + +Q. Which is the most economical? +A. The internally fired boiler. + +Q. Why? +A. Because the fuel is all consumed in close contact with the +sides of furnace and the loss from radiation is less than in the +externally fired. + +Q. To what class does the farm or traction engine belong? +A. To the internally fired. + +Q. How would you find the H.P. of such a boiler? +A. Multiply in inches the circumference or square of +furnace, by its length, then multiply, the circumference of one +tube by its total length, and this product by the number of +tubes also taking into account the surface in tube sheet, add +these products together and divide by I44, this will give you +the number of square feet of heating surface in boiler. Divide +this by 14 or 15 which will give the H.P. of boiler. + +Q. Why do you say 14 or 15? +A. Because some claim that it requires 14 feet of heating +surface to the H.P. and others 15. +To give you my personal opinion I believe that any of the +standard engines today with good coal and properly handled, +will and are producing 1 H.P. for as low as every 10 feet of +surface. But to be on the safe side it is well to divide by 15 to +get the H.P. of your boiler, when good and bad fuel is +considered. + +Q. How would you find the approximate weight of a boiler +by measurement? +A. Find the number of square feet in surface of boiler and +fire box, and as a sheet of boiler iron or steel 1/16 of an inch +thick, and one foot square, weighs 2.52 pounds, would +multiply the number of square feet by 2.52 and this product by +the number of 16ths or thickness of boiler sheet, which would +give the approximate, or very near the weight of the boiler. + +Q. What would you recognize as points in a good engineer. +A. A good engineer keeps his engine clean, washes the +boiler whenever he thinks it needs it. Never meddles with his +engine, and allows no one else to do so. +Goes about his work quietly, and is always in his place, +only talks when necessary, never hammers or bruises any part +of his engine, allows no packing to become baked or burnt in +the stuffing box or glands, renews them as quick as they show +that they require it. +Never neglects to oil, and then uses no more than is +necessary. +He carries a good gauge of water and a uniform pressure +of steam. He allows no unusual noise about his engine to +escape his notice he has taught his ear to be his guide. +When a job is about finished you will see him cleaning +his ash pan, getting his tools together, a good fire in fire box, +in fact all ready to go, and he looses no time after the belt is +thrown off. He hooks up to his load quietly, and is the first +man ready to go. + +*Q. When the piston head is in the exact center of cylinder, is +the engine on the quarter? +*A. It is supposed to be, but is not. + +*Q. Why not? +A. The angularity of the rod prevents it reaching the quarter. + +*Q. Then when the engine is on the exact quarter what +position does the piston head occupy? +A. It is nearest the end next to crank. + +Q. If this is the case, which end of cylinder is supposed to be +the stronger? +A. The opposite end, or end furtherest from crank. + +Q. Why? +A. Because this end gets the benefit of the most travel, and +as it makes it in the same time, it must travel faster. + +*Q. At what part of the cylinder does the piston head reach +the greatest speed? +A. At and near the center. + +*Q. Why? +Figure this out for yourself. +*Note. The above few questions are given for the purpose of getting +you to notice the little peculiarities of the crank engine, and are not +to be taken into consideration in the operation of the same. + +Q. If you were on the road and should discover that you had +low water, what would you do? +A. I would drop my load and hunt a high place for the front +end of my engine, and would do it quickly to. + +Q. If by some accident the front end of your engine should drop +down allowing the water to expose the crown sheet, what +would you do? +A. If I had a heavy and hot fire, would shovel dirt into the +fire and smother it out. + +Q. Why would you prefer this to drawing the fire? +A. Because it would reduce the heat at once, instead of +increasing it for a few minutes while drawing out the hot bed of +coals, which is a very unpleasant job. + +Q. Would you ever throw water in the fire box? +A. No. It might crack the side sheets, and would most +certainly start the flues. + +Q. You say, in finding low water while on the road, you +would run your engine with the front end on high ground. Why +would you do this? +A. In order that the water would raise over the crown sheet, +and thus make it safe to pump up the water. + +Q. While your engine was in this shape would you not +expose the front end of flues'? +A. Yes, but as the engine would not be working this would +do no damage. + +Q. If you were running in a hilly country how would you +manage the boiler as regards water? +A. Would carry as high as the engine would allow, without +priming. + +Q. Suppose you had a heavy load or about all you could +handle, and should approach a long steep hill, what condition +should the water and fire be to give you the most advantage? +A. A moderately low gauge of water and a very hot fire. + +Q. Why a moderately low gauge of water? +A. Because the engine would not be so liable to draw the +water or prime in making the hard pull. + +Q. Why a very hot fire? +A. So I could start the pumps full without impairing or +cutting the pressure. + +Q. When would you start your pump? +A. As soon as fairly started up the hill. + +Q. Why? +A. As most hills have two sides, I would start them full in +order to have a safe gauge to go down, without stoping to pump +up. + +Q. What would a careful engineer do before starting to pull +a load over a steep hill? +A. He would examine his clutch, or gear pin. + +Q. How would you proceed to figure the road speed of +traction. +A. Would first determine the circumference of driver, then +ascertain how many revolutions the engine made to one of the +drivers. Multiply the number of revolutions the engine makes +per minute by 60, this will give the number of revolutions of +engine per hour. Divide this by the number of revolutions the +engine makes to the drivers once, and this will give you the +number of revolutions the drivers will make in one hour, and +multiplying this by the circumference of driver in feet, and it +will tell you how many feet your engine is traveling per hour, +and this divided by 5280, the number of feet in a mile, would +tell you just what speed your engine would make on the road. + + + +THINGS HANDY FOR THE ENGINEER +____________ + +The first edition of this work brought me a great many letters asking +where certain articles could be procured, what I would recommend, etc. +These questions required attention and as the writers had bought and +paid for their book it was due them that they get the benefit of my +experience, as nothing is so discouraging to the young engineer as to be +continually annoyed by unreliable and inferior fittings used more or +less on all engines. I have gone over my letter file and every article +asked for will be taken up in the order, showing the relative importance +of each article in the minds of engineers. For instance, more letters +reached me asking for a good brand of oil than any other one article. +Then comes injectors, lubricators have third place, and so on down the +list. Now without any intention of advertising anybody's goods I will +give you the benefit of my years of experience and will be very careful +not to mention or recommend anything which is not strictly first class, +at least so in my opinion, and as good as can be had in its class, yet +in saying that these articles are good does not say that others are not +equally as good. I am simply anticipating the numerous letters I +otherwise would receive and am answering them in a lump bunch. If you +have no occasion to procure any of these articles, the naming of them +will do no harm, but should you want one or more you will make no +mistake in any one of them. + +OIL + +As I have stated, more engineers asked for a good brand of oil than for +any other one article and I will answer this with less satisfaction to +myself than any other for this reason: You may know what you want, but +you do not always get what you call for. Oil is one of those things that +cannot be branded, the barrel can, but then it can be filled with the +cheapest stuff on the market. If you can get Capital Cylinder Oil your +valve will give you no trouble. If you call for this particular brand +and it does not give you satisfaction don't blame me or the oil, go +after the dealer; he did not give you what you called for. The same can +be said of Renown Engine Oil. If you can always have this oil you will +have no fault to find with its wearing qualities, and it will not gum on +your engine, but as I have said, you may call for it and get something +else. If your valve or cylinder is giving you any trouble and you have +not perfect confidence in the dealer from whom you usually get your +cylinder oil send direct to The Standard Oil Company for some Capital +Cylinder Oil and you will get an oil that will go through your cylinder +and come out the exhaust and still have some staying qualities to it. +The trouble with so much of the so called cylinder oil is that it is so +light that the moment it strikes the extreme heat in the steam chest it +vaporizes and goes through the cylinder in the form of vapor and the +valve and cylinder are getting no oil, although you are going through +all the necessary means to oil them. + +It is somewhat difficult to get a young engineer to understand why the +cylinder requires one grade of oil and the engine another. This is only +necessary as a matter of economy, cylinder or valve oil will do very +well on the engine, but engine oil will not do for the cylinder. And as +a less expensive oil will do for the engine we therefore use two grades +of oil. + +Engine oil however should be but little lower in quality than the +cylinder oil, owing to the proximity of the bearings to the boiler, they +are at all times more or less heated, and require a much heavier oil +than a journal subject only to the heat of its own friction. The Renown +Engine Oil has the peculiarity of body or lasting qualities combined +with the fact that it does not gum on the hot iron and allows the engine +to be wiped clean. + + + +INJECTORS + +The next in the list of inquiries was for a reliable injector. I was +not surprised at this for up to a few years ago there were a great many +engines running throughout the country with only the independent or +cross-head pump, and engineers wishing to adopt the injector naturally +want the best, while others had injectors more or less unsatisfactory. +In replying to these letters I recommend one of three or four different +makes (all of which I had found satisfactory) with a request that the +party asking for same should write to me if the injector proved +unsatisfactory in any way. Of all the letters received, I never got one +stating any objection to either the Penberthy or the Metropolitan. This +fact has led me to think that probably my reputation as a judge of a +good article was safer by sticking to the two named, which I shall do +until I know there is something better. This does not mean that there +are not other good injectors, but I am telling you what I know to be +good, and not what may be good. The fact that I never received a single +complaint from either of them was evidence to me that the makers of +these two injectors are very careful not to allow any slighting of the +work. They therefore get out no defective injectors. The Penberthy is +made by The Penberthy Injector Co., of Detroit, Mich., and the +Metropolitan by The Hayden & Derby Mfg. Co., New York, N. Y. + + + +SIGHT FEED LUBRICATOR + +These come next in the long list of inquiries and wishing to satisfy +myself as to the relative superiority of various cylinder Lubricators, I +resorted to the same method as persued in regard to injectors. This +method is very satisfactory to me from the fact that it gives us the +actual experience of a class of engineers who have all conditions with +which to contend, and especially the unfavorable conditions. I have +possibly written more letters in answer to such questions as: "Why my +Lubricator does this or that; and why it don't do so and so?" than of +any other one part of an engine, (as a Sight Feed Lubricator might in +this day be considered a part of an engine.) Of all the queries and +objections made of the many Lubricators, there are two showing the least +trouble to the operator. There are the Wm. Powell Sight Feed Lubricator +(class "A") especially adapted to traction and road engines owing to the +sight-glass being of large diameter, which prevents the drop touching +the side of glass, while the engine is making steep grades and rough +uneven roads, made by The Wm. Powell Co., Cincinnati, O., and for sale +by any good jobbing house, and the Detroit Lubricator made by the +Detroit Lubricator Co., of Detroit, Mich. I have never received a +legitimate objection to either of these two Lubricators, but I received +the same query concerning both, and this objection, if it may be called +such, is so clearly no fault of the construction or principle of the +Lubricator that I have concluded that they are among if not actually the +best sight feed Lubricator on the market to-day. The query referred to +was: "Why does my glass fill with oil?" Now the answer to this is so +simple and so clearly no fault of the Lubricator that I am entirely +satisfied that by recommending either of these Lubricators you will get +value received; and here is a good place to answer the above query. If +you have run a threshing engine a season or part of a season you have +learned that it is much easier to get a poor grade of oil than a good +one, yet your Lubricator will do this at times even with best of oil, +and the reason is due to the condition of the feed nozzle at the bottom +of the feed glass. The surface around the needle point in the nozzle +becomes coated or rough from sediment from the oil. This coating allows +the drop to adhere to it until it becomes too large to pass up through +the glass without striking the sides and the glass becomes blurred and +has the appearance of being full of oil, so in a measure to obviate this +Powell's Lubricators are fitted with 3/4 glasses-being of large internal +diameter. The permanent remedy however is to take out the glass and +clean the nozzle with waste or a rag, rubbing the points smooth and +clean. The drop will then release itself at a moderate size and pass up +through the glass without any danger of striking the sides. However, if +the Lubricator is on crooked it may do this same thing. The remedy is +very simple-straighten it up. While talking of the various appliances +for oiling your engine you will pardon me if I say that I think every +traction engine ought to be supplied with an oil pump as you will find +it very convenient for a traction engine especially on the road. For +instance, should the engine prime to any great extent your cylinder will +require more oil for a few minutes than your sight feed will supply, and +here is where, your little pump will help you out. Either the Detroit +or Powell people make as good an article of this kind as you can find +anywhere, and can furnish you either the glass or metal body. + +Hard Grease and a good Cup come next. In my trips over various parts of +the country I visit a great many engineers and find a great part of them +using hard grease and I also find the quality varying all the way from +the very best down to the cheapest grade of axle grease. The Badger Oil +I think is the best that can be procured for this purpose, and while I +do not know just who makes it, you will probably have but little trouble +in finding it, and if you are looking for a first class automatic cup +for your wrist pin or crank box get the Wm. Powell Cup from any jobbing +supply house. + +These people also make a very neat little attachment for their Class "A" +Lubricator which is a decided convenience for the engineer, and is +called a "Filler." It consists of a second reservoir or cup, of about +the same capacity of the reservoir of Lubricator, thus doubling the +capacity. It is attached at the filling plug, and is supplied with a +fine strainer, which catches all dirt, and grit, allowing only clear oil +to enter the lubricator, and by properly manipulating the little +shut-off valve the strainer can be removed and cleaned and the cup +refilled without disturbing the working of the Lubricator. This little +attachment will soon be in general use. + + +BOILER FEEDERS + +Injectors have a dangerous rival in the Moore Steam Pump or boiler +feeder for traction engines, and the reason this little pump is not in +more general use is the fact that among the oldest methods for feeding a +boiler is the independent steam pump and they were always unsatisfactory +from the fact that they were a steam engine within themselves, having a +crank or disc, flywheel, eccentric, eccentric yoke, valve, valve stem, +crosshead, slides, and all the reciprocating parts of a complete engine. +Being necessarily very small, these parts of course are very frail and +delicate, were easily broken or damaged by the rough usage to which they +were subjected while bumping around over rough roads on a traction +engine. The Moore Pump, manufactured by The Union Steam Pump Company, +of Battle Creek, Mich., is a complete departure from the old steam +engine pump, and if you take any interest in any of the novel ways in +which steam can be utilized send to them for a circular and sectional +cuts and you can spend several hours very profitably in determining just +how the direct pressure from the boiler can be made to drive the piston +head the full stroke of cylinder, open exhaust port, shift the valve +open steam port and drive the piston back again and repeat the operation +as long as the boiler pressure is allowed to reach the pump and yet have +no connection whatever with any of the reciprocating parts of the pump, +and at the same time lift and force water into the boiler in any +quantity desired. + +Another novel feature in this "little boiler feeder" is that after the +steam has acted on the cylinder it can be exhausted directly into the +feed water, thus utilizing all its heat to warm the water before +entering the boiler. Now it required a certain number of heat units to +produce this steam which after doing its work gives back all its heat +again to the feed water and it would be a very interesting problem for +some of the young engineers, as well as the old ones, to determine just +what loss if any is sustained in this manner of supplying a boiler. If +you are thinking of trying an independent pump, don't be afraid of this +one. I take particular pride in recommending anything that I have tried +myself, and know to be as recommended. + +And a boiler feeder of this kind has all the advantage of the injector, +as it will supply the boiler without running the engine, and it has the +advantage over the injector, in not being so delicate, and will work +water that can not be handled by the best of injectors. + +We have very frequently had this question put to us: "Ought I to grease +my gearing?" If I said "yes," I had an argument on my hands at once. If +I said "no," some one would disagree just as quickly, and how shall I +answer it to the satisfaction of most engineers of a traction engine? + +I always say what I have to say and stay by it until I am convinced of +the error. Now some of you will smile when I say that the only thing +for gear where there is dust, is "Mica Axle Grease." And you smile +because you don't know what it is made of, but think it some common +grease named for some old saint, but that is not the case. If these +people who make this lubricant would give it another name, and get it +introduced among engineers, nothing else would be used. You have seen +it advertised for years as an axle grease and think that is all it is +good for; and there is where you make a mistake. It is made of a +combination of solid lubricant and ground or pulverized mica, that is +where it gets its name, and nothing can equal mica as a lubricant if you +could apply it to your gear; and to do this it has been combined with a +heavy grease. This in being applied to the gear retains the small +particles of mica, which soon imbed themselves in every little abrasion +or rough place in the gearing, and the surface quickly becomes hard and +smooth throughout the entire face of the engaging gear, and your gear +will run quiet, and if your gearing is not out of line will stop cutting +if applied in time. + +It will run dry and dust will not collect on the surface of your cogs, +and after a coating is once formed it should never be disturbed by +scraping the face of the gear, and a very little added from time to time +will keep your gear in fine shape. Its name is against it and if the +makers would take a tumble to themselves and call it "Mica Oil" or some +catchy name and get it introduced among the users of tight gearing, they +would sell just as much axle grease and all the grease for gearings. + + +FORCE FEED OILER + +Force feed oiler come next on the list. This is something not generally +understood by engineers of traction and farm engines, and accounts for +it being so far down the list. But we think it will come into general +use within a few years, as an oiler of this kind forces the oil instead +of depending on gravity. + +The Acorn Brass Works of Chicago make a very unique and successful +little oiler which forces a small portion of oil in a spray into the +valve and cylinder, and repeats the operation at each stroke of the +engine, and is so arranged that it stops automatically as soon as the +oil is out of the reservoir; and at once calls the attention of the +engineer to the fact, and it can be regulated to throw any quantity of +oil desired. Is made for any size or make of engine. + + +SPEEDER + +One of the little things, that every engineer ought to have is a Motion +counter or speeder. Of course, you can count the revolutions of your +engine, but you frequently want to know the speed of the driven pulley, +cylinder for instance: When you know the exact size of engine pulley and +your cylinder pulley, and the exact speed of your engine, and there was +no such thing as the slipping of drive belt, you could figure the speed +of your cylinder, but by knowing this and then applying the speeder, you +can determine the loss by comparing the figured speed with the actual +speed shown by the speeder. If you have a good speeder you can make +good use of it every day you run machinery. If you want one you want +the best and there is nothing better than the one made by The Tabor +Manufacturing Co., of Philadelphia, Pa. We use no other. You will see +their advertisement in the American Thresherman. + +SPARK ARRESTER + +But one article in the entire list did I find to be sectional, and that +was for a spark arrester. These inquiries were all without exception +from the wooded country, that is, from a section where it is cheaper to +burn wood than coal. There is nothing strange that parties running +engines in these sections should ask for a spark arrester, as builders +of this class of engines usually supply their engines with a "smoke +stack", with little or no reference to safety from fire. This being +recognized by some genius in one of our wooded states who has profited +by it and has produced a "smoke stack" which is also a "spark arrester." +This stack is a success in every sense of the word, and is made for any +and all styles of farm and saw mill engines. It is made by the South +Bend Spark Arrester Co., of South Bend, Indiana, and if you are running +an engine and firing with wood or straw, don't run too much risk for the +engineer usually comes in for a big share of the blame if a fire is +started from the engine. And as the above company make a specialty of +this particular article, you will get something reliable if you are in a +section where you need it. + + +LIFTING JACK + +Next comes enquiries for a good lifting Jack. + +This would indicate that the boys had been getting their engine in a +hole, but there are a great many times when a good Jack comes handy, and +it will save its cost many times every season. + +Too many engineers forget that when he is fooling around that he is the +only one losing time. The facts are the entire crew are doing nothing, +besides the outfit is making no money unless running. + +You want to equip yourself with any tool that will save time. + +The Barth Mfg, Co., of Milwaukee, make a Jack especially adapted to this +particular work, and every engine should have a "mascot" in the shape of +a lifting Jack. + +Now before dropping the subject of "handy things for an engineer," I +want to say to the engineer who takes pride in his work, that if you +would enjoy a touch of high life in engineering, persuade your boss, if +you have one, to get you a Fuller Tender made by the Parson's Band +Cutter and Feeder Co., Newton, Iowa, and attach to your engine. It may +look a little expensive, but a luxury usually costs something and by +having one you will do away with a great deal of the rough and tumble +part of an engineers life. + +And if you want to keep yourself posted as to what is being done by +other threshermen throughout the world, read some good "Threshermen's +Home journal." The American Thresherman for instance is the "warmest +baby in the bunch." And if anything new under the sun comes out you will +find it in the pages of this bright and newsy journal. Keep to the +front in your business. Your business is as much a business as any other +profession, and while it may not be quite as remunerative as a R. R. +attorney, or the president of a life insurance company it is just as +honorable, and a good engineer is appreciated by his employer just as +much as a good man in any other business. A good engineer can not only +always have a job, but he can select his work. That is if there is any +choice of engines in a neighborhood the best man gets it. + + +SOMETHING ABOUT PRESSURE _________ + +Now before bringing this somewhat lengthy lecture to a close, (for I +consider it a mere lecture, a talk with the boys) I want to say +something more about pressure. You notice that I have not advocated a +very high pressure; I have not gone beyond 125 lbs. and yet you know and +I know that very much higher pressure is being carried wherever the +traction engine is used, and I want to say that a very high pressure is +no gauge or guarantee of the intelligence of the engineer. The less a +reckless individual knows about steam the higher pressure he will carry. +A good engineer is never afraid of his engine without a good reason, and +then he refuses to run it. He knows something of the enormous pressure +in the boiler, while the reckless fellow never thinks of any pressure +beyond the I00 or I40 pounds that his gauge shows. He says, "'O! +That,' that aint much of a pressure, that boiler is good for 200 +pounds." It has never dawned on his mind (if he has one) that that I40 +pounds mean I40 pounds on every square inch in that boiler shell, and +I40 on each square inch of tube sheets. Not only this but every square +inch in the shell is subjected to two times this pressure as the boiler +has two sides or in other words, each square inch has a corresponding +opposite square inch, and the seam of shell must sustain this pressure, +and as a single riveted boiler only affords 62 per cent of the strength +of solid iron. It is something that every engineer ought to consider. +He ought to be able to thoroughly appreciate this almost inconceivable +pressure. How many engineers are today running 18 and 20 horse power +engines that realizes that a boiler of this diameter is not capable of +sustaining the pressure he had been accustomed to carry in his little 26 +or 30 inch boiler? On page 114 You will get some idea of the difference +in safe working pressure of boilers, of different diameters. On the +other hand this is not intended to make you timid or afraid of your +engine, as there is nothing to be afraid of if you realize what you are +handling, and try to comprehend the fact that your steam gauge +represents less than one 1-1000 part of the power you have under your +management. You never had this put to you in this light before, did +you? + +If you thoroughly appreciate this fact and will try to comprehend this +power confined in your boiler by noting the pressure, or power exerted +by your cylinder through the small supply pipe, you will soon be an +engineer who will only carry a safe and economical pressure, and if +there comes a time when it is necessary to carry a higher pressure, you +will be an engineer who will set the pop back again, when or as soon as +this extra pressure is not necessary. + +If I can get you to comprehend this power proposition no student of +"Rough and Tumble Engineering" will ever blow up a boiler. + +When I started out to talk engine to you I stated plainly that this book +would not be filled up with scientific theories, that while they were +very nice they would do no good in this work. Now I am aware that I +could have made a book four times as large as this and if I had, it +would not be as valuable to the beginner as it is now. + +From the fact that there is not a problem or a question contained in it +that any one who has a common school education can not solve or answer +without referring to any textbooks The very best engineer in the country +need not know any more than he will find in these pages. Yet I don't +advise you to stop here, go to the top if you have the time and +opportunity. Should I have taken up each step theoretically and given +forms, tables, rules and demonstrations, the young engineer would have +become discouraged and would never have read it through. He would have +become discouraged because he could not understand it. Now to illustrate +what I mean, we will go a little deeper and then still deeper, and you +will begin to appreciate the simple way of putting the things which you +as a plain engineer are interested in. + +For example on page 114 we talked about the safe working pressure of +different sized boilers. It was most likely natural for you to say "How +do I find the safe working pressure?" Well, to find the safe working +pressure of a boiler it is first necessary to find the total pressure +necessary to burst the boiler. It requires about twice as much pressure +to tear the ends out of a boiler as it does to burst the shell, and as +the weakest point is the basis for determining the safe pressure, we +will make use of the shell only. + +We will take for example a steel boiler 32 inches in diameter and 6 ft. +long, 3/8 in. thick, tensile strength 60,000 lbs. The total pressure +required to burst this shell would be the area exposed times the +pressure. The thickness multiplied by the length then by 2 (as there +are two sides) then by the tensile strength equals the bursting +pressure: 3/8 x 72 X 2 x 60,000 = 3,240,000 the total bursting pressure +and the pressure per square inch required to burst the shell is found by +dividing the total bursting pressure 3,240,000 pounds by the diameter +times the length 3,240,000 / (32 x 72) = 1406 lbs. + +It would require 1406 lbs. per square inch to burst this shell if it +were solid, that is if it had no seam, a single seam affords 62 per cent +of the strength of shell, 1406 x .62 = 871 lbs. to burst the seam if +single riveted; add 20 per cent if double riveted. + +To determine the safe working pressure divide the bursting pressure of +the weakest place by the factor of safety. The United States Government +use a factor of 6 for single riveted and add 20 per cent for double +riveted, 871 / 6 = 145 lbs. the safe working pressure of this particular +boiler, if single riveted and 145 + 20 per cent=174 double riveted. + +Now suppose you take a boiler the same length and of the same material, +but 80 inches in diameter. The bursting pressure would be 3,240,000 / +(80 x 72) = 560 lbs., and the safe working pressure would be 560 / 6 = +93 lbs. + +You will see by this that the diameter has much to do with the safe +working pressure, also the diameter and different lengths makes a +difference in working pressure. + +Now all of this is nice for you to know, and it may start you on a +higher course, it will not make you handle your engine any better, but +it may convince you that there is something to learn. + +Suppose we give you a little touch of rules, and formula in boiler +making. + +For instance you want to know the percent of strength of single riveted +and double riveted as compared to solid iron. Some very simple rules, +or formula, are applicable. + +Find the percent of strength to the solid iron in a single-riveted seam, +1/4 inch plate, 5/8 inch rivet, pitched or spaced 2 inch centers. First +reduce all to decimal form, as it simplifies the calculation; 1/4=.25 +and 5/8 inch rivets will require 11/16 inch hole, this hole is supposed +to be filled by the rivet, after driving, consequently this diameter is +used in the calculation, 11/16 inches=.6875. + +First find the percent of strength of the sheet. + + P-D + ----- +The formula is P = percent. + +P = the pitch, D = the diameter of the rivet hole, percent = +percent of strength of the solid iron. + + 2 -.6875 + -------- +Substituting values, 2 = .66. +Now of course you understand all about that, but it is Greek to some +people. + + +So you see I have no apologies to make for following out my plain +comprehensive talk, have not confused you, or lead you to believe that +it requires a great amount of study to become an engineer. I mean a +practical engineer, not a mechanical engineer. I just touch mechanical +engineering to show you that that is something else. If you are made of +the proper stuff you can get enough out of this little book to make you +as good an engineer as ever pulled a throttle on a traction engine. But +this is no novel. Go back and read it again, and ever time you read it +you will find something you had not noticed before. + + + + INDEX + ----- + +PART FIRST PAGE + Tinkering Engineers . . . . . . . . . . . 5 +PART SECOND + Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 +PART THIRD + What a Good Injector Ought to Do . . . 45 + The Blower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 + A Good Fireman . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 + Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 + Why Grates Burn Out . . . . . . . . . . 57 +PART FOUR + Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 + Clean Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 +PART FIVE + Steam Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 + How to Test a Steam Gauge . . . . . . . 74 + Fusible Plug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 + Leaky Flues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 +PART SIX + Knock in Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 + Lead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 + Setting a Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 + How to Find the Dead Center . . . . . . 95 + Lubricating Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 + A Hot Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 +PART SEVEN + A Traction Engine on the Road . . . . . 111 + Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 + Friction Clutch . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 + Something About Sight-Feed Lubricators 132 + Two Ways of Reading . . . . . . . . . . 137 + Some Things to Know . . . . . . . . . . 139 + Things Handy for an Engineer . . . . . 159 + Something About Pressure . . . . . . . . 184 + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Rough and Tumble Engineering, by James H. 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